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PRINCETON,   N.   J  '^^ 


Division......  ■ 

Section  

Number..   167.9. 

vl  


A  DICTIONARY 

OF 

MUSIC  AND  MUSICIANS. 


A 

DICTIONARY 

OF 

MUSIC  AND  MUSICIANS 

(A.D.  1450—1880) 

BY  EMINENT  WRITERS,  ENGLISH  AND  FOREIGN. 

WITH    ILLUSTEATIONS    AND  WOODCUTS. 

EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  GROVE,  D.C.L. 

IN    TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  L 


MACMILLAN   AND  CO. 
1879. 


[  The  Right  of  Translation  and  licproduction  is  reserved.  ] 


OXFOED: 

E.    PIOKARD    HALL,  M.A.,   AND   J.  H.  STACY, 
PRINTERS  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


PREFACE. 


This  work  is  intended  to  supply  a  great  and  long  acknowledged  want. 
A  growing  demand  has  arisen  in  this  country  and  the  United  States  for 
information  on  all  matters  directly  and  indirectly  connected  with  Music, 
owing  to  the  great  spread  of  concerts,  musical  publications,  private  prac- 
tice, and  interest  in  the  subject,  and  to  the  immense  improvement  in  the 
general  position  of  music  which  has  taken  place  since  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century.  Music  is  now  performed,  studied,  and  listened  to 
by  a  much  larger  number  of  persons,  and  in  a  more  serious  spirit,  than 
was  the  case  at  any  previous  period  of  our  history.  It  is  rapidly  becoming 
an  essential  branch  of  education ;  the  newest  works  of  continental  musi- 
cians are  eagerly  welcomed  here  very  soon  after  their  appearance  abroad, 
and  a  strong  desire  is  felt  by  a  large,  important,  and  increasing  section 
of  the  public  to  know  something  of  the  structure  and  peculiarities  of  the 
music  which  they  hear  and  play,  of  the  nature  and  history  of  the  instru- 
ments on  which  it  is  performed,  of  the  biographies  and  characteristics  of 
its  composers — in  a  word,  of  all  such  particulars  as  may  throw  light  on 
the  rise,  progress,  and  present  condition  of  an  Art  which  is  at  once  so 
prominent  and  so  eminently  progressive. 

This  desire  it  is  the  object  of  the  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians 
to  meet.  It  is  designed  for  the  use  of  Professional  musicians  and  Ama- 
teurs alike.  It  contains  definitions  of  Musical  Terms;  explanations  of 
the  forms  in  which  Musical  Works  are  constructed,  and  of  the  methods 
by  which  they  are  elaborated,  as  well  as  of  the  origin,  structure,  and 
successive  modifications  of  Instruments;  histories  and  descriptions  of 
Societies  and  Institutions ;  notices  of  the  composition,  production,  and 
contents  of  important  works ;  lists  of  the  principal  published  collections ; 
biographies  of  representative  composers,  singers,  players,,  and  patrons  of 
music — all  the  points,  in  short,  immediate  and  remote,  on  which  those 
interested  in  the  Art,  and  alive  to  its  many  and  far-reaching  associations, 
can  desire  to  be  informed. 

The  limit  of  the  history  has  been  fixed  at  A.  d.  1450,  as  the  most 
remote  date  to  which  the  rise  of  modern  music  can  be  carried  back.  Thus 
mere  archaeology  has  been  avoided,  while  the  connection  between  the 
mediseval  systems  and  the  wonderful  modern  art  to  which  they  gave 
rise  has  been  insisted  on  and  brought  out  wherever  possible.  While  the 
subjects  have  been  treated  thoroughly  and  in  a  manner  not  unworthy 
the  attention  of  the  professional  musician,  the  style  has  been  anxiously 
divested  of  technicality,  and  the  musical  illustrations  have  been  taken,  in 
most  cases,  from  classical  works  likely  to  be  familiar  to  the  amateur,  or 
within  his  reach. 

The  articles  are  based  as  far  as  possible  on  independent  sources,  and 
on  the  actual  research  of  the  writers,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in  many  cases 


VI 


PREFACE. 


fresli  subjects  have  been  treated,  new  and  interesting  information  given, 
and  some  ancient  mistakes  corrected.  As  instances  of  the  kind  of  subjects 
embraced  and  the  general  mode  of  treatment  adopted,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  larger  biographies — especially  that  of  Haydn,  which  is  crowded 
with  new  facts;  to  the  articles  on  Auber,  Berlioz,  Bodenschatz,  Bull, 
Cristofori,  David,  Farinelli,  Finck,  Froberger,  Galitzin,  Gibbons,  Hasse ; 
on  Additional  Accompaniments,  Agremens,  Arpeggio,  Arrangement,  Fin- 
gering, Form,  and  Harmony ;  on  Academic  de  Musique,  Bachgesellschaft, 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel,  Bassoon,  Carmagnole,  Choral  Symphony,  Conserva- 
toire, Concerts,  Concert  Spirituel,  Copyright,  Drum,  English  Opera,  Fidelio, 
Grand  Prix  de  Bome,  Handel  and  Haydn  Society,  Handel  Festivals  and 
Commemorations,  Harpsichord,  Harmonica,  Hexachord,  and  many  others. 
The  engraved  illustrations  have  been  specially  prepared  for  the  work,  and 
will  speak  for  themselves. 

In  an  English  dictionary  it  has  been  thought  right  to  treat  English 
music  and  musicians  with  special  care,  and  to  give  their  biographies  and 
achievements  with  some  minuteness  of  detail.  On  this  point  thanks  are 
due  to  Colonel  Joseph  Lemuel  Chester  for  much  accurate  information  which 
it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  to  obtain-  elsewhere,  and  which  he 
has  afforded  in  every  case  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  promptitude. 

Every  means  has  been  taken  to  procure  an  adequate  treatment  of  the 
various  topics,  and  to  bring  the  information  down  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  day  of  publication.  Notwithstanding  the  Editor's  desire,  however, 
omissions  and  errors  have  occurred.  These  will  be  rectified  in  an  Appendix 
on  the  publication  of  the  final  volume. 

The  limits  of  the  work  have  necessarily  excluded  disquisitions  on. 
Acoustics,  Anatomy,  Mechanics,  and  other  branches  of  science  connected 
with  the  main  subject,  which  though  highly  important  are  not  absolutely 
requisite  in  a  book  concerned  with  practical  music.  In  the  case  of 
Acoustics,  sufficient  references  are  given  to  the  best  works  to  enable  the 
student  to  pursue  the  enquiry  for  himself,  outside  the  Dictionary. 
Similarly  all  investigations  into  the  music  of  barbarous  nations  have  been 
avoided,  imless  they  have  some  direct  bearing  on  European  music. 

The  Editor  gladly  takes  this  early  opportunity  to  express  his  deep 
obligations  to  the  writers  of  the  various  articles.  Their  names  are  in 
themselves  a  guarantee  for  the  value  of  their  contributions  ;  but  the  lively 
interest  which  they  have  shown  in  the  work  and  the  care  they  have  taken 
in  the  preparation  of  their  articles,  often  involving  much  time,  and 
laborious,  disinterested  research,  demand  his  warm  acknowledgement. 

29  Bedford  Street, 

CovENT  Garden,  London. 
April  I,  1879. 


LIST  OF 


CONTRIBUTORS. 


SiE  Julius  Benedict    . .        . .        . .       . .        . .        . .  B. 

Joseph  Bennett,  Esq.  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  J.  B. 

J.  R.  Stekndale-Bennett,  Esq.         . .        . .        . .        . .  J.  R.  S.  -B. 

David  Baptie,  Esq.,  Glasgow  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  D.  B. 

Mes.  Walter  Carr   M.  C.  C. 

William  Chappell,  Esq.,  F.S.A   W.  C. 

M.  Gustave  Chouquet,  Keeper  of  the  Museum  of  the  Con- 
servatoire de  Mus-ique,  Paris     . .         . .        . .        . .  G.  C. 

Arthur  Duke  Coleridge,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law    . .        . .  A.  D.  C. 

William  H.  Cummings,  Esq.   . .       . .        . .        . .        . .  W.  H.  C. 

Edward  Dannreuther,  Esq.    . .       . .        . .        . .        . .  E.  D. 

Herr  Paul  David       . .        . .        . .        . .        . .       . .  P.  D. 

James  W.  Davison,  Esq.        . .        . .    J.  W.  D. 

Edward  H.  Donkin,  Esq.       . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  E.  H.  D. 

H.  Sutherland  Edwards,  Esq.  . .       . .        . .        . .  H.  S.  E. 

Charles  Allan  Fyffe,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law        . .        . .  C.  A.  F. 

Dr.  Franz  Gehring,  Vienna    . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  F.  G. 

Rev.  Thomas  Helmore,  Master  of  the  Children  of  the  Chapels  Royal    T.  H. 

George  Herbert,  Esq.  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  G.  H. 

Dr.  Ferdinand  Hillee,  Cologne        . .        . .        . .        . .  H. 

A.  J.  HiPKiNS,  Esq.      . .        . .        . .        . .        . .       . .  A.  J.  H. 

Edward  John  Hopkins,  Esq.,  Organist  to  the  Temple       . .  E.  J.  H. 

Rev.  T.  Percy  Hudson  ..        ..  T.  P.  H. 

Francis  Hueffer,  Esq.  . .        . .       . .        . .       . .  F.  H. 

John  Hullah,  Esq.,  LL.D.     . .        . .        . .        . .       . .  J.  H. 

William  H.  Husk,  Esq.,  Librarian  to  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  W.  H.  H. 

F.  J.  Jenks,  Esq.,  Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A   F.  H.  J. 

Henry  J.  Lincoln,  Esq.    . .        . .  H.  J.  L. 

Charles  Mackeson,  Esq.,  F.S.S.       . .        . .        . .        . .  CM. 


viii 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS. 


Herr  a.  Maczewski,  Concert-director,  Kaiserslautern         . .  A.  M. 

Julian  Marshall,  Esq.  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  J.  M. 

Mrs.  Julian  Marshall  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  F.  A.  M. 

Edwin  G.  Monk,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc,  Organist  of  York  Cathedral  E.  G.  M. 
Sir  Herbert  S.  Oakeley,  Mus.  Doc,  Professor  of  Music  at  the 

University  of  Edinburgh  . .        . .        . .        . .  H.  S.  O. 

Rev.  Sir  Frederick  A.  Gore  Ouseley,  Bart.,  Mus.  Doc,  Professor 

of  Music  in  the  University  of  Oxford  . .        . .        . .  F.  A.  G.  O. 

C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc   C.  H.  H.  P. 

Herr  Ernst  Pauer      . .        . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  P. 

Edward  John  Payne,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law. .        ..        ..  E.  J.  P. 

Edward  H.  Pember,  Esq.,  Q.C   E.  H.  P. 

Miss  Phillimore         . .        . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  C.  M.  P. 

Herr  C.  F.  Pohl,  Librarian   to   the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 

freunde,  Vienna    . .        . .        . .        . .         . .         . .  C.  F.  P. 

William  Pole,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Mus.  Doc   . .  W.  P. 

Victor  de  Pontigny,  Esq.      . .       . .        . .        . .        . .  V.  de  P. 

Ebenezer  Prout,  Esq.  . .       . .        . .        . .       . .        . .  E.  P. 

Rev.  William  Pulling  . .        . .        . .        . .        . .  W.  Pg. 

Charles  H.  Purday,  Esq.      . .        . .        . .        . .       . .  C.  H.  P. 

Edward  F.  Rimbault,  Esq.,  LL.D.  . .        . .        . .        . .  E.  F.  R. 

W.  S.  Rockstro,  Esq   W.  S.  R. 

H.  H.  Statham,  Esq   H.  H.  S. 

Sir  Robert  P.  Stewart,  Mus.  Doc,  Professor  of  Music  in  Dublin 

University    R.  P.  S. 

William  H.  Stone,  Esq.,  M.D   W.  H.  S. 

Arthur  Seymour  Sullivan,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc         . .        . .  S. 

Franklin  Taylor,  Esq.    F.  T. 

Alexander  W.  Thayer,  Esq.,  United  States  Consul,  Trieste, 

Author  of  the  Life  of  Beethoven    A.  W.  T. 

C.  A.  W.  Troyte,  Esq   C.A.W.T. 

Colonel  H.  Ware,  Public  Library,  Boston,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A.  H.  W. 

The  Editor       . .        .....        . .        . .        . .        . .  G. 

Bedford  Street,  Covent  Garden, 
A2)ril  I,  1879. 


A 


DICTIONAEY 

OP 

MUSIC  AND  MUSICIANS. 

A. 


A The  name  of  the  sixth  degree  of  the  natural 
scale  of  C.  The  reason  of  its  being 
"  applied  to  the  sixth  instead  of  the  first 
degree  will  be  found  explained  in  the  article 
Alphabet.  It  represents  the  same  note  in 
English  or  German,  and  in  French  and  Italian 
is  called  La. 

A  is  the  note  given  (usually  by  the  oboe,  or  by 
the  organ  if  there  be  one)  for  the  orchestra  to 
tune  to,  and  it  is  also  the  note  to  which  French 
and  German  tuning-forks  are  set,  the  English 
being  usually  tuned  to  C. 

In  all  stringed  instruments  one  of  the  strings 
is  tuned  to  A ;  in  the  violin  it  is  the  second 
string,  in  the  viola  and  violoncello  the  first,  and 
in  the  contrabasso  generally  the  third.  A  is  also 
the  key  in  which  one  of  the  clarinets  in  the 
orchestra  is  set.  In  German  the  keys  of  A 
major  and  A  minor  are  occasionally  expressed 
by  A  J  and  Ab.  [F.T.] 
AARON  (correctly  Aeon),  Pieteo,  born  at 
Florence  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i-;th  century. 
A  monk  of  the  order  of  Jerusalem,  and  devoted 
to  the  study  of  counterpoint.  His  various  works 
on  the  history  and  science  of  music  (for  a  list 
of  which  see  Becker,  'Musik  Literatur,'  Leipsic, 
1836)  were  printed  at  Venice  and  Milan.  B}- 
Pope  Leo  X  he  was  admitted  into  the  Roman 
Chapel,  and  distinguished  in  various  ways. 
In  or  about  1516  Aaron  founded  a  school  of 
music  at  Rome,  which  obtained  much  reputa- 
tion. He  became  a  canon  of  Rimini,  and  died 
in  1533-  [C.  F.  P.] 

ABACO,  EvAKisTO  Felice  dall',  bom  at 
"Verona,  and  renowned  as  performer  and  composer 
on  the  violin  ;  in  1 726  concert- meister  in  the  band 
of  the  Kurfiirst  ISIax  Emanuel  of  Bavaria.  Died 
in  1 740.  Compositions  of  his  for  church  and  cham- 
ber were  printed  at  Amsterdam.  [C.  F.  P.] 
(c.) 


A  BATTUTA  (Ital.,  'with  the  beat').  An 

indication,  mostly  used  in  recitatives,  where  after 
the  free  declamation  of  the  singer  the  strict  time 
is  resumed.    It  is  thus  equivalent  to  A  tempo. 

ABBATINI,  Antonio  Maria,  was  bom  at 
Tiferno,  or  at  Castello  (Baini),  in  1595  or 
1605,  and  died  in  1677.  Was  successively  Ma- 
estro di  C:ippella  at  the  Lateran,  the  Church 
of  the  Gesii,  and  San  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  and 
three  times  held  the  like  office  at  Maria  Mag- 
giore :  was  also,  for  a  time,  maestro  at  the 
church  of  Loreto.  Was  ofiered  by  Pope  Urban 
VIII  the  task  of  rewriting  the  Hjnnnal ;  but 
refused  to  supersede  the  music  of  Palestrina  by 
any  of  his  own.  His  published  works  consist 
of  four  books  of  Psalms  and  three  books  of 
Masses,  some  Antifone  for  twenty-four  voices 
(Mascardi,  Rome,  1630-1638,  and  1677),  and 
five  books  of  Mottetti  (Grignani,  Rome,  1635). 
He  is  named  by  Allacci  as  the  composer  of  an 
opera  *  Del  male  in  bene  '  The  greater  part  of  his 
productions  remain  unprinted.  Some  academical 
lectures  by  him,  of  much  note  in  their  time, 
mentioned  by  Padre  Martini,  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  preserved.  He  assisted  Kircher  in 
his  '  Musurgia.'  [E.  H.  P.] 

ABBE,  Philippe  Pierre  de  St.  Sevin  and 
Pierre  de  St.  Sevin,  two  brothers,  violoncellists, 
were  music-masters  of  the  parish  church  of  Agen 
early  in  the  last  century.  It  seems  doubtful 
whether  they  were  actually  ordained  priests,  or 
merely  in  consequence  of  their  office  had  to  wear 
the  ecclesiastical  dress.  From  this  circumstance 
however  they  received  the  name  of  Abbe  I'ain^ — 
or  simply  I'Abbe — and  T Abbe  cadet,  respectively. 
They  gave  up  their  connection  with  the  church 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  they  obtained  engage- 
ments at  the  Grand  Opera.  They  were  both 
excellent  players,  but  the  younger  brother  seems 


2  ABBREVIATIONS. 

to  have  been  the  more  celebrated  of  the  two, 
and  to  have  been  specially  remarkable  for  his 
beautiful  tone.    It  is  said  to  have  been  owing 
in  great  measure  to  the  impression  produced  by 
his  playing  that  the  viola  di  gamba  more  and 
more  fell  into  disuse  and  the  violoncello  was  more 
extensively  introduced.  (Batistin.)      [T.  P.  H.] 
ABBEY,  John,  a  distinguished  organ-builder ; 
was  bom  at  Whilton,  a  Northamptonshire  village, 
Dec.  2  2,  1785.    In  his  youth  he  was  employed 
in  the  factory  of  Davis,  and  subsequently  in  that 
of  Russell,  both  organ-builders  of  repute  in  their 
day.    In  1826  Abbey  went  to  Paris,  on  the  in- 
vitation of  Sebastian  Erard,  the  celebrated  harp 
and  pianoforte  maker,  to  work  upon  an  organ 
which  Erard  had  designed,  and  which  he  sent  to 
the  Exhibition  of  the  Productions  of  National 
Industry  in  1827,  and  also  to  build  an  organ  for 
the  Convent  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  at  St. 
Denis.    He  also  built  an  organ  from  Erard's  de- 
sign for  the  chapel  of  the  Tuileries,  which,  how- 
ever, had  only  a  short  existence,  being  destroyed 
in  the  Revolution  of  1830.    Having  established 
himself  as  an  organ-builder  in  Paris,  Abbey  be- 
came extensively  employed  in  the  construction, 
renovation,  and  enlargement  of  organs  in  France 
and  elsewhere.    Amongst  others  he  built  choir 
organs  for  accompanying  voices  for  the  cathe- 
drals of  Rheims,  Nantes,  Versailles,  and  Evreux, 
and  for  the  churches  of  St.  Eustache,  St.  Nicholas 
des  Champs,  St.  EHzabeth,  St.  Medard,  St.  Eti- 
enne  du  Mont,  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in 
Paris;   and  large  organs  for  the  cathedrals  of 
Rochelle,  Rennes,  Viviers,  Tulle,  Chalons-sur- 
Mame,  Bayeux,  and  Amiens,  and  for  churches, 
convents,  and  chapels  at  St.  Denis,  Orleans,  Caen, 
Chalons,  Picpus,  and  Versailles.     He  repaired 
and  enlarged  organs  in  the  cathedrals  of  Mende, 
Moulins,  Rheims,  Evreux,  and  Nevers,  and  in 
the  churches  of  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  St.  Philippe 
du  Roule,  The  Assumption,  and  St.  Louis  d'  An- 
tin  in  Paris.    He  also  built  many  organs  for 
Chili  and  South  America.    In  1831  Abbey  was 
employed,  at  the  instance  of  Meyerbeer  (who 
had  introduced  the  instrument  into  the  score  of 
his  opera  *  Robert  le  Diable,'  then  about  to  be 
produced),  to  build  an  organ  for  the  Grand  Opera 
at  Paris,  which  instrument  continued  to  be  used 
there  until  it  was  destroyed,  with  the  theatre,  by 
fire  in  1873.    Abbey  was  the  first  who  intro- 
duced into  French  organs  the  English  mechanism 
and  the  bellows  invented  by  Cummins.    His  ex- 
ample was  speedily  followed   by  the  French 
builders,  and  from  that  period  may  be  dated  the 
improvements  in  organ  building  which  have 
raii^ed   the  French   builders  to  their  present 
eminence.  His  work  was  well  finished,  and  gener- 
ally satisfactory.    He  died  at  Versailles,  Feb.  19, 
1859.    He  left  two  sons,  E.  and  J.  Abbey,  who 
now  carry  on  the  business  of  organ-builders  in 
Versailles.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ABBREVIATIONS.  The  abbreviations  em- 
ployed in  music  are  of  two  kinds,  namely,  the 
abridgment  of  terms  relating  to  musical  ex- 
pression, and  the  true  musical  abbreviations  by 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

the  help  of  which  certain  passages,  chords,  etc., 
may  be  written  in  a  curtailed  form,  to  the  greater 
convenience  of  both  composer  and  performer. 

Abbreviations  of  the  first  kind  need  receive 
no  special  consideration  here ;  they  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  the  initial  letter  or  first  syllable 
of  the  word  employed — as  for  instance,  p.  for 
piano,  cresc.  for  crescendo,  oh.  for  oboe,  cello  for 
violoncello,  fag.  for  bassoon  (fagotto),  timp.  for 
drums  (timpani) ;  and  their  meaning  is  every- 
where sufficiently  obvious.  Those  of  musical  pas- 
sages are  indicated  by  signs,  as  follows. 

The  continued  repetition  of  a  note  or  chord 
is  expressed  by  a  stroke  or  strokes  across  the 
stem,  or  above  or  below  the  note  if  it  be  a  semi- 
breve  (Ex.  i),  the  number  of  strokes  denoting 
the  subdivision  of  the  written  note  into  quavers, 
semiquavers,  etc.,  unless  the  word  tremolo  or 
tremolando  is  added,  in  which  case  the  repetition 
is  as  rapid  as  possible,  without  regard  to  the 
exact  number  of  notes  played.  On  bowed  in- 
struments the  rapid  reiteration  of  a  single  note 
is  easy,  but  in  pianoforte  music  an  octave  or 
chord  becomes  necessary  to  produce  a  tremolo, 
the  manner  of  writing  and  performing  which  is 
shown  in  Ex.  2. 


I.  Written. 


— ^ 


Tremolo 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


ABBREVIATIONS.  3 


In  the  abbreviation  expressed  by  strokes,  as 
above,  the  passage  to  be  abbreviated  can  of 
course  contain  no  note  of  greater  length  than 
a  quaver,  but  it  is  possible  also  to  divide  a  long 
note  into  crotchets,  by  means  of  dots  placed  over 
it,  as  in  Ex,  3.  This  is  however  seldom  done, 
as  the  saving  of  space  is  inconsiderable.  When 
a  long  note  has  to  be  repeated  in  the  form  of 
triplets  or  groups  of  six,  the  figure  3  or  6  is 
visually  placed  over  it  in  addition  to  the  stroke 
across  the  stem,  and  the  note  is  sometimes, 
though  not  necessarily,  written  dotted  (Ex.  4). 


viated  by  the  repetition  of  the  cross  strokes  with- 
out the  notes  as  many  times  as  the  group  has 
to  be  repeated  (Ex.  7) ;  or  the  notes  forming  the 
group  are  written  as  a  chord,  with  the  necessary 
number  of  strokes  across  the  stem  (Ex.  8).  In 
this  case  the  word  simili  or  segue  is  added,  to 
show  that  the  order  of  notes  in  the  first  group 
(which  must  be  written  out  in  full)  is  to  be  re- 
peated, and  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  mis- 
taking the  effect  intended  for  that  indicated  in 
Ex.  I  and  2. 


The  repetition  of  a  group  of  two  notes  is  ab- 
bre\-iated  by  two  white  notes  (minims  or  semi- 
breves)  connected  by  the  number  of  strokes  or- 
dinarily used  to  express  quavers,  semiquavers, 
etc.,  according  to  the  rate  of  movement  intended 
(Ex.  5),  The  duration  of  the  whole  passage 
should  be  at  least  a  minim,  since  if  a  crotchet 
were  treated  in  this  manner  it  would  present  the 
appearance  of  two  quavers  or  semiquavers,  and 
would  be  imintelligible.  Nevertheless,  a  group 
of  demisemiquavers  amounting  altogether  to  the 
value  of  a  crotchet  is  sometimes  found  abbreviated  | 
as  in  Ex.  6,  the  figure  8  being  placed  above  the 
notes  to  show  that  the  value  of  the  whole  group 
is  that  of  a  crotchet,  and  not  a  quaver.  Such 
abbre%-iations,  though  perhaps  useful  in  certain 
cases,  are  generally  to  be  avoided  as  ambiguous. 
It  will  be  observed  that  a  passage  lasting  for 
the  value  of  one  minim  requires  two  minims  to 
express  it,  on  account  of  the  group  consisting  of 
two  notes. 


Another  sign  of  abbreviation  of  a  group  con- 
sists of  an  oblique  line  with  two  dots,  one  on 
each  side  (Ex.  9) ;  this  serves  to  indicate  the 
repetition  of  a  group  of  any  number  of  notes  of 
any  length,  and  even  of  a  passage  composed  of 
several  groups,  provided  such  passage  is  not  more 
than  two  bars  in  length  (Ex.  io). 


A  more  usual  method  of  abbreviating  the  re- 
petition of  a  passage  of  the  length  of  the  above 
is  to  write  over  it  the  word  his  (twice),  or  in 
some  cases  ter  (three  times),  or  to  enclose  it 

between  the  dots  of  an  ordinary  repeat 


A  group  of  three,  four,  or  more  notes  is  abbre 


Passages  intended  to  be  played  in  octaves  are 
often  written  as  single  notes  with  the  words  coii 
ottaci  or  con  Svi  placed  above  or  below  them, 
B  2 


4  ABBREVIATIONS. 


ABEL. 


according  as  the  upper  or  lower  octave  is  to  be 
added  (Ex.  1 1).  The  word  8m  (or  sometimes  8va 
alta  or  8fa  hassa)  written  above  a  passage  does 
not  add  octaves,  but  merely  transposes  the  pas- 
sage an  octave  higher  or  lower :  so  also  in  clari- 
net music  the  word  chalumeau  is  used  to  signify 
that  tlie  passage  is  to  be  played  an  octave  lower 
than  written  (Ex.  12).  All  these  alterations, 
which  can  scarcely  be  considered  abbreviations 
except  that  they  spare  the  use  of  ledger-lines, 
are  counteracted,  and  the  passage  restored  to  its 
usual  position,  by  the  use  of  the  word  loco,  or  in 
clarinet  music  by  clarinette. 

T I .  Con  8vi. 


Chalumeau  Clar. 


In  orchestral  music  it  often  happens  tbat  cer- 
tain of  the  instruments  play  in  unison  ;  when  this 
is  the  case  the  parts  are  sometimes  not  all  written 
in  the  score,  but  the  lines  belonging  to  one  or 
more  of  the  instruments  are  left  blank,  and  the 
words  coi  violini  or  col  hasso,  etc.,  are  added,  to 
indicate  that  the  instruments  in  question  have  to 
play  in  unison  with  the  violins  or  basses,  as  the 
case  may  be,  or  when  two  instruments  of  the 
same  kind,  such  as  first  and  second  violins,  have 
to  play  in  unison,  the  word  unisono  or  col  primo 
is  placed  instead  of  the  notes  in  the  line  belonging 
to  the  second. — Where  two  parts  are  written  on 
one  staff  in  a  score  the  sign  *  a  2 '  denotes  that 
both  play  the  same  notes  ;  and  'a  i '  that  the 
second  of  the  two  is  resting. — The  indication 
*  a  3 '  *  a  4 '  at  the  head  of  fugues  indicates  the 
number  of  parts  or  voices  in  which  the  fugue  is 
written. 

An  abbreviation  which  is  often  very  trouble- 
some to  the  conductor  occurs  in  manuscript 
scores,  wlien  a  considerable  part  of  the  composi- 
tion is  repeated  without  alteration,  and  the  cor- 
responding number  of  bars  are  left  vacant,  with 
the  remark  come  sopra  (as  above).  This  is  not 
met  with  in  printed  scores. 


There  are  also  abbreviations  relating  to  the 
theory  of  music,  some  of  which  are  of  great 
value.  In  figured  bass,  for  instance,  the  various 
chords  are  expressed  by  figures,  and  the  authors 
of  several  modem  theoretical  works  have  in- 
vented or  availed  themselves  of  various  methods 
of  shortly  expressing  the  different  chords  and 
intervals.  Thus  we  find,  major  chords  expressed 
by  large  Roman  numerals,  and  minor  chords  by 
small  ones,  the  particular  number  employed  de- 
noting the  degree  of  the  scale  upon  which  the 
chord  is  based.  GottMed  Weber  represents  an 
interval  by  a  number  with  one  or  two  dots  be- 
fore it  to  express  minor  or  diminished,  and  one 
or  two  after  it  for  major  or  augmented,  and 
Andre  makes  use  of  a  triangle,  t\,  to  express  a 
common  chord,  and  a  square,  □,  for  a  chord  of 
the  seventh,  the  inversions  being  indicated  by  one, 
two,  or  three  small  vertical  lines  across  their 
base,  and  the  classification  into  major,  minor, 
diminished,  or  augmented  by  the  numbers  i,  2, 
3,  or  4,  placed  in  the  centre.  [F.  T.] 

ABEILLE,  JoH.  Chr.  Ludwig,  born  at 
Bayreuth  Feb.  20,  1761,  composer,  pianist,  and 
organist.  Studied  at  Stuttgart,  and  in  1782  be- 
came a  member  of  the  private  band  of  the  Duke 
of  Wiirtemberg.  On  Zumsteeg's  death  in  1802  he 
succeeded  him  as  concert-meister,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  made  organist  in  the  court  chapel 
and  director  of  the  official  music.  In  1832, 
having  completed  a  period  of  fifty  years'  faithful 
service,  he  received  the  royal  gold  medal  and 
a  pension,  shortly  after  which  he  died,  in  his 
seventy-first  year.  Abeille's  concertos  and  trios 
for  the  harpsichord  were  much  esteemed,  but 
his  vocal  compositions  were  his  best  works. 
Amongst  them  are  several  collections  of  songs 
(e.g.  'Eight  Lieder,'  Breitkopf  and  Hiirtel)  which 
are  remarkable  for  simple  natural  grace,  and  a 
touching  vein  of  melody.  Some  of  these  still 
survive  in  music-schools.  His  Ash- Wednesday 
hymn  for  four  voices,  and  his  operettas  of  *  Amor 
und  Psyche,'  'Peter  und  Annchen,'  were  well 
known  in  their  day,  and  were  published,  in  piano- 
forte score,  by  Breitkopf  and  Hartel.    [C.  F.  P.] 

ABEL,  Clamor  Henrich,  bom  in  West- 
phalia about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
chamber- musician  to  the  court  of  Hanover.  His 
work  'Erstlinge  Musikalischer  Blumen'  appeared 
first  in  three  vols.  (Frankfort,  1674,  1676,  and 
1677),  afterwards  united  under  the  title  '  Drei 
opera  musica'  (Brunswick,  1687).       [M.  C.  C] 

ABEL,  Karl  Friedrich,  one  of  the  most 
famous  viol-da-gamba  players,  born  at  Cothen  in 
1725.  He  was  brought  up  at  the  Thomas-school 
at  Leipsic  under  Sebastian  Bach,  In  1748  he 
obtained  a  post  under  Hasse  in  the  court  band  at 
Dresden,  where  he  remained  ten  years.  In  1759 
he  visited  London,  and  gave  his  first  concert  on 
April  5  at  the  '  great  room  in  Dean-street,  Soho,' 
wlien,  in  addition  to  the  vi()l-da-gamba,  he  per- 
formed 'a  concerto  upon  the  harpsichord,  and  a 
piece  composed  on  purpose  for  an  instrument 
newly-invented  in  London,  and  called  the  penta- 
chord/ the  wnole  ot  the  pieces  in  the  programme 


ABEL. 


ABOS. 


5 


being  of  his  own  composition.  His  facility  was 
remarkable :  he  is  reported  to  have  performed 
more  than  once  on  the  horn,  as  well  as  on  '  new 
instrmnents  never  heard  in  public  before.'  From 
the  year  1765  how^ever  he  confined  himself  to 
the  viol-da-gamba.  He  was  appointed  chamber- 
musician  to  Queen  Charlotte,  with  a  salary  of 
£200  a-year.  On  the  arrival  of  John  Christian 
Bach,  in  the  autumn  of  1762,  Abel  joined  him  ; 
they  lived  together,  and  jointly  conducted  Mrs. 
Cornelys'  subscription  concerts.  The  first  of 
their  series  took  place  in  Carlisle-house,  Soho- 
square,  on  January  23,  1765,  and  they  were 
maintained  for  many  years.  The  Hanover-square 
Rooms  were  opened  on  Feb.  i,  1775,  by  one  of 
these  concerts.  Haydn's  Symphonies  were  first 
performed  in  England  at  them,  and  Wilhelm 
Cramer  the  violinist,  father  of  J.  B.  Cramer, 
made  his  first  appearance  there.  After  Bach's 
death  on  Jan.  i,  1 782,  the  concerts  were  continued 
by  Abel,  but  with  indiflferent  success.  In  1 783  he 
returned  to  Germany,  taking  Paris  on  the  way 
back,  where  he  appears  to  have  begun  that  in- 
dulgence in  drink  which  eventually  caused  his 
death.  In  1785  we  find  him  again  in  London, 
engaged  in  the  newly  established  'Professional 
Concerts,'  and  in  the  'Subscription  Concerts'  of 
Mr.  Salomon  and  Mme.  ]\Iara  at  the  Pantheon. 
At  this  time  his  compositions  were  much  per- 
formed, and  he  himself  still  played  often  in  pub- 
lic. His  last  appearance  was  at  Mrs.  Billington's 
concert  on  May  21,  1787,  shortly  after  which,  on 
June  20,  he  died,  after  a  lethargy  or  sleep  of 
three  days'  duration.  His  death  was  much  spoken 
of  in  the  papers.  Abel's  symphonies,  overtures, 
quartetts,  concertos,  and  sonatas  were  greatly 
esteemed,  and  many  of  them  were  published  by 
Bremner  of  London  and  Hummel  of  Berlin. 
The  most  favourite  were  '  A  fifth  set  of  six  over- 
tures, op.  14'  (Bremner),  and  '  Six  sonatas,  op.  18.' 
Abel's  playing  was  most  remarkable  in  slow 
movements.  '  On  the  viol-da-gamba,'  says  the 
'  European  Magazine,'  1784,  p.  366,  '  he  is  truly 
excellent,  and  no  modern  has  been  heard  to  play 
an  Adagio  with  greater  taste  and  feeling,'  Bur- 
ney's  testimony  is  to  the  same  eflFect,  and  he  adds 
that  '  his  musical  science  and  taste  were  so  com- 
plete that  he  became  the  ximpire  in  all  musical 
controversy,  and  was  consulted  like  an  oracle.' 
He  was  accustomed  to  call  his  instrument  '  the 
king  of  instruments,'  and  to  say  of  himself  that 
there  was  '  one  God  and  one  Abel.'  Among  his 
pupils  both  in  singing  and  composition  were 
J.  B.  Cramer,  GraefF,  and  Brigida  Giorgi  (Sig- 
nora  Banti).  His  firiend  Gainsborough  painted 
a  three-quarter-length  portrait  of  Abel  playing 
on  the  viol-da-gamba,  distinguished  by  its  careful 
execution,  beauty  of  colouring,  and  deep  expres- 
sion. It  was  bequeathed  by  Miss  Gainsborough 
to  Mr.  Briggs,  and  was  sold  in  London  in  1866. 
Gainsborough  also  exhibited  a  whole-length  of 
Abel  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1777,  and  a  very 
powerful  portrait  of  him  by  Robineau  is  to  be 
found  at  Hampton  Court.  [C.  F.  P.] 

ABEL,  Leopold  August,  bom  at  Cothen 
1720,  death  unknown;  elder  brother  of  the  pre- 


ceding, violinist,  and  pupil  of  Benda.  He  played 
in  the  orchestra  of  the  theatre  at  Brunswick,  and 
was  successively  conductor  of  the  court  band  to 
the  Prince  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  (1758), 
the  Margrave  of  Schwedt  (1766),  and  the  Duke 
of  Schwerin.  He  composed  six  violin  concertos 
mentioned  in  Bohme's  catalogue,  but  never  rose 
to  the  reputation  of  his  brother.  [M.  C.  C] 

ABELL,  John,  a  celebrated  alto  singer  and 
performer  on  the  lute,  was  born  about  1660, 
and  probably  educated  in  the  choir  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  of  which  establishment  he  was  sworn  a 
•gentleman  extraordinary'  in  1679.  He  was 
greatly  patronised  by  royalty,  and  between  the 
years  1679  and  1688  received  'bounty  money' 
amounting  to  no  less  than  £740.  (See  '  Moneys 
received  and  paid  for  secret  services  of  Charles  II 
and  James  II' — Camd.  Soc).  Charles  II  sent 
him  to  Italy  to  study,  and  after  his  return 
Evelyn  thus  describes  meeting  him  :  '  Jan.  24, 
1682-3.  After  supper  came  in  the  famous 
treble,  Mr.  Abel,  newly  returned  from  Italy. 
I  never  heard  a  more  excellent  voice,  and  would 
have  sworn  it  had  been  a  woman's,  it  was  so 
high  and  so  well  and  skilfully  managed,  being 
accompanied  by  Signer  Francisco  on  the  harpsi- 
chord.' He  remained  in  the  service  of  the 
chapel  until  the  Revolution  of  1688,  when  he 
was  dismissed  for  his  supposed  leaning  to  the 
Romish  religion.  After  this  he  travelled  abroad, 
visiting  France,  Germany,  Holland,  and  Poland, 
leading  a  vagrant  sort  of  life,  and  depending  for 
his  support  upon  his  voice  and  lute.  About  the 
latter  end  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  Abell 
returned  to  England,  and  occupied  a  prominent 
position  on  the  stage.  Congreve,  in  a  letter 
dated  'Lond.  Decem.  10,  1700,'  says  'Abell  is 
here :  has  a  cold  at  present,  and  is  always 
whimsical,  so  that  when  he  will  sing  or  not  upon 
the  stage  are  things  very  disputable,  but  he 
certainly  sings  beyond  all  creatures  upon  earth, 
and  I  have  heard  him  very  often  both  abroad 
and  since  he  came  over.'  {Literary  Belies,  1792, 
p.  322). 

In  1 70 1  Abell  published  two  works,  'A 
Collection  of  Songs  in  Several  Languages,'  which 
he  dedicated  to  William  III,  and  'A  collection 
of  Songs  in  English.'  The  latter  contains  a 
very  curious  poem  of  some  length,  addressed  to 
'All  lovers  of  Musick,'  in  which  he  describes 
some  of  his  doings  on  the  continent.  His  death  is 
not  recorded,  but  it  was  after  1 716,  when  he  gave 
a  concert  at  Stationers'  Hall.  (Hawkins,  Bist.  ; 
Cheque-BooJc  Chap.  Roy.,  etc.).  [E.  F.  R.] 

ABOS,  Geronimo,  bom  at  Malta  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  1 8th  century,  died  at  Naples  about 
1786,  a  composer  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  and 
pupil  of  Leo  and  Durante.  He  was  a  teacher  in 
the  Conservatrio  of  *  La  Pietk '  at  Naples,  and 
trained  many  eminent  singers,  of  whom  Aprile 
was  the  most  famous.  He  visited  Rome,  Venice, 
Turin,  and,  in  1756,  London,  where  he  held  the 
post  of  maestro  al  cembalo  at  the  opera.  His 
operas  are  *  La  Pupilla  e  '1  Tutore,'  'La  Serva 
Padrona,'  and  'L'Ltigenia  in  Aulide'  (Naples), 


6 


ABOS. 


ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


*  L' Artaserse  *  (Venice,  1746),  *L'Aclriano' 
(Rome,  1750),  'Tito  Manlio,'  and  'Creso' 
(London,  1756  and  1758).  His  church  music 
includes  seven  Masses,  two  Kyries,  and  several 
Litanies  to  the  Virgin,  preserved  in  manuscript 
in  Naples,  Rome,  Vienna,  and  the  Conservatoire 
in  Paris.  The  style  of  his  composition  somewhat 
resembles  that  of  Jomelli.  [M.  C.  C] 

ABRAMS,  The  Misses  Harriet,  Theodosia, 
and  Eliza,  were  three  sisters,  vocalists.  Harriet, 
the  eldest,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Arne,  and  first 
appeared  in  public  at  Drury  Lane  theatre,  in 
her  master's  musical  piece,  '  May  Day,'  on  Oct. 
28,  1775.  She  and  her  sister  Theodosia  sang 
at  the  opening  of  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music 
in  1776.  Harriet  possessed  a  soprano,  and 
Theodosia  a  contralto  voice  of  excellent  quality. 
The  youngest  sister,  Eliza,  was  accustomed  to 
join  with  her  sisters  in  the  pieces  which  were 
sung  at  the  Ladies'  Catch  and  Glee  Concerts. 
The  elder  two  sang  at  the  Commemoration  of 
Handel,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  1784,  and  at 
the  principal  London  concerts  for  several  years 
afterwards,  when  they  retired  into  private  life. 
They  both  attained  to  an  advanced  age ;  Theo- 
dosia (then  Mrs.  Garrow)  was  living  in  1834. 
Harriet  Abrams  composed  several  pleasing 
songs,  two  of  which,  '  The  Orphan's  Prayer ' 
and  '  Crazy  Jane,'  aided  by  the  expressive  sing- 
ing of  her  sister,  Theodosia,  became  very  popular. 
She  published,  in  1787,  '  A  Collection  of  Songs,' 
and  'A  Collection  of  Scotch  Songs  harmonized 
for  three  voices,'  besides  other  pieces  at  later 
dates.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ABT,  Franz,  bom  at  Eilenburg  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  Dec.  22, 181 9.  His  father  was  a  clergy- 
man, and  Franz,  though  destined  to  the  same 
profession,  received  a  sound  musical  education, 
and  was  allowed  to  pursue  both  objects  at  the 
Thomas- School  and  University  of  Leipsic.  On 
his  father's  death  he  relinquished  the  church  as 
a  profession  and  adopted  music  entirely.  His 
first  residence  was  at  Ziirich  (1841),  where  he 
acted  as  capellmeister,  occupying  himself  more 
especially  with  men's  voices,  both  as  composer 
and  conductor  of  several  societies.  In  1852  he 
entered  the  staff  of  the  Hof-theater  at  Brunswick, 
where  since  1855  he  has  tilled  the  post  of  leading 
capellmeister. 

Abt  is  well  known  by  his  numerous  songs 
for  one  or  more  voices,  which  betray  an  easy 
fluency  of  invention,  couched  in  pleasing  popular 
forms,  but  without  pretence  to  depth  or  indi- 
viduality. Many  of  his  songs,  as  for  instance 
'When  the  swallows,'  were  at  one  time  univer- 
sally sung,  and  have  obtained  a  more  or  less 
permanent  place  in  the  popular  repertory.  Abt 
is  a  member  of  a  group  of  composers,  embracing 
his  contemporaries  Truhn,  Kiicken,  Gumbert, 
and  others,  who  stand  aloof  from  the  main  course 
taken  by  the  German  liied  as  it  left  the  hands 
of  Schubert,  Schumann,  and  Franz,  —  which 
aims  at  the  true  and  living  expression  of  inward 
emotion.  In  reference  to  this  the  composers  in 
question  are  somewhat  in  the  background  ;  but  it 


cannot  be  denied  that  in  many  dilettante  circles 
Abt  is  a  prime  favourite  for  his  elegance  and 
easy  intelligibility.  His  greatest  successes  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland  have  been  obtained  in 
part-songs  for  men's  voices,  an  overgrown  branch 
of  composition  unfortunately  devoted  to  the  pur- 
suit of  the  mere  superficial  enjoyment  of  sweet 
sounds,  and  to  a  great  extent  identified  with  hia 
name. 

The  list  of  Abt's  compositions  is  enormous, 
and  contains  more  than  400  works,  consisting 
chiefly  of  'Lieder'  of  the  most  various  kinds  for 
one,  two,  or  three  solo  voices,  as  well  as  for 
chorus,  both  female  and  mixed,  and,  as  already 
mentioned,  especially  for  men's  voices.  Of  the 
solo  '  Lieder,'  a  collection  of  the  less-known  ones 
has  been  published  by  Peters  under  the  title  of 
'  Abt-Album.'  The  part-songs  are  to  be  found  in 
many  collections.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life 
Abt  composed  much  for  the  pianoforte,  chiefly 
pieces  of  light  salon  character.  These  have  never 
had  the  same  popularity  with  his  vocal  works, 
and  are  now  virtually  forgotten.  [A.  M.] 

ABYNGDON,  Henry.  An  English  eccle- 
siastic and  musician.  He  succeeded  John  Ber- 
nard as  subcentor  of  Wells  on  Nov.  24,  1447, 
and  held  that  post  till  his  death  on  Sept,  I, 
1497,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Robert  Wydewe. 
(Beckynton's  and  Oliver  King's  registers  at 
Wells.)  In  addition  to  the  succentorship  at 
Wells  Abyngdon  held  the  office  of  'Master  of 
the  Song'  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  London,  to 
which  he  was  appointed  in  May  1465  at  an 
annual  salary  of  forty  marks,  confirmed  to  him 
by  a  subsequent  Act  of  Parliament  in  1473-4. 
(Rimbault,  'Cheque-book  of  Chapel  Royal,'  p.  4.) 
He  was  also  made  Master  of  St.  Catherine's 
Hospital,  Bristol,  in  1478.  (Collinson,  ii.  283.) 
Two  Latin  epitaphs  on  Abyngdon  by  Sir 
Thomas  More  have  been  preserved  (Cayley's 
'Life  of  More,'  1.  317),  of  which  the  English 
epitaph  quoted  by  Rimbault  from  Stonyhurst 
is  an  adaptation.  In  these  he  himself  is  styled 
*  nobilis,'  and  his  office  in  London  *  cantor,' 
and  he  is  said  to  have  been  pre-eminent  both 
as  a  singer  and  an  organist : — 
*  Millibus  in  mille  cantor  fuit  optimus  ille, 

Praeter  et  haec  ista  fuit  optimus  orgaquenista.' 
More's  friendship  is  evidence  of  Abyngdon's 
ability  and  goodness,  but  the  acquaintance  can 
only  have  been  slight,  as  More  was  but  seventeen 
when  Abyngdon  died.  None  of  his  works  are 
known.  [G.] 

ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE.     This  in- 
stitution, which,  following  the  frequently  changed 
political  conditions  of  France  since  1791,  has 
been  called  in  turn  Royale,  Nationale,  and  Im- 
periale,  has  already  entered  its  third  century. 
In  1669  royal  letters  patent  were  granted  by 
Louis  XIV  to  the  Abbe  Perrin,  Robert  Cambert,  | 
and  the  Marquis  de  Soiirdeac,  for  the  establish-  [ 
ment  of  an  Academic  wherein  to  present  in  public  ! 
'  operas  and  dramas  with  music,  and  in  French 
verse,'  after  the  manner  of  those  of  Italy,  for  the 
space  of  twelve  years.    Nearly  a  century  prior 


ACADEMIE  DE  INHTSIQUE. 


ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE.  7 


to  this,  in  1570,  similar  privileges  had  been 
accorded  by  Charles  IX  to  a  Venetian,  C.  A. 
de  Baif,  in  respect  to  an  academy  *  de  poesie  et 
de  musique,'  but  its  scheme  does  not  appear  to 
have  included  dramatic  representation.  In  any 
case  it  failed  utterly'.  The  establishment  of  the 
existing  institution  was  however  also  preceded, 
and  therefore  facilitated,  by  a  series  of  per- 
formances in  Italian  by  Italian  artists,  beginning 
in  1584  and  continued  with  little  interruption 
till  1652,  and  by  rarer  though  not  less  important 
ones  by  French  artists,  beginning  from  1625, 
when  '  Akebar,  roi  du  Mogol, '  was  produced  in 
the  palace  of  the  bishop  of  Carpentras.  This  has 
frequently  been  spoken  of  as  the  earliest  veritable 
French  opera ;  but  that  title  is  more  justly  due 
to  the  '  Pastorale  en  musique '  of  Cambekt — the 
subject  of  which  was  given  to  the  Abbe  Perrin 
by  the  Cardinal  Legate  of  Innocent  X — first 
performed  at  Issy  in  1659.  Two  years  after, 
Cambert  followed  this  opera  by  '  Ariane,'  and  in 
the  following  3'ear  by  'Adonis.'  The  Academie 
was  opened  in  1671  with  an  opera  by  the  same 
master,  '  Pomone,'  which  attained  an  enormous 
success  ;  having  been  repeated,  apparently  to  the 
exclusion  of  every  other  work,  for  eight  months 
successively.  The  'strength'  of  the  company 
engaged  in  its  performance  presents  an  interesting 
contrast  with  that  of  the  existing  grand  opera, 
and  even  of  similar  establishments  of  far  less 
pretension.  The  troupe  consisted  of  five  male 
and  four  female  principal  performers,  fifteen 
chorus  -  singers,  and  an  orchestra  nimibering 
thirteen !  The  career  of  the  Academie  under 
these  its  first  entrepreneurs  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  jealousy  of  an  Italian  musician  then 
rising  in  court  favour,  J.  Baptiste  Li'LLT,  who, 
through  his  influence  with  Mme.  de  Montespan, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  for  himself  the  privileges 
which  had  been  accorded  to  Perrin  and  Cambert. 
The  latter,  the  master-spirit  of  the  enterprise 
thus  wrecked,  notwithstanding  his  hospitable 
reception  by  our  Charles  II,  died  in  London 
shortly  afterwards,  at  the  age  of  forty -nine,  of 
disappointment  and  home  -  sickness.  By  this 
disreputable  proceeding  Lully  made  himself 
master  of  the  situation,  remaining  to  the  time 
of  his  death,  in  1 68  7,  the  autocrat  of  the  French 
lyric  drama.  In  the  course  of  these  fourteen 
yeai-s  he  produced,  in  concert  with  the  poet 
QuiXAULT,  no  fewer  than  twenty  grand  operas, 
besides  other  works.  The  number,  success,  and, 
more  than  aU,  the  merit,  of  these  entitle  Lully  to 
be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  school  of  which 
Meyerbeer  may  claim  to  have  proved  the  most 
distinguished  alumnus  ;  though,  as  we  have  seen, 
its  foundation  had  been  facilitated  for  him  by 
the  labours  of  others.  In  the  course  of  his 
autocracy,  Lully  developed  considerably  musical 
form  in  its  application  to  dramatic  effect,  and 
added  considerably  to  the  resources  of  the 
orchestra ;  though,  in  comparison  with  those 
of  more  recent  times,  he  left  them  still  very 
meagre.  He  is  said  to  have  first  obtained 
permission,  though  in  spite  of  great  opposition, 
for  the  appearance  of  women  on  the  stage ;  but 


as  the  troupe  of  his  predecessor  Cambert  in- 
cluded four,  his  claim  to  their  first  introduction 
there  needs  qualification.  Probably  he  got 
prohibition  which  had  eeased  to  be  operative 
exchanged  for  avowed  sanction.  The  status 
of  the  theatrical  performer  at  this  epoch  would 
seem  to  have  been  higher  than  it  has  ever  been 
since ;  seeing  that,  by  a  special  court  order,  even 
nobles  were  allowed,  without  prejudice  to  their 
rank,  to  appear  as  singers  and  dancers  before 
audiences  who  paid  for  admission  to  their 
performances.  "SAliat  it  was  somewhat  later  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that,  not  to  mention 
innumerable  less  distinguished  instances,  Christian 
burial  was  refused  (1673)  to  Moliere  and  (1730) 
to  Adrienne  Le  Couvreur.  Lully's  scale  of  pay- 
ment to  authors,  ha\-ing  regard  to  the  value  of 
money  in  his  time,  was  liberal.  The  composer 
of  a  new  opera  received  for  each  of  the  first  ten 
representations  100  livres  (about  £4  sterling), 
and  for  each  of  the  following  twenty  repre- 
sentations, 50  livres.  After  this  the  work 
became  the  property  of  the  Academie,  The 
theatre  was  opened  for  operatic  performance 
three  times  a  week  throughout  the  year.  On 
great  festivals  concerts  of  sacred  music  were 
given.  The  composers  contemporary  with  Lully 
(many  of  them  his  pupils)  could  only  obtain 
access  to  the  Academie  by  conforming  to  his  style 
and  working  on  his  principles.  Some  few  of 
these  however,  whose  impatience  of  the  Lullian 
despotism  deprived  them  of  aU  chance  of  a  hearing 
within  its  walls,  turned  their  talents  to  accoimt 
in  the  service  of  the  vagrant  troupes  of  the 
Foire  Saint-Germain ;  and  with  such  success 
as  to  alarm  Lully  both  for  his  authority  and  his 
receipts.  He  obtained  an  order  {more  suo)  for 
the  suppression  of  this  already  dangerous  rivalry, 
which  however  proved  itself  far  too  supple  for 
legislative  manipulation.  The  'vagrants'  met 
each  new  ordonnance  with  a  new  evasion,  and 
that  of  which  they  were  the  fii^t  practitioners, 
and  the  frequenters  of  the  Foire  the  first  patrons, 
subsequently  grew  into  the  most  delightful, 
because  the  most  truly  natural,  of  all  French 
art  products,  the  Opera  Comique.  The  school 
of  composition  established  by  Lully  did  not  die 
with  its  founder ;  nor  for  many  years  was  any 
serious  violation  of  his  canons  permitted  by 

i  his  adopted  countrymen.  Charpentier  (1634- 
1702),  a  composer  formed  in  the  school  of 
Carissimi,  was  unsuccessful  in  finding  favour 
for  the  stj-le  of  his  master:  Campra  (i  660-1 744) 
was  somewhat  less  so  ;  while  Marais,  Desmarets, 
Lacoste,  and  Monteclair  were  gradually  enabled 
to  give  more  force,  variety  and  character  to 
orchestration.  The  last  of  these  (1666-1737) 
first  introduced  the  three-stringed  double-bass, 
on  which  he  himself  was  a  performer,  into  the 
orchestra.  But  a  condition  of  an  art  on  the 
whole  so  stagnant  as  this  was  sure  eventually 
to  become  insupportable,  if  not  to  the  public, 
to  the  few  who  at  all  times,  consciously  or 
unconsciouslv,  direct  or  confirm  its  inclinations. 
Their  impatience  found  expression  in  the  Abbe 

I  Raguenet's  '  Parallele  des  Italiens  et  des  Francais, 


8         ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


en  ce  qui  regarde  la  musique  et  les  opera '  (i  704); 
one  of  a  considerable  number  of  essays  whicli 
assisted  in  preparing  the  way  for  a  new  style, 
should  a  composer  present  himself  of  sufficient 
genius,  culture  and  courage,  to  introduce  it. 
Such  an  one  at  length  did  present  himself  in 
Jean  Philippe  Rameau,  whose  arrival  in  Paris 
in  1 721,  at  the  somewhat  mature  age  of  forty- 
two,  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history  not  merely 
of  French  opera  but  of  European  music.  In  the 
face  of  much  opposition  this  sturdy  Burgundian 
succeeded  first  in  obtaining  a  hearing  from  and 
eventually  in  winning  the  favour — though  never 
to  the  same  extent  as  Lully  the  affections — of 
the  French  people.  Between  1737  and  1760, 
irrespective  of  other  work,  he  set  to  music  no 
less  than  twenty-four  dramas,  the  majority  of 
them  grand  operas.  The  production  of  these  at 
the  Academie  he  personally  superintended ;  and 
some  idea  of  his  activity  and  influence  as  a  director 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  1750, 
fourteen  years  before  the  close  of  his  career,  the 
number  of  performers  engaged  at  the  Academie 
had  risen  to  149  ;  a  number  doubtless  to  some 
extent  rendered  necessary  by  the  increased 
craving  of  the  public  ear  for  intensity,  but  more 
by  the  varieties  of  musical  eS"ect  of  which  he 
himself  had  been  the  inventor.  In  1763  the 
theatre  of  the  Palais  Royal,  built  by  Lemercier, 
so  long  resonant  with  the  strains  of  Lully  and 
Rameau,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  ten  years 
which  connected  the  death  of  Rameau  with  the 
arrival  in  Paris  of  Gluck  were  marked  by  the 
production  of  no  work  of  more  than  secondary 
rank.  On  April  19,  1774,  the  'Iphigenie  en 
Aulide'  of  this  master  was  heard  for  the  first 
time.  The  production  of  this  work  was  followed 
by  that  of  a  series  of  others  from  the  same  hand, 
one  and  all  characterised  by  a  direct  application 
of  musical  form  and  colour  to  dramatic  expression 
before  unknown  to  the  French  or  any  other 
theatre.  The  arrival  in  Paris  shortly  after  of  the 
admirable  PiCCiNNi  brought  Gluck  into  relation 
with  a  master  who,  while  not  unworthy  to  cope 
with  him  as  a  musician,  was  undoubtedly  his 
inferior  as  a  diplomatist.  Between  these  two 
great  composers  the  parts  of  the  typical  'ruse 
Italian '  and  the  '  simple-minded  German '  were 
interchanged.  The  latter  left  no  means  untried 
to  mar  the  success  of  the  former,  for  whose  genius 
he  openly  professed,  and  probably  felt,  high  ad- 
miration ;  and  in  the  famous  war  of  the  Gluckists 
and  Piccinnists — whose  musical  knowledge  for 
the  most  part  was  in  inverse  ratio  to  their  literary 
skill — the  victory  which  fell  eventually  to  the 
former  was  the  result  no  less  of  every  species  of 
chicanery  on  the  part  of  Gluck  than  of  genius 
especially  adapted  to  captivate  a  people  always 
more  competent  to  appreciate  dramatic  than 
musical  genius.  In  1781  the  second  Palais 
Royal  theatre,  like  its  predecessor,  was  burnt 
to  the  ground.  The  Academie,  for  many  weeks 
without  a  home,  at  length  took  temporary  refuge 
in  the  Salles  des  Menus- Plaisirs.  Meanwhile 
the  architect  Lenoir  completed  the  Salle  de  la 
Porto  Saint-Martin  in  the  short  space  of  three 


months.  The  result  of  this  extravagant  speed 
was  that,  after  the  first  performance,  said  to 
have  been  attended  (gratis)  by  10,000  persons, 
the  walls  were  found  to  have  '  settled '  two  inches 
to  the  right  and  fifteen  lignes  to  the  left.  In 
1784  an  Ecole  Royale  de  Chant  et  de  Declama- 
tion, afterwards  developed  into  the  Conservatoire, 
was  grafted  on  to  the  Academie.  In  1787  the 
Academie  troupe  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  250 
persons — an  increase  of  100  on  that  of  Rameau. 
The  unfortunate  Louis  XVI  took  great  interest 
in  the  Academie,  and  even  gave  much  personal 
attention  to  its  regulation.  He  reduced  the 
working  expenses  by  nearly  one -half ;  not  at  the 
cost  of  the  working  members,  but  by  the  aboli- 
tion of  sinecures  and  other  incumbrances  on 
its  income.  In  1784  he  established  prizes  for 
libretti,  and  in  1787  issued  several  well- 
considered  ordonnances  for  the  regulation  of 
the  establishment.  But  from  1 789  the  thoughts 
of  the  iU-starred  king  were  exclusively  occupied 
by  more  weighty  and  more  difficult  subjects. 
On  April  20,  1791,  the  royal  family  attended 
the  Academie  for  the  last  time.  The  opera  was 
the  '  Castor  et  Pollux '  of  Rameau.  Shortly  after 
this  the  'protection,'  or  exclusive  right  of 
performance  of  grand  opera,  was  withdrawn 
from  the  Academie  and  the  liberie  des  theatres 
proclaimed.  Hitherto  the  names  of  the  artists 
concerned  in  the  Academie  performances  had 
never  been  published.  This  rule  was  violated 
for  the  first  time  in  the  affiche  annoimcing 
*  L'  Ofirande  k  la  Liberte,'  an  opera-ballet  by 
Gardel  and  Gossec.  The  history  of  the  Academie 
during  the  next  few  years  is  a  part  of  the  history 
of  the  French  Revolution,  and  could  only  be 
made  intelligible  by  details  out  of  all  proportion 
with  our  space.  The  societaires,  as  public  officers, 
were  largely  occupied  in  lending  the  charms  of 
their  voices  and  instruments — the  only  charms 
of  which  they  were  receptive — to  'Fetes  de  la 
Raison,'  'Sans  -  Culottides,'  and  more  lately 
'Hymnes  k  TEtre  Supreme,'  alike  unmeaning, 
indecent,  or  blasphemous.  In  many  of  these  the 
talents  of  the  illustrious  Cherubini,  who  had 
taken  up  his  residence  in  Paris  in  1788,  were 
employed.  The  chronological  '  Notice '  of  his 
compositions,  which  he  himself  drew  up  (Paris, 
1845),  contains  the  titles  of  a  large  number  of 
productions  of  this  class — 'Hymne  a  la  Fra- 
ternite,'  '  Chant  pour  le  Dix  Aout,'  *  Le  Salpetre 
Rdpublicain,'  and  the  like.  In  1 794  the  Academie 
was  transferred  to  the  Rue  de  Richelieu,  a 
locality  (the  site  of  the  Hotel  Louvois)  chosen 
it  was  said  by  Henriot,  convinced  of  'the  in- 
utility of  books,'  in  the  hope  that  an  establish- 
ment so  liable  to  conflagration  as  a  theatre  might 
lead  to  the  destruction  of  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  contiguous  to  it !  In  its  new  abode 
the  Academie  took  a  new  name — Theatre  des 
Arts.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  pit  was 
provided  with  seats.  In  the  four  or  five  years 
following  this  removal,  the  habitues  of  the 
Academie  became  weary  of  a  repertoire  having 
constant  ultimate  reference  to  liberty,  fraternite, 
or  egalitd.    The  old  operas,  subjected  always  to 


ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE.  9 


democratic  purification,  were  again  heard.  In 
1799  Grluck's  'Armide'  was  revived.  During 
the  consulate  no  new  works  of  importance  were 
brought  forward  at  the  Theatre  des  Arts,  eventu- 
ally the  scene  of  two  conspiracies  against  the 
First  Consul,  which,  had  they  been  successful, 
would  have  altered  seriously  the  subsequent 
history  of  Europe.  On  the  occasion  of  the  first 
of  these  the  'Horaces'  of  Porta,  and  on  that 
of  the  second  the  'Creation  '  of  Haydn  were 
performed,  the  latter  for  the  first  time  in  Paris. 
During  the  ten  years  which  follow  1804  French 
opera  was  much  developed  through  the  labours 
both  of  foreign  and  of  native  composers ;  among 
the  former,  Spontini,  Rodolphfe  Kreutzer,  and 
Cherubini ;  among  the  latter  Lesueur  and  Catel. 
Among  the  most  important  of  their  works  were 
*Les  Bardes'  of  Lesueur  and  'La  Vestale'  of 
Spontini — the  latter  an  enormous  success  won 
despite  bitter  and  long-continued  opposition.  To 
Spontini,  on  account  of  it,  was  awarded  the  prize 
of  10,000  francs,  decreed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  by 
Napoleon  for  the  best  opera  produced  at  the 
Academie  (now)  Imperiale.  In  1 814  the  allies 
occupied  Paris,  and  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and 
the  King  of  Prussia  assisted  at  a  performance  of 
'  La  Vestale'  on  April  i.  On  May  17  following 
*  CEdipe  k  Colone '  and  a  Ballet  de  Circonstance 
were  played  before  Louis  XVIII.  On  April  18, 
1815,  Napoleon  witnessed  another  performance 
of  '  La  Vestale,'  and  on  July  9  of  the  same  year 
the  same  opera  was  again  performed  before 
Louis  XVIII,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and 
the  King  of  Prussia.  The  assassination  of  the 
Due  de  Berri  on  the  evening  of  Feb.  13,  1820, 
interrupted  for  several  months  the  performances 
of  the  Academie.  The  act  and  its  consequences 
were  attended  by  every  conceivable  circumstance 
that  could  add  to  their  ghastliness.  The  dying 
victim,  who  could  not  be  removed  from  the 
theatre,  lay,  surrounded  by  his  weeping  family, 
separated  only  by  a  thin  partition  from  an 
audience,  unconscious  of  course  of  the  tragedy 
in  progress  behind  the  scenes,  convidsed  with 
laughter  at  the  antics  of  PolichineUe  !  The  last 
sacraments  of  the  church  were  administered  to 
the  duke  on  condition — exacted,  it  may  be 
presumed,  by  the  clergy  in  attendance — that 
the  building  in  which  these  horrors  were  being 
enacted  should  be  forthwith  demolished.  On 
May  3,  1821,  the  Academie  troupe  resumed 
its  performances  in  the  Salle  Favart,  with  an 
Opera  de  Circonstance,  the  combined  work  of 
Berton,  Boieldieu,  Kreutzer,  Cherubini,  and 
Paer,  in  honour  of  the  infant  Due  de  Bourdeaux. 
In  the  next  year  the  Academie  was  again 
transferred — this  time  to  the  Rue  Le  Peletier, 
the  salle  of  which  was  destined  to  be  for  many 
succeeding  years  its  home,  and  the  scene  of 
even  greater  glories  than  any  it  had  yet  known. 
About  this  time  a  change  of  taste  in  music, 
mainly  attributable  to  a  well-known  critic, 
Castil-Blaze,  showed  itself  among  the  opera 
habitues  of  Paris.  French  adaptations  of  the 
German  and  Italian  operas  of  Mozart,  Rossini, 
Meyerbeer,  and  even  Weber,  were  produced 


in  rapid  succession  and  received  with  great 
favour.  The  'Freischiitz'  of  the  last  great 
master  was  performed  at  the  Odeon  387  times 
in  succession.  The  inevitable  result  soon  followed. 
The  foreign  composers  who  had  so  effectually 
served  the  Academie  indirectly,  were  called  upon 
to  serve  it  directly.  The  career  of  Mozart,  alas  ! 
had  many  years  before  come  to  an  untimely  end, 
and  that  of  Weber  was  about  to  prove  scarcely 
more  extended.  But  Rossini  and  Meyerbeer, 
though  already  renowned  and  experienced,  had 
not  yet  reached  the  age  when  it  is  impossible  or 
even  very  difficult  to  enter  on  a  new  career.  They 
became  and  remained  French  composers.  Mean- 
while Herold,  Auber,  and  other  native  musi- 
cians, had  made  themselves  known  by  works  of 
more  than  promise ;  and  the  services  of  a  body 
of  operatic  composers,  foreign  and  French,  un- 
precedented in  number  and  ability,  were  made 
to  contribute  at  the  same  time  to  the  pleasure 
of  a  single  city  and  the  prosperity  of  a  single 
institution.  By  a  fortunate  coincidence  too, 
there  flourished  during  this  period  a  playwright, 
Augustin  Eugene  Scribe,  who,  despite  his  style 
impossible,  must  be  regarded  as  the  greatest 
master  the  theatre  has  known  of  that  most 
difficult  and  thankless  of  literary  products,  the 
libretto.  The  two  years  immediately  preceding 
and  the  eighteen  following  the  revolution  of 
July  form  the  period  during  which  the  Academie 
attained  its  highest  excellence  and  success.  Not 
to  speak  of  a  large  number  of  works  which  in 
other  times  might  have  deserved  special  mention, 
this  period  includes  the  composition  and  pro- 
duction of  the  '  Comte  Ory '  and  the  '  Guillaume 
Tell'  of  Rossini,  the  'Muette'  of  Auber,  the 
'Robert  le  Diable'  and  'Huguenots'  of  Meyer- 
beer, the  '  Juive '  and  '  Charles  VI '  of  Halevy, 
the  '  Favorite '  of  Donizetti,  and  the  '  Benve- 
nuto  Cellini'  of  Berlioz.  These  works  were 
performed  almost  exclusively  by  native  artists, 
whose  excellence  has  especial  claims  on  our 
admiration  from  the  fact  that,  fifty  years  before, 
singing  as  an  art  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
existed  in  France.  Writing  from  Paris  in  1778, 
Mozart  says — 'And  then  the  singers  ! — but  they 
do  not  deserve  the  name ;  for  they  do  not  sing, 
but  scream  and  bawl  with  all  their  might 
through  their  noses  and  their  throats.'  With 
the  times,  like  many  other  things,  French 
singing  had  certainly  changed  in  1830.  Transi- 
tory as  is  the  reputation  of  the  average  vocalist, 
the  names  of  Cinti-Damoureau,  Falcon,  Nourrit, 
Levasseur,  and  the  later  Duprez,  are  as  little 
likely  to  be  forgotten  as  those  of  the  admirable 
masters  of  whose  works  they  were  the  first 
interpreters.  Since  1848  the  lyric  dramas  pro- 
duced at  the  Academie  hold  no  place  besides 
those  of  earlier  date.  Few  of  them — this  is  the 
best  of  tests — have  been  performed  with  any 
success,  or  even  at  all,  out  of  France.  The 
*  Prophete '  of  Meyerbeer  and  the  '  Vepres 
Siciliennes'  of  Verdi  present  all  but  the  only 
exceptions;  and  the  composition  of  the  former 
of  these  belongs  to  an  earlier  epoch.  In  1S61, 
when  the  second  empire  was,  or  seemed  to  be, 


10         ACADEMIE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


ACCADEMIA. 


at  its  zenith,  the  foundations  were  laid  in  Paris 
of  a  new  Acaddmie,  designed  on  a  scale,  as 
respects  magnitude  and  luxury,  unprecedented 
in  any  age  or  country.  Its  progress,  from  the 
first  slow,  was  altogether  stopped  by  the 
Franco-German  war  and  the  political  changes 
accompanying  it.  The  theatre  in  the  E,ue  Le 
Peletier  having  meanwhile,  after  the  manner 
of  theatres,  been  burnt  to  the  ground,  and  the 
works  of  the  new  one  resumed,  the  Academie, 
installed  in  its  latest  home,  once  more  opened  its 
doors  to  the  public  on  Jan.  5,  1875.  In  some 
respects  the  new  theatre  is  probably  the  most 
commodious  yet  erected,  but  the  salU  is  said  to 
be  deficient  in  sonority. 

Since  the  foundation  of  the  Academie  in 
1669,  its  relations  with  the  Government,  though 
frequently  changed,  have  never  been  altogether 
interrupted.  The  interference  of  the  state  with 
the  entrepreneur  has  been  less  frequent  or 
authoritative  at  one  time  than  at  another;  but 
he  has  always  been  responsible  to  a  '  department.' 
Before  and  up  to  the  Eevolution  the  ultimate 
operatic  authority  was  the  King's  Chamberlain  ; 
under  the  Empire  the  Steward  of  the  Imperial 
Household  ;  under  the  Kestoration  the  King's 
Chamberlain  again ;  under  Louis  Phillippe  the 
Minister  of  Fine  Art ;  and  under  Napoleon  III 
(after  the  manner  of  his  uncle)  the  Steward  of 
the  Imperial  Household  again.  The  arbitrary 
rule  of  one  of  these  officers.  Marshal  Vaillant, 
brought  the  working  of  the  Academie  to  a 
complete  standstill,  and  the  Emperor  was  com- 
pelled to  restore  its  supervision  to  the  Minister 
of  Fine  Art.  From  the  foundation  of  the 
Academie  to  the  present  time  its  actual 
management  has  changed  hands,  in  the  course 
of  two  centuries,  nearly  fifty  times,  though 
many  managers  have  held  office  more  than  once  ; 
giving  an  average  of  only  four  years  to  each 
term  of  management.  In  the  present  year 
(1875)  the  entrepreneur,  subject  to  the  Minister 
of  Fine  Art,  is  M.  Halanzier,  who  receives  from 
the  state  a  yearly  allowance  {subvention)  of 
£32,000,  the  principal  conditions  of  the  enjoyment 
of  which  are  that  he  shall  maintain  an  efficient 
staff,  open  his  theatre  four  times  a  week,  and 
give  favourable  consideration  to  new  works  by 
native  composers. 

The  facts  in  this  article  are  drawn  from  the 
following  works,  amongst  others  : — '  Histoire  de 
la  Musique  dramatique  en  France,'  Gustavo 
Chouquet,  1873;  'Histoire  de  la  Musique  en 
France,'  Ch.  Poisot,  i860;  'Notice  des  Manu- 
scrits  autographes  de  la  Musique  composf^e 
par  Cherubini,'  1845;  Koch's  *  Musikalisches 
Lexicon,'  edited  by  von  Dommer;  'Critique 
efc  litterature  musicales,'  Scudo,  1859;  '  Me- 
moires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  Revolution 
op6r6e  dans  la  Musique  par  M.  le  Chevalier 
Gluck,'i78i.  [J.  H.] 

ACADEMY  OF  ANCIENT  MUSIC.  This 
association  was  formed  about  the  year  1710  at  the 
Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern  in  the  Strand,  by 
a  body  of  distinguished  instrumentalists,  pro- 
fessional and  amateur,  including  the  Earl  of 


Abercom,  Mr.  Henry  Needier,  Mr.  Mulso,  and 
other  gentlemen,  for  the  study  and  practice  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  works,  and  an  important 
feature  in  the  scheme  was  the  formation  of  a 
library  of  printed  and  MS.  music.  The  Academy 
met  with  the  utmost  success  under  the  direction 
of  Dr.  Pepusch,  the  gentlemen  and  boys  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  and  the  Chapel  Royal  taking  part 
in  the  performances.  In  1 728  Dr.  Maurice  Greene 
left  the  Academy  and  established  a  rival  institu- 
tion at  the  Devn  Tavern,  Temple  Bar,  but  this  only 
existed  for  a  few  years,  and  the  old  Academy  con- 
tinued its  work,  with  Mr,  Needier  as  leader  of 
the  orchestra,  among  the  members  of  which  was 
the  Earl  of  Abercom.  In  the  season  of  1 731-2 
the  Academy  performed  Handel's  'Esther,'  the 
members  appearing  dressed  in  character,  and  its 
success  is  said  to  have  led  Handel  to  consider  the 
desirability  of  establishing  oratorio  performances 
at  Covent  Garden.  In  1 734  there  was  a  second 
secession  from  the  Academy,  Mr.  Gates  retiring 
and  taking  with  him  the  children  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  After  passing  through  one  season  without 
any  treble  voices  the  Academy  issued  invitations 
to  parents  to  place  their  children  under  the 
instruction  of  Dr.  Pepusch,  one  of  the  conditions 
being  that  they  should  sing  at  the  concerts.  A 
subscription  list  was  also  opened  to  provide  the 
necessary  funds,  and  among  those  who  supported 
the  Academy  were  Handel  and  Geminiani,  the 
latter  of  whom  frequently  played  at  its  concerts. 
The  death  of  Dr.  Pepusch  in  1752  was  a  serious 
loss  to  the  institution,  but  the  doctor  bequeathed 
to  it  the  most  valuable  portion  of  his  library.  The 
Academy  closed  its  career  in  1792  under  the 
conduct  of  Dr.  Arnold,  who  had  been  appointed 
its  director  in  the  year  1 789.  [C.  M.] 

ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC,  NEW  YORK. 
This  is  not  an  academy  in  the  European  sense 
of  the  word,  but  is  the  name  of  a  large  building 
employed  for  the  performance  of  operas  and 
concerts,  opened  in  1854,  burnt  down  in  1866, 
re-opened  in  Feb.  1867.  The  chief  public 
institution  in  New  York  for  teaching  music  is 
the  New  York  conservatory  of  music. 

A  CAPELLA,  or  ALLA  CAPELLA  (Ital, 
'in  the  church  style'),  is  used  in  three  senses, 
(i)  as  showing  that  the  piece  is  for  voices 
without  accompaniment ;  or  (2)  where  instruments 
are  employed,  that  these  accompany  the  voices 
only  in  unisons  or  octaves  and  have  no  in- 
dependent parts;  or  (3)  as  a  time  indication, 
in  which  case  it  is  equivalent  to  Alla  breve. 

A  CAPRICCIO  (Ital.).  'At  the  caprice'  or 
pleasure  of  the  performer,  both  as  regards  time 
and  expression. 

ACCADEMIA,  an  institution  which  flourished 
all  over  Italy  in  the  1 6th  and  1 7th  centuries,  and, 
speaking  generally,  was  founded  for  promoting 
the  progress  of  science,  literature,  and  art.  II 
Quadrio  ('Storia  e  Ragione,'  i.  48-112)  gives 
an  account  of  all  the  Italian  academies  from 
the  earliest  times,  and  the  mere  alphabetical  list 
would  fill  several  pages.   Even  from  his  volumi- 


ACCADEMIA. 


ACCADEMIA. 


11 


nous  work  but  little  beyond  the  names  and  mot- 
toes of  these  institutions,  the  dates  of  their  foun- 
dation, and  their  general  objects  can  be  ascer- 
tained. A  detailed  history  of  their  endowments 
and  separate  objects  would  require  an  examina- 
tion into  the  archives  of  each  particular  city, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  an  examination 
would  supply  full  information  or  repay  it  when 
supplied.  Nor  is  it  an  easy  task  to  separate 
those  institutions  which  had  music  for  their 
especial  object. 

The  '  Accademie,'  even  those  especially  devoted 
to  music,  do  not  come  under  the  same  category 
as  the  CoNSERVATORios.  The  latter  were  schools 
founded  and  endowed  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
giving  instruction  in  music.  The  Academies 
were  either  public  institutions  maintained  by  the 
state,  or  private  societies  founded  by  individuals 
to  further  the  general  movement  in  favour  of 
science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts.  This  they 
did  in  various  wa3'^s,  either  by  public  instructions 
and  criticisms,  facilitating  the  printing  of  standard 
works  on  music,  illustrating  them  with  fresh 
notes,  or  by  composing  new  ones ;  and  every 
week  the  Academicians  would  assemble  to 
compare  their  studies  and  show  proofs  of  their 
industry.  The  study  of  one  science  or  art 
would  often  help  to  illustrate  the  other.  By  the 
end  of  the  i6th  century  poetry  had  become  so 
closely  allied  to  music  in  the  drama  that  an 
academy  could  hardly  have  one  of  these  arts 
for  its  object  without  including  the  others  also, 
while  many,  like  the  'Alterati'  at  Florence,  the 
'  Intrepid! '  at  Ferrara,  the  'Intronati'  and  the 
'Eozzi'  at  Siena,  devoted  their  energies  to 
promoting  the  successful  combination  of  the  two 
arts  in  theatrical  representation. 

As  far  as  regards  science,  the  study  of  ma- 
thematical proportions  was  found  to  throw  light 
upon  the  theory  and  the  practice  of  music,  when 
the  Greek  writers  upon  music  came  to  be  trans- 
lated and  studied  in  Italy  in  the  1 6th  and  1 7th 
centuries.  Take  for  example  the  mathematical 
demonstrations  of  Galileo  in  his  'Trattato  del 
Suon,'  the  writings  of  the  great  Florentine  theo- 
rist, Giambattista  Doni  (a  member  of  the  literary 
academy  '  Delia  Crusca '),  and  Tartini's  '  Trattato 
di  Musica.'  From  the  15th  to  the  iSth  century 
the  passion  for  academical  institutions  was  so 
vehement  in  Italy  that  there  was  scarcely  a 
to^m  which  could  not  boast  at  least  one,  while 
the  larger  cities  contained  several.  At  first  they 
went  by  the  name  of  their  founder,  as  that  of 
•Pomponio  Leto'  at  Eome,  or  'Del  Pontano' 
at  Naples.  But  as  they  increased  and  multiplied 
this  did  not  suffice,  and  each  chose  a  special 
name  either  with  reference  to  its  particular 
object  or  from  mere  caprice.  Hence  arose  a 
number  of  elaborate  designations  indicative 
either  of  praise  or  blame,  'Degli  Infiammati,' 
•Dei  Solleciti,'  'Degl'  Intrepidi,'  etc.  Each  of 
these  societies  had  moreover  a  device  bearing 
a  metaphorical  relation  to  its  name  and  object. 
These  were  looked  upon  as  important,  and  were 
as  highly  esteemed  as  the  crests  and  coats  of 
arms  of  the  old  nobility. 


Selecting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  academies 
which  had  the  cultivation  of  music  for  their 
special  object,  we  find  that  the  earhest  in  Italy 
were  those  of  Bologna  and  Milan,  founded,  the 
fonner  in  1482,  the  latter  in  1484.  In  the  1 6th 
and  1 7th  centuries  Bologna  had  no  less  than  six 
societies  for  public  instruction  in  music,  Cesena 
and  Ferrara  one  each,  Florence  five,  Padua  and 
Salerno  one  each,  Siena  four,  entirely  for  musical 
dramatic  representations,  Verona  one,  founded 
by  Alberto  Lavezzola — a  combination  of  two 
rival  institutions  which  in  1543  became  united — 
Vicenza  two,  also  founded  entirely  for  musical 
representation. 

At  this  period  there  appear  to  have  been  no 
particular  academy  for  music  either  at  Milan, 
Rome,  Naples,  or  Venice,  though  the  science  was 
probably  included  in  the  general  studies  of  the 
various  academies  which  flourished  in  those 
cities,  while  it  could  be  specially  and  closely 
studied  in  the  famous  Neapolitan  and  Venetian 
Conservatorios  (see  Conservatorio)  or  under 
the  great  masters  of  the  Pontifical  and  other 
Chapels  at  Rome. 

The  'Accademie'  were  all  more  or  less  short- 
lived, and  that  of  the  '  Filarmonici '  (at  Bologna) 
is  the  only  one  which  Bumey  ('Musical  Tour,' 
1773),  mentions  as  still  extant.  According  to  the 
'Report  on  Musical  Education '  of  1866,  the  only 
institutions  for  public  and  gratuitous  instruction 
now  existing  in  Italy  are : — 

(1)  The  Royal  Musical  Institute  of  Florence, 

founded  1 860, 

(2)  The  'Reale  Conservatorio  di  Musica'  at 

Milan,  founded  by  Napoleon,  1808,  and 
still  flourishing,  according  to  the  latest 
report  of  1873. 

(3)  The  Royal  Neapolitan  College,  which  has 

taken  the  place  of  her  four  Conser- 
vatorios. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  how  far  the 
musical  life  of  Italy  was  afi'ected  by  these 
Accademie  and  Conservatorios ;  certainly  the 
genius  of  Palestrina,  Stradella,  or  Cherubini, 
can  no  more  be  attributed  to  them  than  that  of 
Dante  to  the  Schools ;  while  the  Accademia  della 
Crusca  might  lacerate  the  heart  of  Tasso  by 
picking  to  pieces  a  poem  which  not  one  of  her 
Academicians  could  have  produced.  Yet,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  urged  that  lovers  of  music 
owe  much  to  such  institutions  when  their  members 
are  capable  of  discerning  the  bright  light  of 
genius  and  cheering  it  during  its  existence, 
besides  being  ready  to  impart  the  information 
which  is  required  for  the  general  purposes  of 
musical  science.  (See  Bologna,  Conservato- 
rio, Ferrara,  Florence,  Lombardy,  Milan, 
Naples,  Padua,  Rome,  Salerno,  Siena, Venice, 
Verona,  Vicenza). 

The  name  *  Accademia '  is,  or  was,  also  given 
in  Italy  to  a  private  concert.  Bumey  says  in 
his  'Musical  Tour':  'The  first  I  went  to  was 
composed  entirely  of  dilettanti.  H  Padrone,  or 
the  master  of  the  house,  played  the  first  violin, 
and  had  a  very  powerful  band ;  there  were 


12 


ACCADEMIA. 


twelve  or  fourteen  performers,  among  whom 
were  several  good  violins ;  there  were  likewise 
two  German  flutes,  a  violoncello,  and  small 
double  bass ;  tliey  executed,  reasonably  well, 
several  of  our  [J.C.]  Bach's  symphonies,  different 
from  those  printed  in  England:  all  the  music 

here  is  in  MS   Upon  the  wJiole,  this 

concert  was  much  upon  a  level  with  our  own 
private  concerts  among  gentlemen  in  England.' 
('Tour,'  ii.  94-95).  From  Italy  the  use  of  the 
word  spread  to  Germany.  'Besuche  er  mich 
nicht  mehr,'  said  Beethoven  on  a  memorable 
occasion,  'keine  Akademie!'  [C.  M.  P.] 

ACCELERANDO  (Ital.).  Gradually  quicken- 
ing the  time.  In  the  finale  to  his  quartett  in 
A  minor  (op.  132)  Beethoven  is  not  satisfied 
with  the  Italian,  but  has  added  above  it  'immer 
gesch winder.'  [E.  P.] 

ACCENT.  As  in  spoken  language  certain 
words  and  syllables  receive  more  emphasis  than 
others,  so  in  music  there  are  always  some  notes 
which  are  to  be  rendered  comparatively  prominent; 
and  this  prominence  is  termed  *  accent.'  In  order 
that  music  may  produce  a  satisfactory  effect  upon 
the  mind,  it  is  necessary  that  this  accent  (as  in 
poetry)  should  for  the  most  part  recur  at 
regular  intervals.  Again,  as  in  poetry  we  find 
different  varieties  of  metre,  so  in  music  we  meet 
with  various  kinds  of  time  ;  i.  e.  the  accent  may 
occur  either  on  every  second  beat,  or  isochronous 
period,  or  on  every  third  beat.  The  former  is 
called  common  time,  and  corresponds  to  the 
iambic  or  trochaic  metres ;  e.  g. 

*  Away  !  nor  let  me  loiter  in  my  song/ 

or 

*  Fare  thee  well !  and  if  for  ever.' 

When  the  accent  recurs  on  every  third  beat, 
the  time  is  called  triple,  and  is  analogous  to  the 
anapaestic  metre ;  e.  g. 

*  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the 
fold.' 

As  a  general  rule  the  position  of  the  accent  is 
indicated  by  bars  drawn  across  the  stave.  Since 
the  accents  recur  at  regular  intervals  it  follows 
of  course  that  each  bar  contains  either  the  same 
number  of  notes  or  the  same  total  value,  and 
occupies  exactly  the  same  time  in  performance, 
unless  some  express  direction  is  given  to  the 
contrary.  In  every  bar  the  first  note  is  that  on 
which  (unless  otherwise  indicated)  the  strongest 
accent  is  to  be  placed.  By  the  older  theorists 
the  accented  part  of  the  bar  was  called  by  the 
Greek  word  thesi.%  i.  e.  the  putting  down,  or 
'down  beat,'  and  the  unaccented  part  was  simi- 
larly named  ams,  i.e.  the  lifting,  or  *up  beat.* 
In  quick  common  and  triple  time  there  is  but  one 
accent  in  a  bar ;  but  in  slower  time,  whether 
common  or  triple,  there  are  two — a  stronger  ac- 
cent on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar,  and  a  weaker  one 
on  the  third.  This  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
examples,  in  which  the  strong  accents  are  marked 
by  a  thick  stroke  (— )  over  the  notes,  and  the 
weak  ones  by  a  thinner  (-). 


ACCENT. 
1 00th  Psalm. 


All     peo  -  pie    that     on     earth   do  dwell. 

2.  Beethoven,  Eroica  Symphony  (Scherzo). 
Allegro  vivace. 


3.    Beethoven,  Symphony  in  C  minor  (Finale). 
Presto. 


fP^''  '  '  etc. 

4.    Haydn,  Quartett,  Op.  76,  No.  i  (ist  move- 


Allegro. 

JL 


ment). 


5.  Mozart,  Symphony  in  Eb. 
Andante. 


6.    Beethoven,  Trio,  Op.  70,  No.  2  (3rd  move- 
ment). 

Allegretto. 


7.  Mendelssohn,  'Pagenlied. 
Con  moto. 


The  above  seven  examples  show  the  position 
of  the  accents  in  the  varieties  of  time  most 
comm.only  in  use.  The  first,  having  only  two 
notes  in  each  bar,  can  contain  but  one  accent. 
In  the  second  and  third  the  time  is  too  rapid 
to  allow  of  the  subsidiary  accent;  but  in  the 
remaining  four  both  sti'ong  and  weak  accents 
will  be  plainly  distinguishable  when  the  music 
is  performed. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  these  examples 
the  strong  accent  is  on  the  first  note  of  the  bar. 
It  has  been  already  said  that  this  is  its  regular 
position ;  still  it  is  by  no  means  invariable. 
Just  aa  in  poetry  the  accent  is  sometimes  thrown 


ACCENT. 

backward  or  forward  a  syllable,  as  for  instance 
in  the  line 

*  Stop  !  for  thy  tread  is  on  an  Empire's  dust,' 
where  the  first  syllable  instead  of  the  second 
receives  the  accent,  so  in  music,  though  with 
much  more  frequency,  we  find  the  accent  trans- 
ferred from  the  first  to  some  other  beat  in  the 
bar.  Whenever  this  is  done  it  is  always  clearly 
indicated.  This  may  be  done  in  various  ways. 
Sometimes  two  notes  are  united  by  a  slur, 
showdng  that  the  former  of  the  two  bears  the 
accent,  in  addition  to  which  a  sf  is  not  infrequently 
added ;  e.  g. 

8.    Haydn,  Quartett,  Op.  54,  No.  2  (ist  move- 
ment). 


ACCENT. 


13 


9.    Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op.  27,  No.  1  (Finale). 


In  the  former  of  these  examples  the  phrasing 
marked  for  the  second  and  third  bars  shows  that 
the  accent  in  these  is  to  fall  on  the  second  and 
fourth  crotchets  instead  of  on  the  first  and  third. 
In  Ex.  9  the  alteration  is  even  more  strongly 
marked  by  the  sf  on  what  would  naturally 
be  the  unaccented  quavers.  Another  very  fre- 
quent method  of  changing  the  position  of  the 
accent  is  by  means  of  Syncopation.  This  was 
a  favourite  device  with  Beethoven,  and  has  since 
been  adopted  with  success  by  Schumann,  and 
other  modem  composers.  The  two  following 
examples  from  Beethoven  will  illustrate  this  : 

10.    Symphony  in  Bb  ( 1st  movement). 


In  the  following  example, 
12.    Schumann,  Phantasiestiicke,  Op.  12,  No.  4, 

it 


will  be  noticed  not  merely  a  reversal  of  the  accent, 
as  in  the  extracts  from  Beethoven  previously 
given,  but  also  in  the  last  three  bars  an  effect 
requiring  further  explanation.  This  is  the 
displacing  of  the  accents  in  such  a  way  as  to 
convey  to  the  mind  an  impression  of  an  alteration 
of  the  time.  In  the  above  passage  the  last  three 
bars  sound  as  if  they  were  written  in  2-4  instead 
of  in  3-4  time.  This  effect,  frequently  used  in 
modem  music,  is  nevertheless  at  least  as  old  as 
the  time  of  Handel.  A  remarkable  example  of 
it  is  to  be  found  in  the  second  movement  of  his 
Chandos  anthem  '  Let  God  arise.' 


1 


Let  them  al  -  so   that  hate  him  flee 


fore  him, 


flee    be  -  fore 


As  instances  of  this  device  in  the  works  of 
later  composers  may  be  quoted  the  following  : 

14.    Beethoven,  Eroica  Symphony  (ist  move- 
ment). 


sf      sf      sf     sf      sf    sf  sf 
15.    Weber,  Sonata  in  C  (Menuetto). 


In  both  these  passages  the  accent  occurring  on 
every  second  instead  of  on  every  third  beat, 
produces  in  the  mind  the  full  effect  of  common 
time.  It  is  in  quick  movements  that  this 
modification  of  the  accent  is  most  often  found ; 
that  it  may  nevertheless  be  very  effectively 
employed  in  slower  music  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  example,  from  the  Andante  of 
Mozart's  'Jupiter'  Symphony,  in  which,  to  save 
space,  only  the  upper  part  and  the  bass  are  given. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  extract  also  illustrates 
the  syncopation  above  referred  to. 


14 


ACCENT. 


A  nearly  analogous  effect — the  displacing  of 
the  accents  of  6-8  time  to  make  it  sound  like  a  bar 
of  3-4  time  is  also  sometimes  to  be  met  with ;  e,  g. 
in  the  Andante  of  Mozart's  Symphony  in  G 
minor — 


The  reverse  process — making  a  passage  in 
common  time  sound  as  if  it  were  in  triple — is 
much  less  frequently  employed.  An  example 
which  is  too  long  for  quotation  may  be  seen 
in  the  first  movement  of  dementi's  Sonata  in 
C,  op.  36,  No.  3.  Beethoven  also  does  the  same 
thing  in  the  first  movement  of  his  symphony  in 
B  flat. 


Though  no  marks  of  phrasing  are  given  here, 
as  in  some  of  the  examples  previously  quoted, 
it  is  obvious  from  the  form  of  the  passage,  which 
consists  of  a  sequence  of  phrases  of  three  minims 
each,  that  the  feeling  of  triple  time  is  conveyed 
to  the  hearer.  In  this  contradiction  of  the  natural 
accent  lies  the  main  charm  of  the  passage. 

In  the  well-known  passage  in  the  scherzo  of 
the  '  Eroica '  symphony,  where  the  unison  for  the 
strings  appears  first  in  triple  time 


sf  sf  4^  ig:^:^ 

and  immediately  afterwards  in  common  time 


there  is  not  exactly  (as  might  be  imagined  at 
first  sight)  a  change  of  accent ;  because  the  bars 
are  of  the  same  length  in  both  quotations,  and 
each  contain  but  one  accent,  which  in  the  first 
extract  comes  on  the  second  instead  of  the  first 
beat.  The  difference  between  the  two  passages, 
apart  from  the  ^/  in  the  first,  consists  in  the  fact 
that  in  the  former  each  accent  is  divided  into 
three  and  in  the  latter  into  two  parts.  The 


ACCENT. 

change  is  not  in  the  frequency  with  which  the 
accents  recur,  but  in  the  subdivision  of  the  bar. 

Another  displacement  of  accent  is  sometimes 
found  in  modem  compositions,  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  those  already  noticed.  It  consists 
in  so  arranging  the  accents  in  triple  time  as  to 
make  two  bars  sound  like  one  bar  of  double  the 
length ;  e.  g.  two  bars  of  3-8  like  one  of  3-4,  or 
two  of  3-4  like  one  of  3-2.  Here  again  the 
credit  of  the  first  invention  is  due  to  Handel,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  his 
opera  of '  Rodrigo.' 

21. 


e     la      pa  -  ce  .  .     tro  -  ve  - 

ro   .  . 

When  forty  years  later  Handel  used  this  theme 
for  his  duet  in  'Susanna,'  'To  my  chaste  Su- 
sanna's praise,'  he  altered  the  notation  and  wrote 
the  movement  in  3-4  time. 

Of  the  modern  emplojnnent  of  this  artifice  the 
following  examples  will  suffice  : — 

22.  Schumann,  P.  F.  Concerto  (Finale). 


1^  V  ^ 

23.   Brahms,  *  Schicksalslied.' 


Wie 

Was  -  ser 

von 

Klip    -  pe 

zu 

Klip  -   pe         ge     -     wor  -  fen. 

At  first  sight  the  second  of  these  examples 
seems  very  like  the  extract  from  Handel's  '  Let 
God  arise.'  The  resemblance  however  is  merely 
external,  as  Brahms's  passage  is  constructed  on  a 
sequence  of  tliree  notes,  giving  the  effect  of  3-2 
time,  while  Handel's  produces  the  feeling  of 
common  time. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  extracts  what 
almost  boundless  resources  are  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  composer  by  this  power  of  varying 
the  position  of  the  accent.  It  would  be  easy  to 
quote  at  least  twice  as  many  passages  illustrating 
this  point ;  but  it  must  suffice  to  have  given  a 
few  representative  extracts  showing  some  of  the 
effects  most  commonly  employed.  Before  leaving 
this  part  of  the  subject  a  few  examples  should 
be  given  of  what  may  be  termed  the  curiosities 
of  accent.  These  consist  chiefly  of  unusual 
alternations  of  triple  and  common-time  accents. 
In  all  probability  this  peculiar  alternation  was 
first  used  by  Handel  in  the  following  passage 
from  his  opera  of  '  Agrippina.* 


ACCENT. 


ACCENT. 


15 


Bel  pia 


e  go  -   de-re  fi  -  do  a  -  mor  I 


In  the  continuation  of  the  song,  of  which  the 
opening  bars  are  given  here,  the  alternations  of 
common  and  triple  time  become  more  frequent. 
In  the  rare  cases  in  which  bars  of  3-4  and  3-4 
time  alternate,  they  are  sometimes  written  in 
5-4  time,  the  accent  coming  on  the  first  and 
fourth  beats.  An  example  of  this  time  is  found 
in  the  third  act  of  Wagner's  '  Tristan  und  Isolde,' 
in  which  the  composer  has  marked  the  secondary 
accent  by  a  dotted  bar. 


^5.  J 


t4 


A  similar  exainple,  developed  at  greater 
length,  may  be  seen  in  the  tenor  air  in  the 
second  act  of  Boieldieu's  '  La  Dame  Blanche.' 

One  of  the  most  interesting  experiments  in 
mixed  accents  that  has  yet  been  tried  is  to  be 
found  in  Liszt's  oratorio  'Christus.'  In  the 
pastorale  for  orchestra  entitled  '  Hirtengesang 
an  der  Krippe '  the  following  subject  plays  an 
important  part. 

26.    .  ^ 


It  is  impossible  to  reduce  this  passage  to  any 
known  rhjiihm ;  but  when  the  first  feeling  of 
strangeness  is  past  there  is  a  peculiar  and  quaint 
charm  about  the  music  which  no  other  combination 
would  have  produced.  Such  examples  as  those 
last  quoted  are  however  given  merely  as  curiosities, 
and  are  in  no  way  to  be  recommended  as  models 
for  imitation. 

Besides  the  alternation  of  various  accents,  it 
is  also  possible  to  combine  them  simidtaneously. 
The  following  extract  from  the  first  finale  of 
'  Don  Giovanni '  is  not  only  one  of  the  best- 
known  but  one  of  the  most  successful  experiments 
in  this  direction. 


In  the  above  quotation  the  first  line  gives  a 
quick  waltz  in  3-8  time  with  only  one  accent  in 
the  bar,  this  accent  falling  with  each  beat  of  the 
second  and  third  lines.  The  contredanse  in 
2-4  time  and  the  minuet  in  3-4  have  each  two 
accents  in  the  bar,  a  strong  and  a  weak  one,  as 
explained  above.  The  crotchet  being  of  the 
same  length  in  both,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
strong  accents  only  occur  at  the  same  time  in 
both  parts  on  every  sixth  beat,  at  every  second 
bar  of  the  minuet,  and  at  each  third  bar  of  the 
contredanse.  A  somewhat  similar  combination 
of  different  accents  will  be  found  in  the  slow 
movement  of  Spohr's  symphony  '  Die  Weihe  der 
Tone.' 

All  the  accents  hitherto  noticed  belong  to  the 
class  called  by  some  writers  on  music  grammatical 
or  metrical;  and  are  more  or  less  inherent  in 
the  very  nature  of  music.  There  is  however 
another  point  of  view  from  which  accent  may  be 
regarded — that  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
oratorical  accent.  By  this  is  meant  the  adapta- 
tion in  vocal  music  of  the  notes  to  the  words, 
of  the  sound  to  the  sense.  We  are  not  speaking 
here  of  the  giving  a  suitable  expression  to  the 
text ;  because  though  this  must  in  some  measure 
depend  upon  the  accent,  it  is  only  in  a  secondary 
degree  connected  with  it.  What  is  intended  is 
rather  the  making  the  accents  of  the  music 
correspond  with  those  of  the  words.  A  single 
example  will  make  this  clear.  The  following 
phrase 


I 


Oh    love  -  ly     fish  -   er  -  maid  -  en  ! 

is  the  commencement  of  a  well-known  song 
from  the  '  Schwanengesang '  by  Schubert.  The 
line  contains  seven  syllables,  but  it  is  evident 
that  it  is  not  every  Une  of  the  same  length  to 
which  the  music  could  be  adapted.  For  in- 
stance, if  we  try  to  sing  to  the  same  phrase 
the  words  'Swiftty  from  the  mountain's  brow,' 
which  contain  exactly  the  same  number  of 
syllables,  it  will  be  found  impossible,  because 
the  accented  syllables  of  the  text  will  come  on 
the  unaccented  notes  of  the  music,  and  vice 
versa.  Such  mistakes  as  these  are  of  course 
never  to  be  found  in  good  music,  yet  even  the 
greatest  composers  are  sometimes  not  sufficiently 
attentive  to  the  accentuation  of  the  words  which 
they  set  to  music.  For  instance,  in  the  following 
passage  from  '  Freischiitz,'  Weber  has,  by  means 
of  syncopation  and  a  sfoi'zando,  throwoi  a  strong 


16 


ACCENT. 


ACCENT. 


accent  on  the  second  syllable  of  the  words 
*Augen,'  'taugen,'  and  *  holden,'  all  of  which 
(as  those  who  know  German  will  be  aware)  are 
accented  on  the  first  syllable. 


Triibe    Au-gen,     Liebcben,   tau  •  gen       ei  -  nem 


bol    •    den     Braut  •  cben  nicht. 

The  charm  of  the  music  makes  the  hearer 
overlook  the  absurdity  of  the  mispronunciation  ; 
but  it  none  the  less  exists,  and  is  referred  to  not 
in  depreciation  of  Weber,  but  as  by  no  means  a 
solitary  instance  of  the  want  of  attention  which 
even  the  greatest  masters  have  sometimes  given 
to  this  point.  Two  short  examples  of  a  some- 
what similar  character  are  here  given  from 
Handel's  '  Messiah '  and  '  Deborah.' 


And  thy  right  hand  ric 


In  the  former  of  these  extracts  the  accent  on 
the  second  syllable  of  the  word  'chastisement' 
may  not  improbably  have  been  caused  by  HandeFs 
imperfect  iicquaintance  with  our  language  ;  but 
in  the  chorus  from  '  Deborah,'  in  which  the 
pronunciation  of  the  last  word  according  to  the 
musical  accents  will  be  victSrious,  it  is  simply 
the  result  of  indifference  or  inattention,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  other  parts  of  the 
same  piece  the  word  is  set  correctly. 

Closely  connected  with  the  present  subject, 
and  therefore  appropriately  to  be  treated  here, 
is  that  of  Inflexion.  Just  as  in  speaking  we 
not  only  accent  certain  words,  but  raise  the  voice 
in  uttering  them,  so  in  vocal  music,  especially  in 
that  depicting  emotion,  the  rising  and  falling 
of  the  melody  should  correspond  as  far  as  possible 
to  the  rising  and  fallir)g  of  the  voice  in  the 
correct  and  intelligent  reading  of  the  text.  It 
is  particularly  in  the  setting  of  recitative  that 
opportunity  is  afford'^d  for  this,  and  such  well- 
known  examples  as  Handel's  'Thy  rebuke  hath 
broken  his  heart'  in  the  'Messiah,'  or  'Deeper 
and  deeper  still'  in  'Jephtha,'  or  the  great 
recitative  of  Donna  Anna  in  the  first  act  of 
*  Don  Giovanni'  may  be  studied  with  advantage 
by  those  who  would  learn  how  inflexion  may  be 
combined  with  accent  as  a  means  of  musical 
expression.  But,  though  peculiarly  adapted  to 
recitative,  it  is  also  frequently  met  with  in  songs. 
Two  extracts  from  Schubert  are  here  given.  In 
asking  a  question  we  naturally  raise  the  voice  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence ;  and  the  following 


quotation  will  furnish  an  example  of  what  may 
be  called  the  interrogatory  accent. 

32.   Schubert,  'Schone  Mullerin,'  No.  8. 


i 


Ver  -  driesst  dich  denn  mein  Gruss    bo  schwer  ?  Ver« 


itort    dich  denn  mein  Blick     so   sehr  t 


The  passage  next  to  be  quoted  illustrates  what 
may  rather  be  termed  the  declamatory  accent. 


*Winterreise,'  No.  21. 


Bin  matt  zum  Nieder-sinken,Bin  todtlich  schwer  verletzt 


The  word  '  matt '  is  here  the  emphatic  word 
of  the  line  ;  but  the  truthful  expression  of  the 
music  is  the  result  less  of  its  being  set  on  the 
accented  part  of  the  bar  than  of  the  rising 
inflexion  upon  the  word,  which  gives  it  the 
character  of  a  cry  of  anguish.  That  this  is  the 
case  will  be  seen  at  once  if  C  is  substituted  for 
F.  The  accent  is  unchanged,  but  all  the  force 
of  the  passage  is  gone. 

AYhat  has  just  been  said  leads  naturally  to  the 
last  point  on  which  it  is  needful  to  touch— the 
great  importance  of  attention  to  the  accents  and 
inflexions  in  translating  the  words  of  vocal  music 
from  one  language  to  another.  It  is  generally 
difficult,  often  quite  impossible,  to  preserve  them 
entirely ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  no  good 
music  can  ever  produce  its  full  effect  when  sung 
in  a  language  other  than  that  to  which  it  was 
composed.  Perhaps  few  better  translations 
exist  than  that  of  the  German  text  to  which 
Mendelssohn  composed  his  'Elijah';  yet  even 
here  passages  may  be  quoted  in  which  the 
composer's  meaning  is  unavoidably  sacrificed,  as 
for  example  the  following — 


80  ihr  mich  von  ganz  -  em  Herzen  suchet. 
If       with    all    your  hearts   ye  tru  ly  seek  me 

Here  the  diff'erent  construction  of  the  English 
and  German  languages  ijiade  it  impossible  to 
preserve  in  the  translation  the  emphasis  on  the 
word  '  mich '  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  bar. 
The  adapter  was  forced  to  substitute  another 
accented  word,  and  he  has  done  so  with  much 
tact  ;  but  the  exact  force  of  Mendelssohn's  idea 
is  lost.  In  this  and  many  similar  cases  all  that 
is  possible  is  an  approximation  to  the  composer's 
idea ;  the  more  nearly  this  can  be  attained,  the 
less  the  music  will  suffer. 

The  word  '  rh;y'thm '  is  sometimes  inaccurately 
used  as  synonymous  with  accent.  The  former 
properly  refers  not  to  the  beats  within  a  bar  but 
to  the  recurrence  of  regular  periods  containing 


ACCENTS. 


ACCENTS. 


17 


the  same  number  of  bars  and  therefore  of 
accents.  [E.  P.] 

ACCENTS.  Certain  intonations  of  the  voice 
used  in  reciting  various  portions  of  the  liturgical 
services  of  the  Church.  The  Ecclesiastical 
Accent  is  the  simplest  portion  of  the  ancient 
Plainsong.  Accents,  or  marks,  sometimes 
called  pneums,  for  the  regulation  of  recitation 
and  singing  were  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Hebrews,  and  are  still  used  in  the 
synagogues  of  the  Jews.  They  are  the  earliest 
forms  of  notes  used  in  the  Christian  Church,  and 
it  was  not  till  the  iith  and  r2th  centuries  that 
they  began  to  be  superseded  by  the  more  definite 
notation  first  invented  by  Guido  Aretino,  a 
Benedictine  monk  of  Pomposa  in  Tuscany, 
about  1028.  Accents  may  be  regarded  as  the 
reduction,  under  musical  laws,  of  the  ordinary 
accents  of  spoken  language,  for  the  avoidance 
of  confusion  and  cacophony  in  the  union  of 
many  voices  ;  as  also  for  the  better  hearing  of 
any  single  voice,  either  in  the  open  air,  or  in 
buildings  too  large  to  be  easily  filled  by  any  one 
person  reciting  in  the  perpetually  changing  tones 
of  ordinary  speech.  They  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  the  impersonal  utterance  of  the  lan- 
guage of  corporate  authority,  as  distinguished 
from  the  oratorical  emphasis  of  individual  elo- 
cution. 

Precise  directions  are  given,  in  the  ritual 
books  of  the  Church,  as  to  the  accents  to  be  used 
in  the  various  portions  of  the  sacred  ofl&ces  and 
liturgy.  Thus  the  Prayer  Accent  or  Cantus 
Collectarum  is  either  Ferial — an  uninterrupted 
monotone,  or  Festal — a  monotone  with  an  occa- 
sional change  of  note  as  at  (a),  styled  the  punc- 
turn  principale,  and  at  (&)  called  the  semi- 
punctum.  The  following  examples  are  taken 
from  Guidetti's  '  Directorium  Chori,'  compiled 
in  the  i6th  century  under  the  direction  of 
Palestrina  (ed.  1624);  the  English  version  is 
from  Marbeck. 

I.  The  Ordinary  Week-day  Accent  for  Prayers 
('Tonus  orationum  ferialis').^ 


.  .    Dom  -  i  -  num     nos .  trnm,  etc.  A  -  men. 


per  Dom  -  i-  num  nos  -  trum  J  e  -  siim  Chris-lum  fi  -  li  -  um  tu  -  um 


,  through  our 


Christ. 


2.  The  following  Ferial  Accent  (Tonus  ferialis) 
is  used  at  the  end  of  certain  prayers. 


per  .  .  .  Chris  -  turn  Dom 


i    -    num     nos  •  trum 


3.  The  Festival  Accents  for  Prayers  ('Tonus 
orationum  festivus'). 

'  The  breves  and  semibreves  in  the  above  examples  represent  the  old 
black  notes  of  the  same  name  (■  and  ♦)  which  answered  to  the 
Ions  and  short  times  of  syllables  in  prosody  (-  and  w) :  a  more  pro- 
longed sound  was  indicated  by  the  long  (thus  ^  or  ^) 
(C.) 


through 


Je  -  sua  Clirist  thine  on-ly  be  -  got  -  ten 


qui    tecum    vivit  in  unitate  Spi  -  ri  -  tus  Sane  -  ti  De  - 


Son,  who  with  Thee  and  the  Ho  -  ly    Spi  -  rit 

per  om  -  ni  -  a   sae  -  cu  -  la    sae  -  cu  -  lo  -  rum.    A  -  men. 


liv  -  eth  and  reign-eth  e  •  ver  one  God,  etc.         A  -  men. 

4.  In  the  ancient  Sarum  use  there  was  the 
fall  of  a  perfect  fifth,  called  the  grave  accent, 
at  the  close  of  a  prayer,  with  a  modification  of 
the  Amen,  thus — 


per,  etc.  fi  •  li  •  um    tu  -  vm.    A    -  men. 

5.  There  are  also  the  accents  for  reciting  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  viz.  the  Cantus  or  Tonus 
lectionis,  or  ordinary  reading  chant ;  the  Tonus 
Capituli  for  the  office  lessons ;  the  Cantus 
Prophetarum  or  Prophetiae,  for  reading  the 
Prophets  or  other  books  not  Gospels  or  Epistles  ; 
the  Cantus  Epistolae  and  Evangelii  for  the 
Epistles  and  Gospels  ;  as  well  as  other  accents  for 
special  verses  and  responses,  of  great  variety  and 
beauty,  which  may  be  best  leamt  from  the  noted 
service-books  themselves.  The  following  examples 
will  show  their  general  character.  The  responses 
are  for  the  most  part  sung  in  unison — but  some  of 
them  have  been  harmonised  for  several  centuries, 
and  such  as  are  most  known  in  the  English  Church 
are  generally  sung  with  vocal,  and  sometimes 
with  organ  harmonies.  These  harmonies  have, 
however,  in  too  many  cases,  obscured  the  accents 
themselves,  and  destroyed  their  essential  cha- 
racteristics. In  Tallis's  well-known  '  Eesponses' 
the  accents  being  given  to  the  tenor  are,  in 
actual  use,  entirely  lost  in  the  accompanying 
treble.'' 


i 


(a)  The  Tonus  Lectionis. 


Pe  •  trus  cum  Jo  •  an  -  nes  dix  •  it      res  -  pi  -  ce  in  nos, 


At  il  •  le  . . .  spe-rans  se  a  •  li-quidac-cep  -tu-rum  ab  e  -  is. 

(6)  Tonus  Capituli.    Monotonia  except  at  the 
close. 


sit     He  •  ro 


des    Bex     ma    -    nus,  etc. 


ut 


ap 


prae  -  hen  •  de  -  ret  et 


-  trum. 


*  For  a  rearranRement  of  these,  with  a  view  to  restore  the  proper 
supremacy  of  the  accents  themselves,  see  Appendix  I.  to  'Accompanying 
Harmonies  to  the  Kev.  T.  Helmore's  Brief  Directory  of  Plainsong', 
and  for  the  rule  of  their  proper  formation,  see  the  '  S.  Mark's  Chant 
Book,'  p.  61. 

c 


18 


ACCENTS. 


ACCIDENTALS. 


De     -      0  gra  -     •    ti  .    ■  as. 

(c)  The  Accent  of  Interrogation. 


Qui   so  •  lus      es!  Quid      cla  •  ma  •  boi 

{d)  The  Tonus  Prophetiae. 


Lec-tio  li  -  bri      •  vi  -  ti  -  cL      In    di  -  e  -  bus   il   -  lis, 


dix  •  it       Do   -    mi  -  nus      ad      Moy  -  sen,  etc. 

ending  on  the  reciting  note ;  and  diflfering,  in 
this  respect  only,  from  the  Tonus  Lectionis. 


Di  -  cit     Do   ■  mi  -  nus    om  -  ni  •  -  po  -  tens. 

(e)  The  Tonus  Epistolae,  Accent  for  the  Epistle. 
Monotonic  except  that  the  Accent  of  Inter- 
rogation is  used  when  a  question  is  asked. 

(/)  The  Tonus  Evangelii,  or  Accent  for  the 
Gospel. 

M       ,      ,      ^      ,      ^  ^-^r-^ 


dix   -  it       Si  -  men    Pe  -  trus 


quid     er    •  go 


rit       no    -    bis. . .  ? 


Et    Ti  -  tarn  ae  -  ter  • 


nam  pos  -  si  -  de  -  bit 


6.  The  Sarum  use  -was  in  some  parts  of  the  ser- 
vice more  varied  than  the  Roman,  as  given  above 
from  Guidetti.  But  the  general  rules  were  not 
widely  different,  and,  from  a  review  of  the  whole 
subject,  it  may  be  stated  briefly  that  there  are 
some  seven  ecclesiastical  accents,  viz.  (i)  The 

monotonic;  (2)  The  semitonic 

(3)  The  medial  ^ 

a  final  fourth 


(5)  Thegrav. 


.1 


ip  -  se    est  Eex  Glo  -  ri  -  ae. 

;  of  this  there  is  a  vari- 


ation used  in  Rome,  thus. 


ending  with  the  fall  of  a  major  sixth.  It  does  not 
appear  to  be  prescribed  in  any  Gregorian  Treatise 
or  Directorium,  but  is  well  known  to  musical 
travellers,  and  is  mentioned  by  Mendelssohn  in 
his  letter  from  Rome,  1831,  to  Zelter,  on  the 
music  of  the  Holy  Week ;  (6)  The  interrogative. 


before  explained ;  (7)  The  acute 


used  specially  for  monosyllabic  and  Hebrew 
words,  when  otherwise  the  medial  accent  would 
be  employed.  These,  including  the  semipunc- 
tum,  and  with  the  addition  of  the  punctum  prin- 
cipale,  and  perhaps  a  few  other  varieties,  con- 
stitute the  first  and  simplest  portion  of  that 
voluminous  Plaixtune  from  which  Marbeck  se- 
lected the  notes  set  to  the  English  Prayer-book, 
and  which  was  ordered  by  Queen  Elizabeth's 
famous  Injunctions  to  be  used  in  every  part  of 
the  Divine  Service  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
England.  [x.  H.] 

ACCIACCATURA.  (Ital.  from  acciacare,  to 
crush,  to  pound ;  Ger.  Zusammenschlag ;  Ft. 
Pince  etoufe.)  A  now  nearly  obsolete  descrip- 
tion of  ornament,  available  only  on  keyed  instru- 
ments, in  which  an  essential  note  of  a  melody  is 
struck  at  the  same  moment  with  the  note  imme- 
diately below  it,  the  latter  being  instantly  re- 
leased, and  the  principal  note  sustained  alone 
(Ex.  i).  It  is  generally  indicated  by  a  small 
note  with  an  oblique  stroke  across  the  stem  (Ex. 
2),  or  when  used  in  chords  by  a  line  across' the 
chord  itself  (Ex.  3). 


Its  use  is  now  confined  exclusively  to  the 
organ,  where  it  is  of  great  service  in  giving  the 
effect  of  an  accent,  or  sforzando,  to  either  single 
notes  or  chords. 

The  term  Acciacatura  is  now  very  generally  ap- 
plied to  another  closely  allied  foi-m  of  ornament, 
the  short  appoggiatura  (see  that  word).     [F.  T.] 

ACCIDENTALS.  The  signs  of  chromatic 
alteration,  employed  in  music  to  show  that  the 
notes  to  which  they  are  applied  have  to  be  raised 
or  lowered  a  semitone  or  a  tone.  They  are  five 
in  number,  the  sharp  (i{)  (Fr.  dihe,  Ger.  Kreuz) 
and  double  sharp  ( x )  (Fr.  double-diese,  Ger. 


ACCIDENTALS. 


ACCIDENTALS. 


19 


Doppelkreuz),  which  being  placed  before  a  note 
raise  it  respectively  a  semitone  or  a  tone ;  the 
flat  (b)  (Ft.  hemol,  Ger.  Be)  and  double-flat  (bb) 
(Fr.  douhle-bemol,  Ger.  Doppelbe),  which  cause 
the  note  to  be  lowered  to  the  same  extent ;  and 
the  natural  (Fr.  hecarre,  Ger.  Quadrat),  which 
is  applied  to  an  already  chromatically  altered 
note  in  order  to  restore  it  to  its  original  position. 

In  modem  music  the  signs  are  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  composition,  immediately  after 
the  clef,  when  they  affect  every  note  of  the 
same  name  throughout  the  piece ;  and  they  are 
also  employed  singly  in  the  course  of  the  piece, 
in  which  case  they  only  affect  the  note  to  which 
they  are  applied  and  any  succeeding  note  on  the 
same  line  or  space  within  the  same  bar.  Strictly 
speaking,  only  those  which  occur  in  the  course  of 
a  composition  are  accidentals,  the  sharps  or  flats 
placed  after  the  clef  being  known  as  the 
SiGNATUKE,  but  as  their  action  is  the  same 
wherever  placed  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  make 
any  distinction  here. 

The  invention  of  accidentals  dates  from  the 
division  of  the  scale  into  hexachords,  an  arrange- 
ment usually  attributed  to  Guido  d'Arezzo 
(a.d.  1025)  but  probably  in  reality  of  later 
date.^  These  hexachords,  of  which  there  were 
seven,  were  short  scales  of  six  notes  each,  formed 
out  of  a  complete  scale  extending  from  G,  the 
first  line  of  the  bass  stave,  to  E,  the  fourth  space 
of  the  treble,  and  commencing  on  each  successive 
G,  C,  and  F,  excepting  of  course  the  highest  C 
of  all,  which  being  the  last  note  but  two,  could 
not  begin  a  hexachord.  The  chief  characteristic 
of  the  hexachord  was  that  the  semitone  fell 
between  the  third  and  fourth  notes ;  with  the 
hexachords  of  G  and  C  this  was  the  case 
naturally,  but  in  singing  the  hexachord  of  F 
it  was  found  necessary  to  introduce  a  new  B, 
half  a  tone  lower  than  the  original,  in  order 
that  the  semitone  might  fall  in  the  right  place. 
This  new  note,  the  invention  of  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  all  modern  chromatic  alterations, 
was  called  B  molle  (Fr.  Bemol,  Ital.  Bemolle, 
still  m  use),  and  the  hexachord  to  which  it 
belonged  and  the  plainsong  in  which  it  occurred 
were  termed  respectively  hexachordum  molle  and 
canhis  mollis,  while  the  hexachord  of  G,  which 
retained  the  original  B,  was  known  as  hexa- 
chordum durum,  and  the  melody  employing  it  as 
cantus  dunes. 

For  the  sake  of  distinction  in  writing  (for 
modem  notation  was  not  yet  invented,  and 
musical  sounds  were  generally  expressed  by 
letters),  the  unaltered  higher  B  was  written 
of  a  square  form,  after  the  fashion  of  a  black 
letter  b,  from  which  circumstance  it  received  the 
name  B  quadratnm  (Fr.  Be  qiiarre,  Be  carve, 
Ital.  Be  quadro,  Ger.  Quadrat,  still  in  use),  while 
the  new  lower  B  was  written  as  a  Roman  b  and 
called  B  rotundum  (Fr.  B  rond,  Ital.  B  rotondo). 
The  square  B,  slightly  altered  in  shape,  has 
"become  the    and  the  round  B  the  b  of  modern 

1  Guido  himself  never  speaks  of  hexachords  in  his  writinRS,  but  on 
the  contrary  says  that  there  are  seven  sounds  in  the  scale.  (See  Fetis, 
■  Biographic  Universelle  des  Musiciens,'  art.  Guido.) 


music,  and  they  have  in  course  of  time  come  to  be 
applied  to  all  the  other  notes.  The  inconvenience, 
as  it  at  that  time  appeared,  of  having  two  different 
kinds  of  B's  led  the  German  musicians  to  intro- 
duce a  new  letter,  H,  which  however,  probably 
on  account  of  its  similarity  of  shape,  was  given  to 
the  square  B,  while  the  original  designation  of 
B  was  made  over  to  the  newly-invented  round  B. 
This  distinction,  anomalous  as  it  is,  remains  in 
force  in  Germany  at  the  present  day. 

The  sign  for  chromatically  raising  a  note,  the 
sharp,  is  of  later  date,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Josquin  de  Pres  (1450-1521).  It 
was  originally  written  as  a  square  B  crossed  out 
or  cancelled,  to  show  that  the  note  to  which  it 
was  applied  was  to  be  raised  instead  of  lowered,'^ 
and  was  called  B  cancellatum  (latticed  or  can- 
celled B). 

Modem  music  requires  double  transposition 
signs,  which  raise  or  lower  the  note  a  whole 
tone.  These  are  the  double  flat,  written  bb, 
(or  sometimes  in  old  music  a  large  b  or  a  Greek 
h),  and  the  double  sharp,  written  ^,  E-,  =}#,  or 
more  commonly  x .  The  double  sharp  and 
double  flat  are  never  employed  in  the  signature, 
and  the  only  case  in  which  the  natural  is  so 
placed  occurs  when  in  the  course  of  the  com- 
position it  becomes  necessary  to  change  the 
signature  to  one  with  fewer  flats  or  sharps,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  use  of  too  many  accidentals. 
In  this  case  the  omitted  sharps  or  flats  are 
indicated  in  the  new  signature  by  naturals.  The 
proper  use  of  the  natural  is  to  annul  the  effect 
of  an  already  used  sharp  or  flat,  and  it  has  thus 
a  double  nature,  since  it  can  either  raise  or  lower 
a  note  according  as  it  is  used  to  cancel  a  flat  or 
a  sharp.  Some  of  the  earlier  composers  appear 
to  have  objected  to  this  ambigmty,  and  to  obviate 
it  they  employed  the  natural  to  counteract  a  flat 
only,  using  the  flat  to  express  in  all  cases  the 
lowering  of  a  note,  even  when  it  had  previously 
been  sharpened :  thus 


would  be  written 


i 


This  method  of  writing  merely  substitutes  a 
greater  equivocalness  for  a  less,  and  is  only 
mentioned  here  as  a  fact,  the  knowledge  of 
which  is  necessary  for  the  correct  interpretation 
of  some  of  the  older  compositions. 

After  a  double  sharp  or  flat  the  cancelling 
signs  are  tjffand  Ijb,  which  reduce  the  note  to 
a  single  sharp  or  flat  (for  it  very  rarely  happens 
that  a  double  sharp  or  double  flat  is  followed  at 
once  by  a  natural) ;  for  example — 


2  Some  writers  contend  that  the  four  cross  lines  of  the  sharp  were 
intended  to  represent  the  four  commas  of  the  chromatic  semitone,  but 
this  appears  to  be  a  fanciful  derivation,  unsupported  by  proof. 

C  2 


20  ACCIDENTALS. 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


Wlien  a  note  which  is  sharpened  in  the 
signature  becomes  altered  in  the  course  of  the 
composition  to  a  flat,  or  vice  versa,  the  alteration 
is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  sign  b  or  t|  Jf,  the 
object  of  the  natural  being  to  cancel  the  signature, 
while  the  following  flat  or  sharp  indicates  the 
further  alteration,  as  in  Schubert's  '  Impromptu,' 
Op.  90,  No.  2,  bars  4  and  164 ;  this  is,  however, 
not  usual,  nor  is  it  necessary,  as  a  single  sharp  or 
flat  fully  answers  the  purpose.  (See  Beethoven, 
Trio,  op.  97,  bar  35). 

Until  about  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century 
the  accidentals  occurring  during  a  composition 
were  often  not  marked,  the  singers  or  players 
being  supposed  to  be  suflBciently  educated  to 
supply  them  for  themselves.  In  the  signature 
only  the  first  flat,  Bb,  was  ever  marked,  and 
indeed  we  find  numerous  examples  of  a  similar 
irregularity  as  late  as  Bach  and  Handel,  who 
sometimes  wrote  in  G  minor  with  one  flat,  in 
C  minor  with  two,  and  so  on.  Thus  Handel's 
Suite  in  E  containing  the  'Harmonious  Black- 
smith '  was  originally  written  with  three  sharps, 
and  is  so  published  in  Arnold's  edition  of 
Handel's  works.  No.  128  ;  and  the  trio  in  '  Acis 
and  Galatea,'  *  The  flocks  shall  leave  the  moun- 
tains,' though  in  C  minor,  is  written  with  two 
flats  in  the  signature  and  the  third  marked 
throughout  as  an  accidental.  In  the  same  way 
the  sharp  seventh  in  minor  compositions,  although 
an  essential  note  of  the  scale,  is  not  placed  in  the 
signature,  but  is  written  as  an  accidental. 

In  French  the  chromatic  alterations  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  words  diese  (sharp)  and  hemol 
(flat)  affixed  to  the  syllables  by  which  the  notes 
are  usually  called ;  for  example,  Eb  is  called 
mi-hemol,  Gt  sol-diese,  etc,  and  in  Italian  the 
equivalents  diesis  and  bemolle  are  similarly 
employed,  but  in  German  the  raising  of  a  note 
is  expressed  by  the  syllable  is  and  the  lowering 
by  es  joined  to  the  letter  which  represents  the 
note,  thus  Gjf  is  called  Gis,  Gb  Ges,  and  so  on 
with  all  except  Bb  and  Bt),  which  have  their 
ovm  distinctive  names  of  B  and  H.  Some 
writers  have  lately  used  the  syllable  Hes  for  Bb 
for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  an  amendment  which 
appears  to  possess  some  advantages,  though  it 
would  be  more  reasonable  to  restore  to  the 
present  H  its  original  name  of  B,  and  to  em- 
ploy the  syllables  Bis  and  Bes  for  B  sharp  and 
B  flat.  [F.  T.] 

ACCOMPANIMENT.  This  term  is  applied 
to  any  subsidiary  part  or  parts,  whether  vocal  or 
instrumental,  that  are  added  to  a  melody,  or  to 
a  musical  composition  in  a  grea.ter  number  of 
parts,  with  a  view  to  the  enrichment  of  its 
general  effect ;  and  also,  in  the  case  of  vocal 
compositions,  to  support  and  sustain  the  voices. 

An  accompaniment  may  be  either  'Ad  libi- 
tum '  or  '  Obligato.'  It  is  said  to  be  Ad  libitum 
when,  although  capable  of  increasing  the  relief 
and  variety,  it  is  yet  not  essential  to  the  complete 
rendering  of  the  music.  It  is  said  to  be 
Obligato  when,  on  the  contrary,  it  forms  an 
integral  part  of  the  composition. 

Among  the  earliest  specimens  of  instrumental 


accompaniment  that  have  descended  to  us,  may 
be  mentioned  the  organ  parts  to  some  of  the 
services  and  anthems  by  English  composers  of 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  These  consist 
for  the  most  part  of  a  condensation  of  the  voice 
parts  into  two  staves ;  forming  what  would  now 
be  termed  a  'short  score.'  These  therefore  are 
Ad  libitum  accompaniments.  The  following 
are  the  opening  bars  of  'Rejoyce  in  the  Lorde 
aUwayes/  by  John  Bedford  (about  1543)  : — 

 ,  .  :  !  


11 


A 


Before  speaking  of  Obligato  accompaniment 
it  is  necessary  to  notice  the  remarkable  instru- 
mental versions  of  some  of  the  early  church 
services  and  anthems,  as  those  by  Tallis,  Gibbons, 
Amner,  etc.  which  are  still  to  be  met  with  in 
some  of  the  old  organ  and  other  MS.  music 
books.  These  versions  are  so  full  of  runs,  trills, 
beats,  and  matters  of  that  kind,  and  are  so 
opposed  in  feeling  to  the  quiet  solidity  and  sober 
dignity  of  the  vocal  parts,  that  even  if  written 
by  the  same  hand,  which  is  scarcely  credible, 
it  is  impossible  that  the  former  can  ever  have 
been  designed  to  be  used  as  an  accompaniment 
to  the  latter.  For  example,  the  instrumental 
passage  corresponding  with  the  vocal  setting  of 
the  words  '  Thine  honourable,  true,  and  only  Son,' 
in  the  Te  Deum  of  Tallis  (died  1585)  stands 
thus  in  the  old  copies  in  question  : — 


while  that  of  the  phrase  to  the  words  *  The  noble 
army  of  martyrs  praise  Thee,'  in  the  well- 


I 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 

known  Te  Deiim  in  F  of  Gibbons  (i 583-1625), 
appeal's  in  this  shape  : — 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


21 


The  headings  or  *  Indexing'  of  these  versions 
stand  as  follows,  and  are  very  suggestive : — '  Tallis 
in  D,  organ  part  varied' ;  '  Te  Deum,  Mr.  Tallis, 
with  Variations  for  the  Organ ' ;  '  Gibbons  in  F, 
Morning,  with  Variations';  'Te  Deum,  Mr. 
Orlando  Gibbons,  in  F  fa  ut,  varied  for  the 
Organ';  and  so  forth.  There  is  little  doubt 
therefore  that  the  versions  under  notice  were  not 
intended  as  accompaniments  at  all,  but  were 
variations  or  adaptations  like  the  popular  '  Tran- 
scriptions'  of  the  present  day,  and  made  for 
separate  use,  that  use  being  doubtless  as  volunta- 
ries. This  explanation  of  the  matter  receives 
confirmation  from  the  fact  that  a  second  old  and 
more  legitimate  organ  part  of  those  services  is 
also  extant,  for  which  no  ostensible  use  would 
have  existed,  if  not  to  accompany  the  voices. 
Compare  the  following  extract  from  Gibbons's 
Te  Deum  ('The  noble  army  of  Martyrs')  with 
the  preceding. 

-1- 


An  early  specimen  of  a  short  piece  of  'obligato' 
organ  accompaniment  is  presented  by  the  opening 
phrase  of  Orlando  Gibbons's  Te  Deum  in  D 
minor,  which  appears  as  follows  : — 


The  early  organ  parts  contained  very  few  if 
any  directions  as  to  the  amount  of  organ  tone  to 
be  used  by  way  of  accompaniment.  Indeed  the 
organs  were  not  capable  of  afi'ording  much 
variety.  ^  Even  the  most  complete  instruments  of 
Tallis's  time,  and  for  nearly  a  century  afterwards, 
seem  to  have  consisted  only  of  a  very  limited 
'  choir '  and  '  great '  organs,  sometimes  also  called 
'little'  and  'great'  from  the  comparative  size 
of  the  external  separate  cases  that  enclosed  tliem ; 
and  occasionally  *soft,'  as  in  the  preceding  ex- 
tract, and  '  loud '  organs  in  reference  to  the  com- 
parative strength  of  their  tone. 

Other  instruments  were  used  besides  the  organ 
in  the  accompaniment  of  church  music.  Dr. 
Rimbault,  in  the  introduction  to  'A  Collection 
of  Anthems  by  Composers  of  the  Madrigalian 
Era,'  edited  by  him  for  the  Musical  Antiquarian 
Society  in  1845,  distinctly  states  that  'all  verse 
or  solp  anthems  anterior  to  the  Restoration  were 
accompanied  with  viols,  the  organ  being  only 
used  in  the  full  parts;'  and  the  contents  of  the 
volume  consist  entirely  of  anthems  that  illustrate 
how  this  was  done.  From  the  first  anthem  in 
that  collection,  'Blow  out  the  trumpet,'  by  M. 
Este  (about  1 600),  the  following  example  is  taken 
— the  five  lower  staves  beins^  instruments  :  — 


Verse. 


I  St 

Treble, 


2nd 
Treble 


Mean. 
Tenor. 

Bass. 


mm  '  

Blow   out    the  trumpet,  blow 


The  resources  for  varied  organ  accompaniment 
were  somewhat  extended  in  the  17th  century 
through  the  introduction,  by  Father  Smith  and 
Renatus  Harris,  of  a  few  stops,  until  then 
imknown  in  this  country;  and  also  by  the 


22  ACCOMPANIMENT. 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


insertion  of  an  additional  short  manual  organ 
called  the  Echo ;  but  no  details  have  descended 
to  us  as  to  whether  these  new  acquisitions  were 
turned  to  much  account.  The  organ  accompani- 
ments had  in  fact  ceased  to  be  written  with  the 
former  fullness,  and  had  gradually  assumed  simply 
an  outline  form.  That  result  was  the  consequence 
of  the  discovery  and  gradual  introduction  of  a 
system  by  which  the  harmonies  were  indicated 
by  means  of  figures,  a  short-hand  method  of 
writing  which  afterwards  became  well  known  by 
the  name  of  Thorough  Bass.  The  'short-score' 
accompaniments — which  had  previously  been 
generally  written,  and  the  counterparts  of  which 
are  now  invariably  inserted  beneath  the  vocal 
scores  of  the  modern  reprints  of  the  old  full 
services  and  anthems — were  discontinued ;  and 
the  scores  of  all  choral  movements  published 
during  the  i8th  and  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century,  were  for  the  most  part  furnished 
with  a  figured  bass  only  by  way  of  written 
accompaniment.  The  custom  of  indicating  the 
harmonies  of  the  accompaniment  in  outline,  and 
leaving  the  performer  to  interpret  them  in  any 
of  the  many  various  ways  of  which  they  were 
susceptible,  was  followed  in  secular  music  as 
well  as  in  sacred  ;  and  was  observed  at  least 
from  the  date  of  the  publication  of  Purcell's 
'Orpheus  Britannicus,'  in  1697,  down  to  the 
time  of  the  production  of  the  English  baUad 
operas  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century. 

In  committing  to  paper  the  accompaniments 
to  the  'solos'  and  'verses'  of  the  anthems 
written  during  the  period  just  indicated,  a 
figured  bass  was  generally  aU  that  was  associated 
with  the  voice  part ;  but  in  the  symphonies  or 
'  ritornels '  a  treble  part  was  not  unfrequently 
supplied,  usually  in  single  notes  only,  for  the 
right  hand,  and  a  figured  bass  for  the  left. 
Occasionally  also  a  direction  was  given  for  the 
use  of  a  particular  organ  register,  or  a  com- 
bination of  them ;  as  'cornet  stop,'  'bassoon  stop,' 
'trumpet  or  hautboy  stop,'  'two  diapasons,  left 
hand,'  'stop  diapason  and  flute';  and  in  a  few 
instances  the  particular  manual  to  be  used  was 
named,  as  'eccho,'  'swelling  organ,'  etc. 

Although  the  English  organs  had  been  so 
much  improved  in  the  volume  and  variety  of 
their  tone  that  the  employment  of  other  in- 
struments gradually  fell  into  disuse,  yet  even  the 
best  of  them  were  far  from  being  in  a  state  of 
convenient  completeness.  Until  nearly  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  century  English  organs  were  without 
pedals  of  any  kind,  and  when  these  were  added 
they  were  for  fifty  years  made  to  the  wrong 
compass.  There  was  no  independent  pedal  organ 
worthy  of  the  name  ;  no  sixteen-feet  stops  on  the 
manuals ;  the  swell  was  of  incomplete  range ; 
and  mechanical  means,  in  the  shape  of  composition- 
pedals  for  changing  the  combination  of  stops 
were  almost  entirely  unknown ;  so  that  the 
means  for  giving  a  good  instrumental  rendering 
of  the  suggested  accompaniments  to  the  English 
anthems  really  only  dates  back  about  thirty 
years. 


[  The  best  mode  of  accompanying  a  single  voice 
in  compositions  of  the  kind  under  consideration 
was  fully  illustrated  by  Handel  in  the  slightly 
instrumented  songs  of  his  oraiorios,  combined 
with  his  own  way  of  reducing  his  thorough-bass 
figuring  of  the  same  into  musical  sounds.  Most 
musical  readers  will  readily  recall  many  songs  so 
scored.  The  tradition  as  to  Handel's  method 
of  supplying  the  intermediate  harmonies  has  been 
handed  down  to  our  own  time  in  the  following 
way.  The  late  Sir  George  Smart,  at  the  time  of 
the  Handel  festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in 
1784,  was  a  youthful  chorister  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  of  eight  years  of  age ;  and  it  fell  to  his  lot 
to  turn  over  the  leaves  of  the  scores  of  the  music 
for  Joah  Bates,  who,  besides  officiating  as  con- 
ductor, presided  at  the  organ.  In  the  songs 
Bates  frequently  supplied  chords  of  two  or 
three  notes  from  the  figures  on  a  soft-toned 
unison-stop.  The  boy  looked  first  at  the  book, 
then  at  the  conductor's  fingers,  and  seemed 
somewhat  puzzled,  which  being  perceived  by 
Bates,  he  said,  'my  little  fellow,  you  seem 
rather  curious  to  discover  my  authority  for  the 
chords  I  have  just  been  playing;'  to  which 
observation  young  Smart  cautiously  replied, 
'well,  I  don't  see  the  notes  in  the  score;' 
whereupon  Mr.  Bates  added,  'very  true,  but 
Handel  himself  used  constantly  to  supply  the 
harmonies  in  precisely  the  same  way  I  have 
just  been  doing,  as  I  have  myself  frequently 
witnessed.' 

Acting  on  this  tradition,  received  from  the 
lips  of  the  late  Sir  George  Smart,  the  writer  of 
the  present  article,  when  presiding  occasionally, 
for  many  years,  at  the  organ  at  the  concerts 
given  by  Mr.  Hullah's  Upper  Singing  Schools  in 
St.  Martin's  Hall,  frequently  supplied  a  few 
simple  inner  parts  ;  and  as  in  after  conversations 
with  Mr.  Hullah  as  well  as  with  some  of  the 
leading  instrumental  artists  of  the  orchestra,  he 
learnt  that  the  eflTect  was  good,  he  was  led  to 
conclude  that  such  insertions  were  in  accordance 
with  Handel's  intention.  Acting  on  this  con- 
viction he  frequently  applied  Handel's  perfect 
manner  of  accompanying  a  sacred  song,  to  anthem 
solos ;  for  its  exact  representation  was  quite 
practicable  on  most  new  or  modernised  English 
organs.  Of  this  fact  one  short  illustration  must 
suffice.  The  introductory  symphony  to  the  alto 
solo  by  Dr.  Boyce  (i7io-i779)to  the  words  begin- 
ning '  One  thing  have  I  desired  of  the  Lord '  is, 
in  the  original,  written  in  two  parts  only,  namely, 
a  solo  for  the  right  hand,  and  a  moving  bass  in 
single  notes  for  the  left;  no  harmony  being 
given,  nor  even  figures  denoting  any.  By  taking 
the  melody  on  a  solo  stop,  the  bass  on  the  pedals 
(sixteen  feet)  with  the  manual  (eight  feet) 
coupled,  giving  the  bass  in  octaves,  to  represent 
the  orchestral  violoncellos  and  double  basses, 
the  left  hand  is  left  at  liberty  to  supply  inner 
harmony  parts.  These  latter  are  printed  in 
small  notes  in  the  next  and  all  following  examples. 
In  this  manner  a  well-balanced  and  complete 
effect  is  secured,  such  as  was  not  possible  on  any 
organ  in  England  in  Dr.  Boyce's  own  day. 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


manual  8 ft.  coujded. 


IT                  .  1/ 

* 

1 

Notice  may  here  be  taken  of  a  custom  that 
has  pre\  ailed  for  many  years  in  the  manner  of 
supplying  the  indicated  harmonies  to  many  of 
Handel's  recitatives.  Handel  recognised  two 
wholly  distinct  methods  of  sustaining  the  voice 
in  such  pieces.  Sometimes  he  supported  it  by 
means  of  an  accompaniment  chiefly  for  bow 
instrimients ;  while  at  other  times  he  provided 
only  a  skeleton  score,  as  already  described.  In 
the  four  connected  recitatives  in  the  '  Messiah,' 
beginning  with  'There  were  shepherds,'  Handel 
alternated  the  two  manners,  employing  each 
twice ;  and  Bach,  in  his  '  Matthew  Passion 
Music,'  makes  the  same  distinction  between  the 
ordinary  recitatives  and  those  of  our  Lord.  It 
became  the  custom  in  England  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  to  play  the  harmonies  of 
the  Jigured  recitatives  not  on  a  keyed  instrument, 
but  on  a  \doloncello.  \yhen  or  under  what  cir- 
cumstances the  substitution  was  made,  it  is  not 
easy  now  to  ascertain ;  but  if  it  was  part  of 
Handel's  design  to  treat  the  tone-quality  of  the 
smaller  bow  instruments  as  one  of  his  sources  of 
relief  and  musical  contrast,  as  seems  to  have 
been  the  case,  the  use  of  a  deeper  toned  instru- 
ment of  the  same  kind  in  lieu  of  the  organ 
would  seem  rather  to  have  interfered  with  that 
design.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  custom 
may  have  taken  its  rise  at  some  provincial  music 
meeting,  where  either  there  was  no  organ,  or 
where  the  organist  was  not  acquainted  with  the 
traditionary-  manner  of  accompam-ing ;  and  that 
some  expert  violoncellist  in  the  orchestra  at  the 
time  supplied  the  harmonies  in  the  way  that 
afterwards  became  the  customary  manner. 

But  to  continue  our  notice  of  the  accompani- 
ments to  the  old  anthem  music.  A  prevalent 
custom  with  the  1 8th-century  composers  was  to 
write,  by  way  of  introductory  symphony,  a  bass 
part  of  marked  character,  with  a  direction  to  the 
effect  that  it  was  to  be  played  on  the  '  loud  organ, 
two  diapasons,  left  hand ' ;  and  to  indicate  by 
figures  a  right-hand  part,  to  be  played  on  the 
'soft  organ,'  of  course  in  close  harmony.  By 
playing  such  a  bass  on  the  pedals  (sixteen  feet) 
with  the  great  manual  coupled  thereto,  not  only 
is  the  bass  part  enriched  by  being  played  in 
octaves,  but  the  two  Lands  are  left  free  for  the 


ACCOMPANIMENT.  23 

interpretation  of  the  figures  in  fuller  and  more 
extended  harmony.  The  following  example  of 
this  form  of  accompaniment  occurs  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  bass  solo  to  the  words  '  Thou 
art  about  my  path  and  about  my  bed,'  by  Dr.  Croft 
(1677  to  1727). 


Sometimes  the  symphony  to  a  solo,  if  of  an 
arioso  character,  can  be  very  agreeably  given 
out  on  a  combination  of  stops,  sounding  the 
unison,  octave,  and  sub-octave,  of  the  notes 
played,  as  the  stopped  diapason,  flute,  and  bourdon 
on  the  great  organ  ;  the  pedal  bass,  as  before 
consisting  of  a  light  -  toned  sixteen  -  feet  stop 
with  the  manual  coupled.  Dr.  Greene's  (died 
1755)  alto  solo  to  the  words  'Among  the  gods 
there  is  none  like  Thee,  0  Lord,'  is  in  a  style 
that  aflfords  a  favourable  opportunity  for  this  kind 
of  organ  treatment. 


Gt.  Organ,  Bourdon,  Stopped 


Pedal  16  ft.,  with  Great  Organ  coupled. 


24 


ACCOMPANBIEXT. 


ACco:^rPAxmENT. 


The  foregoing  examples  illustrate  the  maimer 
in  which  English  anthem  solos  and  their  sym- 
phonies, presenting  as  they  do  such  varied 
outline,  may  be  accompanied  and  filled  up.  But 
in  the  choral  parts  of  anthems  equall;)  appropriate 
instrumental  effects  can  also  frequently  be  in- 
troduced, by  reason  of  the  improvements  that  have 
been  made  in  English  organs  within  the  last 
thirty  years.  The  introduction  of  the  tuha  on 
a  fourth  manual  has  been  an  accession  of  great 
importance  in  this  respect.  Take  for  illustration 
the  chorus  by  Kent  (i 700-1 776),  'Thou,  0 
Lord,  art  our  Father,  our  Redeemer,'  the 
climax  of  which  is,  in  the  original,  rather 
awkwardly  broken  up  into  short  fragmentary 
portions  by  rests,  but  which  can  now  be 
appropriately  and  ad^-antageously  united  by  a 
few  intermediate  jubilant  notes  in  some  such 
manner  as  the  following  : — 


Great  Organ  with  Double  Diapason. 


Again,  in  Dr.  Greene's  anthem,  'God  is  our 
hope  and  strength,'  occurs  a  short  chorus,  '0 
behold  the  works  of  the  Lord,'  which,  after  a 
short  trio,  is  repeated,  in  precisely  the  same 
form  as  that  in  which  it  previously  appears. 
According  to  the  modern  rules  of  musical  con- 
struction and  development  it  would  be  considered 
desirable  to  add  some  fresh  feature  on  the  repe- 
tition, to  enhance  the  effect.  This  can  now  be 
supplied  in  this  way,  or  in  some  other  analogous 
to  it. 


Great  Organ,  with  Double  Diapason. 


The  organ  part  to  Dr.  Arnold's  collection  of 
Cathedral  Music,  published  in  1790,  consists 
chiefly  of  treble  and  bass,  with  figures ;  so 
does  that  to  the  Cathedral  Music  of  Dr.  Dupuis, 
printed  a  few  years  later.  Vincent  Novello's 
organ  part  to  Dr.  Boyce's  Cathedral  Music, 
issued  about  five-and-twenty  years  ago,  on  the 
contrary,  was  arranged  almost  as  exclusively  in 
'short  score.'  Thus  after  a  period  of  three 
centuries,  and  after  experiment  and  much  ex- 
perience, organ  accompaniments,  in  the  case  of 
full  choral  pieces,  came  to  be  written  down  on 
precisely  the  same  principle  on  which  they  were 
prepared  at  the  commencement  of  that  period. 

niustrations  showing  the  way  of  interpreting 
figured  basses  could  be  continued  to  almost  any 
extent,  but  those  already  given  will  probably  be 
sufficient  to  indicate  what  may  be  done  in  the 
way  of  accompaniment,  when  the  organ  will 
permit,  and  when  the  effects  of  the  modem 
orchestra  are  allowed  to  exercise  some  influence. 

Chants  frequently  offer  much  opportunity  for 


ACCOMPANIMENT. 


ACCOEDION. 


25 


variety  and  relief  in  the  way  of  accompaniment. 
The  so-called  Gregorian  chants  being  originally 
written  without  harmony — at  any  rate  in  the 
modern  acceptation  of  the  term — the  accompanyist 
is  left  at  liberty  to  supply  such  as  his  taste  and 
musical  resources  suggest.  The  English  chants, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  written  with  vocal  har- 
mony from  the  first ;  and  to  them  much  agreeable 
change  can  be  imparted  either  by  altering  the 
position  of  the  harmonies,  or  by  forming  fresh 
melodic  figures  on  the  original  harmonic  pro- 
gressions. When  sung  in  unison,  as  is  now 
not  unfrequently  the  case,  wholly  fresh  harmonies 
can  be  supplied  to  the  English  chants,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Gregorian.  Treated  in  tliis  manner 
they  are  as  susceptible  of  great  variety  and 
agreeable  contrast  as  are  the  older  chants. 

In  accompanying  English  psalm  tunes  it  is 
usual  to  make  use  of  somewhat  fuller  harmony 
than  that  which  is  represented  by  the  four 
written  voice-parts.  The  rules  of  musical  com- 
position, as  well  as  one's  own  musical  instinct, 
frequently  require  that  certain  notes,  when 
combined  with  others  in  a  particular  manner, 
should  be  followed  by  others  in  certain  fixed 
progressions;  and  these  progressions,  so  natural 
and  good  in  themselves,  occasionally  lead  to  a 
succeeding  chord  or  chords  being  presented  in 
'incomplete  harmony'  in  the  four  vocal  parts. 
In  such  cases  it  is  the  custom  for  the  ac- 
companyist to  supply  the  omitted  elements  of  the 
harmony ;  a  process  known  by  the  term  *  filling 
in.'  Mendelssohn's  Organ  Sonatas,  Nos.  5  and 
6,  each  of  which  opens  with  a  chorale,  afford 
good  examples  of  how  the  usual  parts  may  be 
supplemented  with  advantage.  The  incomplete 
harmonies  are  to  be  met  with  most  frequently  in 
the  last  one  or  two  chords  of  the  clauses  of  a  tune  ; 
the  omitted  note  being  generally  the  interval  of 
a  fifth  above  the  bass  note  of  the  last  chord ; 
which  harmony  note,  as  essential  to  its  correct 
introduction,  sometimes  requires  the  octave  to  the 
preceding  bass  note  to  be  introduced,  as  at  the 
end  of  the  third  clause  of  the  example  below ;  or 
to  be  retained  if  already  present,  as  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth  clause.  An  accompaniment  which  is 
to  direct  and  sustain  the  voices  of  a  congrega- 
tion should  be  marked  and  decided  in  character, 
without  being  disjointed  or  broken.  This  com- 
bination of  distinctness  with  continuity  is  greatly 
influenced  by  the  manner  in  which  the  repetition 
notes  are  treated.  Repetition  notes  appear  with 
greater  or  less  frequency  in  one  or  other  of  the 
vocal  parts  of  nearly  all  psalm  tunes,  as  exhibited 
in  the  example  below.  Those  that  occur  in  the 
melody  should  not  be  combined,  but  on  the 
contrary  should  generally  speaking  be  repeated 
with  great  distinctness.  As  such  notes  present  no 
melodic  movement,  but  only  rhythmic  progress, 
congregations  have  on  that  account  a  tendency 
to  wait  to  hear  the  step  from  a  note  to  its 
iteration  announced  before  they  proceed  ;  so 
that  if  the  repetition  note  be  not  clearly  defined, 
hesitation  among  the  voices  is  apt  to  arise,  and 
the  strict  time  is  lost.  The  following  example 
•will  sound  very  tame  and  undecided  if  all  the 


repetition  notes  at  the  commencement  of  the  first 
and  second  clauses  be  held  on. 

A  very  little  will  suffice  to  steady  and  con- 
nect the  organ  tone  ;  a  single  note  frequently 
being  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  and  that  even 
in  an  inner  part,  as  indicated  by  the  binds  in  the 
following  example.  A  repetition  note  in  the 
bass  part  may  freely  be  iterated  on  the  pedal, 
particularly  if  there  should  be  a  tendency  among 
the  voices  to  drag  or  proceed  with  indecision. 

Old  Hundredth  tune. 

|_,^__L_J  1- 


t 

'  1 

r— ! — n 

r— J  

J  1 

^1 

The  important  subject  of  additional  accompani- 
ments to  works  already  possessing  orchestral 
parts,  with  the  view  of  supplying  the  want  of  an 
organ,  or  obtaining  the  increased  effects  of  the 
modern  orchestra,  is  treated  under  the  head  of 
Additional  Accompaniments.  [E.  J.  H,] 

ACCORDION  (Ger.  Ilandliarmonilca,  also 
Ziehharmonika).  A  portable  instrument  of  the 
free-reed  species,  invented  at  Vienna  by  Damian, 
in  the  year  1829.  It  consists  of  a  small  pair  of 
hand-bellows,  to  one  side  of  which  is  affixed  a 
key-board,  containing,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  instrument,  from  five  to  fifty  keys.  These 
keys  open  valves  admitting  the  wind  to  metal 
reeds,  the  latter  being  so  arranged  that  each 
key  sounds  two  notes,  the  one  in  expanding,  the 
other  in  compressing  the  bellows.  The  right 
hand  is  placed  over  the  key-board,  while  the  left 
works  the  bellows,  on  the  lower  side  of  which 
are  usually  to  be  found  two  keys  which  admit 
wind  to  other  reeds  furnishing  a  simple  harmony 
— mostly  the  chords  of  the  tonic  and  dominant. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  capabilities  of  the  in- 
strument are  extremely  limited,  as  it  can  oidy 
be  played  in  one  key,  and  even  in  that  one 
imperfectly  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  but  little  more  than 
a  toy.  It  was  originally  an  extension  of  the 
*  mouth-harmonica '  —  a  toy  constructed  on  a 
similar  principle,  in  which  the  reeds  were  set 
in  vibration  by  blowing  through  holes  with  the 
mouth,  instead  of  by  a  key-board.  This  latter  in- 
strument is  also  known  as  the  .Molina,    [E.  P^] 


26 


ACIS  AND  GALATEA. 


ACUTENESS. 


ACIS  AND  GALATEA.  A  'masque,' 
or  'serenata,'  or  'pastoral  opera,'  composed  by 
Handel  at  Cannons,  probably  in  1720  (date  is 
wanting  on  autograph) ;  and  performed  there 
probably  in  1 72 1 .  Words  by  Gay,  with  additions 
by  Pope,  Hughes,  and  Dryden.  Re-scored  by 
Mozart  for  Van  Swieten,  Nov.  1788.  Put  on 
the  stage  at  Drury  Lane  by  Macready,  Feb.  5, 
1842. — 'Aci,  Galatea,  ePolifeino,'  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent work,  was  composed  in  Italy  in  1708-9. 

ACT.  A  section  of  a  drama  having  a  complete- 
ness and  often  a  climax  of  its  own.  Though  the 
word  Act  has  no  representative  in  Greek,  the 
division  indicated  by  it  was  not  unknown  to  the 
ancient  theatre,  where  the  intervention  of  the 
chorus  stopped  the  action  as  completely  as  the 
fall  of  the  curtain  in  the  modem.  The  *  Plutus ' 
of  Aristophanes,  the  earliest  Greek  play  from 
which  the  chorus  was  extruded,  has  come  down 
to  us  without  breaks  or  divisions  of  any  kind ; 
practically,  therefore,  it  is  '  in  one  act,'  Whether 
the  earlier  essays  of  Roman  dramatists  were 
divided  into  acts  by  themselves  is  uncertain. 
The  canon  of  Horace,  that  a  drama  should  con- 
sist of  neither  more  or  less  than  five  acts  ('Epist. 
ad  Pisones,'  189),  was  doubtless  drawn  from  pre- 
vious experience  and  practice. 

The  number  of  acts  into  which  the  modem 
drama  is  divided,  though  of  course  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  subject,  is  governed  by  many 
considerations  unknown  to  the  ancient,  in  which 
*the  unities'  of  place  as  well  as  of  time  and 
action  was  strictly  observed.  With  us  the  locality 
generally  changes  with  each  act,  frequently  with 
each  scene.  For  this  change  the  convenience  of 
the  mechanist  and  even  of  the  scene-shifter  has 
to  be  consulted.  In  the  musical  drama  other 
considerations  beside  these  add  to  the  difficulties 
of  laying  out  the  action ;  such  as  variety  and 
contrast  of  musical  effect,  and  the  physical  capa- 
bilities of  the  performers,  whose  vocal  exertions 
must  not  be  continued  too  long  without  interrup- 
tion. It  is  not  surprising  therefore  that  operas, 
even  of  the  same  class,  present  examples  of  every 
kind  of  division.  French  'grand  opera'  consists 
still  generally,  as  in  the  days  when  Quinault  and 
LuUy  worked  together,  of  five  acts ;  French 
'  opera  comique '  of  three,  and  often  one  only. 
The  Italians  and  Germans  have  adopted  every 
number  of  acts,  perhaps  most  often  three.  In 
performance  the  division  into  acts  made  by  the 
author  or  composer  is  frequently  changed. 
Mozart's  '  Nozze  di  Figaro,'  originally  in  four 
acts,  is  now  generally  played  in  two ;  and  Mey- 
erbeer's *  Huguenots,'  originally  in  five,  in  four. 

The  curtain  let  down  between  the  acts  of  a 
drama  is  called  in  the  theatre  '  the  act  drop.' 

Handel  (Schoelcher,  288,  etc.)  applies  the  word 
to  oratorios,  and  it  is  used  by  J.  S.  Bach  in  a 
manner  probably  unique.  He  heads  his  cantata 
'Gottes  Zeit  ist  das  allerbeste  Zeit'  with  the 
words  'Actus  Tragicus.'  It  is  what  would  be  called 
among  ourselves  a  funeral  anthem.  [J.  H.] 

ACTION  (Fr.  Le  Mecanique ;  Ital.  Mecanica  ; 
Ger.  Mechanismus,  Mechanik),  the  mechanical 


contrivance  by  means  of  which  the  impulse  of 
the  player's  finger  is  transmitted  to  the  strings 
of  a  pianoforte,  to  the  metal  tongue  (free  reed) 
of  a  harmonium,  or  by  the  finger  or  foot  to  the 
column  of  air  in  an  organ-pipe.  In  the  harp  the 
action,  governed  by  the  player's  foot  upon  the 
pedals,  effects  a  change  of  key  of  a  semitone  or 
whole  tone  at  will.  In  the  pianoforte  the  action 
assumes  special  importance  from  the  capability 
this  instrument  has  to  express  gradations  of  tone ; 
and  as  the  player's  performance  can  never  be 
quite  consciously  controlled — more  or  less  of  it 
being  automatic — we  are,  through  the  faithful 
correspondence  of  the  action  with  the  touch, 
placed  in  direct  relation  with  the  very  individ- 
uality of  the  player.  It  is  this  blending  of  con- 
scious and  unconscious  expression  of  which  the 
pianoforte  action  is  the  medium  that  produces 
upon  us  the  artistic  impression.  There  have 
been  important  variations  in  the  construction  of 
pianoforte  actions  that  have  had  even  geogra- 
phical definition,  as  the  English,  the  German 
action,  or  have  been  named  from  structural  dif- 
ference, as  the  grasshopper,  the  check,  the  repe- 
tition action.  In  the  organ  and  harmonium,  as 
in  the  old  harpsichord  and  spinet,  the  action 
bears  a  less  important  part,  since  the  degree  of 
loudness  or  softness  of  tone  in  those  instruments 
is  not  afiected  by  the  touch.  For  history  and 
description  of  the  different  actions  see  Clavi- 
chord, Harmonium,  Harp,  Harpsichord,  Or- 
gan, and  Pianoforte.  [A.  J.  H.] 

ACUTENESS.  A  musical  sound  is  said  to  be 
more  acute  as  the  vibrations  which  produce  it  are 
more  rapid.  It  is  said  to  be  more  gi'ave  as  the 
vibrations  are  slower.    Thus  of  the  two  notes 

and 

the  former  of  which  is  produced  by  5  t  2  vibrations 
per  second,  and  the  latter  by  256,  the  former  is 
called  the  more  acute,  the  latter  the  more  grave. 
The  application  of  these  terms  is  not  easy  to 
account  for.  'Acute'  means  sharp  in  the  sense 
of  a  pointed  or  cutting  instrument,  and  'grave' 
means  heavy  ;  but  there  is  no  direct  connection 
between  the  impression  produced  by  rapid  vibra- 
tions on  the  ear  and  a  sharp  edge,  nor  between 
the  effect  of  slow  vibrations  and  the  force  of 
gravitation;  neither  are  these  terms  consistent, 
for  one  is  not  the  antithesis  to  the  other.  To  be 
correct,  either  the  slow  vibration-sound  should  be 
called  'blunt,'  or  the  quick  one  'light.'  The 
terms  however  are  as  old  as  the  Greeks,  for  we 
find  them  applied  in  the  same  way  by  Aristides 
Quintilianus,  who  uses  u^vs  to  denote  the  quick 
vibrating  sounds,  and  fiapvs  to  denote  the  slow 
ones,  and  they  have  been  transmitted  through  the 
Latin  acer  and  gravis  down  to  our  day.  Other 
figurative  terms  are  similarly  applied.  '  Sharp,' 
for  example,  is  clearly  synonymous  with  *  acute,' 
both  in  derivation  and  application;  but  'flat' 
has  no  analogy  with  grave  or  heavy.  It  is  a 
more  correct  antithesis  to  acute  or  sharp,  for 
one  can  fancy  a  blunt  edge  to  be  in  some  dsgree 


ACUTENESS. 


ADAM. 


27 


flattened,  and  a  blunt  needle  would,  under  the 
microscope,  undoubtedly  show  a  flat  surface  at 
its  end. 

There  are  however  two  other  words  still  more 
generally  used.  These  are  'high'  and  'low' ;  the 
former  denoting  greater,  the  latter  less,  rapidity 
of  vibration.  The  application  of  these  is  the 
most  puzzling  of  all,  as  there  is  no  imaginable 
connection  between  any  number  of  vibrations  per 
second,  and  any  degree  of  elevation  above  the 
earth's  surface.  It  is  very  customary  to  use 
the  figure  of  elevation  to  express  an  idea  of 
magnitude  or  supei'iority,  as  high  prices,  high 
pressure,  elevation  of  character,  and  so  on ; 
and  if  the  vibration-numbers  corresponding  to 
any  note  had  been  a  matter  of  general  know- 
ledge in  early  ages,  we  might  have  assumed  that 
the  terms  had  been  chosen  on  this  principle. 
But  the  vibration-numbers  are  quite  a  modern 
discovery,  not  even  yet  generally  believed  in  by 
practical  men :  and  unfortunately  such  relations  of 
sound  as  do  addi-ess  themselves  to  the  eye  point 
entirely  the  other  way ;  for,  as  already  stated,  the 
grave  sounds  convey  most  strongly  the  idea  of 
magnitude,  and  therefore  by  analogy  these  ought 
to  have  been  called  high  rather  than  low. 

The  ancients  appear  to  have  imagined  that  the 
acute  sounds  of  the  voice  were  produced  from 
the  higher  parts  of  the  throat,  and  the  grave  ones 
from  lower  parts.^  And  this  has  been  supposed 
by  some  writers  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the 
terms  ;  but  the  idea  is  incorrect  and  far-fetched, 
and  can  hardly  be  considered  a  justification. 

As  soon  as  anything  approaching  the  form  of 
musical  notation  by  the  position  of  marks  or 
points  came  into  use,  the  terms  high  and  low  were 
naturally  seized  upon  to  guide  such  positions. 
Thus  our  musical  notation  has  come  into  being, 
and  thus  the  connection  between  high  notes  and 
quick  vibrations  has  become  so  firnily  implanted 
in  our  minds,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  bring  ourselves  to  the  appreciation  of  the 
truth  that  the  connexion  is  only  imaginary, 
and  has  no  foundation  in  the  natural  fitness  of 
things.  [W.  P.] 

ADAGIETTO  (Ital.,  diminutive  of  Adagio). 
(i)  a  short  adagio  (e.g.  Eaff's  Suite  in  C).  (2) 
As  a  time  indication,  somewhat  less  slow  than 
adagio. 

ADAGIO  (Ital.  ad  agio,  'at ease,'  'leisurely'), 
(i)  A  time-indication.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
great  difi"erences  of  opinion  prevail  among  mu- 
sicians as  to  the  comparative  speed  of  the  terms 
used  to  denote  slow  time.  According  to  the  older 
authorities  adagio  was  the  slowest  of  all  time, 
then  came  grave,  and  then  largo.  This  is  the 
order  given  by  Clementi.  In  some  more  modem 
works  however,  largo  is  the  slowest,  grave  being 
second  and  adagio  third ;  while  others  again 
give  the  order  thus — grave,  adagio,  largo.  It 
is  therefore  impossible  to  give  any  absolute  rule 
on  the  subject ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  define 
adagio  in  general  terms  as  'very  slow.'  The  exact 

'  See  passage  from  Aristides  Quintilianus,  quoted  In  Smith's  Har- 
monics, p.  2. 


pace  at  which  any  particular  piece  of  music  thus 
designated  is  to  be  taken  will  either  be  indicated 
by  the  metronome,  or,  if  this  has  not  been  done, 
can  be  for  the  most  part  determined  with 
sufficient  accuracy  from  the  character  of  the 
music  itself.  (2)  The  word  is  used  as  the  name 
of  a  piece  of  music,  either  an  independent  piece 
(as  in  the  case  of  Mozart's  Adagio  in  B  minor  for 
piano,  or  Schubert's  posthumous  Adagio  in  E), 
or  as  one  of  the  movements  of  a  symphony, 
quartett,  sonata,  etc.  When  thus  employed,  the 
word  not  only  shows  that  the  music  is  in  very 
slow  time,  but  also  indicates  its  general  character. 
This  is  mostly  of  a  soft,  tender,  elegiac  tone,  as 
distinguished  from  the  largo,  in  which  (as  the 
name  implies)  there  is  more  breadth  and  dignity. 
The  adagio  also  is  generally  of  a  more  florid 
character,  and  contains  more  embellishments 
and  figurated  passages  than  the  largo.  The 
distinction  between  the  two  will  be  clearly  seen 
by  comparing  the  adagios  in  Beethoven's  sonatas, 
op.  2,  Nos.  I,  3,  and  op.  13,  with  his  largos  in  the 
sonatas  op.  2,  No.  2  and  op.  7.  (3)  It  was 
formerly  used  as  a  general  term  for  a  slow  move- 
ment— 'No  modern  has  been  heard  to  play  an 
Adagio  with  greater  taste  and  feeling  than  Abel.' 
Thus  in  the  autograph  of  Haydn's  Symphony  in 
D  (Salomon,  No.  6 ),  at  the  end  of  the  first  move- 
ment, we  find  '  Segue  Adagio,'  though  the  next 
movement  is  an  Andante.  [E.  P.] 

ADAM,  Adolphe  Charles,  bom  in  Paris 
July  24,  1803,  was  the  son  of  Louis  Adam,  a 
well-known  musician  and  pianoforte  -  player 
at  the  Conservatoire.  Although  thus  intimately 
connected  with  the  art  of  music  he  strenuously 
resisted  the  early  and  strong  desire  of  his  son 
to  follow  the  same  calling.  Adolphe  was  sent  to 
an  ordinary  day-school  and  was  refused  all  musical 
instruction,  which  he  himself  tried  to  supply  by 
private  studies,  carried  on  in  secret  and  without 
guidance  or  encouragement.  This  struggle  be- 
tween father  and  son  lasted  for  a  long  time.  At 
last  the  quiet  persistence  of  the  young  man  over- 
came the  prejudices  of  paternal  obstinacy.  In 
his  sixteenth  year  he  was  allowed  to  enter  the 
Conservatoire,  but  only  as  an  amateur,  and  on 
condition  of  his  promising  solemnly  never  to 
write  for  the  stage,  an  engagement  naturally 
disregarded  by  him  at  a  later  period.  His  first 
master  was  Benoist,  and  his  instrument  the 
organ,  a  choice  truly  surprising  in  the  future 
composer  of  'La  jolie  fille  de  Gand'  and  *Le 
Postilion  de  Longjumeau.'  His  relations  however 
to  the  'queen  of  instruments'  were  by  no  means 
of  an  elevated  or  even  lasting  kind.  Unabashed 
by  the  great  traditions  of  Fresoobaldi,  Bach,  or 
Handel,  he  began  to  thrum  little  tunes  of  his 
own  on  the  organ,  which  however  he  soon 
abandoned  for  its  miniature  counterpart  the  har- 
monium. Adam's  first  success  indeed  was  due  to 
his  clever  improvisations  on  that  instrument  in 
fashionable  drawing-rooms.  It  was  perhaps  owing 
to  his  want  of  early  training  that  even  at  a  more 
advanced  period  he  was  unable  to  read  music  at 
sight.  The  way  in  which  he  at  last  acquired  the 
sense  of  intuitive  hearing,  so  indispensable  for 


28 


ADAM. 


ADAM. 


the  musical  composer,  is  pleasantly  described  by 
Adam  himself  in  the  autobiographical  sketch  of 
his  life.  *  Soon  after  my  admission  to  the  Con- 
servatoire,' he  says,  *I  was  asked  by  a  school- 
fellow older  than  myself^  to  give  a  lesson  at  his 
solfeggio  class,  he  being  otherwise  engaged.  I 
went  to  take  his  place  with  sublime  self-assertion, 
and  although  totally  unable  to  read  a  ballad  I 
somehow  managed  to  acquit  myself  creditably,  so 
creditably  indeed  that  another  solfeggio  class  was 
assigned  to  me.  Thus  I  learnt  reading  music 
by  teaching  others  how  to  do  it.'  We  are  also 
told  of  his  studying  counterpoint  under  Eler 
and  Reicha,  which  however,  to  judge  by  the 
results,  cannot  have  amounted  to  much.  The 
only  master  to  whom  Adam  owed  not  only 
an  advance  of  his  musical  knowledge  but  to 
some  extent  the  insight  into  his  own  talent,  was 
that  most  sweet  and  most  brilliant  star  of  modern 
Prench  opera,  Boieldieu.  He  had  been  appointed 
professor  of  composition  at  the  Conservatoire  in 
1821,  and  Adam  was  amongst  his  first  and  most 
favourite  pupils.  The  intimacy  which  soon  sprang 
up  between  the  teacher  and  the  taught  has  been 
pleasantly  described  by  Adam  in  his  posthumous 
little  volume  'Derniers  souvenirs  d'un  musicien.' 
It  was  owing  to  this  friendship  that  Adam  was 
able  to  connect  his  name  with  a  work  vastly 
superior  to  his  own  powers,  Boieldieu's  'Dame 
Blanche,'  of  which  he  composed  or  rather  com- 
bined the  overture.  By  Boieldieu's  advice  and 
example  also  our  composer's  talent  was  led  to 
its  most  congenial  sphere  of  action,  the  comic 
opera.  Adam's  first  connections  with  the  stage 
were  of  the  humblest  kind.  In  order  to  acquire 
theatrical  experience  he  is  said  to  hav^e  accepted 
the  appointment  of  supernumerary  triangle  at 
the  Gymnase,  from  which  post  he  soon  advanced 
to  that  of  accompanyist  at  the  same  theatre. 
His  first  independent  attempt  at  dramatic  com- 
position was  the  one-act  operetta  of  'Pierre  et 
Catherine,'  brought  out  at  the  Opera  Comique  in 
1829.  It  was  followed  the  next  year  by  the 
three-act  opera  'Danilowa.'  Both  were  favour- 
ably received,  and,  encouraged  by  his  success, 
Adam  began  to  compose  a  number  of  operatic 
works  with  a  rapidity  and  ease  of  productiveness 
frequently  fatal  to  his  higher  aspirations.  We 
subjoin  a  list  of  the  more  important  of  these 
works,  with  the  dates  of  their  first  performances  : 
'Le  Chalet,'  1834  ;  'Le  Postilion  de  Longjumeau,' 
1835  (Adam's  best  and  most  successful  work) ; 
'Le  Brasseur  de  Preston,'  1838;  *  Le  Hoi  d' 
Yvetot,'  1842;  ' Cagliostro,'  1844;  'Richard  en 
Palestine,'  same  year ;  also  the  ballets  of  'Faust,' 
1832  (written  for  London);  'La  jolie  fille  de 
Gand,'  1839  ;  and  'Giselle,'  1841.  Our  remarks 
on  the  remaining  facts  of  Adam's  biography  can 
be  condensed  into  few  words.  In  1847  he  started, 
at  his  own  expense  and  responsibility,  a  new 
operatic  theatre  called  Theatre  National,  and 
destined  to  bring  the  works  of  young  aspiring 
composers  before  the  public.  These  laudable 
efforts  were  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  in  the  February  of  the  ensuing  year. 

I  Halevy,  the  composer  of  the  '  Juive.' 


The  theatre  had  to  close,  Adam  having  sunk  in 
the  enterprise  all  his  earnings,  and  having  more- 
over incurred  a  considerable  debt,  to  discharge 
which  he  henceforth,  like  Sir  Waiter  Scott,  con- 
sidered the  chief  task  of  his  life.  This  task  he 
accomplished  in  the  com-se  of  five  years,  during 
which  time,  besides  producing  several  operas,  he 
occupied  himself  in  writing  criticisms  and  feuil- 
letons  for  the  newspapers.  His  contributions  to 
the  '  Constitutionel,'  'Assemblee  National e,'  and 
'Gazette  Musicale,'  were  much  appreciated  by 
the  public.  Although  a  critic  he  succeeded  in 
making  no  enemies.  Some  of  his  sketches,  since 
collected,  are  amusing  and  weU  though  not  bril- 
liantly written.  In  1 844  he  was  elected  Member 
of  the  Institute  ;  in  1 849  Professor  of  Composition 
at  the  Conservatoire.  He  died  suddenly  in  1856. 
His  reputation  during  his  lifetime  was  not  limited 
to  his  own  country.  He  wrote  operas  and  ballads 
for  London,  Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg,  which 
capitals  he  also  visited  personally.  His  deserv- 
edly most  popular  opera,  as  we  said  before,  is  the 
'Postilion  de  Longjumeau,'  still  frequently 
performed  in  France  and  Germany.  In  the 
latter  country  it  owes  its  lasting  success  chiefly 
to  the  astonishing  vocal  feats  of  Herr  Wachtel, 
whose  own  life  seems  strangely  foreshadowed  by 
the  skilful  and  amusing  libretto. 

Adam  attempted  three  kinds  of  dramatic 
composition,  viz.  the  grand  opera,  in  which  he 
utterly  failed,  the  ballet,  in  which  he  produced 
some  of  the  most  charming  melodies  chorea- 
graphic  music  has  to  show,  and  the  comic  opera, 
the  one  and  only  real  domain  of  his  talent.  As 
the  most  successful  of  his  works  in  these  re- 
spective branches  of  art  we  mention  'Richard 
en  Palestine,'  'Giselle,'  and  the  'Postilion  de 
Longjumeau.'  Adam's  position  in  the  history  of 
music,  and  more  especially  of  comic  opera,  may 
be  briefly  described  as  that  of  the  successor 
and  imitator  of  Boieldieu.  His  early  style  is 
essentially  founded  on  the  works  of  that  master. 
With  him  he  shares,  although  in  a  lesser  degree, 
the  flowing  melodiousness  and  rhythmical  piquancy 
of  his  style,  the  precision  of  declamatory  phrasing, 
and  the  charming  eff'ects  of  a  graceful  though 
sketchy  instrmnentation.  When  inspired  by  the 
sweet  simplicity  of  the  French  popular  song, 
Adam  has  occasionally  eff'ects  of  tenderest  pathos  ; 
in  other  places,  as  for  instance  in  the  duet 
between  the  terrified  accomplices  in  the  last  act 
of  the  'Postilion,'  his  rollicking  humour  shows 
to  great  advantage.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  his  works  mark  the  decline  of 
French  national  art.  His  melodies  are  frequently 
trivial  to  absolute  vulgarity  ;  the  structure  of  his 
concerted  pieces  is  of  the  flimsiest  kind ;  dance- 
rhythms  prevail  to  an  immoderate  extent :  all 
this  no  less  than  the  choice  of  hasarde  subjects 
seems  to  indicate  the  gradual  decline  from  the 
serene  heights  of  Boieldieu's  humour  to  the  miry 
slough  which  has  swamped  that  sweetest  growth 
of  French  national  art,  the  comic  opera,  and 
the  murky  surface  of  which  reflects  the  features 
of  Beethoven's  countryman,  Jacques  Offenbach. 
It  is  a  fact  of  ominous  significance  that  Adam 


ADAM. 


ADAMS. 


29 


regarded  with  interest,  and  gave  his  journalistic 
aid  to,  the  theatrical  creation  of  that  enterprising 
composer — the  'BouflFes  Parisiens.'  [F.  H.] 

ADAM,  Louis,  bom  at  Miettershelz  in 
Alsace,  1758,  died  in  Paris  1S48;  a,  pianist 
of  the  first  rank;  appeared  in  Paris  when  only 
seventeen  as  the  composer  of  two  symphonies- 
concertantes  for  the  harp,  piano,  and  violin,  the 
first  of  their  kind,  which  were  performed  at  the 
Concerts  Spirituels.  Having  acquired  a  reputation 
for  teaching,  in  1797  he  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  Conservatoire,  a  post  he  retained  forty- 
five  years,  training  many  eminent  pupils,  of 
whom  the  most  celebrated  are  Kalkbrenner, 
Herold,  father  and  son,  Chaulieu,  Henri  le  Moine, 
and  Mme.  Renaud  d' Allen,  and  last,  though 
not  least,  his  o^\^^  more  famous  son,  Adolphe 
Charles. 

Adam  was  a  remarkable  example  of  what  may 
be  done  by  self  culture,  as  he  had  scarceh^  any 
professional  training,  and  not  only  taught  him- 
self the  harp  and  \nolin,  and  the  art  of  com- 
position, but  formed  his  excellent  style  as  a 
pianist  by  careful  study  of  the  works  of  the 
Bachs,  Handel,  Scarlatti,  Schobert,  and  later 
of  dementi  and  Mozart.  His  '  Methode  de 
doigte'  (Paris,  1798)  and  'Methode  Xouvelle 
pour  le  Piano'  (1802),  have  passed  through  many 
editions.  [M.  C.  C] 

ADAMBEEGEPv,  Valentin.  Singer,  bom 
at  Munich  July  6,  1743.  Remarkable  for  his 
splendid  tenor  voice  and  admirable  method.  He 
was  taught  singing  by  Valesi,  and  at  his  instance 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  met  with  great  success 
xmder  the  Italianised  name  of  Adamonti.  He 
was  recalled  to  Vienna  by  the  Emperor  Joseph, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  in  German  opera 
at  the  Hof-und-Xational-Theater  there  on  Aug. 
21,  17S0.  In  the  interim  however  he  had  visited 
London,  where  he  sang  in  Sacchini's  'Creso'  at 
the  King's  Theatre  in  1777.  In  1789  he  entered 
the  Imperial  Chapel.  Later  in  life  he  became 
renowned  as  a  teacher  of  singing.  It  was  for 
him  that  Mozart  composed  the  part  of  Belmonte 
in  the  'Seraglio,'  as  well  as  the  fine  airs  'Per 
pietJi,'  'Aura  che  intorao,'  and  'A  te,  fra  tante 
affanni'  (Davidde  Penitente).  He  also  appeared 
in  the  '  Schauspiel- Director '  of  the  same  master. 
In  1782  he  married  Anna  Maria,  daughter  of 
Jacquet  the  actor,  herself  a  noted  actress.  She 
died  1S04.  His  daughter  Antoine,  also  a  player, 
a  woman  of  much  talent  and  amiability,  was 
betrothed  to  Komer  the  poet,  but  their  union 
was  prevented  hy  his  death  in  action,  Aug.  26, 
181 3,  after  which,  181 7,  she  married  Jos.  Araeth, 
trustee  to  the  imperial  cabinet  of  antiquities. 
Fetis  and  others  give  Adamberger's  name  Joseph, 
and  his  death  as  on  June  7,  1S03 — both  incorrect. 
He  died  in  Vienna,  Aug.  24, 1804,  aged  sixty-one. 
Mozart's  letters  contain  frequent  references  to 
him,  and  always  of  an  affectionate  and  intimate 
character.  Through  all  the  difficulties  and  vi- 
cissitudes of  theatrical  life,  nothing  occurred  to 
interrupt  their  intenourse,  though  eWdence  is 
not  wanting  that  Adamberger's  temper  was  none 


of  the  best.  Mozart  took  his  advice  on  musical 
matters,  and  on  one  occasion  names  him  as  a  man 
'of  whom  Germany  may  well  be  proud.'  [C.F.P.] 

ADAMI  DA  BOLSEXA,  Andrea.  Born 
at  Bolsena,  1663.  On  the  recommendation 
of  Cardinal  Ottoboni  (Corelli's  patron)  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  Pope's  chapel,  and 
acting  professor  of  music.  While  in  this  post 
Ac!  ami  wrote  '  Osservazioni  per  ben  regolare  il 
Coro  dei  Cantori  della  Capella  Ponteficia,'  etc., 
(Rome,  1 711),  which  is  in  reality  a  history  of 
the  Papal  chapel,  wnth  twelve  portraits  and 
memoirs  of  the  principal  singers.  He  died, 
July  22,  1742,  much  esteemed  both  as  a  man 
and  a  musician.  [C.  F.  P.] 

ADAMS,  Tho^ias,  was  bom  Sept.  5,  1785. 
He  commenced  the  study  of  music,  under  Dr. 
Busby,  at  eleven  years  of  age.  In  1802  he  ob- 
tained the  appointment  of  organist  of  Carlisle 
Chapel,  Lambeth,  which  he  held  until  1 8 14,  in 
which  year  (on  March  22)  he  was  elected,  after 
a  competition  in  playing  with  twenty- eight  other 
candidates,  organist  of  the  chiu"ch  of  St.  Paul's, 
Deptford.  On  the  erection  of  the  church  of  St. 
George,  Camber  well,  in  1S24,  Adams  was  chosen 
as  its  organist  and  on  the  opening  of  the  church 
(March  26, 1824),  an  anthem  for  five  voices,  'Ohow 
amiable  are  Thy  dwellings,'  composed  by  him  for 
the  occasion,  was  performed.  In  1833  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  the  then  newly  re-built  church 
of  St.  Dunstan-in-the  West,  Fleet  Street,  which 
post  he  held,  conjointly  with  that  of  Camber- 
well,  until  his  death.  From  their  commencement 
Adams  for  many  years  superintended  the  annual 
evening  performances  on  the  Apollonicon,  a  large 
chamber-organ  of  peculiar  construction  (containing 
both  keys  and  barrels),  and  of  great  power,  built  by 
Flight  and  Robson,  and  first  exhibited  by  them 
at  their  manufactory  in  St.  Martin's  Lane  in 
181 7.  For  a  period  of  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a 
century  Adams  occupied  a  very  prominent  posi- 
tion as  a  performer  on  the  organ.  Excelling  in 
both  the  strict  and  free  styles,  he  possessed  a 
remarkable  faculty  for  extemporising.  His  ser- 
\ices  were  in  constant  requisition  by  the  organ- 
builders  to  exhibit  the  qualities  of  their  newly 
built  organs,  prior  to  their  removal  from  the 
factories  to  their  places  of  destination.  On  such 
occasions  the  factories  were  crowded  by  pro- 
fessors and  amateurs,  anxious  of  witnessing  the 
performances,  and  Adams  played  from  ten  to 
twelve  pieces  of  the  most  varied  kind,  including 
two  or  three  extemporaneous  effusions,  not  only 
with  great  efi'ect,  but  often  with  remarkable  ex- 
hibition of  contrapuntal  skill,  and  in  a  manner 
which  enraptured  his  hearers.  Even  in  so  small 
a  field  as  the  interludes  then  customary  between 
the  verses  of  a  psalm  tune,  he  would  exhibit  this 
talent  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Adams  was  a 
composer  for,  as  well  as  a  perfomaer  on,  his  instru- 
ment. He  published  many  organ  pieces,  fugues, 
and  voluntaries,  besides  ninety  interludes,  and 
several  variations  on  popular  themes.  He  also 
published  numerous  variations  for  the  piano- 
forte, and  many  vocal  pieces,  consisting  of  short 


30 


ADAMS. 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


anthems,  hymns,  and  sacred  songs.  Besides  his  ] 
published  works,  Adams  composed  several  other 
pieces  of  various  descriptions,  which  yet  remain 
in  manuscript.  He  died  Sept.  15,  1858.  His 
youngest  son,  Edgar  Adams,  follows  the  pro- 
fession of  his  father,  and  holds  the  appointment 
of  organist  of  the  church  of  St.  Lawrence.  Jewry, 
near  GuildhaU.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ADCOCK,  James,  a  native  of  Eton,  Bucks, 
was  born  in  1 778.  In  1 786  he  became  a  chorister 
in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  under  William 
Webb  (and  afterwards  vmder  Dr.  Aj-lward),  and 
in  Eton  College  Chapel  under  William  Sex- 
ton. In  1797  he  was  appointed  lay  clerk  in  St. 
George's  Chapel,  and  in  1 799  obtained  a  similar 
appointment  at  Eton.  He  soon  afterwards  re- 
signed those  places  and  went  to  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  choirs 
of  Trinity,  St,  John's,  and  King  s  Colleges.  He 
afterwards  became  master  of  the  choristers  of 
King's  College.  He  died  April  30,  i860.  Ad- 
cock  published  several  glees  of  his  own  compo- 
sition, and  'The  Rudiments  of  Singing,'  with 
about  thirty  solfeggi  to  assist  persons  wishing 
to  sing  at  sight.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ADDISON,  John,  the  son  of  an  ingenious 
village  mechanic,  at  an  early  age  displayed  a 
taste  for  music,  and  learned  to  play  upon  several 
instruments.  Having,  about  1793,  married  Miss 
Willems,  a  niece  of  Reinhold,  the  bass  singer,  a 
lady  possessed  of  a  fine  voice  aud  considerable 
taste,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  pursuing  music  as 
a  profession.  Soon  after  her  marriage  Mrs.  Ad- 
dison made  a  successful  appearance  at  Vauxhall 
Gardens.  Addison  then  went  with  his  wife  to 
Liverpool,  where  he  entered  on  his  professional 
career  as  a  performer  on  the  double  bass,  an  in- 
strument to  which,  as  an  orchestral  player,  he 
afterwards  confined  himself.  From  Liverpool  they 
went  to  Dublin,  where  Addison  soon  became 
director  of  the  amateur  orchestra  of  the  private 
theatre,  and,  from  having  to  arrange  the  music, 
improved  himself  in  composition.  After  fulfilling 
other  engagements  in  Liverpool  and  Dublin,  JSIr. 
and  Mrs.  Addison  came  to  London,  where,  on 
Sept.  17,  1796,  the  latter  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  as  Rosetta  in  '  Love  in  a  Vil- 
lage,' and  afterwards  performed  other  characters. 
In  1797  they  went  to  Bath,  where  Mrs.  Addison 
Btudied  under  Rauzzini.  After  a  three  years' 
engagement  in  Dublin,  they  proceeded  to  ]\Ian- 
chester,  where  Addison  was  induced  to  abandon 
the  musical  profession  and  embark  in  the  cotton 
manufacture.  In  this,  however,  he  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  soon  resumed  his  profession.  After 
a  brief  sojourn  in  the  provinces  he  returned  to 
London,  and  engaged  with  Michael  Kelly  as  ma- 
nger of  his  music  business.  He  was  also  en- 
gaged at  the  Italian  Opera  and  the  Ancient  and 
T'ocal  Concerts  as  a  double  bass  player.  In  1805 
he  made  himself  known  as  a  composer,  by  the 
music  to  Skeffington's  '  Sleeping  Beauty.'  He 
afterwards  composed  several  pieces  for  the  Ly- 
ceum, and  composed  and  adapted  others  for  Covent 
Garden  Theatre.    On  March  3,  181 5,  a  short 


sacred  musical  drama  entitled  '  Elijah  raising 
the  Widow's  Son,'  adapted  by  Addison  to  music 
by  Winter,  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
in  the  series  of  Lenten  oratorios,  under  the  di- 
rection of  Sir  George  Smart.  Addison  next  em- 
ployed himself  as  a  teacher  of  singing,  and  in 
that  capacity  instructed  many  singers  who  main- 
tained very  creditable  positions  in  their  profession ; 
amongst  others,  James  Pyne,  Pearman,  Leoni 
Lee, and  Thomas  Millar.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
age,  on  Jan.  30,  1844.  His  principal  dramatic 
compositions  are  'The  Sleeping  Beauty,'  1805; 
'  The  Russian  Impostor,'  1 809 ;  '  My  Aunt,' 
181 3;  'Two  Words,'  181 6;  'Free  and  Easy,' 
1816  ;  '  My  Uncle,'  181 7  ;  'Robinet  the  Bandit,' 
•  Rose  d' Amour,'  an  adaptation  of  Boieldieu's 
opera  of  that  name,  1818.  He  was  one  of  the  six 
composers  who  contributed  the  music  to  Charles 
Dibdin  the  younger's  opera,  '  The  Farmer's 
Wife,'  in  1 8 14.  [SV.  H.  H.] 

ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS.  In 
the  published  scores  of  the  older  masters, 
especially  Bach  and  Handel,  much  is  to  be 
met  with  which  if  performed  exactly  as  printed 
will  fail  altogether  to  realise  tlie  intentions  of 
the  composer.  This  arises  partly  from  the 
difference  in  the  composition  of  our  modem 
orchestras  as  compared  with  those  emploj^ed 
a  century  and  a  half  ago  ;  partly  also  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to 
write  out  in  many  cases  little  more  than  a 
skeleton  of  the  music,  leaving  the  details  to  be 
filled  in  at  performance  from  the  '  figured  bass.* 
The  parts  for  the  organ  or  harpsichord  were 
never  written  out  in  full  except  when  these  in- 
struments had  an  important  solo  part ;  and  even 
then  it  was  frequently  the  custom  only  to  write 
the  upper  part  and  the  bass,  leaving  the 
harmonies  to  be  supplied  from  the  figures  by  the 
player.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  first  solo  for  the 
organ  in  Handel's  Organ  Concerto  in  G  minor 
No.  I,  is  thus  written  in  the  score  : — 


m 

<r3  . 

1   1    ,  ^ 

6 

5 

2 

It  is 
the  pass 
lowing, 

evident  fr 
age  is  inte 
or  some  sii 

om  the  fig 
tided  to  b 
nilar  way 

ures  here 
e  played 

given  that 
in  the  fol- 

t    ,.-  r-r.  1 

'   1  ' 

t 


and  that  a  performer  who  confined  himself  to 
the  printed  notes  would  not  give  the  effect  which 
Handel  designed.  SimUar  instances  may  be  found 
in  nearly  all  the  works  of  Bach  and  Handel,  in 
many  of  which  nothing  whatever  but  a  figured 
bass  is  given  as  a  clue  to  the  form  of  accom- 
paniment. At  the  time  at  which  these  works 
were  written  the  art  of  playing  from  a  figured 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS.  31 


bass  was  so  generally  studied  that  any  good 
musician  would  be  able  to  reproduce,  at  least 
approximately,  the  intentions  of  the  composer 
from  such  indications  as  the  score  supplied.  But 
when,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the  modern 
orchestra,  the  increased  importance  given  to  the 
instrumental  portion  of  the  music,  and  the  re- 
sultant custom  which  has  prevailed  from  the 
time  of  Haydn  down  to  our  own  day  of  writing 
out  in  full  all  parts  which  were  ohhligato — i.  e. 
necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  music — the 
art  of  playing  from  a  figured  bass  ceased  to  be 
commonly  practised,  it  was  no  longer  possible  for 
whoever  presided  at  the  organ  or  piano  at  a  per- 
formance to  complete  the  score  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  Hence  arose  the  necessity  for  additional 
accompaniments,  in  which  the  parts  which  the 
composer  has  merely  indicated  ai'e  given  in  full,  in- 
stead of  their  being  left  to  the  discretion  (or  indis- 
cretion, as  the  case  might  be)  of  the  performer. 

2.  There  are  two  methods  of  -m-iting  additional 
accompaniments.  The  first  is  to  write  merely  a 
part  for  the  organ,  as  Mendelssohn  has  done 
with  so  much  taste  and  reserve  in  his  edition  of 
'  Israel  in  Eg}'pt,'  published  for  the  London 
Handel  Society.  There  is  more  than  one  reason, 
however,  for  doubting  whether  even  his  accom- 
paniment would  succeed  in  bringing  out  the 
true  intentions  of  the  composer.  In  the  first 
place,  our  modern  orchestras  and  choruses  are  so 
much  larger  than  those  mostly  to  be  heard  in 
the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel,  that  the  eflfect 
of  the  combination  with  the  organ  must 
necessarily  be  different.  An  organ  part  filling 
up  the  harmony  played  by  some  twenty  or 
twenty-four  violins  in  imison  (as  in  many  of 
Handel's  songs)  and  supported  by  perhaps 
twelve  to  sixteen  bass  instruments  will  sound 
very  different  if  there  is  only  half  that  number 
of  strings.  Besides,  our  modem  organs  often  differ 
hardly  less  from  those  of  the  last  century  than 
our  modem  orchestras.  But  there  is  another 
and  more  weighty  reason  for  doubting  the  ad- 
visability of  supplementing  the  score  by  such  an 
organ  part.  In  the  collection  of  Handel's  con- 
ducting -  scores,  purchased  some  twenty  years 
since  by  M.  Schoelcher,  is  a  copy  of  '!Saul' 
which  contains  full  directions  in  Handel's  own 
writing  for  the  employment  of  the  organ,  re- 
printed in  the  edition  of  the  German  Handel 
Society ;  ^  from  which  it  clearly  appears  that  it 
was  nowhere  used  to  fill  up  the  harmony  in  the 
accompaniment  of  the  son^s.  This  must  there- 
fore have  been  given  to  the  harpsichord,  an  in- 
strument no  longer  in  use.  and  which,  if  it  were, 
would  not  combine  well  with  our  modem 
orchestra.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  such  an 
organ  part  as  ^lendelssohn  has  written  for  the 
songs  in  '  Israel,'  appropriate  as  it  is  in  itself,  is 
not  what  the  composer  intended. 

3.  The  method  more  frequently  and  also  more 
successfully  adopted  is  to  fill  up  the  harmonies  ' 
with  other  instruments — in  fact  to  rewrite  the 
score.    Among  the  earliest  examples  of  this 

•  See  also  Chrysander's  '  Jahrbiicher  fiir  Musikalische  Wissenschaft,' 
Band  I,  which  contains  a  long  article  on  this  subject.  ' 


mode  of  treatment  are  Mozart's  additional  ac- 
companiments to  Handel's  'Messiah,'  'Alex- 
ander's Feast,'  *Acis  and  Galatea,'  and  'Ode  for 
St.  Cecilia's  Day.'  These  works  were  arranged 
for  Baron  van  Swieten,  for  the  purpose  of  perform- 
ances where  no  organ  was  available.  What  was 
the  nature  of  Mozart's  additions  will  be  seen  pre- 
sently ;  meanwhile  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing, 
that  they  have  always  been  considered  models  of 
the  way  in  which  such  a  task  should  be  performed. 
Many  other  musicians  have  followed  Mozart's  ex- 
ample with  more  or  less  success,  among  the  chief 
being  Ignaz  Franz  Mosel,  who  published  editions 
of  '  Samson,'  '  J ephtha,'  *  Belshazzar,'  etc.,  in 
which  not  only  additional  instrumentation  was 
introduced,  but  utterly  unjustifiable  alterations 
were  made  in  the  works  themselves,  a  movement 
from  one  oratorio  being  sometimes  transferred  to 
another ;  Mendelssohn,  who  (in  early  life)  re- 
scored  the  '  Dettingen  Te  Deum,'  and  '  Acis  and 
Galatea ' ;  Dr.  Ferdinand  Hiller,  Professor  G.  A. 
Macfarren,  Sir  Michael  Costa,  Mr.  Arthur  Sul- 
livan, and  last  (and  probably  best  of  all)  Robert 
Franz.  This  eminent  musician  has  devoted 
special  attention  to  this  branch  of  his  art ;  and 
for  a  complete  exposition  of  the  system  on  which 
he  works  we  refer  our  readers  to  his  '  Offener 
Brief  an  Eduard  Hanslick,'  etc,  (Leipzig,  Leuck- 
art,  1871).  Franz  has  published  additional  ac- 
companiments to  Bach's  '  Passion  according  to 
St.  Matthew,' '  Magnificat,'  and  several '  Kirchen- 
cantaten,'  and  to  Handel's  'L' Allegro'  and  'Ju- 
bilate.' 

4.  The  first,  and  perhaps  the  most  important 
case  in  which  additions  are  needed  to  the  older 
scores  is  that  which  so  frequently  occurs  when 
no  instrumental  accompaniment  is  given  except- 
ing a  figured  bass.  This  is  in  Handel's  songs 
continually  to  be  met  with,  especially  in  ca- 
dences, and  a  few  examples  follow  of  the  various 
way  in  which  the  harmonies  can  be  filled  up. 

At  the  end  of  the  air  '  Rejoice  greatly'  in  the 
'Messiah,'  Handel  writes  thus, — 


^  I.  Voce 


Bassx 

King   com  -  eth     nn    -  to 

thee 

I       -          ^  '\ 

Mozart  gives  the  harmonies  in  this  passage  to 
the  stringed  quartett,  as  follows  : — 
2.  FjoM&2 


% 


32  ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS.  ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


Sometimes  in  similar  passages  the  accom- 
paniments are  given  to  a  few  wind  instruments 
with  charming  effect,  as  in  the  following  ex- 
amples by  Mozart.  For  the  sake  of  comparison 
we  shall  in  each  instance  give  the  score  in  its 
original  state  before  quoting  it  with  the  addi- 
tional parts.  Our  first  example  is  from  the 
close  of  the  song  '  What  passion,'  in  the  '  Ode  for 
St.  Cecilia's  Day.' 


Handel. 


Voce 


i 


Eor-rows,     aud   ac- quaint -ed     with  grief 
Viola,Bassi 


Bor  -  rows,       and   ac  -  quaint  -  ed    with  grief 
Viola 
Bassi  J 


In  the  first  of  the  foregoing  quotations  (No.  4) 
it  will  be  seen  that  Mozart  has  simply  added 
in  the  flute  and  bassoon  the  harmony  which 
Handel  no  doubt  played  on  the  harpsichord. 
In  the  next  (No.  6),  from  'He  was  despised,' 
the  harmony  is  a  little  fuller. 

In  all  the  above  examples  the  treatment  of  the 
harmony  is  as  simple  as  possible.  When  similar 
passages  occur  in  Bach's  works,  however,  they 
require  a  more  polyphonic  method  of  treatment, 
as  is  proved  by  Franz  in  his  pamphlet  above 
referred  to.  A  short  extract  from  the  '  Passion 
according  to  Matthew'  will  show  in  what  way 
his  music  can  be  advantageously  treated. 

Voce 


The  figures  here  give  the  clue  to  the  harmony, 
but  if  simple  chords  were  used  to  fill  it  up,  as  in 
the  preceding  extracts,  they  would,  in  Franz's 
words,  '  fall  as  heavy  as  lead  among  Bach's  parts, 
and  find  no  support  among  the  constantly  moving 
basses.'  Franz  therefore  adopts  the  polyphonic 
method,  and  completes  the  score  as  follows  : — 


Bassi 


dir       ge    -    bah  -  ren     treu  -  er  Je 


^^^^^^^^ 


Somewhat  resembling  the  examples  given 
above  is  the  case  so  often  to  be  found  both  in 
Bach  and  Handel  in  which  only  the  melody  and 
the  bass  are  given  in  the  score.  There  is  hardly 
one  of  Handel's  oratorios  which  does  not  contain 
several  songs  accompanied  only  by  violins  in 
unison  and  basses ;  while  Bach  very  frequently 
accompanies  his  airs  with  one  solo  instrument, 
either  wind  or  stringed,  and  the  basses.  In  such 
cases  it  is  sometimes  sufiicient  merely  to  add  an 
inner  part ;  at  other  times  a  somewhat  fuller 
score  is  more  effective.  The  following  quotations 
wiU  furnish  examples  of  both  methods. 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS.  33 


Handel,  '  Sharp  violins  proclaim.'    (Ode  for 
St.  Cecilia's  Day.) 

Viol.1,2 


Bach,  *  Ich  hatte  viel  Bekiimmemiss.' 
Oboe  ,  ^ — ,  u 


Handel,  *  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth. 
Viol.  1,  2  (Messiah.) 


I 


Bassi 


Flauto  Solo 


Ditto  (Mozart). 


Bassi  {Viola  all'  8m.) 


In  the  first  of  these  extracts  nothing  is  added 
but  a  viola  part;  in  the  second  Mozart  has 
doubled  the  first  violins  by  the  second  in  the 
lower  octave,  and  assigned  a  full  harmony  to  the 
three  solo  wind  instruments,  while  in  the  third 
Franz  has  added  the  string  quartett  to  the  solo 
oboe,  and  again  treated  the  parts  in  that  poly- 
phonic style  which  experience  has  taught  him 
is  alone  suitable  for  the  fitting  interpretation 
of  Bach's  ideas. 

5.  In  all  the  cases  hitherto  treated,  the  melody 
being  given  as  well  as  the  bass,  the  task  of  the 
editor  is  comparatively  easy.  It  is  otherwise 
however  when  (as  is  sometimes  found  with 
Handel,  and  still  more  frequently  with  Bach) 
nothing  whatever  is  given  excepting  a  bass, 
especially  if,  as  often  happens,  tlus  bass  is  not 
even  figured.  In  the  following  quotation,  for 
example,  taken  from  Bach's  'Magnificat'  ('Quia 
fecit  mihi  magna'), 


it  is  obvious  that  if  nothing  but  the  bass  part 
be  played,  a  mere  caricature  of  the  composer's 
intentions  will  be  the  resiilt.  Here  there  are  no 
figures  in  the  score  to  indicate  even  the  outline 
of  the  hannony.  The  difficulties  presented  by 
such  passages  as  these  have  been  overcome  in 
the  most  masterly  manner  by  Robert  IVanz,  who 
fills  up  the  score  thus — 


34  ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


Viol.  1,  2 


Clar. 


e  Clar. 


tj7 


Fag. 


Viola.         e  Fag. 


By  comparing  the  added  parts  (which,  to  save 
space,  are  given  only  in  compressed  score)  with 
the  original  bass,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are 
all  founded  on  suggestions  thrown  out,  so  to 
speak,  by  Bach  himself,  on  ideas  indicated  in  the 
bass,  and  it  is  in  obtaining  unity  of  design  by 
the  scientific  employment  of  Bach's  own  material 
that  Franz  shows  himself  so  well  fitted  for  his 
self-imposed  labour.  It  has  been  already  said 
that  Bach  requires  more  polyi^honic  treatment 
of  the  parts  than  Handel.  The  following  extract 
from  Franz's  score  of  'L' Allegro'  ('Come,  but 
keep  thy  wonted  state')  will  show  the  different 
method  in  which  he  fills  up  a  figured  bass  in 
Handel's  music.    The  original  stands  thus — 


Bassi 


m 


t-t- 


which  Franz  completes  in  this  manner — 


Here  it  will  be  seen  there  is  no  attempt  at 
imitative  writing.  Nothing  is  done  beyond 
harmonising  Handel's  bass  in  four  parts.  The 
harmonies  are  given  to  clarinets  and  bassoons  in 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 

order  that  the  first  entry  of  the  strings,  which 
takes  place  in  the  third  bar,  may  produce  the 
contrast  of  tone-colour  designed  by  the  composer. 

6.  It  is  quite  impossible  within  the  limits  of 
such  an  article  as  the  present  to  deal  exhaustively 
with  the  subject  in  hand;  enough  has,  it  is 
hoped,  been  said  to  indicate  in  a  general  manner 
some  of  the  various  ways  of  filling  up  the 
orchestration  from  a  figured  bass.  This  however, 
though  perhaps  the  most  important,  is  by  no 
means  the  only  case  in  which  additional  ac- 
companiments are  required  or  introduced.  It 
was  mentioned  above  that  the  composition  of  the 
orchestra  in  the  days  of  Bach  and  Handel  was 
very  different  from  that  of  our  own  time.  This 
is  more  especially  the  case  with  Bach,  who 
employs  in  his  scores  many  instruments  now 
altogether  fallen  into  disuse.  Such  are  the  viola 
d'amore,  the  viola  da  gamba,  the  oboe  d'amore, 
the  oboe  da  caccia  (which  he  sometimes  calls  the 
*  taille '),  and  several  others.  In  adapting  these 
works  for  performance,  it  is  necessary  to  sub- 
stitute for  these  obsolete  instruments  as  far  as 
possible  their  modern  equivalents.  Besides  this, 
both  Handel  and  Bach  wrote  for  the  trumpets 
passages  which  on  the  instruments  at  present 
employed  in  our  orchestras  are  simply  impos- 
sible. Bach  frequently,  and  Handel  occasionally, 
writes  the  trumpet  parts  up  to  C  in  alt,  and 
both  require  from  the  players  rapid  passages  in 
high  notes,  the  execution  of  which,  even  where 
possible,  is  extremely  uncertain.  Thus,  in 
probably  the  best-known  piece  of  sacred  music 
in  the  world,  the  Hallelujah  chorus  in  the 
'Messiah,'  Handel  has  written  D  in  alt  for 
the  first  trumpet,  while  Bach  in  the  '  Cum  Sancto 
Spiritu '  of  his  great  Mass  in  B  minor  has  even 
taken  the  instrument  one  note  higher,  the  whole 
first  trumpet  part  as  it  stands  being  absolutely 
unplayable.  In  such  cases  as  these  it  becomes 
necessary  to  re-write  the  trumpet  parts,  giving 
the  higher  notes  to  some  other  instrument.  This 
is  what  Franz  has  done  in  his  editions  of  Bach's 
'Magnificat'  and  ' Pfingsten-Cantate,'  in  which 
he  has  used  two  clarinets  in  C  to  reinforce  and 
assist  the  trumpet  parts.  The  key  of  both  pieces 
being  D,  the  clarinets  in  A  would  be  those 
usually  employed ;  the  C  clarinets  are  here  used 
instead,  because  their  tone,  though  less  rich,  is 
more  piercing,  and  therefore  approximates  more 
closely  to  that  of  the  high  notes  of  the  trumpet. 
One  example  from  the  opening  chorus  of  the 
'Magnificat'  will  show  how  the  arrangement 
is  effected.  Bach's  trumpet  parts  and  their 
equivalents  in  Franz's  score  will  alone  be 
quoted. 


Tromba  1  in  D 


Bach. 


Tronibe  2,  3  in  D 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS.  35 


These  trumpet  parts  are  assuredly  not  easy; 
still  they  ai-e  practicable.    Mendelssohn  however 
alters  the  whole  passage  thus  : — 
Flauti 

-^1 


^^^^ 


-jU- 


It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  same  amount 
of  reverence  for  the  author's  intentions  shown 
in  the  above  arrangement  has  not  always  been 
evinced  even  by  great  musicians  in  dealing  with 
the  scores  of  others.  Mozart,  in  his  arrangement 
of  the  '  Messiah,'  thought  fit  to  re -write  the  song 
'The  trumpet  shall  sound,'  though  whatever 
obstacle  it  may  have  presented  to  his  trumpeter 
it  has  been  often  proved  by  Mr.  Thomas  Harper 
and  others  that  Handel's  trumpet  part,  though 
difficult,  is  certainly  not  impossible.  Mendels- 
sohn, in  his  score  of  the  'Dettingen  Te  Deum,' 
has  altered  (and  we  venture  to  think  entirely 
spoilt")  several  of  the  very  characteristic  trumpet 
parts  which  form  so  prominent  a  feature  of  the 
work.  As  one  example  out  of  several  that  mio-ht 
be  quoted,  we  give  the  opening  spnphony  of  the 
chorus  '  To  thee  Cherubin.'  Handel  writes 
2  Trombe 


and,  still  worse,  when  the  s}Tnphony  is  repeated 
in  the  original  by  oboes  and  bassoons,  the 
arranger  gives  it  to  the  full  wind  band  with 
trumpets  and  drums,  entirely  disregarding  the 
ideas  of  the  composer.  The  chief  objection  to 
be  urged  against  such  a  method  of  procedure 
as  the  above — so  unlike  Mendelssohn's  usual 
reverence  and  modesty  ^ — is  not  that  the  instru- 
mentation is  changed  or  added  to,  but  that  the 
form  and  character  of  the  passage  itself  is  altered. 
Every  arrangement  must  stand  or  fall  upon  its 
OAvn  merits ;  but  it  will  be  generally  admitted 
that  however  allowable  it  may  be,  nay  more, 
however  necessary  it  frequently  is,  to  change 
the  dress  in  which  ideas  are  presented  to  us,  the 
ideas  themselves  should  be  left  without  modifica- 
tion. 

7.  Besides  the  cases  already  referred  to, 
passages  are  frequently  to  be  found,  especially  in 

1  The  Te  Deum  and  Acis  were  instnimented  by  Mendelssohn  as  an 
exercise  for  Zelter.  The  date  on  the  MS.  of  Acis  is  Janiiarj-  1M9.  He 
mentions  them  in  a  letter  to  Dement  in  ISB,  speakinsr  of  his  additions 
to  the  Te  Deum  as  '  interrolations  of  a  verj'  arbitrar>-  kind,  nii5t.ikes 
as  I  now  consider  them,  which  I  am  anxious  to  correct."  It  is  a 
I  thousand  pities  that  the  work  should  have  been  published. 

D  2 


36  ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


the  works  of  Bach,  in  which,  though  no  obsolete 
instruments  are  employed,  and  though  everything 
is  perfectly  practicable,  the  effect,  if  played  as 
written,  will  in  our  modern  orchestras  altogether 
differ  from  that  designed  by  the  composer. 
From  a  letter  written  by  Bach  in  1730^  we 
know  exactly  the  strength  of  the  band  for  which 
he  wrote.  Besides  the  wind  instruments,  it 
contained  only  two  or  at  most  three  first  and 
as  many  second  violins,  two  first  and  two  second 
violas,  two  violoncellos  and  one  double-bass,  thir- 
teen strings  in  all.  Against  so  small  a  force 
the  solo  passages  for  the  wind  instruments  would 
stand  out  with  a  prominence  which  in  our 
modem  orchestras,  often  containing  from  fifty 
to  sixty  strings,  would  no  longer  exist ;  and  as 
all  the  parts  in  Bach's  music  are  almost  in- 
variably of  equal  importance,  it  follows  that  the 
wind  parts  must  be  strengthened  if  the  balance 
of  tone  is  to  be  preserved.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  choruses.  It  would  be  impos- 
sible, without  quoting  an  entire  page  of  one  of 
Bach's  scores,  to  give  an  extract  clearly  showing 
this  point.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  his 
works  will  recall  many  passages  of  the  kind. 
One  of  the  best  known,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  striking  examples  is  in  the  short  chorus 
'Lass  ihn  kreuzigen'  in  the  'Passion  according 
to  Matthew.'  Here  an  important  counterpoint 
is  given  to  the  flutes  above  the  voices  and 
stringed  instruments.  With  a  very  small  band 
and  chorus  this  counterpoint  would  doubtless  be 
heard,  but  with  our  large  vocal  and  instrumental 
forces  it  must  inevitably  be  lost  altogether. 
Franz,  in  his  edition  of  the  'Passion,'  has 
reinforced  the  flutes  by  the  upper  notes  of  the 
clarinets,  which  possess  a  great  similarity  of 
tone,  and  at  the  same  time  by  their  more  incisive 
quality  make  themselves  distinctly  heard  above 
the  other  instruments. 

8.  In  Handel's  orchestra  the  organ  was  almost 
invariably  used  in  the  choruses  to  support  the 
voices,  and  give  fullness  and  richness  to  the 
general  body  of  tone.  Hence  in  Mozart's 
arrangements,  which  were  written  for  per- 
formance without  an  organ,  he  has  supplied 
the  place  of  that  instrument  by  additional  wind 
parts.  In  many  of  the  choruses  of  the  '  Messiah' 
(e.g.  'And  the  glory  of  the  Lord,'  'Behold  the 
Lamb  of  God,'  'But  thanks  be  to  God,'  etc.) 
the  wind  instruments  simply  fill  in  the  harmony 
as  it  may  fairly  be  conjectured  the  organ  would 
do.  Moreover,  our  ears  are  so  accustomed  to 
a  rich  and  sonorous  instrumentation,  that  this 
music  if  played  only  with  strings  and  oboes,  or 
sometimes  with  strings  alone,  would  sound  so 
thin  as  to  be  distasteful.  Hence  no  reasonable 
objection  can  be  made  to  the  filling  up  of  the 
harmony,  if  it  be  done  with  taste  and  contain 
nothing  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  the 
original. 

9.  There  yet  remains  to  notice  one  of  the  most 
interesting  points  connected  with  our  present 
subject.  It  not  seldom  happens  that  in  additional 
accompaniments  new  matter  is  introduced  for 

*  See  Mtter,  '  Johann  Sebastian  Bach/  ii.  15-22. 


which  no  warrant  can  be  found  in  the  original 
Sometimes  the  composer's  idea  is  modified,  some- 
times it  is  added  to.  Mozart's  scores  of  Handel 
are  fuU  of  examples  of  this  kind;  on  the  other 
hand  Franz,  the  most  conscientious  of  arrangers, 
seldom  allows  himself  the  least  liberty  in  this 
respect.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
absolute  rule  in  this  matter;  the  only  test  is 
success.  Few  people,  for  instance,  would  object 
to  the  wonderfully  beautiful  wind  parts  which 
Mozart  has  added  to  'The  people  that  walked 
in  darkness,'  though  it  must  be  admitted  that 
they  are  by  no  means  Handelian  in  character. 
It  is,  so  to  speak,  Mozart's  gloss  or  commentary 
on  Handel's  music ;  and  one  can  almost  fancy 
that  could  Handel  himself  have  heard  it  he 
would  have  pardoned  the  liberty  taken  with  his 
music  for  the  sake  of  the  charming  effect  of  the 
additions.  So  again  with  the  trumpets  and 
drums  which  Mozart  has  introduced  in  the  song 
'  Why  do  the  nations.'  No  doubt  Handel  could 
have  used  them  had  he  been  so  disposed ;  but  it 
was  not  the  custom  of  his  age  to  employ  them 
in  the  accompaniments  to  songs,  and  here  again 
the  excellence  of  the  effect  is  its  justification. 
On  the  same  ground  may  be  defended  the  giving 
of  Handel's  violin  part  to  a  flute  in  the  air 
'  How  beautiful  are  the  feet,'  though  it  is  equally 
impossible  to  approve  of  the  change  Mozart  has 
made  in  the  air  and  chorus  '  The  trumpet's  loud 
clangour'  in  the  'Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day,'  in 
which  he  has  given  a  great  portion  of  the 
important  trumpet  part  (which  is  imperatively 
called  for  by  the  words)  to  the  flute  and  oboe 
in  unison  !  The  passages  above  referred  to  from 
the  'Messiah'  are  so  well  known  as  to  render 
quotation  superfluous;  but  two  less  familiar 
examples  of  happily  introduced  additional  matter 
from  the  'Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day'  will  be 
interesting.    In  the  first  of  these, 

Viol.  1,  2 


i 


from  the  song  '  Sharp  violins  proclaim,'  it  will  be 
seen  that  Handel  has  written  merely  violins  and 
basses.   The  dissonances  which  Mozart  has  added 
in  the  viola  part. 
Viol.  1. 


^^^^ 


are  of  the  most  excellent  effect,  well  suited 


ADDITIONAL  ACCOMPANIMENTS. 


ADOLFATI. 


37 


moreover  to  the  character  of  the  song  which 
treats  of  'jealous  pangs  and  desperation.'  Our 
last  extract  will  be  from  the  song  '  What  passion 
cannot  music  raise  and  quell  ? '  in  which  Mozart 
has  added  pizzicato  chords  for  the  strings  above 
the  obligato  part  for  the  violoncello. 


Handel. 


Violoncello  Solo 


Bassi 


Viol.  1,  2 


MOZAET. 


10.  It  has  been  said  already  that  additional 
accompaniments  must  in  all  cases  be  judged 
upon  their  own  merits.  The  question  is  not 
whether  but  how  they  should  be  written.  Their 
necessity  in  many  cases  has  been  showTi  above ; 
and  they  will  probably  continue  to  be  written 
to  the  end  of  time.  While  however  it  is 
impossible  to  lay  down  any  absolute  law  as  to 
what  may  and  what  may  not  be  done  in  this 
respect,  there  are  two  general  principles  which 
may  be  given  as  the  conclusion  of  the  whole 
matter.  First,  that  all  additions  to  a  score 
merely  for  the  sake  of  increasing  the  noise  are 
absolutely  indefensible.  At  many  operatic  per- 
formances, Mozart's  '  Don  Giovanni '  and  'Figaro' 
are  given  with  copious  additional  accompaniments 
for  trombones;  and  a  conductor  has  even  been 
known  to  reinforce  the  score  of  Weber's  overture 
to  '  Euryanthe,'  which  already  contains  the  full 
complement  of  brass,  with  two  cornets  and  an 
ophicleide.  All  such  procedures  are  utterly 
inartistic,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
And  lastly,  no  one  who  writes  additional 
accompaniments  has  any  right  whatever  to 
tamper  Avith  the  original  text,  either  by  adding, 
cutting  out,  or  largely  modifying  passages.  By 
all  means  let  such  additions  be  made  as  are 
needed  to  adapt  the  music  to  our  modem 
requirements,  but  let  the  changes  be  such  as 
to  bring  out  more  clearly,  not  to  obscure,  or  alter 
the  thought  of  the  composer.    These  additions 


moreover  should  be  in  unison  with  the  spirit,  as 
well  as  the  letter  of  the  original.  To  hear,  as  is 
sometimes  to  be  heard,  Handel's  music  scored 
after  the  fashion  of  Verdi's  grand  operas  shows 
an  equal  want  of  artistic  feeling  and  of  common 
sense  on  the  part  of  the  arranger.  Those 
additional  accompaniments  will  always  best  fulfil 
their  object  in  which  most  reverence  is  shown 
for  the  author's  original  intentions.  [E.  P.] 

A  DEUX  MAINS  (Fr.).  'For  two  hands.' 
A  term  applied  to  music  for  one  performer  on 
the  piano,  as  contradistinguished  from  a  quatre 
MAINS,  etc, 

ADLGASSER,  Anton  Cajetan.  Bom  1728 
at  Inzell  in  Bavaria.  After  being  a  pupil  of 
Eberlin's,  he  was  sent  to  Italy  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  and  recalled  thence  to  the 
post  of  organist  to  the  cathedral  and  cembalist  to 
the  court  at  Salzburg,  where  he  died  Dec.  21, 
1777,  from  an  apoplectic  stroke  while  at  the 
organ.  Adlgasser  was  noted  both  as  organ  player 
and  contrapuntist.  His  works  remain  mostly  in 
MS.  The  principal  of  them  are  a  requiem,  a 
litany,  and  a  salve  regina.  [C.  F.  P.] 

AD  LIBITUM  (Lat.).  At  the  pleasure  of  the 
performer,  as  regards  time  and  expression.  In 
the  case  of  arrangement? — 'Vt^ith  violin  or  Ante 
ad  libitum' — it  signifies  that  the  solo  instrument 
may  be  left  out  or  exchanged  at  pleasure. 

ADLUNG,  Jacob,  bom  at  Bindersleben,  Er- 
furt, Jan.  14, 1699;  a  theologian,  scholar,  and  mu- 
sician. His  taste  for  music  came  late  ;  the  clavier, 
organ,  and  theory,  he  learned  from  Christian 
Keichardt  the  organist,  who  though  not  a  musi- 
cian of  the  first  rank  was  truly  devoted  to  his 
art.  After  the  death  of  Buttstett  in  1727  Ad- 
lung  received  his  post  as  organist  of  the  Evan- 
gelical church,  where  he  was  soon  known  for  his 
masterly  playing,  and  in  1741  became  professor 
at  the  Kathsgymnasium  of  Erfurt.  In  1 7  36  his 
house  and  all  his  possessions  were  bumt,  but 
the  undaunted  man  was  not  discouraged.  He 
taught  both  music  and  language,  wrote  largely 
and  well  on  music,  and  even  constructed  in- 
struments with  his  own  hands ;  and  thus  made 
a  successful  resistance  to  adverse  fortune  till 
his  death,  July  5,  1762.  Three  of  his  works 
are  of  lasting  value  in  musical  literature:  (i) 
'Anleitung  zur  musik.  Gelahrtheit,'  with  a  pre- 
face by  Joh.  Ernst  Bach  (Erfurt,  1758);  a  2nd 
edition,  issued  after  his  death,  by  J.  A.  Hiller 
(Leipsic,  1783).  (2)  'Musica  mechanica  Organ- 
cedi,'  etc.  (Berlin,  1 768),  a  treatise  in  two  volumes 
on  the  structure,  use,  and  maintenance  of  the 
organ  and  clavi-cjmibalum.  This  contains  addi- 
tions by  J.  F.  Agricola  and  J.  L.  Albrecht,  a 
translation  by  the  former  of  a  treatise  on  the 
organ  by  Bedos  de  Celles,  and  an  autobiogra- 
phy of  Adlung.  (3)  '  Musikalisches  Siebenge- 
stirn'  (Berlin,  1768).  (See  Hiller's  Lebensb.  ber. 
Musikgelehrten.)  [C.  F.  P.] 

ADOLFATI,  Andrea,  born  in  Venice  171 1, 
date  and  place  of  death  unknown;  was  a  pupil  of 
Galuppi,  conductor  of  the  music  in  the  church 


^8 


ADOLFATI. 


^OUAX  HAEP. 


of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute  in  Venice,  and  in  ' 
that  of  the  Annunciation  at  Genoa,  the  latter  \ 
from  about  1750  till  his  death.  His  principal 
operas  are  '  L'Artaserse,'  '  L'Arianna,'  '  Adriano 
in  Siria,'  and  '  La  Gloria  ed  il  Piacere,'  the  first 
produced  in  Rome  in  1742,  the  three  last  in 
Genoa  in  1 750-1752.  He  left  also  sacred  com- 
positions, chiefly  Psalms.  'Arianna'  is  said  to 
contain  an  air  in  the  measure  of  five  beats  to 
the  bar.  [M.  C.  C] 

ADRIEX,  or  AXDPvIEX,  Martin  Joseph, 
called  Adkie:?  l'Aixe,  bom  at  Liege  1766;  a 
bass  singer,  taking  alternate  parts  with  Cheron 
at  the  opera  in  Paris  from  1785  to  1804;  after- 
wEirds  choirmaster  at  the  opera.  In  March  1822 
he  succ^eeded  Laine  as  professor  of  declamation 
at  the  Ecole  Royale  de  Musique,  and  died  in  the 
following  Xovember,  a  victim  to  the  exaggerated 
system  of  declamation  then  in  vogue.  His  voice 
was  harsh,  and  his  method  of  singing  bad,  but 
he  had  merit  as  an  actor.  He  composed  the 
'Hymne  a  la  Victoire'  on  the  evacuation  of  the 
French  territory  in  1795,  and  the  hymn  to  the 
mart}-rs  for  liberty. 

His  brother  (name  unknown")  was  bom  at  Liege 
1767  ;  published  five  collections  of  songs  (Paris, 
1790-1802),  and  was  for  a  short  time  choirmaster 
at  the  Theatre  Feydeau. 

Another  brother,  Ferdinaxd,  was  a  teacher  of 
singing  in  Paris,  choir-master  of  the  opera  (1799- 
1801)  and  composer  of  songs.  [M.  C.  C] 

A  DUE  (Ital.,  'In  two  parts'),  or  A  2.  This 
expression  is  used  in  two  exactly  opposite  ways 
in  orchestral  scores.  For  the  wind  instruments, 
for  which  two  parts  are  usually  written  on  the 
same  stave,  it  indicates  that  the  two  play  in  uni- 
son ;  for  the  strings,  on  the  other  hand,  it  shows 
that  the  whole  mass,  which  usually  p'ays  in  uni- 
son, is  to  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  the 
one  taking  the  upper  and  the  other  the  lower 
notes.  In  practice  there  is  never  any  difficulty 
in  seeing  which  meaning  is  intended.       [E.  P.] 

AELSTERS,  Georges  Jacques,  bom  of  a 
musical  family  at  Ghent,  1770,  died  there  1849  ; 
cariUoneur  of  that  town  from  1788  to  1839;  for 
fifty  years  director  of  the  music  at  the  chm-ch 
of  St.  Martin,  and  composer  of  much  church 
music  stiU  performed  in  Flanders,  especially  a 
'  Miserere.' 

AEXGSTLICH  (Germ,  'fearfully').  A  word 
which  calls  for  notice  here  only  on  account  of  its 
use  by  Beethoven  at  the  head  of  the  recitative 
in  his  MLssa  Solennis,  'Agnus  Dei,  qui  toUis 
peccata  mundi,  miserere  nobis.'  In  this  most 
dramatic  and  emotional  part  of  his  great  work 
Beethoven  seems  to  realise  the  'prayer  for 
internal  and  external  peace'  which  he  gives  as 
a  motto  to  the  entire  '  Dona' :  the  fierce  blasts 
of  the  trumpets  alternating  with  the  supplications 
of  the  voices  bring  before  us  the  enemy  at  the 
very  gates.  As  in  the  case  of  Accelerando 
Beethoven  has  accompanied  the  German  word 
A'ith  its  Italian  equivalent  tramidamente. 

.^OLIAN  HARP.     (Fr.  La  Earpe  uEo- 


lier^ne ;  Ital.  Arpa  (TEolo;  Ger.  Aeohharfe 
I  Windharfe.)  The  name  is  from  Aeolus  the  god 
of  the  wind.  The  instrument,  of  which  the  in- 
ventor is  vmknown,  would  appear  to  owe  its 
origin  to  the  monochord,  a  string  stretched  upon 
two  bridges  over  a  soundboard.  The  string 
happening  to  be  at  a  low  tension  and  exposed 
to  a  current  of  air  would  divide  into  various 
aliquot  parts  according  to  the  varying  strength 
of  the  current,  and  thus  give  the  harmonics 
or  overtones  we  hear  in  the  music  of  this 
instrument.  Had  the  principle  of  the  ^olian 
harp  never  been  discovered,  we  should  in  these 
days  of  telegraphy  have  found  it  out,  as  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  to  hear  musical  soimds 
from  telegraph  wires  which  become  audible 
through  the  posts  which  elevate  the  wires, 
and  assume  the  function  of  soundboards.  Once 
recognised  on  a  monochord,  it  would  be  a 
simple  process  to  increase  the  number  of 
strings,  which,  tuned  in  unison,  would  be 
differently  afi'ected  in  relation  to  the  current 
of  air  by  position,  and  thus  give  different  vi- 
brating segments,  forming  consonant  or  dissonant 
chords  as  the  pressure  of  wind  might  determine. 
That  musical  soxmds  could  be  produced  by 
imaided  wind  has  been  long  known  in  the  East. 
According  to  tradition  King  David's  harp  (kinnor) 
sounded  at  midnight  when  suspended  over  his 
couch  in  the  north  wind  ;  and  in  an  old 
Hindu  poem,  quoted  by  Sir  WUIiam  Jones,  the 
vina,  or  lute  of  the  country  is  said  to  have 
!  produc&i  tones,  proceeding  by  musical  intervals, 
by  the  impulse  of  the  breeze.  In  the  present 
day  the  Chinese  have  kites  with  vibrating  strings, 
and  the  Malays  have  a  curious  JEolian  instrument, 
a  rough  bamboo  cane  of  considerable  height, 
perforated  with  holes  and  stuck  in  the  ground. 
This  is  entirely  a  wind  contrivance,  but  they 
have  another  of  split  bamboo  for  strings.  (C. 
Engel,  'Musical  Instmments,'  1874,  P-  "200.) 
St.  Dimstan  of  Canterbury  is  said  to  have  hung 
his  harp  so  that  the  wind  might  pass  through  the 
strings,  causing  them  to  sound,  and  to  have  been 
accused  of  sorcery  in  consequence.  This  was  in 
the  loth  century.  It  was  not  until  the  17  th 
we  meet  with  the  .^olian  harp  itself.  Kircher 
(1602-1680)  first  wrote  about  it.  He  speaks  of 
it  in  his  '  Musurgia  Universalis '  as  being  a 
new  instnmient  and  easy  to  constmct,  and  as 
being  the  admiration  of  every  one.  He  describes 
the  sounds  as  not  resembling  those  of  a  stringed 
or  of  a  wind  instmment,  but  partaking  of  the 
qualities  of  both.  This  is  quite  true,  and  ap- 
plies to  any  stretched  string  the  sound  of  which 
is  made  continuous  by  any  other  agency  than 
that  of  a  bow,  and  not  d}-ing  away  as  we  usually 
hear  the  tones  of  pianofortes,  hai-ps,  and  guitars. 
Thomson,  in  the  'Castle  of  Indolence,'  in  well- 
known  lines,  describes  the  ^olian  harp,  but 
except  one  phrase,  '  such  sweet,  such  sad,  such 
solemn  airs  divine,'  misses  the  elegiac  note  that 
distinguishes  the  instnmient.  Matthew  Young, 
bishop  of  Clonfert,  in  his  'Enquiry  into  the 
Principal  Phenomena  of  Sounds  and  Musical 
Strings'  (1784),  gives  full  particulars  of  it,  and 


^OLIAN  HARP. 


^OLIAN  MODE. 


39 


offers  a  theory  of  its  generation  of  sound.  It 
also  gained  attention  in  Germany  about  the 
same  time,  through  a  description  of  it  in  the 
'Gottingen  Pocket  Calendar'  for  1792.  H.  C. 
Koch,  a  German,  appears  to  have  bestowed 
the  most  attention  upon  the  effects  obtainable 
by  varying  the  construction  and  stringing  of 
the  ^olian  harp ;  but  it  is  of  little  importance 
whether  the  tone  be  a  little  louder  or  a  little 
softer,  the  impression  to  be  derived  from  the 
instrument  is  as  attainable  from  one  of  simple 
build  as  from  double  harps,  or  from  one  with 
weighted  (spun)  strings  added. 

An  ^olian  harp  is  usually  about  three  feet 
long,  five  inches  broad,  and  three  inches  deep  ;  of 
pine  wood,  with  beech  ends  for  insertion  of  the 
tuning-  and  hitch-pins,  and  with  two  narrow 
bridges  of  hard  wood  over  which  a  dozen  catgut 
strings  are  stretched.  These  are  tuned  in  the 
most  exact  unison  possible,  or  the  beats  caused 
by  their  difference  would  be  disagreeable.  The 
direction  sometimes  attached  to  tune  by  inter- 
vals of  fourths  and  fifths  is  only  misleading. 
The  tension  should  be  low ;  in  other  words,  the 
strings  be  rather  slack,  the  fundamental  note 
not  being  noticeable  when  the  instrument  sounds. 
There  are  usually  two  soundholes  in  the  sound- 
board. The  ends  are  raised  above  the  strings 
about  an  inch,  and  support  another  pine  board, 
between  which  and  the  soundboard  the  draught 
of  air  is  directed.  To  hear  the  ^olian  harp 
it  should  be  placed  across  a  window  sufficiently 
opened  to  admit  of  its  introduction,  and  situated 
obliquely  to  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The 
evening  time  is  the  best,  as  the  feelings  are 
then  more  attuned  to  the  chords  we  are  to 
listen  to.  The  modifications  of  tone,  increasing 
and  decreasing  in  a  manner  inimitable  by  voices 
or  instruments,  are  perfectly  enchanting.  An 
instrument  producing  chords  by  the  wind  alone, 
without  our  interference,  stimulates  the  fancy,  and 
is  in  itself  an  attractive  phenomenon.  The  sounds 
are  so  pure  and  perfectly  in  tune,  that  no  tuning 
we  might  accomplish  could  rival  it.  For  we  have 
here  not  tempered  intervals  but  the  natural  tones 
of  the  strings,  the  half  or  octave,  the  third  or 
interval  of  the  twelfth,  and  so  on,  in  an  arith- 
metical progression,  up  to  the  sixth  division, 
the  whole  vibrating  length  being  taken  as  the 
first — we  are  listening  to  full  and  perfect  har- 
mony. But  the  next,  the  seventh,  still  in  con- 
sonance with  the  lowest  note,  in  effect  not  unlike 
the  dull  sad  minor  sixth,  but  still  more  mourn- 
ful, is  to  our  ears  transcendental,  as  our  musical 
system  does  not  know  it :  and  it  would  be  too 
much  out  of  tune  with  other  intervals  conso- 
nant to  the  key-note  for  admission  to  our  scales. 
We  are  impressed  with  it  as  by  a  wail — in  the 
words  of  Coleridge  a  *  sweet  upbraiding,'  ('  The 
yEolian  Harp,'  Poems,  i.  190) — to  be  followed  as 
the  wind-pressure  increases  by  more  and  more 
angry  notes  as  we  mount  to  those  dissonances  in 
the  next  higher  octave,  especially  the  eleventh 
and  thirteenth  overtones  that  alternate  and  seem 
to  shriek  and  howl  until  the  abating  gust  of  wind 
suffers  the  lower  beautiful  harmonies  to  pre- 


dominate again.  The  mind  finds  in  this  return  a 
choral  echo  as  of  some  devotional  antiphon,  at  least 
this  has  been  the  writer's  experience,  and  not  the 
mingling  of  violins,  flutes,  harps,  and  chromatic 
sequences  by  which  some  have  described  it.  The 
^olian  harp  is  nature's  music  ;  man's  music  is 
an  art,  implying  selection.  He  chooses  intervals 
to  construct  his  scales  with,  and  avoids  ratios 
that  do  not  coincide  with  his  instinctive  feeling 
or  intention.  [A.  J.  H.] 

JEOLIAN  MODE.  The  ^olians,  who  migrated 
from  Greece  to  Asia  Minor  in  the  12th  century 
B.C.,  have  the  credit  of  improving  the  system 
of  the  Greek  music  by  the  addition  of  another 
TETRACHORD.  Very  great  uncertainty  obscures 
this  subject;  indeed  from  the  earliest  records 
we  can  find,  it  would  seem  that  from  time  to 
time  the  Greek  modes  experienced  those  changes, 
regarded  by  some  as  deteriorations,  by  others 
(probably)  as  improvements,  to  which  all  living 
art  is  necessarily  subject.  Whether  they  owed 
their  original  impressiveness  to  the  varieties  of 
theii'  intervals,  or  to  some  kind  of  prosodaic  time 
peculiar  to  each,  or  to  the  combination  of  both, 
we  read  the  following  eulogy  on  their  native 
energy,  and  also  a  lament  over  their  too  general 
neglect,  in  a  quotation  cited  by  Dr.  Bumey  from 
Heraclides  of  Pontus,  a  contemporary  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle  (about  335  B.C.).  Describing 
what  he  then  styled  the  three  most  ancient 
modes,  he  says,  'the  Dorian  is  grave  and 
magnificent,  neither  too  difi'usive,  gay,  nor 
varied ;  but  severe  and  vehement.  The  jEolian 
is  grand  and  pompous,  though  sometimes  sooth- 
ing, as  it  is  used  for  the  breaking  of  horses,  and 
the  reception  of  guests ;  and  it  has  likewise  an 
air  of  simplicity  and  confidence,  suitable  to 
pleasure,  love,  and  good  cheer.  Lastly,  the 
Ionian  is  neither  brilliant  nor  efieminate,  but 
rough  and  austere ;  with  some  degree  however 
of  elevation,  force,  and  energy.  But  in  these 
times,  since  the  corruption  of  manners  has 
subverted  everything,  the  true,  original,  and 
specific  qualities  peculiar  to  each  mode  are  lost.' 
(Dissertation  on  the  Music  of  the  Ancients,  4to,, 
p.  60).  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  whatever 
may  have  been  the  nature  of  the  Greek  modes, 
we  have  their  counterparts  and,  as  it  were,  their 
living  descendants  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes 
which  still  bear  their  names,  and  are,  most 
likely,  if  not  the  same,  yet  the  legitimate 
inheritors  of  their  peculiar  lineaments  ;  nor  to 
fit  audience  in  the  present  day  are  they  found 
destitute  of  their  parents'  varied  and  attractive 
characteristics. 

The  authentic  ^olian  mode — or,  as  it  is  often 
called,  the  H3rper-^olian — as  we  now  know  it,  is 
the  ninth  of  the  church  modes,  scales,  or  tones, 
as  they  are  variously  called.  Its  notes  range 
thus — as  in  the  modem  minor  scale,  though 
without  any  accidentals  in  ascending  : — 


The  Ryper-^olian  Mode.  Authentic. 


40  ^OLIAX  MODE. 

and  its  melodies  are  contained  within  the  octave 
from  A  to  A.  The  division  of  the  scale  is 
'harmonic,'  i.e.  the  diapente  (A  to  E)  is  below 
the  diatessaron  (E  to  A).  Thus  the  final  is  A, 
and  the  dominant  E. 


2. 


Its  plagal  mode  is  called  the  Hypo-^^olian,  and 
has  the  'arithmetical'  di\'ision,  i,  e.  the  diatessaron 
below  the  diapente.  Here  the  final  is  A,  and 
the  dominant  C  : — 


The  Eypo-jEolian  Mode.  Plagal. 


with  its  diatessaron  and  diapente  : — 
4- 


The  melodies  in  the  H}"po-^olian  mode  range 
from  the  fourth  below  to  the  fifth  above  the  final 
A.  The  dominant  is  C  in  this  plagal  mode, 
according  to  the  rule  that  'the  dominants  of 
the  plagal  modes  are  always  the  third  below 
the  dominants  of  the  relative  authentic,  unless 
this  third  happens  to  be  B,  when  the  nearest 
sound  C  is  substituted  for  it,'  as  appears,  for 
example,  in  the  eighth  mode. 

The  pitch  of  the  authentic  -^olian  scale  being 
higher  than  is  convenient  for  many  voices  led  to 
its  being  often  transposed  a  fifth  lower  by  the 
use  of  the  B  flat.  The  scale  will  thus  begin  on 
D,  and  the  semitones  (as  in  our  modern  minor 
scales)  will  fall  in  the  same  places  as  before,  viz. 
between  the  second  and  third,  and  fifth  and  sixth 
notes  of  the  scale. 


1  2345678 

In  this  position  the  ^olian  mode  is  apt  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Dorian,  or  first  mode,  with 
which,  when  thus  transposed,  it  corresponds, 
except  in  the  upper  tetrachord,  the  semitone  of 
which  in  the  Dorian  mode  falls  between  the  sixth 
and  seventh  notes  of  the  scale.  The  transposed 
final  is  D,  and  the  dominant  A,  as  in  the  first 
mode,  but  the  semitones  fall  (as  in  the  un- 
transposed  position)  between  the  second  and 
third  of  the  scale  (E  and  F),  and  between  the 
fifth  and  sixth  (A  and  B  b). 

The  service-books  contain  hymns,  antiphons, 
etc.,  which,  though  belonging  originally  to  this 
^olian  mode,  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  two 
Dorian  modes  ;  and  the  scale  of  the  Hypo -Dorian 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Hyper-^i^olian,  but  an 
octave  lower,  and  having  of  course  its  own  pla^fal 
character  and  treatment,  and  thus  differing 
from  the  authentic  Hyper-^olian. 

Examples  of  the  -^olian  mode  may  be  found 


^OLODION. 

in  the  chorales  *Puer  natus  in  Bethlehem,' 
No.  12,  and  '  Herzliebster  Jesu,'  No.  iii,  of 
Bach's  '371  Choralgesange.'  The  latter  is  from 
the  St.  John  Passion.  Mozart's  Requiem  may 
be  said  almost  to  begin  and  end  with  the  ^olian 
scale,  for  the  'Te  decet  h\Tnnus'  and  'Lux 
Sterna'  which  form  so  prominent  a  feature  in 
the  first  and  last  movements  are  given  in  the 
melody  of  the  'Tonus  Peregrinus,'  which  is 
founded  directly  on  this  scale. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  that  from 
the  earliest  date  of  any  kind  of  counterpoint 
the  ancient  tones  have  been  harmonised  both 
in  the  organ  accompaniment,  and,  for  some 
portions  of  the  divine  service,  in  vocal  parts ; 
and  although,  from  the  vast  quantity  of  Gregorian 
music  used  in  the  antiphonars,  psalters,  hymna- 
ries,  etc.,  of  the  Western  churches,  it  is  found 
expedient  to  use  vocal  unisons  (or  octaves)  with 
organ  accompaniment  in  all  ordinary  services, 
yet  the  psalm  tones  have  for  centuries  been  sung 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel  (where  there  is  no  organ  nor 
other  instrument)  with  vocal  harmonies  in  three 
parts,  to  which  Baini  added  a  fourth  part  for  the 
soprano.  Gafforius  arranged  them  in  the  15  th 
century,  and  the  style  of  vocal  accompaniment 
called  Faux-bourdox,  in  which  he  set  them,  had 
grown  up  gradually  and  very  generally  in  the 
churches,  most  probably  from  the  first  invention 
and  subsequent  improvements  of  the  organ. 
Some  intimations  of  this  are  contained  in  the 
'  Micrologus '  of  Guido  Aretino,  written  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  nth  century.  [T.  H.] 

JGOLINA.  A  small  and  simple  'free  reed' 
instrument,  invented  about  1829  by  Messrs. 
Wheatstone.  It  consisted  of  a  few  free  reeds, 
which  were  fixed  into  a  metal  plate  and  blown 
by  the  mouth.  As  each  reed  was  furnished  with 
a  separate  aperture  for  supplpng  the  wind,  a 
simple  melody  could  of  course  be  played  by 
moving  the  instrument  backwards  and  forwardis 
before  the  mouth.  Its  value  for  artistic  purposes 
was  nil ;  its  only  interest  is  a  historical  one, 
as  being  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  make 
practical  use  of  the  discovery  of  the  free  reed. 
The  seolina  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  germ  of 
the  AccoKDiON  and  Coxcertixa.  [E.  P.] 

^OLODION,  or  ^OLODICON  (also  called 
in  Germany  Windharmonika),  a  keyed  wind- 
instrument  resembling  the  harmonium,  the  tone 
of  which  was  produced  from  steel  springs.  It 
had  a  compass  of  six  octaves,  and  its  tone  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  harmonium.  There  is 
some  controversy  as  to  its  original  inventor ; 
most  authorities  attribute  it  to  J.  T.  Eschenbach 
of  Hamburg,  who  is  said  to  have  first  made  it 
in  1800.  Various  improvements  were  subse- 
quently made  by  other  mechanicians,  among 
whom  may  be  named  Schmidt  of  Presburg,  Voit 
of  Schweinfurt,  Sebastian  Miiller  (1826),  and  F. 
Sturm  of  Suhl  (1833).  The  instrument  is  now 
entirely  superseded  by  the  harmonium.  A  modi- 
fication of  the  aeolodion  was  the  iEOLSKLAViER, 
invented  about  1825  by  Schortmann  of  Buttel- 
stadt,  in  which  the  reeds  or  springs  which 


^OLODIOX. 


AGNESI. 


41 


produced  tlie  sound  were  made  of  wood  instead 
of  metal,  by  wliich  the  quality  of  tone  was  made 
softer  and  sweeter.  The  instrument  appears  to 
have  been  soon  forgotten.  A  further  modification 
was  the  iEOLOiiELODicoN  or  choraleon,  con- 
structed by  Brunner  at  Warsaw,  about  the  year 
1 82 5,  from  the  design  of  Professor  Hoffmann  in 
that  city.  It  differed  from  the  seolodion  in  the 
fact  that  brass  tubes  were  affixed  to  the  reeds, 
much  as  in  the  reed-stops  of  an  organ.  The 
instrument  was  of  great  power,  and  was  probably 
intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  organ  in  small 
churches,  especially  in  the  accompaniment  of 
chorals,  whence  its  second  name  choraleon.  It 
has  taken  no  permanent  place  in  musical  history. 
In  the  ^OLOPAXTALOX,  invented  about  the  year 
1830,  by  Dlugosz  of  Warsaw,  the  aeolomelodicon 
was  combined  with  a  pianoforte,  so  arranged 
that  the  player  could  make  use  of  either  in- 
strument separately  or  both  together.  A  some- 
what similar  plan  has  been  occasionally  tried 
with  the  piano  and  harmonium,  but  without  great 
success.  [E.  P.] 

AERTS,  Egidius,  bom  at  Boom,  1822,  died 
at  Brussels,  1853  ;  an  eminent  flutist  and 
composer,  studied  under  Lahon  in  the  Con- 
servatoire at  Brussels.  From  1837  to  1840  he 
travelled  professionally  through  France  and 
Italy,  and  on  his  return  to  Brussels  studied 
composition  under  Fetis.  In  1847  was  appointed 
professor  of  the  flute  at  the  Conservatoire,  and 
first  flute  at  the  Theatre.  He  composed  sympho- 
nies and  overtures,  as  well  as  concertos  and  other 
music  for  the  flute.  [M.  C.  C] 

AFFETTUOSO  (Ital.),  or  Cox  Affetto,  'with 
feeling.'  This  word  is  most  commonly  found  in 
such  combinations  as  'andante  affettuoso'  or 
'allegro  affettuoso,'  though  it  is  occasionally 
placed  alone  at  the  beginning  of  a  movement, 
in  which  case  a  somewhat  slow  time  is  intended. 
It  is  frequently  placed  (like  '  espressivo '  '  canta- 
bile,'  etc.)  over  a  single  passage,  when  it  refers 
merely  to  that  particular  phrase  and  not  to  the  en- 
tire movement.  The  German  expressions  '  Innig,' 
*  Mit  innigem  Ausdruck,'  to  be  met  with  in  Schu- 
mann and  other  modem  German  composers  are 
equivalent  to  'Affettuoso.'  [E.  P.] 

AFFILARD,  jMichel  l',  a  tenor  singer  in 
the  choir  of  Louis  XIV  from  16S3  to  1708, 
with  a  salary  of  900  livres.  His  work  on 
singing  at  sight,  'Principes  tres  faciles,'  etc.,  in 
which  the  time  of  the  airs  is  regulated  by 
a  pendulum, — precursor  of  the  metronome — 
passed  through  seven  editions  (Paris,  1691 ; 
Amsterdam,  1717.) 

AFRAXIO,  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the 
1 6th  century,  a  canon  of  Ferrara,  and  reputed 
inventor  of  the  bassoon,  on  the  ground  of  a 
wind  instrument  of  his  called  Phagotum,  which 
is  mentioned,  and  figured  in  two  woodcuts,  at 
p.  1 79  of  the  '  Introductio  in  Chaldaicam  linguam ' 
of  Albonesi  (Pavia,  1539),  a  work  dedicated 
by  the  author  to  his  uncle  Afranio.  The  in- 
strument sufliciently  resembles  the  modem 
bassoon  or  fagotto  to  make  good  Afranio's  right ; 


but  the  book  does  not  appear  to  contain  any 
account  of  it. 

AFZELIUS,  Arvid  August,  bom  1785,  a 
Swedish  pastor  and  archaeologist ;  edited  conjointly 
with  Geijer  a  collection  of  Swedish  national 
melodies,  *  Svenska  Folkvisor,'  3  vols.  (Stock- 
holm, 1 8 14-16,  continued  by  Arwidsson),  and 
wrote  the  historical  notes  to  another  collection, 
'  Afsked  af  Svenska  Folksharpan '  (Stockholm, 
1848). 

AGAZZARI,  Agostixo,  was  a  cadet  of  a 
noble  family  of  Siena,  and  bom  on  Dec.  2,  1578. 
He  passed  the  fiirst  years  of  his  professional  life 
in  the  service  of  the  Emperor  Matthias.  After 
a  time  he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  was  chosen 
Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  German  College 
(before  1603)  at  the  church  of  S.  Apollinaris,^ 
and  subsequently  at  the  Seminario  Romano.  An 
intimacy  grew  up  between  him  and  the  well- 
kno%\'n  Viadana,  of  Mantua,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  earliest  adopters  of  the  figured  bass.  In  the 
preface  to  his  third  volume  of  'Motetti'  (Zanetti, 
Rome,  1606),  he  gives  some  instructions  for  its 
employment.  In  1630  he  returned  to  Siena,  and 
became  Maestro  of  its  cathedral,  a  post  which  he 
retained  till  his  death,  probably  in  1 640.  Agazzari 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  the  Armonici 
Intronati.  His  publications  are  numerous,  and 
consist  of  Madrigals,  Motetts,  Psalms,  Magni- 
ficats, Litanies,  etc.,  republished  in  numerous 
editions  at  Rome,  Milan,  Venice,  Antwerp, 
Frankfort,  and  elsewhere.  His  one  substantive 
contribution  to  the  scientific  literature  of  music 
is  a  little  work  of  only  sixteen  quarto  pages, 
entitled  '  La  Musica  Ecclesiastica,  dove  si  contiene 
la  vera  diffinizione  della  Musica  come  Scienza  non 
piti  veduta  e  sua  nobilta'  (Siena,  1638);  the 
object  of  which  is  to  determine  how  church  music 
should  best  conform  itself  to  the  Resolution  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Palestrina,  however,  had  worked 
at  a  clearer  practical  solution  of  that  problem  than 
any  which  the  speculations  of  a  scientific  theorist 
could  possibly  evolve.  On  the  authority  of  Pitoni, 
a  pastoral  drama,  entitled  'Eumelio,'  has  been 
ascribed  to  Agazzari.  It  was  undoubtedly  per- 
formed at  Amelia,  and  printed  by  Domenico 
Domenici  at  Roncilione  in  161 4  (Allacci,  'Dra- 
maturgia ') ;  but  no  author's  name  is  affixed 
either  to  music  or  libretto. 

A  short  motett  by  Agazzari  is  given  by  Proske 
in  the  'Musica  divina'  (Lib.  Motettorum,  No. 
Ixv).  [E.  H.  P.] 

AGITATO  (Ital.),  also  Cox  Agitazioxe, 
'agitated,'  'restless.'  This  adjective  is  mostly 
combined  with  '  allegro '  or  '  presto '  to  describe 
the  character  of  a  movement.  In  the  somewhat 
rare  cases  in  which  it  occurs  without  any  other 
time-indication  (e.g.  Mendelssohn's  'Lieder  ohne 
Worte,'  Book  i.,  Xo.  5,  'Piano  agitato')  a  rather 
rapid  time  is  indicated. 

AGXESI,  Maria  Teresa,  bom  at  Milan, 
1724;  sister  of  the  renowned  scholar,  Maria 
Gaetana  Agnesi ;  a  celebrated  pianist  of  her 

1  Bainl  alone  mentions  this  second  appointment ;  but  he  is  prob- 
ably right. 


42 


AGNESI. 


AGEEMENS. 


time,  composed  four  operas,  'Sofonisbe/  'Giro 
in  Armenia,'  'Nitocri,'  and  'Insubria  conso- 
lata'  (1771),  several  cantatas,  and  many  piano- 
forte concertos  and  sonatas,  well  known  in 
Germany.  [M.  C.  C.] 

AGOSTINI,  LUDOVICO,  bom  1534  at  Ferrara. 
In  boly  orders,  and  both  poet  and  composer. 
Became  chapel-master  to  Alfonso  II,  Duke  of 
Este,  and  died  Sept.  20,  1590.  A  collection  of 
his  masses,  motetts,  and  madrigals,  appeared 
shortly  before  his  death. 

AGOSTINI,  Paolo,  an  Italian  composer,  who 
stands  out  in  relief  from  too  many  of  his  con- 
temporary countrymen.  He  was  bom  at  Val- 
lerano  in  1593,  and  was  a  pupil,  at  Eome,  of 
Bernardino  Nanini,  whose  daughter  he  married. 
After  being  organist  of  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
and  Maestro  di  Cappello  at  S.  Lorenzo  in  Da- 
maso,  he  succeeded  Ugolini  as  Maestro  at  the 
Vatican  Chapel,  in  1629.  Unhappily  for  his 
art,  he  died  a  few  months  after  his  preferment, 
in  the  36th  year  of  his  age. 

Pitoni,  who  would  seem  to  be  nothing  if  not  inac- 
curate, has  a  story  to  the  effect  that  Agostini 
owed  his  appointment  at  the  Vatican  to  an  un- 
answered challenge  to  a  musical  encounter,  which 
he  sent  to  Ugolini,  who  had  been  his  fellow - 
pupil  under  Nanini ;  the  Chapter  conceived  that, 
if  their  Maestro  shunned  a  professional  duello 
with  Agostini,  he  ought  to  give  up  his  place  to 
him.  But  this  is  hardly  probable,  and  Baini, 
with  unnecessary  perseverance,  exposes  its  im- 
probability. A  more  pleasant  anecdote  is  that 
Urban  VIII  happened  to  enter  the  Basilica  at 
the  moment  when  a  work  of  Agostini's,  for  forty- 
eight  voices,  after  the  fashion  then  in  vogue,  was 
being  performed  by  the  choir.  The  Pope  stopped 
to  hear  it  out ;  and,  at  its  conclusion,  rose  and 
bowed  pointedly  to  its  composer,  to  mark  his 
sense  of  its  beauty. 

The  extant  published  works  of  Agostini  con- 
sist of  two  volumes  of  Psalms  for  four  and  eight 
voices  (printed  by  Soldi,  Eome,  1619)  ;  two 
volumes  of  Magnificats  for  one,  two,  and  three 
voices  (Ibid.,  1620)  ;  and  five  volumes  of  Masses 
for  eight  and  twelve  voices,  published  (Eobletti, 
Eome)  in  1624,  1625,  1626,  1627,  and  1628  re- 
spectively. He  was  one  of  the  first  to  employ 
large  numbers  of  voices  in  several  choirs. 
Ingenuity  and  elegance  are  his  prevailing  char- 
acteristics ;  but  that  he  could  and  did  rise  beyond 
these,  is  proved  by  an  'Agnus  Dei'  for  eight 
voices  in  canon,  which  was  published  by  P. 
Martini  in  his  '  Saggio  di  Contrappunto  Fugato,' 
and  which  is  allowed  to  be  a  masterpiece.  The 
fame,  however,  of  Agostini  rests  upon  his  un- 
published pieces,  which  form  the  great  bulk  of 
his  productions.  They  are  preserved  partly  in 
the  Corsini  Library,  and  partly  in  the  Collection 
of  the  Vatican.*    A  motett  by  Agostini  is  given 

1  Paolo  Agostini  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  earlier  and  in- 
ferior Ludovico  AKOstini  of  Ferrara,  who,  having  lived  for  fifty-six 
years,  and  having  been  Maestro  at  the  Cathedral  of  his  native  town, 
died  in  1590,  and  left  certain  masses,  madrigals,  and  motetti  behind 
him :  nor  with  Pietro  Simoni  Agostini,  a  Roman,  who  lived  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  the  author  of  some  i)ublistied 
cantatas,  and  of  'II  Katto  delle  Sabine,'  an  opera  performed  in 
Venice  in  1080. 


in  Proske's  'Musica  Divina'  (Liber  Motettorum, 
No.  Ixx.)  [E.  H.  P.] 

AGEELL,  JoHANN,  bom  at  Loth  in  Sweden  ; 
studied  at  Linkoping  and  Upsal.  Appointed 
court  musician  at  Cassel  in  1723,  and  in  1746 
conductor  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  died,  1767. 
He  left  nine  published  works  (Nuremberg), 
concertos,  sonatas,  etc.,  and  many  more  in 
manuscript. 

AGEEMENS  (Fr.,  properly  Agremens  du 
Chant  or  de  Musique  ;  Ger.  Manieren  ;  Eng. 
Gi'aces).  Certain  ornaments  introduced  into 
vocal  or  instrumental  melody,  indicated  either 
by  signs,  or  by  small  notes,  and  performed  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules. 

Various  forms  of  agremens  have  been  from 
time  to  time  invented  by  different  composers, 
and  many  of  them  have  again  fallen  into  disuse, 
but  the  earliest  seem  to  have  been  the  invention 
of  Chambonnieres,  a  celebrated  French  organist 
of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV  (1670),  and  they  were 
probably  introduced  into  Germany  by  Muff  AT, 
organist  at  Passau  in  1695,  who  in  his  youth  had 
studied  in  Paris.  The  proper  employment  of  the 
agremens  in  French  music — which,  according  to 
Eousseau  (Dictionnaire  de  Musique,  1768)  were 
necessary  'pour  couvrir  un  peu  la  fadeur  du 
chant  fran9ais' — was  at  first  taught  in  Paris 
by  special  professors  of  the  *  gout  du  chant,' 
but  no  definite  rules  for  their  application  were 
laid  down  until  Emanuel  Bach  treated  them 
very  fully  in  his  'Versuch  iiber  die  wahre 
Art  das  Clavier  zu  spielen,'  in  1752.  In 
this  he  speaks  of  the  great  value  of  the  agre- 
mens : — '  they  serve  to  connect  the  notes,  they 
enliven  them,  and  when  necessary  give  them 
a  special  emphasis,  .  .  .  they  help  to 
elucidate  the  character  of  the  music ;  whether  it 
be  sad,  cheerful,  or  otherwise,  they  always  con- 
tribute their  share  to  the  effect, 
an  indifferent  composition  may  be  improved  by 
their  aid,  while  without  them  even  the  best 
melody  may  appear  empty  and  meaninoless.'  At 
the  same  time  he  warns  against  their  too  fre- 
quent use,  and  says  they  should  be  as  the  orna- 
ments with  which  the  finest  building  may  be 
overladen,  or  the  spices  with  which  the  best  dish 
may  be  spoilt. 

The  agremens  according  to  Emanuel  Bach  are 
the  Bebung,^  Vorschlag,  Triller,  Doppelschlag, 
Mordent,  Anschlag,  Schleifer,  Schneller,  and 
Brechung  (Ex.  i). 


I.    Behung.  Vorschlag,  Triller. 


2  The  Behung  (Fr.  '  balancement ' ;  ftal.  '  tremolo  *)  cannot  be  ex- 
ecuted on  the  modern  pianoforte.  It  consisted  in  giving  to  the  key  of 
the  clavichord  a  certain  trembling  pressure,  which  produced  a  lund  of 
pulsation  of  the  sound,  without  any  intervals  of  silence.  On  stringed 
instruments  a  similar  effect  is  obtained  by  a  rocking  movement  of  the 
finger  without  raising  it  from  the  string. 


Doppelschlag. 


AGREMENS. 

yiordent. 


AGREMENS. 


43 


Anschlag. 


 w 

 n — r 

=a 

Schleifer. 


Schnelkr.  Brcchung. 

4- 


In  addition  to  these,  Marpurg  treats  of  the 
Naehschlag  (Ex.  2),  which  Emanuel  Bach  does 
not  recognise,  or  at  least  calls  '  ugly,  although 
extraordinarily  in  fashion,'  but  which  is  largely 
employed  by  modem  composers. 

Nachschlag, 


The  principal  agremens  of  French  music  were 
the  Appogiature,  Trille,  and  Accent,  which  re- 
sembled respectively  the  Vorschlag,  Triller  and 
Xachschlag  described  above,  and  in  addition 
the  Mordant — which  appears  to  have  differed 
from  the  Mordent  of  German  music,  and  to 
have  been  a  kind  of  interrupted  trill, — the  Coul^, 
Port  de  voix,  ^  Port  de  voix  jette,  and  the 
Cadence  pleine  ou  brisee^  (Ex.  3). 

3'  Mordant, 


The  agremens  or  graces  peculiar  to  old  English 
music  differed  considerably  from  the  above,  and 

I  The  term  '  Port  de  voix,'  which  ought  properly  to  signify  the 
carrying  of  the  voice  with  extreme  smoothness  from  one  not«  to  an- 
other (Ital.  'portamento  di  voce'),  has  been  very  generally  applied  to 
the  at)poi;giatura. 

^  The  Doppelschlag  (Eng.  '  Turn ')  was  often  called  Cadence  by  the 
French  writers  of  the  time  of  Couperin  (1700) ;  and  indeed  Sebastian 
Bach  uses  the  word  in  this  sense  in  his  '  Clavier-Biichlein'  (1720). 


have  now  become  obsolete.  They  are  described 
in  an  instruction-book  for  the  violin,  called  the 
Division  Violist,  by  Christopher  Simpson,  pub- 
lished in  1659,  ^'^^  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  'smooth  and  shaked  graces.'  The  smooth 
graces  are  only  adapted  to  stringed  instruments, 
as  they  are  to  be  executed  by  sliding  the  finger 
along  the  string ;  they  include  the  Plain-beat  or 
Rise,  the  Backfall,  the  Double  Backfall,  the  Ele- 
vation, the  Cadent,  and  the  Springer,  which  '  con- 
cludes the  Sound  of  a  Note  more  acute,  by 
clapping  down  another'  Finger  just  at  the  ex- 
piring of  it.'  The  effect  of  this  other  finger  upon 
the  violin  would  be  to  raise  the  pitch  of  the  last 
note  but  one  (the  upper  of  the  two  written  notes) 
so  that  the  Springer  would  resemble  the  French 
Accent.  The  '  shaked  graces'  are  the  Shaked 
Beat,  Backfall,  Elevation,  and  Cadent,  which  are 
similar  to  the  plain  graces  with  the  addition 
of  a  shake,  and  lastly  the  Double  Relish,  of  which 
no  explanation  in  words  is  attempted,  but  an 
example  in  notes  given  as  below  (Ex.  4). 


4«  Plain-beat, 


Double  Backfall. 


44 


AGEEMENS. 


AGEICOLA. 


The  agrdmens  used  in  modem  music  or  in  the 
performance  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters 
are  the  acciacatura,  appoggiatura,  arpeggio,  mor- 
dent, nachschlag,  shake  or  trill,  slide,  and  turn, 
each  of  which  will  be  fully  described  in  its  own 
place.  [F.  T.] 

AGEICOLA,  Alexander,  a  composer  of 
great  celebrity  living  at  the  end  of  the  15th 
century  and  beginning  of  the  i6th.  Crespel's 
lament  on  the  death  of  Ockenheim  mentions 
Agricola  as  a  fellow-pupil  in  the  school  of  that 
master;  and  the  dates  of  his  published  works, 
together  with  an  interesting  epitaph  printed  in 
a  collection  of  motetts  published  at  Wittenberg 
in  1538,  furnish  us  with  materials  for  briefly 
sketching  his  life.  The  words  of  the  epitaph, 
which  bears  the  title  'Epitaphium  Alex,  Agri- 
colae  Symphoniastae  regis  Castaliae  Philippi,'  are 
as  follows : — 

*  Musica  quid  defies  ?  Periit  mea  aura  decusque. 
Estne  Alexander  ?  Is  meus  Agricola. 
Die  age  qualis  erat  ?  Clarus  vocum  manuumque. 

Quis  locus  hunc  rapuit  ?  Valdoletanus  ager. 
Quis  Belgara  hunc  traxit?    Magnus  rex  ipse 
Philippus. 

Quo  morbo  interiit  ?  Febre  furente  obiit. 
Aetas  quae  fuerat  ?  Jam  sexagesimus  annus. 
Sol  ubi  tunc  stabat  ?  Virginio  capite.' 

The  question  'Who  brought  this  Belgian?'  is 
decisive  as  to  his  nationality.  He  was  certainly 
educated  in  the  Netherlands,  and  passed  great 
part  of  his  life  there.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
distinguished  both  as  a  singer  and  performer. 
A  letter  of  Charles  VIII  of  France,  in  Mr. 
Julian  Marshall's  collection,  proves  that  he  was 
in  that  king's  service,  and  left  it,  without  leave, 
for  that  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  whence  Charles 
reclaimed  him.  Charles  died  1598.  Petrucci 
pulDlished  some  of  Agricola's  works  at  Venice  in 
1 503.  He  entered  the  service  of  Philip,  duke  of 
Austria  and  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
followed  him  to  Castile  in  1506.  There  Agricola 
remained  until  his  death,  at  the  age  of  60  (about 
the  year  1530),  of  acute  fever,  in  the  territory  of 
Valladolid.  Amongst  Agricola's  known  works 
the  most  important  are  two  motetts  for  three 
voices  from  the  collection  entitled  'Motetti 
XXXIII'  (Venice,  Petrucci,  1502) ;  eight  four- 
part  songs  from  the  collection  '  Canti  cento  cin- 
quanta'  (Venice,  Petrucci,  1503)  ;  and  a  volume 
of  five  masses  '  Misse  Alex.  Agricolae '  (Venice, 
Petrucci,  1505).  It  is  not  improbable  that  a 
large  number  of  his  compositions  may  still  be 
contained  in  the  libraries  of  Spain.    [  J.E.  S.-B.] 

AGEICOLA,  Georg  Ludwig,  bom  Oct.  25, 
1643,  at  Grossen-Fuira  in  Thuringia,  where 
his  father  was  clergyman  ;  brought  up  at 
Eisenach  and  Gotha  and  the  universities  of 
Wittenberg  and  Leipsic ;  kapellmeister  at  Gotha 
in  1670.  He  composed  ' Musikalische  Ne- 
benstunden'  for  two  violins,  two  violas,  and 
bass;  religious  hymns  and  madrigals;  sonatas 
and  preludes,  *auf  franzosische  Art,*  etc.,  etc. 
He  died  at  Gotha  in  Feb.  1676  at  the  age  of 


thirty-three,  full  of  promise,  but  without  ac- 
complishing a  style  for  himself.  [F.  G.] 
AGEICOLA,  JoHANN,  born  at  Nuremberg 
about  157°'  professor  of  music  in  the  Gymna- 
sium at  Erfurt  in  161 1,  and  composer  of 
three  collections  of  motetts  (Nuremberg,  1601- 
1611). 

AGEICOLA,  JoHANN  Fbiedrich,  bom  Jan. 
4,  1720,  at  Dobitschen,  Altenburg,  Saxony. 
His  father  was  a  judge,  and  his  mother,  Maria 
Magdalen  Manke,  from  Giebrichenstein  near 
Halle,  was  a  friend  of  the  great  Handel.  He 
began  to  learn  music  in  his  fifth  year  under  a 
certain  Martini.  In  1738  he  entered  the 
University  of  Leipsic  when  Gottsched  was 
Professor  of  Ehetoric.  But  though  he  went 
through  the  regular  course  of  'humanities'  he 
also  studied  music  under  Sebastian  Bach,  with 
whom  he  worked  hard  for  three  years.  After 
this  he  resided  at  Dresden  and  Berlin,  and 
studied  the  dramatic  style  under  Graun  and 
Hasse.  In  1 749  he  published  two  pamphlets  on 
French  and  Italian  taste  in  music  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Olibrio.  In  the  following  year  a 
cantata  of  his, '  II  Filosofo  convinto  in  amore,'  was 
performed  before  Frederic  the  Great,  and  made 
such  an  impression  on  the  king  as  to  induce  him 
to  confer  on  Agricola  the  post  of  Hof-componist. 
He  had  an  equal  success  with  a  second  cantata, 
'  La  Eicamatrice.'  Agricola  then  married  Signora 
Molteni,  prima  donna  of  the  Berlin  opera,  and 
composed  various  operas  for  Dresden  and  Berlin, 
as  well  as  much  music  for  the  Church  and  many 
arrangements  of  the  king's  melodies.  After  the 
death  of  Graun  (Aug.  8,  1759)  he  was  made 
director  of  the  royal  chapel ;  but  without  the 
title  of  '  kapellmeister.'  There  he  remained  till 
his  death  in  1774 — Nov.  12  (Fork el)  or  Dec.  i 
(Schneider,  Hist,  of  Berlin  Opera).  Agricola's 
compositions  had  no  permanent,  success,  nor  were 
any  printed  excepting  a  psalm  and  some  chorals. 
He  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  organ- 
player  in  Berlin,  and  a  good  teacher  of  singing. 
He  translated  with  much  skill  Tosi's  'Opinioni 
de'  Cantori,'  and  made  some  additions  of  value  to 
Adlung's  *  Musica  mechanica  organoedi.'   [F.  G.] 

AGEICOLA,  Martin,  whose  German  name, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,  was  Sohr,  or  Sore,  was 
born  about  1500  at  Sorall  in  Lower  Silesia.  In 
1524  we  find  him  teacher  and  cantor  in  the  first 
Protestant  school  at  Magdeburg,  and  he  remained 
there  till  his  death,  June  10,  1556.  The  assertion 
of  his  biographer  Caspar  that  Agricola  reached 
the  age  of  seventy  has  misled  all  following 
writers  as  to  the  date  of  his  birth.  In  his 
'  Musica  instrumentalis  deudsch,'  which,  not- 
withstanding its  polyglott  title  is  written  in 
German,  he  states  that  he  had  no  'activum 
prseceptorem '  for  music,  but  learned  the  art 
by  himself  while  constantly  occupied  as  a  school- 
master. That  work  is  remarkable  not  only  for  its 
musical  ability  but  for  its  German  style,  which  has 
all  the  force  and  flavour  of  the  writings  of  his 
contemporary  Luther  himself.  Agricola's  chief 
protector  and  friend  was  Ehaw,  the  senator  of 


AGRICOLA. 


AGUJARI. 


45 


Wittenberg,  renowned  in  his  own  day  as  a 
printer  of  music.  This  excellent  man  printed 
many  of  Agricola's  works,  of  which  the  following 
may  be  named  amongst  others  : — '  Ein  kurtz 
deutsche  Musica,'  1528  ;  'Musica  instrumentalis 
deudsch,'  1529,  '32,  '45  ;  'Musica  figuralis 
deudsch,'  1532;  'Von  den  Proportionibus' ; 
'Rudimenta  Musices,'  1539.  ^he  list  of  the  rest 
will  be  found  in  Draudius'  '  Bibliotheca  Classica,' 
p.  1650;  Walther's  'Lexicon';  Marpurg's 
'  Beitrage,'  vol.  v ;  Forkel's  '  Literature,'  and 
Gerber's  '  Dictionary.'  Mattheson  in  his  '  Epho- 
rus'  (p.  124)  praises  him  for  having  been  the 
first  to  abolish  the  '  ancient  tablature,'  and  adopt 
the  system  of  notation  which  we  still  employ. 
But  this  is  inaccurate.  All  that  Agricola  pro- 
posed was  a  new  '  tablature '  for  the  lute,  better 
than  the  old  one.  On  the  conflict  between  the 
old  and  new  notation,  Agricola's  writings  are 
full  of  interest,  and  they  must  be  studied  by 
every  one  who  wishes  to  have  an  accurate  view 
of  that  revolution.  But  unfortunately  they  are 
both  rare  and  costly.  [E.  G.] 

AGRICOLA,  Wolfgang  Chrtstoph,  lived 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  composed  a 
'Fasciculus  Musicalis'  (Wurzburg  and  Cologne, 
1 651),  of  masses,  and  'Fasciculus  variarum  can- 
tionum,'  of  motetts. 

AGTHE,  Carl  Christian,  born  at  Hettstadt, 
1739;  died  at  Ballenstedt,  1797;  organist,  com- 
poser of  six  operas,  three  pianoforte  sonatas 
(Leipsic,  1790%  and  a  collection  of  Lieder  (Des- 
sau, 1782).  His  son,  W.  J.  Albrecht,  born  at 
Ballenstedt,  1790,  in  18 10  settled  at  Leipsic, 
and  1 8  2  3  at  Dresden  as  teacher  of  Logier's  system, 
under  the  approval  of  C.  M.  von  Weber,  and  in 
1 8 26  founded  a  similar  establishment  at  Posen. 
Later  he  was  at  Berlin.  Kullak  is  his  best- 
known  pupil.  [M.  C.  C] 

AGTJADO,  DiONisio,  bom  in  Madrid,  1784, 
a  remarkable  performer  on  the  guitar;  received 
his  chief  instruction  from  Garcia,  the  great  singer. 
In  1825  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  associated 
with  the  most  eminent  artistes  of  the  day,  till 
1838,  when  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and  died 
there  in  1849.  His  method  for  the  guitar,  an 
excellent  work  of  its  kind,  passed  through  three 
editions  in  Spain  (Madrid,  1825-1843)  and  one 
in  Paris  (1827).  He  also  published  'Colleccion 
de  los  Etudios  para  la  guitarra'  (Madrid,  1820), 
*  Colleccion  de  Andantes,'  etc.,  and  other  works 
for  his  instrument.  [M.  C.  C] 

AGUILERA  DE  HEREDIA,  Sebastian,  a 
monk  and  Spanish  composer  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 7th  century.  His  chief  work  was  a  collection  of 
Magnificats  for  four  five,  six,  seven,  and  eight 
voices,  many  of  which  are  still  sung  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Saragosa,  where  he  directed  the  music, 
and  at  other  churches  in  Spain. 

^  AGUJARI,  Lucrezia,  a  very  celebrated 
singer,  who  supplies  an  extraordinary  example  of 
the  fashion  of  nicknaming  musicians ;  for,  being 
a  natural  child  of  a  noble,  she  was  always  an- 
nounced in  the  playbills  and  newspapers  as  La 


Bastardina,  or  Bastardella.  She  was  bom  at 
Ferrara  in  1 743,  instructed  in  a  convent  by  the 
P.  Lambertini,  and  made  her  debut  at  Florence 
in  1764.  Her  triumph  was  brilliant,  and  she 
was  eagerly  engaged  for  all  the  principal  towns, 
Avhere  she  was  enthusiastically  received.  She  did 
not  excel  in  expression,  but  in  execution  she  sur- 
passed all  rivals.  The  extent  of  her  register  was 
beyond  all  comparison.  Sacchini  said  he  had 
heard  her  sing  as  high  as  Bt>  in  altissimo,  and 
she  had  two  good  octaves  below  :  but  Mozart 
himself  heard  her  at  Parma  in  1770,  and  says  of 
her '  that  she  had  '  a  lovely  voice,  a  flexible 
throat,  and  an  incredibly  high  range.  She  sang 
the  following  notes  and  passages  in  my  pre- 
sence : — 


i 


i 


Ten  years  later,  in  speaking  of  !Mara,  he  says, 
'  She  has  not  the  good  fortune  to  please  me.  She 
does  too  little  to  be  compared  to  a  Bastardella — 
though  that  is  her  peculiar  style — and  too  much 
to  touch  the  heart  like  an  Aloysia  Weber.' 
Leopold  Mozart  says  of  her,  'She  is  not 
handsome  nor  yet  ugly,  but  has  at  times  a 
wild  look  in  the  eyes,  like  people  who  are  subject 
to  convulsions,  and  she  is  lame  in  one  foot.  Her 
conduct  formerly  was  good ;  she  has,  consequently, 
a  good  name  and  reputation. 

Agujari  made  a  great  sensation  in  the  carnival 
of  1774  at  Milan,  in  the  serious  opera  of  'II 
Tolomeo,'  by  Colla,  and  still  more  in  a  cantata 
by  the  same  composer.     In  1780  she  married 


Letter  of  March  24, 177(H 


Letter  of  Nor.  13. 1780. 


46 


AGUJARI. 


AIR. 


Colla,  who  composed  for  her  most  of  the  music 
she  sang.  She  sang  at  the  Pantheon  Concerts 
for  some  years,  from  1775,  recei\dng  a  salary  at 
one  time  of  £100  a  night  for  singing  two  songs, 
a  price  which  was  then  simply  enormous.  She 
died  at  Parma,  May  18,  1783.  [J.  M.] 

AGUS,  Henri,  bom  in  1749,  died  1798; 
composer  and  professor  of  solfeggio  in  the 
Conservatoire  of  Paris  (i  795).  His  works,  which 
display  more  learning  than  genius,  consist  of 
trios  for  strings,  two  compositions  for  \noloncello, 
published  in  London,  where  he  lived  for  some 
time,  and  six  duos  concertants  for  two  violins, 
published  by  Barbieri  (Paris)  as  the  op.  37  of 
Boccherini. 

AHLE,  JoHANN  EoDOLPH,  church  composer, 
lx)m  at  Miihlhausen  in  Thuringia,  Dec.  24,  1625; 
educated  at  Gcittingen  and  Erfurt^j  In  1644  he 
became  organist  at  Erfurt,  but  soon  after  settled 
at  his  native  pla<;e,  where  in  1655  "^'^s 
appointed  member  of  the  senate  and  afterwards 
burgomaster.  He  died  in  full  possession  of  his 
powers  Jiily  8,  1673.  His  published  compositions 
include  'Compendium  pro  tenellis'  (1648),  a  trea- 
tise on  singing  which  went  through  three  editions ; 
'  Geistlichen  Dialogen,'  '  Symphonien,  Paduanen, 
und  Balleten' ;  *  Thiiringische  Lustgarten,'  a 
collection  of  church  music ;  400  '  geistlichen 
Arien,'  'geistlichen  Concerto,'  and  'Andachten' 
on  all  the  Sundaj^s  and  Festivals,  etc.,  etc.  He 
cultivated  the  simple  style  of  the  choral,  avoiding 
polyphonic  counterpoint.  BLis  tunes  were  for 
long  very  popular,  and  are  still  sung  in  the 
Protestant  churches  of  Thuringia  —  amongst 
others  that  known  as  'Liebster  Jesu  wir  sind 
hier,'  Able  left  a  son,  Johann  Georg,  bom 
1650,  who  succeeded  to  his  father's  musical  hon- 
our, and  was  made  poet  laureate  by  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  He  died  Dec.  2,  1706.  His  hymn 
times  were  once  popular,  but  are  not  now  in 
use.  [F.  G.] 

AHLSTEOEM,  A.  J.  R.,  bom  about  1762; 
a  Swedish  composer,  organist  at  the  church  of 
St.  J ames,  Stockholm,  and  court  accompamist ; 
composed  sonatas  for  pianoforte  (Stockholm,  1783 
and  1786),  cantatas,  and  songs,  and  edited  with 
Boman  'Walda  svenska  Folkdansar  och  Folkle- 
dar,'  a  collection  of  Swedish  popular  airs,  some 
of  which  have  been  sung  by  Mme.  Lind- 
Goldschmidt.  He  was  also  editor  for  two  years 
of  a  Swedish  musical  periodical  'Musikaliskt 
Tidsfordrif.'  [M.  C.  C] 

AIBLIXGER,  JoHAXN  Caspar,  bom  at 
Wasserbiu-g  in  Bavaria,  Feb.  23,  1779.  His 
compositions  are  much  esteemed,  and  performed 
in  the  Catholic  churches  of  South  Germany.  In 
1803  he  went  to  Italy,  and  studied  eight  years  at 
Vicenza,  after  which  he  settled  at  Venice,  where 
in  conjunction  with  the  Abbe  Gregorio  Trentino 
he  founded  the  *  Odeon'  Institution  for  the 
practice  of  classical  works.  In  1826  he  was 
recalled  to  his  native  country  by  the  king,  and 
appointed  kapellmeister  of  his  court  music.  In 
1833  however  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  resided 
at  Bergamo,  occupying  himself  in  the  collection 


of  ancient  classical  music,  which  is  now  in  the 
Staatsbibliothek  at  Munich.  His  whole  efiforts 
to  the  end  of  his  life  were  directed  to  the 
performance  of  classical  vocal  music  in  the 
All  Saints'  church  at  Munich,  erected  in  1826. 
His  single  attempt  at  dramatic  composition  was 
an  opera  of  'Rodrigo  a  Chimene,'  which  was 
not  successful.  The  bravura  airs  for  Mme. 
Schechner  and  for  Pellegrini  were  much  liked, 
but  the  piece  shewed  no  depth  of  invention.  In 
church  music  however  he  was  remarkably  happy: 
his  compositions  in  this  department  are  in  the 
free  style  of  his  time,  written  with  great  skill, 
and  full  of  religious  feeling,  tuneful,  agreeable, 
and  easy  melody,  and  exactly  suited  to  small 
chiu-ch  choirs.  They  consist  of  masses,  some 
requiems,  graduals,  litanies,  and  psalms,  with 
accompaniments  for  orchestra  and  organ,  pub- 
lished at  Munich,  Augsburg,  and  Paris  ;,Schott). 
Aiblinger  died  May  6,  1867.  [C.  F.  P.] 

AICHIXGER,  Gregor.  Bom  about  1565  ; 
took  holy  orders,  and  entered  the  service  of 
Freiherr  Jacob  Fugger  at  Augsburg  as  organist. 
In  1599  he  paid  a  \-isit  of  two  years  to  Rome  to 
perfect  himself  in  music.  The  date  of  his  death 
is  unknown,  but  it  is  supposed  that  he  was  alive 
at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  one  of  his  works, 
Dec.  5,  1613.  In  the  preface  to  his  'Sacrae 
Cantiones'  (Venice,  1590),  he  praises  the  music 
of  GabrieK ;  and  his  works  also  betray  the 
influence  of  the  Venetian  school.  They  are 
among  the  best  German  music  of  that  time, 
bearing  marks  of  real  genius ;  and  are  superior 
to  those  of  his  contemporary',  the  leamed  Gallus, 
or  Handl.  Amongst  the  most  remarkable  are  a 
'  Ubi  est  frater,'  and  '  Assumpta  est  Maria,'  both 
for  three  voices;  an  'Adoramus'  for  four;  and 
an  'Intonuit  de  coelo'  for  six  voices,  the  last 
printed  in  the  Florihgium  Portense.  A  Litany,  a 
Stabat  Mater,  and  various  motetts  of  his  are 
printed  in  Proske's  '  Musica  divina.'         [F.  G.] 

AIMOX,  Pamphile  Leopold  Francois,  vio- 
loncellist and  composer,  born  at  L'Isle,  near  Avig- 
non, 1779;  conducted  the  orchestra  of  the  theatre 
in  Marseilles  when  only  seventeen,  that  of  the 
Gyrmmse  Dramatique  in  Paris  182 1,  and  of  the 
Theatre  Fran9ais,  on  the  retirement  of  Baudron, 
1822.  Of  his  seven  operas  only  two  were 
performed,  the  *Jeux  Floraux'  (181 8),  and 
'Michel  et  Christine'  (1821),  the  last  with 
great  success.  He  also  composed  numerous 
string  quartetts,  trios,  and  duos  (Paris  and 
Lyons),  and  was  the  author  of  '  Connaissances 
preliminaires  de  L'Harmonie,'  and  other  trea- 
tises. [M.  C.  C] 

AIR  (Ital.  aria;  Fr.  air;  Germ.  Arie,  from 
the  Latin  aer,  the  lower  atmosphere ;  or  (era, 
a  given  number,  an  epoch,  or  period  of  time). 
In  a  general  sense  air,  from  the  element  whose 
vibration  is  the  cause  of  music,  has  come  to 
mean  that  particular  kind  of  music  which  is 
independent  of  harmony.  In  common  parlance 
air  is  rhythmical  melody — any  melody  or  kind 
of  melody  of  which  the  ftet  are  of  the  same 
duration,  and  the  phimoses  bear  some  recognisable 


AIR. 


ALBANl. 


47 


proportion  one  to  another.  In  the  i6th  and  lytli 
centuries  air  represented  popularly  a  cheerful 
strain.  The  English  word  glee,  now  exclusively 
applied  to  a  particular  kind  of  musical  com- 
position, is  derived  from  the  A.  S.  jlijje,  in 
its  primitive  sense  simply  music.  Technically 
an  air  is  a  composition  for  a  single  voice  or  any 
monophonous  instrument,  acccompanied  by  other 
voices  or  by  instruments.  About  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century  many  part-songs  were 
written,  differing  from  those  of  the  preceding 
century  in  many  important  particulars,  but 
chiefly  in  the  fact  of  their  interest  being 
throwTi  into  one,  generally  the  upper,  part ; 
the  other  parts  being  subordinate.  These  other 
parts  were  generally  so  contrived  as  to  admit  of 
being  either  sung  or  played.  The  first  book  of 
Ford's  'Musike  of  sundrie  kinds'  (1607)  is 
of  this  class.  Subsequently  to  its  invention, 
arias  were  for  a  considerable  time  commonly 
published  with  the  accompaniment  only  of  a 
'figured  bass.'  The  aria  grande,  great  or  more 
extended  air,  has  taken  a  vast  variety  of  forms. 
These  however  may  be  classed  under  two  heads, 
the  aria  with  'da  capo'  and  the  aria  without. 
The  invention  of  the  former  and  older  form  has 
been  long  attributed  to  Alessandro  Scarlatti 
(1659-1725);  but  an  aria  printed  in  the  present 
writer's  'Lectures  on  the  Transition  Period  of 
Musical  History,'  shows  that  it  was  used  as 
early  as  1655,  years  before  A.  Scarlatti 

was  bom,  by  the  Venetian,  Francesco  Cavalli, 
a  master  in  whose  opera  'Giasone'  (1649)  the 
line  which  divides  air  from  recitative  seems  to 
have  been  marked  more  distinctly  than  in  any 
preceding  nmsic.  The  so-called  'aria'  of  Monte- 
verde  and  his  contemporaries  (c.  1600)  is  hardly 
distinguishable  from  their  'musica  parlante,'  a 
very  slight  advance  on  the  'plain-song'  of  the 
middle  ages.  The  aria  without  'da  capo'  is  but 
a  more  extended  and  interesting  form  than  that 
of  its  predecessor.  In  the  former  the  first  section 
or  division  is  also  the  last ;  a  section,  always  in 
another  key  and  generally  shorter,  being  inter- 
posed between  the  first  and  its  repetition.  In  the 
latter  the  first  section  is  repeated,  often  several 
times,  the  sections  interposed  being  in  different 
keys  from  one  another  as  well  as  from  the  first, 
which,  on  its  last  repetition,  is  generally  more  or 
less  developed  into  a  '  coda.'  The  aria  grande  has 
assumed,  under  the  hands  of  the  great  masters 
of  the  modem  school,  a  scope  and  a  splendour 
which  raise  it  to  all  but  symphonic  dignity. 
As  specimens  of  these  qualities  we  may  cite 
Beethoven's  'Ah,  perfido,'  and  Mendelssohn's 
'Infelice.'  The  limits  of  the  human  voice 
forbid,  however,  save  in  rare  instances,  to  the 
aria,  however  extended,  that  repetition  of  the 
same  strains  in  different  though  related  kevs, 
by  which  the  symphonic  'form'  is  distinguished 
from  every  other.  But  compositions  of  this 
class,  especially  those  interspersed  with  re- 
citative, though  nominally  sometimes  arie  belong 
rather  to  the  class  '  scena.'  [J.  H.] 

AIRY,  Sir  George  Biddell.  The  present 
Astronomer  Royal,  and  late  President  of  the 


Royal  Society,  the  author  of  one  of  the  latest 
works  on  acoustics,  *  On  Sound  and  Atmospheric 
Vibrations,'  London  1868.  The  most  important 
portion  of  this  work  is  its  elaborate  mathematical 
treatment  of  the  theory  of  atmospheric  sound- 
waves, a  subject  first  discussed  by  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  in  the  '  Principia.'  [W.  P.] 

A'KEMPIS,  Florentino,  organist  of  St. 
Gudule,  at  Brussels,  about  the  middle  of  the  1 7th 
century  ;  composed  three  symphonies  (Antwerp, 
1644,  1647,  and  1649),  'Missae  etMotetta'  (Ant- 
werp, 1650),  and  another  mass  for  eight  voices. 

AKEROYDE,  Samuel,  a  native  of  YorksMre, 
was  a  very  popular  and  prolific  composer  of 
songs  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century. 
Many  of  his  compositions  are  contained  in  the 
following  collections  of  the  period  :  '  D'Urfey's 
Third  Collection  of  Songs'  1685  ;  'The  Theatre 
of  Musick,'  1685-1687  ;  'Vinculum  Societatis,' 
1687;  '  Comes  Amoris,'  1687-1694  ;  'The  Ban- 
quet of  Musick,'  1 68 8-1 69 2  ;  'Thesaurus  Mu- 
sicus,'  1693-1696 ;  and  in  'The  Gentleman's 
Joumal,'  1 69  2-1 694.  He  was  also  a  contri- 
butor to  the  Third  Part  of  D'Urfey's  'Don 
Quixote,'  1696.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ALA,  Giovanni  Battista,  bom  at  Monza 
about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  died  at 
the  age  of  thirty-two  ;  organist  of  the  Church  dei 
Servitori,  in  Milan,  and  composer  of  canzonets, 
madrigals,  and  operas  (Milan,  161 7,  1625), 
'Concerti  ecclesiastici'  (Milan,  1618,  1621, 1628). 
and  several  motetts  in  the  'Pratum  musicum' 
(Antwerp,  1634). 

ALARD,  Delphin,  eminent  violinist.  Bom  at 
Bayonne,  March  8,  181 5  ;  shewed  at  an  early 
age  remarkable  musical  talent,  and  in  1827  was 
sent  to  Paris  for  his  education.  At  first  he  was 
not  received  as  a  regular  pupil  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire, but  was  merely  allowed  to  attend  Ha- 
beneck's  classes  as  a  listener.  He  soon  however 
won  the  second,  and  a  year  later  the  first  prize 
for  violin -playing,  and  from  1 831  began  to  make 
a  great  reputation  as  a  performer.  In  1843,  on 
Baillot's  death,  he  succeeded  that  great  master 
as  professor  at  the  Conservatoire,  which  post 
he  still  holds  (1875).  Alard  is  the  foremost 
representative  of  the  modem  French  school  of 
violin -playing  at  Paris,  with  its  characteristic 
merits  and  drawbacks.  His  style  is  eminently 
lively,  pointed,  full  of  elan.  He  has  published 
a  number  of  concertos  and  operatic  fantasias 
which,  owing  to  their  brilliancy,  attained  in 
France  considerable  popularity,  without  ha^dng 
much  claim  to  artistic  worth.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  *  Violin  School,'  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  several  languages,  i-s  a  very  compre- 
hensive and  meritorious  work.  He  also  edited 
a  selection  of  violin -compositions  of  the  most 
eminent  masters  of  the  1 8th  century,  '  Les 
maitres  classiques  du  Violon,'  etc.  (Schott),  in 
40  parts.  [P.  D.] 

ALBANl,  Mathtas,  a  renowned  violin- 
maker,  bom  1 62 1,  at  Botzen,  was  one  of  Stainer's 
best  pupils.  The  tone  of  his  violins,  which  are 
generally  very  high  in  the  belly,  and  have  a  dark 


48 


ALBANI. 


ALBERT. 


red,  almost  brown,  varnish,  is  more  remarkable 
for  power  than  for  quality.  He  died  at  Botzen 
in  1673.  His  son,  also  named  Mathias,  was  at 
first  a  pupil  of  his  father,  afterwards  of  the 
Amatis  at  Cremona,  and  finally  settled  at  Rome. 
His  best  violins,  which  by  some  connoisseurs  are 
considered  hardly  inferior  to  those  of  the  Amatis, 
are  dated  at  the  end  of  the  1 7th  and  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century.  A  third  Albani,  whose 
Christian  name  is  not  known,  and  who  lived 
during  the  1 7th  century  at  Palermo,  also  made 
good  violins,  which  resemble  those  of  the  old 
German  makers.  [P.  D.] 

ALBENIZ,  Pedro,  bom  in  Biscay  about 
1755,  died  about  182 1  ;  a  Spanish  monk,  con- 
ductor of  the  music  at  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Se- 
bastian, and  (1795)  at  that  of  Logrono;  com- 
posed masses,  vespers,  motetts,  and  other  church 
music,  never  published,  and  a  book  of  solfeggi 
(St.  Sebastian,  1800). 

ALBENIZ,  Pedeo,  bom  at  Logrono,  1795, 
died  at  Madrid  1855 ;  son  of  a  musician, 
Matteo  Albeniz,  and  pupil  of  Henri  Herz  and 
Kalkbrenner ;  organist  from  the  age  of  ten 
at  various  towns  in  Spain,  and  professor  of 
the  pianoforte  in  the  Conservatoire  at  Madrid. 
He  introduced  the  modern  style  of  pianoforte 
playing  into  Spain,  and  all  the  eminent  pianists 
of  Spain  and  South  America  may  be  said  to 
have  been  his  pupils.  He  held  various  high 
posts  at  the  court,  and  in  1847  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Queen.  His  works  comprise  a 
method  for  the  pianoforte  (Madrid,  1840),  adopted 
by  the  Conservatoire  of  Madrid,  seventy  compo- 
sitions for  the  pianoforte,  and  songs.     [M.  C.  C] 

ALBERGATI,  Count  Pieeo  Capacellt,  of 
an  ancient  family  in  Bologna,  lived  in  the  end 
of  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the  i8th  centuries, 
an  amateur,  and  distinguished  composer.  His 
works  include  the  operas  *Gli  Amici'  (1699), 
*I1  Principe  selvaggio'  (171 2),  the  oratorio 
•Giobbe'  (Bologna,  1688),  sacred  cantatas, 
masses,  motetts,  etc.,  and  compositions  for  va- 
rious instruments. 

ALBERT,  Heinrich,  born  at  Lobensteiii; 
Voigtland,  Saxony,  June  28,  1604;  nephew  and 
apparently  pupil  of  the  famous  composer  Heinrich 
Schiitz.  He  studied  law  in  Leipsic,  and  music 
in  Dresden.  In  1626  he  went  to  Konigsberg, 
where  Stobbseus  was  at  that  time  kapellmeister. 
In  1 631  he  became  organist  to  the  old  church  in 
that  city,  and  in  1638  married  Elizabeth  Starke, 
who  is  referred  to  in  his  poem  as  *  Philosette.' 
Of  the  date  of  his  death  nothing  certain  is 
known.  It  is  given  as  June  27,  1657  (by  Fetis 
Oct.  10,  1 651).  One  of  his  books  of  'Arien' 
(Konigsberg,  1654),  contains  a  statement  that 
it  was  'edited  by  the  author's  widow,'  but  the 
same  book  comprises  some  poems  on  the  events 
of  the  year  1655.  It  is  plain  therefore  that  the 
date  1654  is  an  error. 

Albert  was  at  once  poet,  organist  and  composer. 
As  poet  he  is  one  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Konigsberg  school,  with  the  heads  of  which  he 
was  closely  associated. 


His  church  music  is  confined,  according  to 
Winterfeld,  to  a  Te  Deum  for  three  voices, 
published  Sept.  17,  1647.  He  however  composed 
both  words  and  music  to  many  hymns,  which  are 
still  in  private  use,  e.g.  'Gott  des  Himmels  und 
der  Erden.'  These,  as  well  as  his  secular  songs, 
are  found  in  the  eight  collections  printed  for  him 
by  Paschen,  Mense,  and  Reussner,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  King 
of  Poland,  and  the  Kurfiirst  of  Brandenburg. 
These  collections  sold  so  rapidly  that  of  some  of 
them  several  editions  were  published  by  the 
author.  Others  were  surreptitiously  issued  at 
Konigsberg  and  Dantzic  under  the  title  of 

*  Poetisch  -  musikalisches  Lustwaldlein,'  which 
Albert  energetically  resisted.  These  latter 
editions,  though  very  numerous,  are  now  ex- 
ceedingly rare.  Their  original  title  is  'Erster 
(Zweiter,  etc.)  Theil  der  Arien  etlicher  theils 
geistlicher  theils  weltlicher,  zur  Andacht,  guten 
Sitten,  keuscher  Liebe  und  Ehrenlust,  dienen 
der  Lieder  zum  singen  und  spielen  gesetzt.'  ^ 
Then  followed  the  dedication,  a  different  one  to 
each  part.  The  second  is  dedicated  to  his  '  most 
revered  uncle,  Heinrich  Schiitz,'  the  only  exist- 
ing reference  to  the  relationship  between  them. 
Albert's  original  editions  were  in  folio,  but  after 
his  death  an  octavo  edition  was  published  in  1657 
by  A.  Profe  of  Leipsic.  In  his  prefaces  Albert 
lays  down  the  chief  principles  of  the  musical  art, 
a  circumstance  which  gives  these  documents 
great  value,  as  they  belong  to  a  time  in  which 
by  means  of  the  'basso  continuo'  a  reform  in 
music  was  effected,  of  which  we  are  still  feeling 
the  influence.  Mattheson,  in  his  '  Ehren-pforte,' 
rightly  assumes  that  Albert  was  the  author  of  the 
'Tractatus  de  modo  conficiendi  Contrapunctam,' 
which  was  then  in  manuscript  in  the  possession  of 
Valentin  Hausmann.  In  the  preface  to  the  sixth 
section  of  his  *  Arien '  Albert  speaks  of  the 
centenary  of  the  Konigsberg  University,  Aug. 
28,  1644,  and  mentions  that  he  had  written  a 

*  Comodien-Musik '  for  that  occasion,  which  was 
afterwards  repeated  in  the  palace  of  the  Kur- 
fiirst. Albert  was  thus,  next  after  H.  Schiitz, 
the  founder  of  German  opera.  Both  Schiitz's 
'Daphne'  and  Albert's  'Comodien-Musik'  ap- 
pear to  be  lost,  doubtless  because  they  were  not 
published. 

Albert's  'Arien'  give  a  lively  picture  of  the 
time,  and  of  the  then  influence  of  music.  While 
the  object  of  the  'opera  as  established  in  Italy 
was  to  provide  music  as  a  support  to  the  spoken 
dialogue,  so  the  sacred  'concert'  came  into 
existence  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many as  a  rival  to  the  old  motetts,  in  which  the 
words  were  thrown  too  much  into  the  back- 
ground. But  the  sacred  '  concert '  again,  being 
sung  only  by  a  small  number  of  voices,  necessi- 
tated some  support  for  the  music,  and  this  was 
the  origin  of  the  'basso  continue.'  Albert  was 
in  the  best  position — knowing  Schiitz  who  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Gabrieli  in  Venice ;  and  on  his 
arrival  at  Konigsberg  he  underwent  a  second 
course  of  instruction  under  Stobbseus,  from  which 
»  Fitia  mistakes  thi»  title  for  that  of  the  original  edition. 


ALBERT. 


ALBERTAZZr. 


49 


originated  the  peculiar  character  of  his  music, 
which  may  be  described  as  the  quintessence  of 
all  that  was  in  the  best  taste  in  Italy  and 
Germany.  Owing  to  the  special  circumstance 
that  Albert  was  both  a  musician  and  a  poet — 
and  no  small  poet  either — he  has  been  rightly 
called  the  father  of  the  German  '  Lied.'  It  is 
rare  for  a  composer  to  make  music  to  his  own 
poetry,  and  since  the  time  of  Albert  and  his 
comrades  in  the  Konigsberg  school,  one  example 
only  is  found  of  it— Richard  Wagner.  But  to 
conclude,  Albert's  work  in  German  music  may 
be  described  as  a  pendant  to  the  contemporary 
commencement  of  Italian  opera.  [F.  G.] 

ALBERT,  PRINCE.  Francis  Charles  Au- 
gustus Albert  Emmanuel,  Prince  Consort  of 
Queen  "Victoria,  second  son  of  Ernest  Duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld,  was  bom  at  Rosenau, 
Coburg,  Aug.  26,  1819,  married  Feb.  10,  1840, 
and  died  Dec.  14,  1861.  Music  formed  a 
systematic  part  of  the  Prince's  education  (see 
his  own  'Programme  of  Studies'  at  thirteen 
years  of  age  in  'The  Early  Years,'  etc.,  p.  107). 
At  eighteen  he  was  'passionately  fond'  of  it, 
'had  already  shown  considerable  talent  as  a 
composer,'  and  was  looked  up  to  by  his  com- 
panions for  his  practical  knowledge  of  the  art 
(lb.  143,  173);  and  there  is  evidence  (lb.  70) 
that  when  quite  a  child  he  took  more  than 
ordinary  interest  in  it.  When  at  Florence  in 
1839  he  continued  his  systematic  pursuit  of  it 
(lb.  194)  and  had  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  pieces  at  that  date  not  generally  known 
(lb.  209-211).^  His  organ-playing  and  sing- 
ing he  kept  up  after  his  arrival  in  England 
(Martin's  'Life,'  85,  86,  Mendelssohn's  letter  of 
July  19,  1842),  but  his  true  interest  in  music 
was  shown  by  his  public  action  in  reference  to 
it,  and  the  influence  which  from  the  time  of  his 
marriage  to  his  death  he  steadily  exerted  in 
favour  of  the  recognition  and  adoption  of  the  best 
compositions. 

This  was  shown  in  many  ways.  First,  by  his 
inunediate  reorganisation  of  the  Queen's  private 
band  from  a  mere  wind-band  to  a  full  orchestra 
(dating  from  Dec.  24,  1840),  and  by  an  immense 
increase  and  improvement  in  its  repertoire.  There 
is  now  a  peculiar  significance  in  the  fact  that — 
to  name  only  a  few  amongst  a  host  of  great 
works— Schubert's  great  symphony  in  C  (probably 
after  its  rejection  by  the  Philharmonic  band, 
when  offered  them  by  Mendelssohn  in  1844), 
Bach's  '  Matthew-Passion,'  Mendelssohn's  *  Atha- 
lie'  and  '  (Edipus,'  and  Wagner's  'Lohengrin,' 
were  first  performed  in  this  country  at  Windsor 
Castle  and  Buckingham  Palace.  Secondly, 
by  acting  in  his  turn  as  director  of  the 
Ancient  Concerts,  and  choosing,  as  far  as  the 
rules  of  the  society  permitted,  new  music  in  the 
programmes;  by  his  choice  of  pieces  for  the 
annual  '  command  nights '  at  the  Philharmonic, 
where  his  programmes  were  always  of  the  highest 
class,  and  included  first  performances  of  Men- 
delssohn's   'Athalie,'    Schubert's    overture  to 

I  p.  211,  /or  '  Nencini '  read  '  Nannini." 


'  Fierabras,'  and  Schumann's  *  Paradise  and  the 
Peri.'  Thirdly,  by  the  support  which  he  gave 
to  good  music  when  not  officially  connected  with 
it :  witness  his  keen  interest  in  Mendelssohn's 
oratorios,  and  his  presence  at  Exeter  Hall  when 
'  St.  Paul '  and  '  Elijah '  were  performed  by  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  in  the  words  of  a  well-known  musical 
amateur,  his  example  and  influence  had  much 
eff'ect  on  the  performance  of  choral  music  in 
England,  and  on  the  production  here  of  much 
that  was  of  the  highest  class  of  musical  art. 

The  Prince's  delight  in  music  was  no  secret 
to  those  about  him.  In  the  performances  at 
Windsor,  says  Mr.  Theodore  Maiiin,  from  whose 
'  Life '  (i.  App.  A)  many  of  the  above  facts  are 
taken,  '  he  found  a  never-failing  source  of  delight. 
As  every  year  brought  a  heavier  strain  upon  his 
thought  and  energies,  his  pleasure  in  them  ap- 
peared to  increase.  They  seemed  to  take  him 
into  a  dream-world,  in  which  the  anxieties  of  life 
were  for  the  moment  forgotten.' 

Prince  Albert's  printed  works  include  'L'in- 
vocazione  all'  Armenia,'  for  solos  and  chorus ; 
a  morning  service  in  C  and  A ;  anthem,  '  Out 
of  the  deep  ; '  five  collections  of  '  Lieder  und 
Romanzen,'  29  in  all ;  three  canzonets,  etc.  [G.] 

ALBERTAZZI,  Emma,  the  daughter  of  a 
music-master  named  Howson,  was  born  May  i, 
1 81 4.  Beginning  at  fii-st  with  the  piano,  she 
soon  quitted  that  instrument,  to  devote  herself 
to  the  cultivation  of  her  voice,  which  gave  early 
promise  of  excellence.  Her  first  instruction  was 
received  from  Costa,  and  scarcely  had  she 
mastered  the  rudiments,  when  she  was  brought 
forward  at  a  concert  at  the  Argyll  Rooms.  In 
the  next  year,  1830,  she  was  engaged  at  the 
King's  Theatre  in  several  contralto  parts,  such  as 
Pippo  in  the  'Gazza  Ladra,'  and  others.  Soon 
afterwards  she  went  to  Italy  with  her  father, 
and  got  an  engagement  at  Piacenza.  It  was 
here  that  Signor  Albertazzi,  a  lawyer,  feU  in 
love  with  her,  and  married  her  before  she  was 
seventeen.  Celli,  the  composer,  now  taught  her 
for  about  a  year;  after  which  she  sang,  I  S3  2,  in 
Generali's  'Adelina,'  at  the  Canobbiana,  and 
subsequently  was  engaged  for  contralto  parts  at 
La  Scala.  There  she  sang  in  several  operas  with 
Pasta,  who  gave  her  valuable  advice.  She  sang 
next  at  Madrid,  1833,  for  two  years;  and  in 
1835  at  the  Italian  Opera  in  Paris.  This  was 
the  most  brilliant  part  of  her  career.  In  1837 
she  appeared  in  London.  Madame  Albertazzi 
had  an  agreeable  presence,  and  a  musical 
voice,  not  ill-trained ;  but  these  advaiitages 
were  quite  destroyed  by  her  lifelessness  on 
the  stage  —  a  resigned  and  automatic  indiffer- 
ence, which  first  weaned  and  then  irritated  her 
audiences.  To  the  end  of  her  career — for  she 
afterwards  sang  in  English  Opera  at  Drury 
Lane — she  remained  the  same,  unintelligent 
and  inanimate.  Her  voice  now  began  to  fail, 
and  she  went  abroad  again,  hoping  to  recover 
it  in  the  climate  of  Italy,  but  without  success. 
She  sang  at  Padua,  Milan,  and  Trieste,  and 
returned  in  1846  to  London,  where  she  sang 


50 


ALBERTAZZI. 


ALBRECHTSBERGER. 


for  the  last  time.  She  died  of  consumption, 
Sept.  1847.  [J.  M.] 

ALBINONI,  ToMASSO,  dramatic  composer  and 
violinist.  Born  at  Venice  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
17th  century.  The  particulars  of  his  life  are 
entirely  unknown.  He  wrote  forty -two  operas 
(the  first  of  which  appeared  in  1694),  which  are 
said  to  have  been  successful  from  the  novelty 
of  their  style,  though  a  modern  French  critic 
describes  the  ideas  as  trivial  and  the  music  as 
dry  and  unsuited  to  the  words.  Greater  talent 
is  to  be  seen  in  his  instrumental  works,  concertos, 
sonatas,  and  songs.  He  was  also  an  excellent 
performer  on  the  violin.  Albinoni's  sole  interest 
for  modem  times  resides  in  the  fact  that  the 
great  Bach  selected  themes  from  his  works, 
as  he  did  from  those  of  Corelli  and  Legrenzi. 
'Bach,'  says  Spitta  (i.  423),  'must  have  been 
peculiarly  partial  to  Albinoni.  Down  to  a  late 
period  of  his  life  he  was  accustomed  to  use  bass 
parts  of  his  for  practice  in  thorough-bass,  and 
Gerber  relates  that  he  had  heard  his  father  (a 
pupil  of  Bach's)  vary  these  very  basses  in  his 
master's  style  with  astonishing  beauty  and  skill.' 
Two  fugues  of  the  great  Master's  are  known  to 
be  founded  on  themes  of  Albinoni's — both  from 
his  '  Opera  prima.'  One  (in  A)  is  to  be  found  at 
No.  10  of  Cahier  13  of  Peter's  edition  of  Bach's 
clavier-works  ;  the  other  (in  F  t  minor)  at  No.  5 
of  Cahier  3  of  the  same  edition.  For  further 
particulars  see  Spitta,  i.  423-426.       [E.  H.  D.] 

ALBONI,  Marietta,  the  most .  celebrated 
contralto  of  the  19th  century,  was  bom  at  Ce- 
sena,  Romagna,  in  1824.  Her  first  instruction 
was  received  in  her  native  place ;  after  which 
she  was  taught  by  Mme.  Bertoletti,  at  Bologna, 
who  has  taught  many  other  distinguished  singers. 
There  she  met  Rossini,  and  was  so  fortunate  as 
to  obtain  lessons  from  him :  she  is  said  to  have 
been  his  only  pupil.  Charmed  with  her  voice 
and  facility,  he  taught  her  the  principal  con- 
tralto parts  in  his  operas,  with  the  true  tradi- 
tions. With  this  great  advantage  Alboni  easily 
procured  an  engagement  for  several  years  from 
Merelli,  an  impresario  for  several  theatres  in 
Italy  and  Germany.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance at  La  Scala,  Milan,  1843,  in  the  part  of 
Maffio  Orsini.  In  spite  of  her  inexperience, 
her  voice  and  method  were  brilliant  enough  to 
captivate  the  public.  In  the  same  year  she 
sang  at  Bologna,  Brescia,  and  again  at  Milan; 
soon  afterwards  with  equal  success  at  Vienna. 
In  consequence  of  some  misunderstanding  about 
salary  she  now  broke  her  engagement  with 
Merelli,  and  suddenly  took  flight  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. She  remained  there,  however,  but  a  short 
time  ;  and  we  find  her  in  1 845  singing  at  concerts 
in  Hamburg,  Leipzig,  Dresden,  as  well  as  in 
Bohemia  and  Hungary.  At  thecamival  of  1847 
she  sang  at  Rome  in  Pacini's  '  SafFo,'  introducing 
an  air  from  Rossini's  '  Semiramide,'  which  was 
enthusiastically  applauded,  but  could  not  save 
the  opera.  In  the  spring  of  the  same  year  she 
came  to  London,  and  appeared  at  Covent  Garden, 
in  the  height  of  the  *  Jenny  Lind  fever.'    She  was 


indeed  a  trump  card  for  that  establishment  against 
the  strong  hand  of  the  rival  house.  The  day 
after  her  debut  the  manager  spontaneously  raised 
her  salary  for  the  season  from  £500  to  £2000, 
and  her  reputation  was  established.  She  sang  in 
'  Semiramide '  first,  and  afterwards  in  *  Lucrezia 
Borgia';  and  in  the  latter  had  to  sing  the 
'Brindisi'  over  and  over  again,  as  often  as  the 
opera  was  performed.  As  Pippo  in  the  '  Gazza 
Ladra'  she  had  to  sing  the  whole  first  solo  of  the 
duett  *  Ebben  per  mia  memoria '  three  times 
over.  Her  appearance  at  that  time  was 
really  splendid.  Her  features  were  regularly 
beautiful,  though  better  fitted  for  comedy  than 
tragedy ;  and  her  figure,  not  so  unwieldy  as  it 
afterwards  became,  was  not  unsuited  to  the  parts 
she  played.  Her  voice,  a  rich,  deep,  true  con- 
tralto of  fully  two  octaves,  from  G  to  G,  was  as 
sweet  as  honey,  and  perfectly  even  throughout 
its  range.  Her  style  gave  an  idea,  a  recollection, 
of  what  the  great  old  school  of  Italian  singing 
had  been,  so  perfect  was  her  command  of  her 
powers.  The  only  reproach  to  which  it  was  open 
was  a  certain  shade  of  indolence  and  insouciance, 
and  a  want  of  fire  at  times  when  more  energy 
would  have  carried  her  hearers  completely  away. 
Some  singers  have  had  the  talent  and  knowledge 
to  enable  them  to  vary  their  fiorituri  :  Alboni 
never  did  this.  When  you  had  heard  a  song 
once  from  her,  perfect  as  it  was,  you  never  heard 
it  again  but  with  the  selfsame  ornaments  and 
cadenze.  Her  versatility  was  great, — too  great, 
perhaps,  as  some  critics  have  said  ;  and  it  has 
been  asserted  that  she  did  serious  harm  to  her 
voice  by  the  attempt  to  extend  it  upwards.  This 
is,  however,  not  clear  to  all  her  admirers,  since 
she  has  returned  to  her  legitimate  range.  She 
sang  again  in  London  in  1 848  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  in  1849,  1851,  1856,  1857,  and  1858  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre.  She  appeared  at  Brussels  in 
1848,  with  no  less  success  than  in  London  and 
Paris.  In  1 849  she  returned  to  Paris,  and  sang 
with  equal  eclat  in  '  Cenerentola,'  '  L'ltaliana  in 
Algieri,'  and  *La  Gazza  Ladra.'  In  the  next 
year  she  visited  Geneva,  and  made  a  tovir  of 
France,  singing  even  in  French  at  Bourdeaux  in 
the  operas  '  Charles  VI,'  '  La  Favorite,'  '  La 
Reine  de  Chypre,'  and  '  La  Fille  du  Regiment.' 
On  her  return  to  Paris  she  surpassed  the  bold- 
ness of  this  experiment  by  attempting  the  part  of 
Fides  in  the  '  Prophfete '  at  the  Grand  Opera,  and 
with  the  most  brilliant  success.  She  now  made 
a  tour  in  Spain,  and  next  a  triumphal  progress 
through  America.  Of  late  years,  since  her  mar- 
riage with  Count  A.  Pepoli,  a  gentleman  of  old 
Bolognese  family,  she  has  lived  in  Paris,  where 
she  has  delighted  her  admirers  with  most  of  her 
old  characters  as  well  as  some  new,  and  notably 
in  the  part  of  Fidalma  in  Cimarosa's  '  Matri- 
monio  Segreto.'  Since  the  untunely  death  of  her 
husband  she  has  been  heard  only  in  Rossini's 
'Mass,'  in  which  she  sang  in  London  in  1871, 
and  similar  music.  [J.  M.] 

ALBRECHTSBERGER,  Johann  Georg. 
Contrapuntist  and  teacher  of  sacred  music,  com- 
poser and  organist ;  born  Feb.  3,  1736,  atKloster- 


ALBRECHTSBERGER. 


ALDRICH. 


51 


neuburg,  near  Vienna  ;  died  at  Vienna,  March  7, 
1809.  Seyfried  has  appended  his  biography  to 
the  complete  edition  of  his  works  (Vienna,  1826, 
1837).  Albrechtsberger  began  life  as  a  chorister 
at  his  native  town  and  at  Melk.  At  the  latter 
place  he  was  taken  notice  of  by  the  Emperor 
Joseph,  then  Crown  Prince ;  and  on  a  later  occa- 
sion, the  Emperor  passing  through  Melk  renewed 
the  acquaintance,  and  invited  him  to  apply  for 
the  post  of  court  organist  on  the  first  vacancy. 
Meantime  Albrechtsberger  studied  hard  under 
the  direction  of  Emmerling,  After  being  organ- 
ist for  twelve  years  at  Melk,  he  obtained  a 
similar  post  at  Raab  in  Hungary,  and  then  at 
Mariataferl.  Here  he  remained  instructor  in  the 
family  of  a  Silesian  count  till  he  left  for  Vienna 
&s  EegensCkori  to  the  Carmelites,  In  1772  he 
was  appointed  court  organist,  and  twenty  years 
later  director  of  music  at  St.  Stephen's,  where  he 
at  once  commenced  his  career  as  a  teacher.  The 
number  of  his  pupils  was  very  large.  Amongst 
the  most  celebrated  are  Beethoven,  Hummel, 
Weigl,  Seyfried,  Eybler  and  Mosel.  Nottebohm 
(Beethoven's  'Studien,'  1873)  speaks  in  the  highest 
terms  of  the  instruction  which  he  gave  Beethoven. 
His  compositions  are  computed  by  Seyfried  as 
261,  of  which  only  twenty-seven  are  printed. 
They  are  chiefly  in  possession  of  Prince  Esterhazy 
Galantha.  The  finest  is  a  Te  Deum,  which  was 
not  performed  till  after  his  death.  His  great 
theoretical  work  (not  wdthout  defects)  is  entitled 
*  Griindliche  Anweisung  zur  Composition,' 
(Leipsic,  1790  ;  second  edition  1818,)  An 
English  edition,  translated  by  Sabilla  Novello, 
is  published  by  Novell o,  Ewer,  and  Co.  [F.  G.] 
ALBUMBLATT  (Germ. ;  Fr.  Feuillet  d'al- 
hiim).  A  short  piece  of  music,  such  as  might 
suitably  be  written  in  a  musical  album.  Its 
form  entirely  depends  upon  the  taste  and  fancy 
of  the  composer.  As  good  examples  of  this  class 
of  piece  may  be  named  Schumann's  'Album- 
blatter,'  op.  124,  a  collection  of  twenty  short 
movements  in  the  most  varied  styles.       [E.  P.] 

ALCESTE,  tragic  opera  in  three  acts  by  Gluck, 
libretto  by  Calzabigi ;  first  performed  at  Vienna 
Dec.  16,  1767,  and  in  Paris  (adapted  by  du  Rol- 
let)  April  23,  1776.  It  was  the  first  in  which 
Gluck  attempted  his  new  and  revolutionary  style, 
and  contains  the  famous  'Epitre  dedicatoire'  ex- 
pounding his  principles.  'Alceste'  was  revived 
at  Paris  in  1861  by  Mrae.  Pauline  Viardot. 

ALCOCK,  John,  Mus.  Doc.  Bom  at  London, 
April  II,  1 71 5,  became  at  seven  years  of  age  a 
chorister  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  under  Charles 
King.  At  fourteen  he  became  a  pupil  of  Stanley, 
the  blind  organist,  who  was  then,  although  but 
sixteen,  organist  of  two  London  churches.  All- 
hallows,  Bread-street,  and  St.  Andrew's,  Holbom. 
In  1738  Alcock  became  organist  of  St.  Andrew's 
Church,  Plymouth,  which  place  he  quitted  in 
1742,  on  being  chosen  organist  of  St.  Lawrence's 
Church,  Reading.  In  1749  he  was  appointed 
organist,  master  of  the  choristers,  and  lay  vicar 
of  Lichfield  Cathedral.  On  June  6,  1755,  he 
took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  music  at  Oxford, 


and  in  1761  proceeded  to  that  of  doctor.  In 
1760  he  resigned  the  appointments  of  organist 
and  master  of  the  choristers  of  Lichfield,  retain- 
ing only  that  of  lay  vicar.  He  died  at  Lichfield 
in  March,  1806,  aged  91.  During  his  residence 
at  Plymouth,  Alcock  published  '  Six  Suites  of 
Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord'  and  'Twelve  Songs,' 
and  whilst  at  Reading  he  published  'Six  Con- 
certos,' and  a  collection  of  '  Psalms,  Hymns,  and 
Anthems.'  In  1753  he  published  a  'Morning 
and  Evening  Service  in  E  minor.'  He  likewise 
issued  (in  1771)  a  volume  containing  'Twenty- 
six  Anthems,'  a  *  Burial  Service,'  etc.  He  was 
the  composer  of  a  number  of  glees,  a  collection 
of  which,  under  the  title  of  '  Harmonia  Festi,'  he 
published  about  1 790.  His  glee,  '  Hail,  ever 
pleasing  Solitude,'  gained  a  prize  medal  at  the 
Catch  Club  in  the  year  1770.  Alcock  edited  a 
collection  of  Psalm  Tunes,  by  various  authors, 
arranged  for  four  voices,  under  the  title  of  '  The 
Harmony  of  Sion.'  He  was  also  author  of  a 
novel  entitled  '  The  Life  of  Miss  Fanny  Brown.' 
His  son  John,  Mus.  Bac,  bom  1739,  organist  of 
Preston,  composed  a  few  anthems  between  1773 
and  1776,  and  died  1791.  [W.H.H.] 

ALCHYMIST,  DER,  Spohr's  eighth  opera; 
libretto  by  Pfeiffer  on  a  Spanish  tale  of  Wash- 
ington Irving's  ;  composed  between  Oct.  1829  and 
April  1830,  and  first  performed  at  Cassel  on  July 
28,  1830,  the  birthday  of  the  Elector. 

ALDAY,  a  family  of  musicians  in  France. 
The  father,  bom  at  Perpignan,  1737,  was  a 
mandoline  player,  and  the  two  sons  violinists. 
The  elder  of  the  two,  bom  1 763,  appeared  at  the 
Concerts  Spirituels,  first  as  a  mandoline  player, 
and  afterwards  as  a  violinist.  His  works  are 
numerous,  and  include  a  'Methode  de  Violon,' 
which  reached  several  editions.  Alday  le  jeune, 
born  1764,  a  pupil  of  Viotti,  was  a  finer  player 
than  his  brother,  and  achieved  a  great  reputa- 
tion. He  played  often  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels 
up  to  1 791,  when  he  came  to  England,  and  in 
1S06  was  conductor  and  teacher  of  music  in 
Edinburgh.  He  published  three  concertos  for  vio- 
lin, three  sets  of  duos,  airs  varies,  and  trios,  all 
written  in  a  light  pleasing  style,  and  very  popular 
in  their  day,  though  now  forgotten.     [M.  C.  C] 

ALDOVRANDINI,  Giuseppe  Antonio  Vin- 
CENZO,  bom  at  Bologna  about  1665  ;  member  of 
the  Philharmonic  Academy  at  Bologna  (1695), 
and  conductor  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua's  band  ; 
studied  under  Jacopo  Perti.  He  composed  eleven 
operas  (i 696-1 711) — of  which  'Amor  torna  in 
cinque  et  cinquanta,'  in  the  Bologna  dialect,  was 
perhaps  the  most  famous — also  '  Armenia  Sacra  * 
(Bologna,  1701),  a  collection  of  motetts,  the  ora- 
torio 'San  Sigismondo'  (Bologna,  1704),  and  other 
music,  sacred  and  instrumental.  [M.  C.  C] 

ALDRICH,  Henry,  D.D.,  was  bom  in  1647, 
and  educated  at  Westminster  School.  In  due 
course  he  passed  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of 
which  foundation  he  was  afterwards  so  dis- 
tinguished a  member.  He  was  admitted  a 
student  in  1662,  and  took  his  degree  as  Master 
of  Arts  in  1 669.  He  then  took  holy  orders,  and 
E  2 


52 


ALDRIGH. 


ALFORD. 


was  elected  to  tlie  living  of  Wem,  in  Shropshire, 
but  continued  to  reside  in  his  college  and 
became  eminent  as  a  tutor.  In  February  1681 
he  was  installed  a  Canon  of  Christ  Church,  and 
in  May  following  he  took  his  degrees  as  Bachelor 
and  Doctor  in  Divinity.  In  1689  he  was  installed 
Dean  of  Christ  Church.  He  was  as  remarkable 
for  the  zeal  with  which  he  discharged  the  duties 
of  his  station  as  for  the  urbanity  of  his  manners. 
His  college  was  his  first  consideration,  and  he 
sought  by  every  means  to  extend  its  resources 
and  uphold  its  reputation.  He  closed  his  career 
Dec.  14,  1 710. 

Dr.  Aldxich  was  a  man  of  considerable  attain- 
ments, a  good  scholar,  architect,  and  musician. 
He  wrote  a  compendium  of  logic,  which  is  still 
used  at  Oxford,  and  a  number  of  tracts  upon 
theology,  the  classics,  etc.,  the  titles  of  which 
may  be  seen  in  Kippis  {Biog.  Brit.).  He  was 
also  one  of  the  editors  of  Clarendon's  History 
of  the  Rebellion.  Of  his  skill  in  architecture 
Oxford  possesses  many  specimens  ;  amongst  others 
Peckwater  quadrangle  at  Christ  Church,  the 
chapel  of  Trinity  College,  and  All  Saints'  chiirch. 
He  cultivated  music  with  ardour  and  success. 
'  As  dean  of  a  college  and  a  cathedral  he  re- 
garded it  as  a  duty,  as  it  undoubtedly  was  in 
his  case  a  pleasure,  to  advance  the  study  and 
progress  of  church  music.  His  choir  was  well 
appointed,  and  every  vicar,  clerical  as  well  as  lay, 
gave  his  daily  and  efficient  aid  in  it.  He  con- 
tributed also  largely  to  its  stock  of  sacred  music  ; 
and  some  of  his  services  and  anthems,  being 
preserved  in  the  collections  of  Boyce  and  Arnold, 
are  known  and  sung  in  every  cathedral  in  the 
kingdom.'  He  formed  a  large  musical  library, 
in  which  the  works  of  the  Italian  composers, 
particularly  of  Palestrina  and  Carissimi,  are 
prominent  features.  This  he  bequeathed  to  his 
college,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  catalogue 
has  not  been  printed.  Catch-singing  was  much 
in  fashion  in  the  Dean's  time ;  nor  did  he 
himself  disdain  to  contribute  his  quota  towards 
the  stock  of  social  harmony.  His  catch,  'Hark 
the  Bonny  Christ  Church  Bells,'  in  which  he 
has  made  himself  and  his  college  the  subject 
of  merriment,  is  well  known.  He  afterwards 
wrote  and  used  to  sing  a  Greek  version  of  this 
catch.  He  was  an  inveterate  smoker,  and 
another  of  his  catches  in  praise  of  smoking  is 
80  constructed  as  to  allow  every  singer  time  for 
his  puff. 

Dr.  Aldrich's  compositions  and  adaptations  for 
the  church  are  *  A  Morning  and  Evening  Service 
in  G'  (printed  by  Boyce) ;  '  A  Morning  and 
Evening  Service  in  A'  (printed  by  Arnold) ;  and 
about  fifty  anthems,  some  original,  others  adapta- 
tions from  the  Italian.  Some  of  these  are  to 
be  found  in  the  printed  collections  of  Boyce, 
Arnold,  and  Page ;  others  in  the  Ely,  the 
Tudway,  and  the  Christ  Church  MSS.  (Hawkins, 
History;  Biog.  Diet.  U.K.S.;  Hayes,  Eemarks 
onAvison,  etc.).  [E.  F.  R.] 

ALESSANDRO,  Romano,  sumamed  della 
Viola  from  his  skill  on  that  instrument,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  i6th  century.    In  1560  he 


was  admitted  into  the  choir  of  the  Pope's  chapel 
at  Rome.  He  composed  music  for  his  own  and 
other  instruments,  as  well  as  motetts  and  songs, 
among  which  are  a  set  of  'Canzoni  alia  Napo- 
letana'  for  five  voices.  The  MSS.  of  some  of 
these  works  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Munich.  [E.  H.  D.] 

ALEXANDER  BALUS.  The  thirteenth  of 
Handel's  oratorios ;  composed  next  after  *  Judas 
Maccabseus.'  Words  by  Dr.  Morell,  who  ought 
to  have  known  better  than  write  Balus  for  Balas. 
First  performance,  Covent  Garden,  March  9, 
1748.  Dates  on  autograph: — begun  June  i, 
1747  ;  end  of  second  part,  fully  scored,  June  24, 
do. ;  end  of  third  part,  fully  scored,  July  4,  do. 

ALEXANDER,  Johann  (or,  according  to 
Fetis,  Joseph),  violoncellist,  lived  at  Duisburg 
at  the  end  of  the  last  and  beginning  of  the 
■  present  century.  He  was  distinguished  more  for 
the  beauty  of  his  tone  and  the  excellence  of  his 
style  than  for  any  great  command  over  technical 
difficulties.  He  wrote  a  good  instruction  book 
for  his  instrument,  *  Anweisung  fiir  das  Violoncell,' 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel,  1801  ;  also  variations, 
potpourris,  etc.  [T.  P.  H.] 

ALEXANDER'S  FEAST.  An  'ode'  of 
Handel's  to  Dryden's  words,  as  arranged  and 
added  to  by  Newburgh  Hamilton.  Dates  on 
autograph  : — end  of  first  part,  Jan.  5,  1736  ;  end 
of  second  part,  Jan.  1 2,  do. ;  end  of  Hamilton's 
additions,  Jan.  1 7,  do.  First  performance,  Covent 
Garden,  Feb.  19,  do.  Re-scored  by  Mozart  for 
Van  Swieten,  July,  1 790. 

ALEXANDRE  ORGAN.  See  American 
Organ. 

AL  FINE  (Ital.).  *  To  the  end.'  This  term 
indicates  the  repetition  of  the  first  part  of  a  move- 
ment either  from  the  beginning  {da  capo)  or  from 
a  sign  {dal  segno)  to  the  place  where  the  word 
fine  stands.  Frequently  instead  of  the  word  fine 
the  end  of  the  piece  is  shown  by  a  double-bar 


ALFONSO  UND  ESTRELLA.  An  opera 
by  Schubert,  in  three  acts ;  libretto  by  F.  von 
Schober.  Dates  on  autograph  (Musikverein, 
Vienna)  : — end  of  first  act,  Sept.  20,  1821  ;  end 
of  second  act,  Oct.  20,  1821;  end  of  third  act, 
Feb.  27,  1822;  overture  (MS.  with  Spina),  Dec. 
1823.  First  performed  at  Weimar,  June  24, 
1854.  This  overture  was  played  as  the  prelude 
to  '  Rosamunde'  in  Dec.  1823,  and  encored.  The 
opera  remains  in  MS.  except  the  overture  (Spina, 
1867)  and  a  bass  cavatina  and  tenor  air  (both 
Diabelli,  1832). 

ALFORD,  John,  a  lutenist  in  London  in 
the  1 6th  century.  He  published  there  in  1568, 
a  translation  of  Adrien  Le  Roy's  work  on 
the  lute  (see  Le  Roy)  under  the  title  of  •  A 
Briefe  and  Easye  Instruction  to  learne  the 
tableture,  to  conduct  and  dispose  the  hande 
unto  the  Lute.  Englished  by  J.  A.,'  with  a 
cut  of  the  lute.  [W.  H.  H.] 


ALIAXI. 


ALLEGEANTI. 


53 


ALIANI,  Francesco,  violoncellist,  born  at 
Piaceuza.  He  for  a  time  studied  the  violin 
under  his  father,  who  was  first  \-iolin  in  the 
orchestra,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  the 
violoncello  under  G.  Rovelli,  of  Bergamo.  He 
was  appointed  first  cellist  of  the  theatre  at 
Piacenza,  and  was  celebrated  as  a  teacher  of 
his  instrmnent.  He  wrote  three  books  of  duets 
for  two  cellos.  [T.  1*.  H.] 

ALI  BABA.  ou  le3  quaeaxte  voleurs,  an 
opera  of  Cherubini's,  produced  at  the  Grand 
Opera  on  July  22,  1S33  (the  seventy  third  year 
of  the  composer).  The  music  was  adapted  and 
re-^\Titten  from  his  Koukocegi  (ijgs)  to  a 
new  libretto  by  Scribe  and  Melesville.  The 
overture  was  probably  quite  new.  For  Men- 
delssohn's opinion  of  the  opera  see  his  letter 
of  Feb.  7, 1S34. 

ALIPRAXDL  Beexabdo,  bom  in  Tuscany 
at  the  beginning  of  the  i  Sth   century ;  was 
composer    at    the   Bavarian    court    in  1730, 
and  afterwards  was  appointed  director  of  the 
orchestra  at  Munich.     He  there  \sTote  the 
operas  'Mithridate'  (1738),  'Iphigenie'  (1739), 
'Semiramide'  (,i74o\    Bernardo,  a  son  of  the 
preceding,  was   fiirst  ^-ioloncellist  about    1780  ; 
in  the  Munich  orchestra.    He  is  said  to  have 
compose  1  both  for  the  cello  and  viola  di  gamba,  ; 
though  Fetis  says  that  he  wrote  only  for  the  j 
former.  iT.  P.  H.]  j 

ALIZARD,  Adolphe  Joseph  Louis,  bom  | 
in  Pari-.  I  Si  4;  a  bass  singer  of  some  eminence  ; 
began  his  musical  career  as  a  pupil  of  Uehax 
on   the   violin ;   but  his  master  accidentally 
discovering  that  he  had  a  remarkably  fine  voice,  I 
persuaded  him  to  abandon  his  instrument,  and  j 
to  enter  the  Conservatoire  as  a  pupil  of  Banderali.  ; 
His  voice  was  naturally  a  deep  bass,  but  finding 
that  after  singing  at  the  opera  in  Paris  for  five  , 
years  he  was  still  employed  in  secondary  parts, 
he  entered  upon  a  diligent  course  of  practice, 
by  which  he  gained  several  notes  in  the  upper 
register,  and  was  able  to  take  baritone  parts. 
The  strain  upon  his  chest  however  was  too  great  I 
to  be  maintained  without  injury,  and  after  several 
attacks,  he  died  of  consumption  at  Marseilles  at 
the  age  of  thirty-six,  [M.  C.  C] 

ALKAX,  Charles  Henri  Valentin.  Bom 
at  Paris,  1S13  ;  still  living  (1S75).  Pianist  and 
composer,  chiefly  of  etudes  and  caprices  for  his 
instrument.  His  astounding  op.  35  (12  etudes), 
op-  39  (12  etudes),  and  Trois  grandes  Etudes, 
(i)  *  Fantaisie  pour  la  main  gauche  seul,'  (2) 
'  Introduction  et  Finale  pour  la  maia  droite  seuie,' 
(3)  'Etude  a  mouvement  semblable  et  perpetuel 
pour  les  deux  mains,'  have  not  yet  met  with  the 
attention  on  the  part  of  pianoforte  virtuosi  which 
they  merit.  They  belong  to  the  most  modem 
developement  of  the  technique  of  the  instrument, 
and  represent  in  fact  the  extreme  point  which 
it  has  reached.  Though  they  cannot  stand  com- 
parison in  point  of  beauty  and  absolute  musical 
value  with  the  etudes  of  Chopin  and  liszt,  yet. 


Kke  those  of  Anton  Eubinstein,  which  are  in 
some  respects  akin  to  them,  they  have  a  valid 
claim  to  be  studied ;  for  they  present  technical 
specialities  nowhere  else  to  be  found,  difficulties 
of  a  titanic  sort,  effects  peculiar  to  the  instrument 
carried  to  the  very  verge  of  impossibility.  Alkan 
was  admitted  to  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris  in  his 
sixth  year  (1S19)  and  remained  there  until  1S30, 
during  which  term  he  was  successful  in  several 
competitions,  and  left  the  institution  vrith  the 
first  prize  in  1826,  and  honourable  mention  at 
the  Concours  of  the  Institut  in  183 1.  After  a 
short  visit  to  London  in  1833  he  settled  as  a 
master  of  the  pianoforte  at  Paris.  His  published 
compositions  mount  up  to  opus  72,  and  include 
two  concertos,  several  sonatas  and  duos,  a  trio, 
a  large  number  of  pieces  caracteristiqucs,  and 
transcriptions  and  songs.  Amongst  these  his 
works  for  the  pianoforte  with  pedals,  known  in 
England  as  the  '  Pedalier  grand,'  op.  64,  66,  69 
and  72,  take  rank  with  his  etudes.  [E.  D.] 

ALL  A  BREVE  (Ital.).  Originally  a  species 
of  time  in  which  every  bar  contained  a  breve,  or 
four  minims ;  hence  its  name.  In  this  time, 
chiefly  used  in  the  older  church  music,  the 
minims,  being  the  unit  of  measurement,  were 
to  be  taken  fast,  somewhat  like  crotchets  in 
ordinary  time.  This  time  was  also  called  Alia 
Capella.  Modem  alia  breve  time  simply 
differs  from  ordinary  common  time  by  being 
always  beaten  or  counted  with  two  minims  (and 
not  with  four  crotchets)  in  the  bar,  and  therefore 
is  really  quick  common  time.  It  is  indicated 
in  the  time-signature  by  i.  e.  the  C  which 
is  used  to  show  four-crotchet  time,  with  a  stroke 
drawn  through  it.  [E.  P.] 

ALLACCI,  Leone,  bom  in  the  island  of  Chios 
of  Greek  parents  in  15S6,  went  to  Rome  at  nine 
years  of  age,  and  in  1661  became  'custode'  of 
the  Vatican  Library,  He  died  in  1669,  and  his 
name  is  only  worth  preserving  for  his  '  Lramma- 
turgia'  (Rome,  1666)  a  catalogue  of  Italian 
musical  dramas  produced  up  to  that  year,  in- 
dispensable for  the  history  of  Italian  opera.  A 
new  edition,  carried  down  to  1755,  appeared  at 
Venice  in  that  year.  [F.  G.] 

ALL'  AXTICO  (Ital.).  'In  the  ancient  style.' 

ALLEGRAXTI,  Madalena,  was  a  pupil  of 
Holtzbauer  of  Mannheim,  and  appeared  for  the 
first  time  at  Venice  in  1771.    After  singing  at 
other  theatres  in  Italy,  she  went  in  1774  to 
!  Germany,  where  she  continued  to  perform  at 
i  Mannheim  and  Ratisbon  tiU  the  year  1 779,  when 
j  she  returned  to  Venice.    She  sang  there  at  the 
j  theatre  of  San  Samuele  during  the  Carnival,  and 
eventually  came   to  England   in  17S1.  Here 
she  was  enthusiastically  admired  in  her  first 
opera,  the  '  Viaggiatori  felici '  of  Anfossi.  Her 
voice,  though  thin,  was  extremely  sweet,  of  ex- 
traordinary compass  upwards,  and  so  flexible  as 
to  lead  her  to  indulge  in  a  flowery  style  of  singing, 
I  which  had  then  the  merit  of  considerable  novelty. 
!  She  was  also  a  good  actress.    But  it  was  soon 
'  fovmd  that  there  was  a  great  sameness  in  her 


54 


ALLEGRANTI. 


ALLEGBO. 


manner  and  embellishments,  and  she  became 
gradually  so  disregarded,  by  the  end  of  her 
second  season,  that  she  went  to  Dresden, 
where  the  Elector  engaged  her  at  a  salary  of 
a  thousand  ducats.  She  came  a  second  time  to 
London,  many  years  later,  and  reappeared  in 
Cimarosa's  '  Matrimonio  Segreto.'  Never  was 
a  more  pitiable  attempt ;  she  had  scarcely  a 
thread  of  voice  remaining,  nor  the  power  to  sing 
a  note  in  tune :  her  figure  and  acting  were 
equally  altered  for  the  worse,  and  after  a  few 
nights  she  was  obliged  to  retire,  and  quit  the 
stage  for  ever.  She  performed  in  oratorio  in 
1 799.  A  pretty  portrait  of  Allegranti  is  engraved 
by  Bartolozzi,  after  Cosway.  [J.  M.] 

ALLEGRI,  Gregorio,  a  beneficed  priest 
attached  to  the  cathedral  of  Fermo,  and  a 
member  of  the  same  family  which  produced 
Corregio  the  painter,  was  also  a  musical  composer 
of  much  distinction.  He  was  born  at  Rome 
about  the  year  1580,  and  was  a  pupil  of  G.  M. 
Nanini.  During  his  residence  at  Fermo  he  acted 
as  chorister  and  composer  to  the  cathedral. 
Certain  Mottetti  and  Concerti  which  he  published 
at  this  time  had  so  great  a  repute  that  they 
attracted  the  notice  of  Pope  Urban  VIII,  who  ap  • 
pointed  him,  on  Dec.  6,  1629,  to  a  vacancy  among 
the  Cantori  of  the  Apostolic  Chapel.  This  post 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  1652. 

His  name  is  most  commonly  associated  with  a 
*  Miserere'  for  nine  voices  in  two  choirs,  which  is, 
or  was  till  lately,  sung  annually  in  the  Pontifical 
Chapel  during  the  Holy  Week,  and  is  held  to  be 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  compositions  which  have 
ever  been  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  Roman 
Church.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was  so  much 
treasured  that  to  copy  it  was  a  crime  visited 
with  excommunication.  Not  that  its  possession 
was  even  thus  confined  to  the  Sistine  Chapel. 
Dr.  Burney  got  a  copy  of  it.  ^  Mozart  took 
down  the  notes  while  the  choir  were  singing  it, 
and  Choron,  the  Frenchman,  managed  to  insert 
it  in  his  'Collection'  of  pieces  used  in  Rome 
during  the  Holy  Week.^  Leopold  I,  a  great  lover 
of  music,  sent  his  ambassador  to  the  Pope  with  a 
formal  request  for  a  copy  of  it,  which  was  granted 
to  him.  The  emperor  had  the  work  performed 
with  much  ceremony  by  a  highly  qualified  choir 
at  Vienna.  The  effect,  however,  was  so  dis- 
appointing that  he  conceived  himself  the  victim 
of  a  trick  upon  the  part  of  the  copyist,  and 
complained  to  the  Pope  that  some  inferior 
composition  had  been  palmed  off  upon  him. 
The  fact  was  that  the  value  of  this  curious 
and  very  delicate  work  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  its  execution.  It  is  simple  almost  to  the 
point  of  apparent  insipidity,  and  it  only  assumes 
its  true  character  when  sung  by  the  one  choir 
which  received  and  has  retained  as  traditions  the 
original  directions  of  its  author.  In  the  Sistine 
Chapel  it  has  ever  commanded  the  enthusiasm 
of  musicians  for  a  certain  indescribable  profundity 
of  sadness,  and  a  rhythmical  adaptation  to  the 

•  Most  probably  through  Santarelli  the  singer. 

*  It  will  be  found  in  tlie  'Sacred  Minstrelsy'  of  the  late  Mr.  W. 
Ayrton.  (Parker.) 


words  about  which  it  is  woven,  but  which,  in 
spite  of  its  apparent  simplicity,  are  so  difficult 
to  produce  that  no  fraud  was  necessary  to 
account  for  the  imperial  failure  at  Vienna.  The 
effects  of  Allegri's  'Miserere'  are  like  the  aroma 
of  certain  delicate  vintages  which  always  perishes 
in  transit  ;  although  in  Rome,  to  turn  to  a 
metaphor  of  Baini's,  they  have  never  shown 
a  wrinkle  of  old  age.  ^ 

As  the  man's  music  so  was  the  man.  Adami 
of  Bolsena  says  that  he  was  of  a  singular 
gentleness  and  sweetness  of  soul  and  habit.  His 
doors  were  constantly  thronged  by  poor,  who 
sought  him  as  much  for  the  more  impalpable 
sustenance  of  his  kindness  as  for  the  more 
material  fruits  of  his  bounty ;  and  his  leisure 
hours  were  commonly  spent  among  the  prisons 
and  pest-houses  of  Rome.  He  died  at  a  ripe  old 
age,  on  Feb.  18,  1652,  and  was  laid  in  S,  Maria 
in  Vallicella,  in  the  burial-place  belonging  to  the 
Papal  Choir. 

His  published  works  consist  chiefly  of  two 
volumes  of  'Concertini'  and  two  of  '  Motetti,' 
all  printed  during  his  lifetime  by  Soldi  of  Rome. 
Some  stray  Motetti  of  his  were,  however, 
inserted  by  Fabio  Constantini  in  a  collection 
intituled,  '  Scelta  di  Motetti  di  diversi  ec- 
cellentissimi  autori,  a  due,  tre,  quattro,  e 
cinque  voci.'  But  the  Archives  of  S.  Maria  in 
Vallicella  are  rich  in  his  manuscripts,  as  are 
also  the  Library  of  the  Collegio  Romano  and 
the  Collection  of  the  Papal  Choir.  Kircher  too 
in  his  'Musurgia'  has  transcribed  an  extract 
from  his  instrumental  works ;  and  the  library 
of  the  Abbe  Santini  contained  the  scores  of 
various  pieces  by  him,  including  'Magnificats,' 
'Improperia,'  '  Lamentazioni,'  and  'Motetti.' 
A  '  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus'  by  him  for  four  voices 
is  included  in  the  '  Musica  divina '  of  Proske 
(Liber  Motettorum,  No.  Ix.)  [E.  H.  P.] 

ALLEGRO  (Ital.)  The  literal  meaning  of 
this  word  is  'cheerful,'  and  it  is  in  this  sense 
that  it  is  employed  as  the  title  of  Milton's  well- 
known  poem.  In  music  however  it  has  the 
signification  of  'lively'  merely  in  the  sense  of 
quick,  and  is  often  combined  with  other  words 
which  would  make  nonsense  with  it  in  its 
original  meaning — e.g.  'allegro  agitato  e  con 
disperazione '  (Clementi,  'Didone  abbandonata'). 
When  unaccompanied  by  any  qualifying  word 
*  allegro '  indicates  a  rate  of  speed  nearly  inter- 
mediate between  '  andante '  and  '  presto.'  There 
is  however  no  other  time  indication  which  is  so 
frequently  modified  by  the  addition  of  other 
words.  To  quote  only  some  of  the  more  common, 
'  allegro  molto,'  '  allegro  assai,'  '  allegro  con  brio ' 
(or  'con  fuoco'),  and  'allegro  vivace,'  will  all 
indicate  a  quicker  time  than  a  simple  allegro; 
an  'allegro  assai,'  for  instance,  is  often  almost 
equivalent  to  a  'presto.'  On  the  other  hand, 
'allegro  ma  non  troppo,'  'allegro  moderate,'  or 
'  allegro  maestoso,'  will  all  be  somewhat  slower. 
The  exact  pace  of  any  particular  allegro  is 
frequently  indicated  by  the  metronome,  but  even 

»  '  Senza  aver  contratto  ruga  di  vecchiezza.' 


ALLEGRO. 


ALLGEMEINE. 


55 


this  is  by  no  means  an  infallible  guide,  as  the 
same  movement  if  played  in  a  large  hall  and 
with  a  great  number  of  performers  would  require 
to  be  taken  somewhat  slower  than  in  a  smaller 
room  or  with  a  smaller  band.  In  this,  as  with 
all  other  time -indications,  much  must  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  performer  or  conductor.  If 
he  have  true  musical  feeling  he  cannot  go  far 
wrong ;  if  he  have  not,  the  most  minute  directions 
will  hardly  keep  him  right.  The  word  '  allegro ' 
is  also  used  as  the  name  of  a  piece  of  music, 
either  a  separate  piece  (e.g.  Chopin's  'Allegro 
de  Concert,'  op.  46),  or  as  the  first  movement 
of  a  large  instrumental  composition.  In  these 
cases  it  is  generally  constructed  in  certain 
definite  forms,  for  which  see  Symphony  and 
Sonata.  Beethoven  also  exceptionally  uses  the 
word  *  allegro '  instead  of  '  scherzo.'  Four 
instances  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  his  works, 
viz.  in  the  symphony  in  C  minor,  the  quartetts 
in  E  minor,  op.  59,  No.  2,  and  F  minor, 
op  95,  and  the  Sonata  quasi  Fantasia,  op.  27, 
No.  I.  [E.  P.] 

ALLEGRETTO  (Ital.).  A  diminutive  of 
'allegro,'  and  as  a  time-indication  somewhat 
slower  than  the  latter,  and  also  faster  than 
'  andante.'  Like  '  allegro '  it  is  frequently  com- 
bined with  other  words,  e.  g. '  allegretto  moderato,' 
'allegretto  vivace,'  'allegretto  ma  non  troppo,' 
'allegretto  scherzando,'  etc,  either  modifying  the 
pace  or  describing  the  character  of  the  music. 
The  word  is  also  used  as  the  name  of  a  move- 
ment, and  in  this  sense  is  especially  to  be  often 
found  in  the  worlcs  of  Beethoven,  some  of  whose 
allegrettos  are  among  his  most  remarkable  com- 
positions. It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  with 
regard  to  Beethoven,  that  in  all  cases  where  the 
word  '  allegretto '  stands  alo)ie  at  the  head  of 
the  second  or  third  movement  of  a  work  it 
indicates  the  character  of  the  music  and  not 
merely  its  pace.  A  genuine  Beethoven  allegretto 
always  takes  the  place  either  of  the  andante  or 
scherzo  of  the  work  to  which  it  belongs.  In  the 
seventh  and  eighth  symphonies,  in  the  quartett 
in  F  minor,  op.  95,  and  the  piano  trio  in  E  flat, 
op.  70,  No.  2,  an  allegretto  is  to  be  found  instead 
of  the  slow  movement ;  and  in  the  sonatas 
in  F,  op.  10,  No.  2,  and  in  E,  op.  14,  No.  i,  in 
the  great  quartett  in  F,  op.  59,  No.  I,  and  the 
trio  in  E  fiat,  op.  70,  No.  2,  the  allegretto  takes 
the  place  of  the  scherzo.  This  use  of  the  word 
alone  as  the  designation  of  a  particular  kind  of 
movement  is  peculiar  to  Beethoven.  It  is  worth 
mentioning  that  in  the  case  of  the  allegretto  of 
the  seventh  symphony,  Beethoven,  in  order  that 
it  should  not  be  played  too  fast,  wished  it  to  be 
marked  '  Andante  quasi  allegretto.'  This  indica- 
tion however  does  not  appear  in  any  of  the 
printed  scores.  In  the  slow  movement  of  the 
Pastoral  Symphony,  Beethoven  also  at  first  indi- 
cated the  time  as  'Andante  molto  moto,  quasi 
allegretto/  but  subsequently  struck  out  the  last 
two  words.  [E.  P.] 

ALLEMANDE.  i.  One  of  the  movements 
of  the  Suite,  and,  as  its  name  implies,  of  Ger- 
man origin.    It  is,  with  the  exception  of  the 


Prelude  and  the  Air,  the  only  movement  of 
the  Suite  which  has  not  originated  in  a  dance- 
form.  The  allemande  is  a  piece  of  moderate 
rapidity — about  an  allegretto — in  common  time, 
and  commencing  usually  with  one  short  note, 
generally  a  quaver  or  semiquaver,  at  the  end  of 
the  bar. 


J     J.  S.  Bacit,  Suites 
Anglaises,  No.  3. 


Sometimes  instead  of  one  there  are  three  short 
notes  at  the  beginning  :  as  in  Handel's  Suites, 
Book  i,  No.  5. 


etc. 


The  homophonic  rather  than  the  polyphonic 
style  predominates  in  the  music,  which  fre- 
quently consists  of  a  highly  figurate  melody, 
with  a  comparatively  simple  accompaniment. 
Suites  are  occasionally  met  with  which  have 
no  allemande  (e.  g.  Bach's  Partita  in  B  minor), 
but  where  it  is  introduced  it  is  always,  un- 
less preceded  by  a  prelude,  the  first  movement 
of  a  suite  ;  and  its  chief  characteristics  are  the 
uniform  and  regular  motion  of  the  upper  part ; 
the  avoidance  of  strongly  marked  rhythms  or 
rhythmical  figures,  such  us  we  meet  with  in  the 
CouRANTE ;  the  absence  of  all  accents  on  the 
weak  parts  of  the  bar,  such  as  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Sarabande  ;  the  general  prevalence  of 
homophony,  already  referred  to ;  and  the  simple 
and  measured  time  of  the  music.  The  alle- 
mande always  consists  of  two  parts  each  of 
which  is  repeated.  These  two  parts  are  usually 
of  the  length  of  8,  12,  or  16  bars;  sometimes, 
though  less  fi:equently,  of  10.  In  the  earlier 
allemandes,  such  as  those  of  Couperin,  the 
second  is  frequently  longer  than  the  first :  Bach, 
however,  mostly  makes  them  of  the  same 
length. 

2.  The  word  is  also  used  as  equivalent  to  the 
Deutscher  Tanz — a  dance  in  triple  time,  closely 
resembling  the  waltz.  Specimens  of  this  species 
of  allemande  are  to  be  seen  in  Beethoven's 
'  1 2  Deutsche  Tanze,  fiir  Orchester,'  the  first  of 
which  begins  thus  : — 


sf 

It  has  no  relation  whatever  to  the  allemande 
spoken  of  above,  being  of  Swabian  origin. 

3.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  German 
national  dance  of  a  lively  character  in  2-4  time, 
similar  to  the  Contredanse.  [E.  P.J 

ALLGEMEINE  MUSIKALISCHE  ZEIT- 
UNG.    See  Musikalischb  Zeitung. 


56 


ALLISON. 


ALPHABET. 


ALLISON,  Richard,  a  teacher  of  music  in 
London  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  particulars 
of  whose  birth  and  decease  are  unknown.  His 
name  first  occurs  as  a  contributor  to  T.  Este's 
'Whole  Booke  of  Psalms,'  1592.  A  few  years 
later  he  published  on  his  own  account  'The 
Psalmes  of  David  in  Meter,'  1599,  a  collection 
of  old  church  tunes  harmonised  by  himself  in 
four  parts,  with  an  accompaniment  for  the  '  lute, 
orpharyon,  citterne  or  base  violl,'  and  im- 
portant as  being  one  of  the  earliest  to  give  the 
melody  in  the  cantus  or  soprano  part — the  usual 
practice  being  to  give  it  to  the  tenor.  Allison 
advertises  it  'to  be  solde  at  his  house  in  the 
Duke's-place  near  Aide-gate,'  and  dedicates  it  to 
the  Countess  of  Warwick.  It  is  ushered  forth 
by  some  complimentary  verses  by  John  Dow- 
land,  the  celelDrated  performer  on  the  lute,  and 
others.  He  appears  to  have  been  patronised  by 
Sir  John  Scudamore,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
collection  of  part-songs  entitled,  '  An  Houres 
Recreation  in  Musicke,  apt  for  Instruments  and 
Voyces,'  1606.  This  publication  contains  '  a 
prayer'  set  to  music,  'for  the  long  preservation 
of  the  king  and  his  posteritie,'  and  'a  thanks- 
giving for  the  deliverance  of  the  whole  estate 
from  the  late  conspiracie' — the  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Allison,  Robert,  probably  a  relative  of 
Richard,  was  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
After  serving  in  the  royal  establishment  for 
twenty  years  he  sold  his  place,  Feb.  8,  1609-10, 
to  Humphry  Bache.  (Allison's  publications;  Camd. 
Soc.  Cheqm-Bk.  of  Chap.  Royal.)       [E.  F.  R.] 

ALL'  OTTAVA  (Ital.).  'In  the  octave.' 
(i)  In  pianoforte  music  a  passage  marked  alV  8t'a. 
(or  merely  8va.)  is  to  be  played  an  octave  higher 
than  written,  if  the  sign  is  placed  above  the  notes, 
an  octave  lower  if  placed  below  them.  In  the 
latter  case  the  more  accurate  indication  8z;a.  hassa 
is  frequently  employed.  The  duration  of  the 
transposition  is  shown  by  a  dotted  line,  and  when 
the  notes  are  again  to  be  played  as  written,  the 
word  loco  (Ital.,  'in  its  place')  is  put  over  (or 
under)  the  music.  (2)  In  orchestral  scores, 
especially  manuscripts,  alV  ^va.  signifies  that  one 
instrument  plays  in  octaves  with  another,  either 
above  or  below.  (3)  In  playing  from  a  figured 
bass  the  term  shows  that  no  harmonies  are  to  be 
employed,  and  that  the  upper  parts  merely  double 
the  bass  in  octaves.   In  this  case  it  is  equivalent 

to  TASTO  SOLO.  [E.  P.] 

all;  UNISONO  (Ital.,  abbreviated  Unis.). 
*ln  unison.'  In  orchestral  scores  this  term  is 
used  to  show  that  two  or  more  instruments,  the 
parts  of  which  are  written  upon  the  same  stave, 
are  to  play  in  unison.  In  modem  scores  the 
words  a  due,  a  tre,  etc.,  are  morj  frequently 
employed. 

ALPENHORN,  or  ALPHORN,  an  instru- 
ment with  a  cupped  moutlipiece,  of  wood  and 
bark,  used  by  the  mountaineers  in  Switzerland 
and  many  other  countries  to  convey  signals  and 
to  produce  simple  melodies.  It  is  nearly  straight, 
and  three  or  more  feet  in  length.  Those  in  the 
Museum  at  South  Kensington  are  respectively 


7  ft.  5  in.  and  7  ft.  11  in.  long.  There  is  a 
Swedish  instrument  of  this  kind  called  Lure ; 
another  of  kindred  nature  used  in  the  Hima- 
layas ;  and  another  by  the  Indians  of  South 
America. 

The  notes  produced  are  evidently  only  the 
open  harmonics  of  the  tube,  somewha.t  modified 
by  the  material  of  which  it  is  made,  and  by  the 
smallness  of  the  bore  in  relation  to  its  length. 
The  melody  is  termed  '  Ranz  des  Vaches.'  Its 
principal  musical  interest  is  derived  from  its 
introduction  into  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  Pas- 
toral Symphony,  and  Rossini's  opera  of  '  William 
Tell.'  Beethoven  employs  the  ordinary  horn 
alone  ;  but  in  the  overture  the  long  solo,  now 
usually  played  by  the  oboe,  sometimes  by  the 
cor  anglais,  was  originally  intended  for,  and 
played  by,  a  tenoroon  or  alto  fagotto  standing 
in  F,  which  much  more  nearly  approaches  the 
real  tone  of  the  Alpenhorn  than  the  other  in- 
struments. 

A  similar  combination  of  cupped  mouthpiece 
with  wooden  tube  existed  in  the  serpent,  and  the 
result  was  a  peculiar  covered  and  tender  quality 
of  tone  now  lost  to  music,  except  in  so  far  as  it 
can  be  traced  in  some  organ  reed-stops,  with 
wooden,  not  metal  bells.  [W.  H.  S,] 

ALPHABET.  The  musical  alphabet,  which 
serves  as  the  designation  of  all  musical  sounds, 
consists  of  the  seven  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F, 
and  G,  and,  in  German,  H  in  addition.  In  the 
natural  scale  (i.  e.  the  scale  without  sharps  or 
flats)  the  order  of  these  letters  is  as  follows : — 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B  (or,  in  German,  H),  C ;  the 
cause  of  this  apparently  arbitrary  arrangement 
wiU  be  best  understood  from  a  brief  glance  at  the 
history  of  the  musical  scale. 

According  to  Isidore,  bishop  of  Seville  (circa 
595),  the  oldest  harps  had  seven  strings,  and  the 
shepherds'  pandean  pipes  seven  reeds,  ^  from 
which  it  appears  probable  as  well  as  natural  that 
the  ancient  scale  consisted  of  seven  sounds. 

These  seven  sounds,  which  served  for  both 
voices  and  instruments,  were  gradually  added  to, 
until,  in  the  time  of  Aristoxenus  (340  B.C.),  there 
were  fifteen,  extending  from  A  the  first  space  of 
the  bass  stave  to  A  the  second  space  in  the 
treble.  Each  of  these  sounds  had  its  distinctive 
name,  derived  from  the  position  and  length  of  the 
diff'erent  strings  of  the  phorminx  or  lyre,  and  in 
order  to  avoid  writing  them  in  full  the  ancient 
Greek  authors  expressed  them  by  certain  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  ^  As  however  the  properties  of 
the  notes  varied  continually  with  the  diflferent 
modes  and  so-called  mutations,  which  by  this 
time  had  been  introduced  into  the  musical 
system,  these  letters  were  written  in  an  immense 
variety  of  forms,  large  and  small,  inverted, 
turned  to  the  right  or  left,  lying  horizontally, 
accented  in  many  ways,  etc.,  so  that,  according 
to  Alypius,  the  most  intelligible  of  the  Greek 
writers  who  wrote  professedly  to  explain  them, 

»  Before  the  time  of  Terpander  (about  670  B.  C.)  the  Greek  lyTe  ia 
supposed  to  have  had  but  four  strings.  Boethius  attributes  its  exten- 
sion to  seven  strings  to  Terpander. 

2  For  a  full  description  of  the  Greek  scale  see  Sir  J.  Hawkins, 
*  Hi^tuiy  of  Music,'  cb.  ir. 


I 


ALPHABET. 

the  musical  signs  in  use  in  his  day  amounted  to 
no  fewer  than  1 240,  and  it  appears  probable  that 
even  this  number  was  afterwards  exceeded. 

The  Komans,  who  borrowed  the  Greek  scale, 
and  gave  Latin  names  to  each  of  its  fifteen 
sounds,  did  not  adopt  this  complicated  system, 
but.  employed  instead  the  first  fifteen  letters  of 
their  alphabet,  A  to  P,  and  later  still,  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  was  chosen  pope  a.d.  590, 
discovering  that  the  second  half  of  the  scale, 
H  to  P,  was  but  a  repetition  of  the  first,  A  to  H, 
abolished  the  last  eight  letters  and  used  the  first 
seven  over  again,  expressing  the  lower  octave  by 
capitals  and  the  upper  by  small  letters.  ^ 

So  far  the  original  compass  of  the  Greek  scale 
was  preserved,  and  thus  A  was  naturally  applied 
to  the  first  and  at  that  time  lowest  note,  but 
about  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century  a  new 
note  was  introduced,  situated  one  degree  below 
the  lowest  A,  and  called  (it  is  difiicult  to  say 
why)  after  the  Greek  letter  gamma,^  and  written 
r.  To  this  others  were  ft-om  time  to  time  added 
until  the  lower  C  was  reached,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  1 6th  century,  by  Lazarino.  Thus  the 
modem  scale  was  established,  and  A,  originally 
the  first,  became  the  sixth  degree. 

In  Germany  the  same  system  was  originally 
adopted,  but  when  accidentals  were  invented, 
and  it  became  customary  to  sing  in  certain  cases 
Bb  instead  of  B3,  the  square  shape  of  the  natural 
soon  became  transformed  into  the  letter  H,  which 
was  applied  to  the  note  B3  (the  original  B),  while 
the  rounder  form  of  the  flat  received  the  name 
of  B,  a  distinction  which  remains  in  force  to  the 
present  day.    (See  Accidentals.)  [F.  T.] 

ALSAGER,  Thomas  Massa,  bom  1779,  died 
1846,  one  of  the  family  of  Alsager,  of  Alsager, 
Cheshire.  He  was  for  many  years  a  proprietor 
and  one  of  the  leading  men  in  the  management 
of  *  The  Times,'  being  especially  concemed  in  all 
that  related  to  music  and  the  collection  of  mer- 
cantile and  foreign  news.  The  professionally 
trained  musical  critic,  added  at  his  suggestion  to 
the  staff  of '  The  Times,'  was  the  first  employed 
on  any  daily  paper.  He  was  the  intimate  friend 
of  Lamb,  the  Burneys,  Wordsworth,  Talfourd, 
Leigh  Hvmt,  Mendelssohn,  Moscheles,  and  many 
other  celebrities.  But  what  entitles  him  to 
mention  here  was  his  intense  devotion  to  music, 
to  which  he  gave  all  the  leisure  he  could  spare 
from  a  busy  life.  His  practical  ability  in  music 
was  very  great,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  he  could 
perform  on  all  the  instruments  in  the  orchestra. 
The  frequent  private  concerts  given  by  the 
'Queen-Square  Select  Society'  at  his  residence 
in  London  will  long  be  remembered  by  his  many 
musical  friends,  and  were  the  means  of  intro- 
ducing to  this  country  many  works  and  foreign 

1  This  system  of  Pope  Gregory  forms  the  so-called  basis  of  the 
German  Tablatur,  in  which  the  octave  from  the  C  next  below  the  bass 
stave  to  C  second  space  is  called  the  great  octave,  and  is  indicated  by 
capitals;  the  octave  next  above  is  known  as  the  small  octave,  and  is 
expressed  by  small  letters ;  and  all  succeeding  octaves  are  called  once- 
marked,  twice-marked  octaves,  etc.,  and  the  letters  representing  them 
have  one,  two,  or  more  horizontal  lines  drawn  above  them,  thus : 
CD...cd...cd...c5...c3...,  etc. 

2  The  a-idition  of  the  r  is  by  some  attributed  to  Guide  d'Arezzo ;  but 
he  speaks  of  it  in  his  '  24icrologus '  (A.D.  1024)  as  being  already  in  use. 


ALTO.  57 

musicians.  There  Sivori  for  the  first  time  at- 
tempted quartett  playing,  and  there  on  March 
28,  1834,  took  place  the  first  performance  in 
England  of  Cherubini's  '  Requiem,'  principal 
soprano  Mrs.  H.  R.  Bishop  ;  first  violin  M.  Spag- 
noletti.  In  1843  the  society  held  a  special  musi- 
cal festival  in  honour  of  Spohr,  who  himself  led 
three  pieces.  One  object  of  the  society  was  to 
establish  a  taste  for  Beethoven's  chamber  music, 
by  performing  it  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
attainable.  It  was  divided  into  two  classes,  one 
called  the  pianoforte  and  the  other  the  violin 
class,  and  separate  evenings  were  devoted  to 
each  kind  of  composition,  special  attention  being 
bestowed  on  those  least  known  to  the  public. 
These  resulted  in  the  series  of  chamber  concerts 
given  publicly  in  Harley  Street  in  1845  and 
1S46,  and  called  the  'Beethoven  Quartett  So- 
ciety,' the  whole  being  due  to  the  enthusiasm, 
knowledge,  and  munificence  of  Mr.  Alsager. 

ALT.  The  notes  in  the  octave  above  the 
treble  stave,  beginning  with  the  G,  are  said  to 
be  IN  ALT,  and  those  in  the  next  octave  IN 

ALTISSIMO. 

ALTENBURG,  Johann  Eenst,  a  famous 
trumpet-player,  bom  1734  at  Weissenfels,  and 
son  of  Johann  Caspar,  also  an  excellent  master 
of  the  same  instrument.  The  father  served  in 
several  campaigns,  and  was  in  action  at  Malpla- 
quet.  After  leaving  the  army  he  travelled  much 
in  Europe,  and  was  admired  wherever  he  came, 
and  so  successful  that  he  was  able  to  refuse  an 
ofi'er  fi-om  Frederic  Augustus  of  Poland  to  enter 
his  service  with  a  salary  of  600  thalers.  He 
died  in  1 761 .  His  son — more  celebrated  than  the 
father — after  completing  his  education,  adopted 
the  military  career,  and  was  a  field  trumpeter  in 
the  army  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  After 
the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  he  became  organist  at 
Bitterfeld.  He  was  the  author  of  a  book  entitled 
'  Versuch  einer  Anleitung  zur  heroischer  musikal- 
ischenTrompetkunst'  (Halle,  1 79 5),  which,  though 
poor  in  style,  is  so  complete  in  its  treatment  of 
the  subject,  as  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest  in 
relation  to  trumpet  music.  [F.  G.] 

ALTHORN,  an  instrument  of  the  Saxhokn 
family,  usually  standing  in  Eb  or  F.  It  is  exclu- 
sively used  in  military  music,  and  often  replaces 
the  French  horn,  for  which  however  it  is  a  poor 
j  substitute  as  regards  tone.  It  is  much  easier  to 
j  learn  than  the  horn,  and  presents  greater  facility 
in  rapid  melodic  passages.  The  least  objection- 
able way  of  introducing  it  into  the  reed  band  is 
to  associate  a  pair  of  these  instruments  with  two 
French  homs,  reserving  characteristic  holding 
notes  for  the  latter.  In  the  brass  band,  where 
variety  of  timbre  is  less  attainable,  it  answers 
its  purpose  well,  and  can  better  be  played  on 
horseback,  from  its  upright  bell.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  saxhorn  in  Bb,  but  this  is  best 
distinguished  as  the  Baritone.  The  scale  and 
compass  of  this  and  the  other  Saxhorns  are 
given  under  that  word.  [W.  H.  S.] 

ALTO  (from  the  Latin  altus,  high,  far  re- 
moved}.   The  male  voice  of  the  highest  pitch,. 


ALTO. 


AMATI. 


called  also  counter-tenor,  i.e.  contra,  or  against 
the  tenor.  In  the  i6th  and  early  part  of  the 
1 7th  centuries  the  compass  of  the  alto  voice  was 
limited  to  the  notes  admissible  on  the  stave  which 
has  the  C  clef  on  its  third  line  ;  i.e.  to  the  notes 
a  sixth  above  and  a  sixth  below  'middle  C 
Later  however  this  compass  was  extended  by 
bringing  into  use  the  third  register  of  the  voice, 
or  'falsetto,'  a  register  often  strongest  with 
those  whose  voices  are  naturally  '  bass.*  The 
falsetto  counter-tenor,  or  more  properly  counter- 
alto,  still  to  be  found  in  cathedral  choirs,  dates — 
if  musical  history  is  to  be  read  in  music — from 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  who  doubtless  de- 
sired to  reproduce  at  home,  approximately  at 
least,  a  class  of  voice  he  had  become  accustomed 
to  in  continental  chapels  royal  and  ducal.  The 
so-called  counter-tenor  parts  of  Pelham  Hum- 
phreys his  contemporaries  and  successors,  habi- 
tually transcend  those  of  their  predecessors,  from 
Tallis  to  Gibbons,  by  at  least  a  third.  The  con- 
tralto part  is  properly  written  on  the  stave  which 
has  C  on  its  second  line ;  it  consequently 
extends  to  the  eighth  above  middle  C  and 
the  fourth  below.  This  stave  is  now  obsolete, 
and  the  part  for  which  it  is  fitted  is,  in  Eng- 
land, written  either  on  the  alto  stave,  for  which 
it  is  too  high,  or  on  the  treble  stave  for  which 
it  is  too  low.  On  the  continent  the  stave 
which  has  the  C  clef  on  the  first  line  is  sometimes 
used  for  it.  For  the  female  alto  voice  see  Con- 
tralto. [J.  H.] 

ALTO  is  also  the  Italian  term  for  the  Tenor 
violin,  called  alto,  or  alto  di  viola,  as  distinguished 
from  basso  di  viola,  because,  before  the  invention, 
or  at  least  before  the  general  adoption  of  the  vio- 
lin, it  used  to  take  the  highest  part  in  composi- 
tions for  string-instruments,  corresponding  to  the 
soprano  part  in  vocal  music.  For  further  parti- 
culars see  Viola.  [P.  D.] 

ALTRA  VOLTA  (Ital.  'another  turn'),  a 
term  in  use  during  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century  for  ENCORE,  a  word  which  has  now 
entirely  superseded  it. 

AMATI,  a  family  of  celebrated  Italian  violin- 
makers,  who  lived  and  worked  at  Cremona,  and 
are  generally  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Cre- 
mona school.  There  is  considerable  uncertainty 
as  to  the  different  members  of  the  family,  which 
was  one  of  the  oldest  and  noblest  of  the  town. 

I.  Andrea,  the  eldest,  appears  to  have  been 
born  some  time  between  1520  and  1525. 
Fetis  mentions  two  instruments  of  Andrea 
Amati,  which  are  dated  1546  and  1551  ;  one  of 
them  a  rebec  with  three  strings,  the  other  a 
viola  bastardo,  or  small  violin.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  was  originally  a  maker  of  the 
older  viola  di  gamba,  and  that  only  later  in  life 
he  began  to  make  violins.  We  do  not  know 
whether  he  was  a  direct  pupil  of  one  of  the 
great  Brescia  makers,  Caspar  da  Salo  or  Maggini. 
In  spite  of  some  similarity  his  violins  certainly 
differ  materially  in  shape  and  workmanship  from 
the  works  of  these  older  masters.  Very  few 
authentic  instruments  of  his  make  are  extant. 


and  those  are  not  in  good  preservation.  They 
retain  the  stiff  upright  Brescian  soundhole,  but 
in  almost  every  other  respect  mark  a  great 
advance  upon  the  productions  of  the  older  school. 
Andrea  worked  mostly  after  a  small  pattern ; 
the  belly  and  back  very  high ;  the  varnish 
of  amber  colour;  the  wood,  especially  that,  of 
the  belly,  most  carefully  chosen  ;  the  scroU 
beautifully  chiselled ;  the  general  outline  ex- 
tremely graceful.  A  few  violoncellos  and  tenors 
of  this  master  are  also  known.  The  tone  of  his 
instruments  is  clear  and  silvery,  but,  probably 
owing  to  their  small  size  and  high  elevation,  not 
very  powerful.  The  fourth  string  is  particularly 
weak.    Andrea  died  probably  in  1 5 77. 

2.  NicoLO,  younger  brother  of  Andrea  (not  to 
be  confounded  with  Nicolo  son  of  Geronimo) 
appears  to  have  made  basses  in  preference  to 
violins. 

3.  Antonio,  bom  1550,  and  4.  Geeonimo, 
died  1635,  sons  of  Andrea,  worked  conjointly 
very  much  in  their  father's  style ;  Geronimo 
appears  to  have  afterwards  made  violins  of  a 
larger  pattern  independently  of  his  brother, 
which  however  are  inferior  to  those  made 
conjointly  with  him. 

5.  Nicolo,  bom  September  3,  1596,  died 
August  12,  1684,  son  of  Geronimo,  was  the 
last  and  doubtless  the  most  eminent  of  the 
family.  Although  he  did  not  materially  alter 
the  model  adopted  by  the  rest  of  the  Amatis  he 
improved  it  in  many  respects.  His  outline  is 
still  more  graceful,  his  vamish  of  deeper  and 
richer  colour,  and  the  proportions,  as  regards 
thickness  of  wood  and  elevation  of  back  and 
belly,  are  better  calculated  by  him  than  by  his 
predecessors.  His  instruments  have  in  con- 
sequence, besides  the  clearness  and  transparency 
of  the  older  Amatis,  greater  power  and  intensity 
of  tone.  As  a  rule  he  "too  worked  after  a  small 
pattern,  but  he  also  made  some  large  violins, — 
the  so-called  'Grand  Amatis,'  which  are  par- 
ticularly high-priced — and  a  great  number  of 
beautiful  tenors  and  violoncellos.  His  instru- 
ments enjoyed  even  during  his  life-time  a  great 
reputation,  and  it  is  related  that  Charles  IX  of 
France  gave  him  an  order  for  twelve  violins,  six 
tenors,  and  six  violoncellos,  for  his  private  band. 
Andrea  Guarneri  and  the  still  greater  Antonio 
Stradivari  were  his  pupils.  His  label  runs 
thus,  'Nicolaus  Amati  Cremonens.  Hieronimi 
filii  Antonii  nepos  fecit  anno  16  — .' 

6.  Geronimo,  his  son,  was  but  an  in- 
different maker.  The  violins  of  the  Amati  are 
the  link  between  the  Brescia  school  and  those 
masters  who  brought  the  art  of  violin-making 
to  its  greatest  perfection,  Antonio  Stradivari  and 
Josef  Guarneri.  The  tone  of  Gaspar  da  Sale's 
and  Maggini's  violins  is  great  and  powerful, 
but  has  a  peculiarly  veiled  character,  reminding 
one  of  the  viola  da  gamba.  In  Nicolo  Amati's 
instruments  the  tone  is  clearer  and  more  trans- 
parent, but  comparatively  small.  It  was  left  to 
another  generation  of  makers  to  combine  these 
qualities  and  to  fix  upon  a  model,  which  after 
the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  has 


AMATI. 


AMBROSIAN  CHANT. 


59 


proved  itself  incapable  of  even  the  most  trifling 
improvement.  [P-  D-] 

AMBASSADRICE,  L',  opera  in  three  acts ; 
libretto  by  Scribe ;  music  by  Auber ;  first  per- 
formed at  the  Opera  Comique,  Dec.  21,  1836. 

AMBER  WITCH,  THE,  a  romantic  opera  in 
four  acts,  by  W.  V.  Wallace ;  libretto  by  H.  F. 
Chorley ;  first  produced  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
Feb.  28,  1861. 

AMBROGETTI,  Giuseppe,  an  excellent 
hiiffo,  who  appeared  in  1807,  and  at  Paris  in  181 5 
in  '  Don  Giovanni' ;  and  at  the  opera  in  London 
in  181 7,  where  he  was  very  successful.  His  voice 
was  a  bass  of  no  great  power,  but  he  was  an 
excellent  actor,  with  a  natural  vein  of  humour, 
though  often  put  into  characters  unsuited  to  him 
as  a  singer  ;  yet  he  acted  extremely  well,  and  in 
a  manner  too  horribly  true  to  nature,  the  part  of 
the  mad  father  in  Paer  s  beautiful  opera  '  Agnese,' 
while  that  of  the  daughter  was  sung  by  Cam- 
porese.  He  remained  until  the  end  of  the  season 
of  18 2 1,  in  which  his  salary  was  £400.  He 
married  Teresa  Strinasacchi  the  singer.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  not  kno^vn.  He  was  said 
to  have  become  a  monk  in  France ;  but  in  1838 
he  w\as  in  Ireland,  since  which  nothing  has  been 
heard  of  him.  [J.  M.] 

AMBROS,  August  WiLHELM,  Bom  Nov.  17, 
1 816,  at  Mauth  in  Bohemia.    By  virtue  of  his 
'  Geschichte  der  Musik'  (Breslau,  Leuckart),  the 
4th  vol.  of  which,  reaching  to  Monteverde  and 
Frescobaldi,  appeared  July  1S78,  he  must  be 
considered  the  greatest  German  authority  on 
all  questions  concerning  the  history  of  Euro- 
pean music  from  ancient  Greece  to  the  present 
day.    In  spite  of  having  suffered  till  past  his 
fiftieth  year  under  that  curse  of  dilletantism, 
serving  two  masters — being  at  the  same  time 
a  hardworked  employe  in  the  Austrian  Civil 
Service  and  an  enthusiastic  musician  and  litte- 
rateur, pianist,  composer,  critic  and  historian 
— his  indomitable  pluck  and  perseverance  has 
enabled  him  to  put  forward  a  foimidable  array 
of  writings  on  the  history  and  aesthetics  of  music, 
all  of  which  bear  the  stamp  of  a  rich,  highly 
cultured  and  very  versatile  mind.    They  are  as 
remarkable  for  their  many-sided  learning  and 
accuracy  as  for  their  lucid  arrangement  and 
brilliant  diction.     Ambros'  father,  postmaster 
and  gentle  U)  an  farmer,  was  a  good  linguist  and 
excellent  mathematician,  and  his  mother,  a  sister 
of  KiESEWETTER,  the  historian  of  music,  a 
good  pianist  of  the  old  school  and  an  accom- 
plished singer.    They  gave  him  every  chance 
to  acquire  the  elements  of  modem  culture 
at  the   gjminasium   and  subsequently  at  the 
university  of  Prague  ;  drawing,  painting,  poetry 
were   not  forgotten ;  music  only,   which  fas- 
cinated him  above  all  things,  and  for  instruc- 
tion in  which  he  passionately  longed,  was  strictly 
prohibited.  It  was  intended  that  he  should  enter 
the  civil  service,  and  music  was  considered  both 
a  dangerous  and  an  undigiiified  pastime.  Never- 
theless he  learnt  to  play  the  piano  on  the  sly, 
and  worked  hard  by  himself  at  books  of  Counter- 


point and  Composition.   In  1 840,  after  a  brilliant 
career  and  with  the  title  of  doctor  juris,  he  left 
the  university  and  entered  the  office  of  the 
Attorney-General,  where  he  steadily  advanced 
to  Referendarius  in  1845,  Prosecuting  Attorney 
in  matters  of  the  press  in  1 848,  &c     Soon  after 
1850,  when  he  married,  his  reputation  as  a 
writer  on  musical  matters  spread  beyond  the 
walls  of  Prague.    He  answered  Hanslick's 
pamphlet,  'Vom  musikalisch  Schonen,'  in  a 
little  volume,  '  Die  Griinzen  der  Poesie  und  der 
Musik,'  which  brought  down  upon  him,  especially 
in  Vienna,  a  shower  of  journalistic  abuse,  but 
which  procured  for  him  on  the  other  hand  the 
friendship  and  admiration  of  many  of  the  foremost 
German  musicians.    It  was  followed  by  a  series 
of  elaborate  essays  :  *  Culturhistorische  Bilder 
aus  der  Musikleben  der  Gegenwart,'  which  were 
read  with  avidity  and  appeared  in  a  second 
edition  (Leipzig,  Mathes)  in  1865.  Thereupon 
the  firm  of  Leuckart  engaged  him  to  begin  his 
'History  of  Music,'  his  life's  work.    From  i860 
to  1864  he  was  making  researches  towards  it  in 
the  Court  Library  at  Vienna,  at  Venice,  Bologna, 
Florence  and  Rome.    In  1867  he  was  ransack- 
ing the  Royal  Library  at  Munich,  one  of  the 
richest  in  Europe,  and  in  1868,  1869,  and  1873 
was  a^in  in  Italy  extending  his  quest  as  far 
as  Naples,     The   third   volume,    reaching  to 
Palestrina,  was  published  in  1868.    In  1872  and 
1874  he  published  two  series  of  'Chips  firom  his 
Workshop,'  under  the  title  of  'Bunte  Blatter,' 
being  essays  on  isolated  musical  and  artistic 
subjects,  and  written  in  a  sparkling  non-technical 
manner,  but  full  of  matter  interesting  both  to 
professional  artists  and  dilettanti.    He  was  tlie 
Professor  of  the  History  of  Music  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague  ;  and,  thanks  to  the  liberality 
of  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Vienna,  was  in 
possession  of  sufficient  means  and  leisiu-e  to 
continue  his  important  task.    He  appeared  in 
public  repeatedly  as  a  pianist,  and  his  com- 
positions. Overtures  to  'Othello,'  and  Calderon's 
'Mag-ico  Prodigioso' ;   a  number  of  pianoforte 
pieces,  '  Wanderstiicke,'  '  Kinderstiicke,'  '  Land- 
schaftsbilder' ;  numerous  songs  ;  a  '  Stabat  Mater,' 
two  Masses  in  B  flat  and  A  minor,  etc.,  most 
of  which  have  a  strong  smack  of  ScHUiiANX, 
besides  pro\dng  him  to  be  a  practical  musician 
of  far  more  than  common  attainments,  give  an 
additional  weight  to  his  criticisms,  showing  these 
to  stand  upon  the  firm  ground  of  sound  technical 
attainments.  He  died,  June  28,  1876.      [E.  D.] 

AMBROSIAN  CHANT.  The  ecclesiastical 
mode  of  saying  and  singing  Divine  Service,  set 
in  order  by  St.  Ambrose  for  the  cathedral  church 
of  Milan  about  a.d.  3S4.  We  have  little 
historical  information  as  to  its  peculiarities. 
Tliat  it  was  highly  impressive  we  learn  from 
the  well-known  passage  in  St.  Augustine's  '  Con- 
fessions,' book  ix.  chap.  6, 

It  has  been  stated  without  proof,  and  repeated 
by  writer  after  writer  on  the  subject,  that  St, 
Ambrose  took  only  the  four  'authentic'  Greek 
modes,  being  the  first,  third,  fifth,  and  seventh 
of  the  eight  commonly  called  the  Gregorian 


60  AMBROSIAN  CHANT. 


AMERICAN  ORGAN. 


Tones,  from  being  all  used  in  the  revision  of 
the  Roman  Antiphonarinm  by  St.  Gregory  the 
Great  at  a  subsequent  date  (a.d.  590),  But 
St.  Ambrose's  own  statement  in  his  letter  to  his 
sister  St.  Marcelina  is  merely  that  he  wished 
to  take  upon  himself  the  task  of  regulating  the 
tonality  and  the  mode  of  execution  of  the  hymns, 
psalms,  and  antiphons  that  were  sung  in  the 
church  he  had  built  at  Milan.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  we  really  know  little  or  nothing 
of  the  system  and  structure  of  the  Ambrosian 
melodies,  and  no  existing  records  show  any- 
thing essentially  different  from  Gregorian  plain- 
song. 

The  subject  of  Byrd's  anthem  'Bow  Thine 
ear,  0  Lord,'  originally  written  to  the  words 
*  Ne  irascaris  domine,' 


has  always  been  quoted,  since  Dr.  Crotch  published 
his  'Specimens,'  as  a  portion  of  the  plainsong  of 
St.  Ambrose.  A  comparison  of  the  liturgical 
text  and  ritual  of  Milan  and  Rome  shows 
a  different  setting  of  the  musical  portions  of  the 
mass,  as  well  as  many  variations  in  rubrics  and 
in  the  order  and  appropriation  of  various  portions 
to  the  celebrant  and  assistants,  in  the  two  uses. 
Thus  the  'Gloria  in  excelsis'  precedes  the 
Kyrie  in  the  Milan  and  follows  it  in  the  Roman 
Mass.  The  setting  of  the  intonation  of  this, 
as  taken  from  the  missals  of  the  two,  may  be 
here  given  as  a  specimen  of  the  differences  in  the 
plainsong. 

Boman. 


Glo  •  -  •  .ri  -  a     in    ex  -  eel  -  sis    De    -  •    -  0. 

Milanese. 

Glo  -  ri  -  a   in   ex  -  ■  eel    •    -  sis  De 

These  intonations  of  the  Creed 
Roman. 

'  0. 

Ore  -  do     in       u  -  num    De    •   -  um. 

Milanese. 

will  also  serve  to  show  the  kind  of  difference  still 
discernible  in  the  two  rites.^ 

But  the  principal  boon  bestowed  on  the 
Church  by  St.  Ambrose  was  the  beautiful  rhyth- 
mical hymns  with  which  he  enriched  the  musical 
service  of  Milan  Cathedral.  Many  hymns  are 
called  Ambrosian  because  written   after  his 

I  The  Koman  examples  are  from  a  fine  quarto  Missale  Romanum 
printed  at  Antwerp  in  I'M,  corresponding  witli  Guidetti's  Directorium 
and  the  present  use.  Those  for  the  use  of  Milan  are  from  a  portion  of 
the  'Mis.iale  Ambrosiauum  Caroli  C'ajetam  C'ardinalis,  novissime 
impressum,  Mediolani,'  A.D.  1831,  brought  from  MiLm  in  1871  by  the 
writer  of  this  article. 


manner ;  but  some  ten  of  the  ancient  h3nnns  are 
from  his  own  pen,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
'  Veni  Redemptor  Gentium'  and  '  Eterna  Christi 
munera'  (Hymnal  Noted,  Nos.  12,  36). 

The  entire  accent  and  style  of  chanting,  as 
regulated  by  St.  Ambrose,  was  undoubtedly  an 
artistic  and  cultivated  improvement  on  that  of 
preceding  church  services,  such  as  would  naturally 
result  from  the  rare  combination  of  piety,  zeal, 
intellect,  and  poetical  and  musical  power  by 
which  he  was  distinguished.  The  Ambrosian 
chant  was  eventually  merged,  but  certainly  not 
lost,  in  that  vast  repertory  of  plainsong,  whether 
then  ancient  or  modern,  which  we  now  call 
Gregobian,  from  the  name  of  the  next  great 
reformer  of  church  music,  St.  Gregory  the 
Great.  [T.  H.] 

AMEN.  This  word  has  been  often  employed 
by  composers  as  an  opportunity  for  the  display 
of  fugue  and  counterpoint,  just  as  some  of 
Palestrina's  finest  music  is  given  to  the  names 
of  the  Hebrew  letters,  Aleph,  Beth,  etc.,  in  his 
'  Lamentationes  J eremiae.'  Witness  Handel's 
final  chorus  in  the  '  Messiah,'  Dr.  Cooke's  Amen 
in  double  augmentation,  engraved  on  his  tomb 
(see  Augmentation),  another  very  spirited 
chorus  in  the  Italian  style  by  the  same  composer 
(Hullah's  Part  Music,  No.  6),  fine  choruses  by 
Leo,  Cafaro,  Clari,  and  Bonno  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Music,  and  many  others.  [G.] 

AMERICAN  ORGAN.  A  free -reed  in- 
strument similar  in  its  general  construction  to 
the  Harmonium,  but  with  some  important 
differences.  In  the  first  place  the  reeds  in  the 
American  organ  are  considerably  smaller  and 
more  curved  and  twisted  than  in  the  harmonium, 
and  there  is  a  wider  space  left  at  the  side  of 
the  reed  for  it  to  vibrate,  the  result  being  that 
the  tone  is  more  uniform  in  power,  and  that 
the  expression  stop  when  used  produces  much 
less  effect.  The  curvature  of  the  reeds  also 
makes  the  tone  softer.  In  the  American  organ 
moreover  the  wind-channel  or  cavity  under  which 
the  vibrators  are  fixed  is  always  the  exact  length 
of  the  reed,  whereas  in  the  harmonium  it  is 
varied  according  to  the  quality  of  tone  required, 
being  shorter  for  a  more  reedy  tone  and  longer 
for  a  more  fluty  one.  Another  point  of  difference 
in  the  two  instruments  is  that  in  the  harmonium 
the  wind  is  forced  outward  through  the  reeds, 
whereas  in  the  American  organ,  by  reversing 
the  action  of  the  bellows,  it  is  drawn  inwards. 
The  advantages  of  the  American  organ  as 
compared  with  the  harmonium  are  that  the 
blowing  is  easier,  the  expression  stop  not  being 
generally  used,  and  that  the  tone  is  of  a  more 
organ -like  quality,  and  therefore  peculiarly 
adapted  for  sacred  music;  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  inferior  in  having  much  less  variety  of  tone, 
and  not  nearly  so  much  power  of  expression. 
These  instruments  are  sometimes  made  with  two 
manuals ;  in  the  most  complete  specimens  the 
upper  manual  is  usually  furnished  with  one  set 
of  reeds  of  eight-feet  and  one  of  four- feet  pitch, 
and  the  lower  manual  with  one  of  eight-  and  one  of 


AMERICAN  ORGAN. 


AMNER. 


61 


sixteen-feet,  those  on  the  upper  manual  being  also 
voiced  softer  for  the  purposes  of  accompaniment, 
A  mechanical  coupling  action  is  also  provided  by 
which  the  whole  power  of  the  instrument  can  be 
obtained  from  the  lower  row  of  keys.  Pedals, 
similar  to  organ  pedals,  are  also  occasionally 
added  and  provided  with  reeds  of  sixteen-  and 
eight-feet  pitch.  The  names  given  to  the  stops 
vary  with  different  makers;  the  plan  most 
usually  adopted  being  to  call  them  by  the  names 
of  the  organ  stops  which  they  are  intended  to 
imitate,  e.  g.  diapason,  principal,  hautboy,  gamba, 
flute,  etc.  Two  recent  improvements  in  the 
American  organ  should  be  mentioned — the  auto- 
matic swell,  and  the  vox  humana.  The  former 
consists  of  a  pneumatic  lever  which  gradually 
opens  shutters  placed  above  the  reeds,  the  lever 
being  set  in  motion  by  the  pressure  of  wind  from 
the  bellows.  The  greater  the  pressure,  the  wider 
the  shutters  open,  and  when  the  pressure  is 
decreased  they  close  again  by  their  own  weight. 
In  this  way  an  effect  is  produced  somewhat 
similar,  though  far  inferior,  to  that  of  the 
expression  stop  on  the  harmonivma.  The  vox 
hmnana  is  another  mechanical  contrivance.  In 
this  a  fan  is  placed  just  behind  the  sound-board 
of  the  instrument,  and  being  made  to  revolve 
rapidly  by  means  of  the  pressm-e  of  wind,  its 
revolutions  meet  the  waves  of  sound  coming 
from  the  reeds,  and  impart  to  them  a  slightly 
tremulous,  or  vibrating  quality. 

The  principle  of  the  American  organ  was  first 
discovered  about  1835  by  a  workman  in  the 
factory  of  M.  Alexandre,  the  most  celebrated 
harmonium  -  maker  of  Paris.  M.  Alexandre 
constructed  a  few  instruments  on  this  plan,  but 
being  dissatisfied  with  them  because  of  their 
want  of  expressive  power,  he  soon  ceased  to 
make  them.  The  workman  subsequently  went 
to  America,  carrying  his  invention  with  him. 
The  instruments  first  made  in  America  were 
known  as  'Melodeons,'  or  '  Melodiums,'  and  the 
American  organ  under  its  present  name,  and 
with  various  improvements  suggested  by  ex- 
perience, was  first  introduced  by  Messrs.  Mason 
and  Hamlin  of  Boston,  about  the  year  i860. 
Since  that  time  it  has  obtained  considerable 
popularity  both  in  America  and  in  this  coimtry. 

A  variety  of  the  American  organ  was  in- 
troduced in  1874  Messrs.  Alexandre  under 
the  name  of  the  'Alexandre  Organ.'  In  this 
instrument,  instead  of  the  single  channel  placed 
above  the  reeds  there  are  two,  one  opening  out 
of  the  other.  The  effect  of  this  alteration  is  to 
give  a  quality  of  tone  more  nearly  resembling 
that  of  the  flue-stops  of  an  organ.  The  reeds  are 
also  broader  and  thicker,  giving  a  fuller  tone,  and 
being  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order.         [E.  P.] 

AMICIS,  Anna  Lucia  de,  a  very  celebrated 
singer,  bom  at  Naples  about  1 740.  She  was  at 
first  successful  only  in  'Opera  Buffa,'  in  which 
she  sang  in  London  in  17C3,  appearing  in  'La 
Cascina,'  a  pasticcio,  given  by  John  Christian 
Bach,  and  other  similar  pieces.  Bach,  however, 
thought  so  highly  of  her  that  he  wrote  for  her  in 
serious  opera,  in  which  she  continued  afterwards 


to  perform  until  she  left  the  stage.  Bumey  says 
she  was  the  first  singer  who  sang  rapid  ascending 
scales  staccato,  mounting  with  ease  as  high  as 
E  in  altissimo.  Her  voice  and  manner  of  singing 
were  exquisitely  polished  and  sweet ;  and  '  she 
had  not  a  movement  that  did  not  charm  the  eye, 
nor  a  tone  but  what  delighted  the  ear.'  In  1771 
she  retired,  and  married  a  secretary  of  the  King 
of  Naples,  named  Buonsollazzi.  In  1773  she  sang 
in  Mozart's  early  opera,  '  Lucio  Silla,'  at  Milan, 
the  principal  part  of  Giunia.  On  this  occasion 
she  exerted  herself  much  in  behalf  of  the  young 
composer,  who  took  great  pains  to  please  her, 
and  embellished  her  principal  air  with  new  and 
peculiar  passages  of  extraordinary  diflBculty. 
On  the  night  of  the  fii'st  performance  the 
tenor,  who  was  inexperienced,  *  being  required, 
during  the  first  air  of  the  prima  donna,  to  make 
some  demonstration  of  anger  towards  her,  so  ex- 
aggerated the  demands  of  the  situation,  that  it 
seemed  as  if  he  were  about  to  give  her  a  box  on 
the  ear,  or  to  knock  her  nose  off  with  his  fist, 
and  at  this  the  audience  began  to  laugh.  Signora 
de  Amicis,  in  the  heat  of  her  singing,  not  knowing 
why  the  public  laughed,  was  surprised ;  and 
being  unaware  of  the  ridiculous  cause,  did  not 
sing  well  the  first  evening,  and  an  additional 
reason  for  this  may  be  found  in  a  feeling  of 
jealousy  that  the  prima  uomo  (Morgnoni),  im- 
mediately on  his  appearance  on  the  scene,  should 
be  applauded  by  the  Archduchess.  This,  how- 
ever, was  only  the  trick  of  a  mv.sico  ;  for  he 
had  contrived  to  have  it  represented  to  the  Arch- 
duchess that  he  would  be  unable  to  sing  from 
fear,  in  order  to  secure  immediate  applause  and 
encouragement  from  the  court.  But  to  console 
de  Amicis,  she  was  sent  for  the  next  day  to 
court,  and  had  an  audience  of  both  their  royal 
highnesses  for  an  hour.'  ^  In  1 789  she  still  sang 
well,  though  nearly  fifty  years  old.  The  date  of 
her  death  is  not  known.  [J.  M.] 

AMICIS,  DoMENico  de'.  This  artist,  who  is 
not  mentioned  by  any  of  the  biographical  dic- 
tionaries, sang  with  Anna  de'  Amicis  in  1 763  at 
London,  in  '  La  Cascina.'  It  is  impossible  to  say 
how  he  was  related  to  that  singer ;  but  it  is 
possible  that  he  was  her  first  husband.     [J.  M.] 

AMILIE,  OR  THE  LOVE  TEST,  a  romantic 
opera  in  three  acts,  words  by  J.  T,  Haines,  music 
by  W.  M.  Rooke.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  Dec.  2,  1837,  and  ran  for  more  than 
twenty  nights. 

AMNER,  John,  Organist  and  Master  of  the 
Choristers  of  Ely  Cathedral.  He  succeeded 
George  Barcroft  in  1 6 10,  and  held  the  appoint- 
ments till  his  death  in  1 641.  He  took  his  degree 
as  Bachelor  in  Music  at  Oxford  in  May  161 3. 
In  1 61 5  he  printed  his  'Sacred  Hymns  of  3,  4, 
5,  and  6  parts,  for  Voices  and  Vyols,'  dedicated 
to  his  '  singular  good  lord  and  maister,'  the 
Earl  of  Bath.  He  composed  much  church  music. 
Three  services  and  fifteen  anthems  are  preserved 
in  the  books  at  Ely  ;  and  several  other  speci- 
mens of  his  skill  are  to  be  found  in  MS.  else- 

i  Letter  of  Leopold  Mozart. 


62 


AMNER. 


ANALYSIS. 


where.  (Dickson's  Cat.  of  Musical  MSS.  at  Ely ; 
Eimbault,  Mb.  Madrigaliana.)         [E.  F.  R.] 

AMNER,  Ralph,  the  son  of  John  Amner, 
before  mentioned.  It  appears  from  the  Registers 
of  Ely  that  he  was  elected  a  lay -clerk  there 
in  1604,  and  was  succeeded  in  1609  by  Michael 
Este,  the  well-known  composer.  Amner  was 
then  probably  admitted  into  holy  orders,  as  he  is 
styled  'Vicar,'  i.e.  Minor  Canon,  Upon  the 
death  of  John  Amery,  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  July  18,  1623,  'Ralphe  Amner,  a  basse 
from  Winsore,  was  sworn  in  his  place.'  He  died 
at  Windsor,  March  3,  1663-4.  In  Hilton's 
*  Catch  that  Catch  Can,'  1667,  is  'a  Catch  in  stead 
of  an  Epitaph  upon  Mr.  Ralph  Amner  of  Wind- 
sor, commonly  called  the  Bull  Speaker,  who 
dyed  1664  ;  the  music  composed  by  Dr.  William 
Child.'  {Beg.  of  Ely ;  Cheque -Boole  of  Chapel 
Royal,  Camd.  Soc).  [E.  F.  R.] 

AMOREVOLI,  Angelo,  born  at  Venice, 
Sept.  16,  1 716.  After  appearing  at  the  principal 
opera-houses  in  Italy  with  brilliant  success,  where 
he  was  admired  for  his  fine  voice  and  vocalisation, 
and  the  perfection  of  his  shake,  he  was  engaged 
for  the  Court  Theatre  at  Dresden.  He  sang  for 
the  Earl  of  Middlesex  at  the  opera  in  London 
in  1 741  ;  but  returned  to  Dresden,  where  he  died, 
Nov.  15,  1798.  [J.  M.] 

ANACKER,  August  Fkiedeich,  bom  Oct. 
17,  1790,  at  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  son  of  a  very 
poor  shoemaker.  As  a  scholar  at  the  Gymnasium 
his  musical  faculty  soon  discovered  itself,  but  his 
poverty  kept  him  down,  and  it  was  not  till  a 
prize  of  1300  thalers  in  a  lottery  fell  to  his  share 
that  he  was  able  to  procure  a  piano  and  music. 
The  first  piece  he  heard  performed  was  Beethoven's 
Polonaise  in  C,  and  Beethoven  became  his  worship 
through  life.  In  1 8 1 3,  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic, 
he  went  to  that  university,  and  acquired  the 
friendship  of  Schicht,  F.  Schneider,  and  others 
of  the  best  musicians.  In  1822  he  was  made 
'cantor'  of  his  native  place,  and  principal  music- 
teacher  in  the  normal  school.  From  that  time 
onwards  for  thirty  years  his  course  was  one  of 
ceaseless  activity.  No  one  ever  worked  harder 
or  more  successfully  to  make  his  office  a  reality. 
In  1823  he  founded  the  Singakademie  of  Frei- 
berg, and  in  1830  started  a  permanent  series  of 
first-class  subscription  concerts ;  he  formed  a 
musical  association  among  the  miners  of  the 
Berg  district,  for  whom  he  wrote  numerous  part- 
songs  ;  and  in  short  was  the  life  and  soul  of 
the  music  of  the  place.  At  the  same  time  he 
composed  a  mass  of  music  of  all  kinds  and  all 
dimensions.  But  his  music  is  nothing  remarkable : 
it  is  the  energy  and  devotion  of  the  man  that 
will  make  him  remembered.  He  died  at  his 
post  on  August  21,  1854,  full  of  honour  and 
esteem.  The  only  piece  of  Anacker's  which 
has  probably  been  printed  in  England  is  a 
'Miner's  Song'  (four  parts)  in  the  collection 
called  'Orpheus,'  No.  41.  [G.] 

ANACREON,  ou  l' amour  fugitip,  an  opera- 
ballet  in  two  acts,  the  libretto  by  Mendouze,  and 
the  music  by  Cherubini,  produced  at  the  Opera 


in  Paris  on  Oct.  4,  1803.    It  is  now  only  known 

by  its  magnificent  overture. 

ANACREONTIC  SOCIETY.  The  meetings 
of  this  aristocratic  society,  established  by  several 
noblemen  and  other  wealthy  amateurs,  were  held 
at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern  in  the  Strand 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The  concerts, 
in  which  the  leading  members  of  the  musical  pro- 
fession took  part  as  honorary  members,  were 
given  fortnightly  during  the  season,  and  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  supper,  after  which  the  president  or 
his  deputy  sang  the  constitutional  song  '  To  Ana- 
creon  in  Heaven.'  This  was  succeeded  by  songs 
in  every  style,  and  by  catches  and  glees  sung 
by  the  most  eminent  vocalists  of  the  day.  The 
privilege  of  membership  was  greatly  valued,  and 
names  were  frequently  placed  on  the  list  for  a 
long  period  in  advance.  The  society  was  dissolved 
in  1 786,  when  Sir  Richard  Hankey  was  president, 
owing,  as  Parke  states  in  his  'Musical  Memoirs,' 
to  the  annoyance  of  the  members  at  a  restraint 
having  been  placed  upon  the  performance  of  some 
comic  songs  which  were  considered  unfit  for  the 
ears  of  the  Duchess  of  Devonshire,  the  leader  of 
the  haut-tonoi  the  day,  who  was  present  privately 
in  a  box  specially  fitted  up  under  the  orchestra. 
The  members  resigned  one  after  another,  and 
shortly  afterwards  the  society  was  dissolved  at  a 
general  meeting.  [C.  M.] 

ANALYSIS.  The  practice  now  prevalent  in 
England  of  accompanying  the  titles  and  words 
of  the  music  performed  at  concerts  by  an  analysis 
of  the  music  is  one  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
The  identity  of  the  pieces  in  the  programmes  at 
the  end  of  the  last  and  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  is  rarely  certain.  '  New  Grand  Overture, 
Haydn,'  or  '  Grand  Overture,  MS.,  Haydn,'  is  the 
usual  designation  of  Haydn's  symphonies  as  they 
were  produced  at  Salomon's  concerts  in  1 791, '92. 
The  programmes  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  are 
at  first  almost  equally  vague  — '  Sjmphony, 
Mozart,'  'Symphony,  Beethoven,'  'Symphony, 
never  performed,  Beethoven,'  is  with  rare  ex- 
ceptions the  style  in  which  the  pieces  de  resistance 
at  the  Society's  concerts  are  announced.  It  is 
not  until  the  fifth  season  (181 7)  that  the  number 
or  the  key  indicates  which  works  the  audience 
might  expect  to  hear.  The  next  step  was  to  print 
on  the  fly-leaf  of  the  programme  the  words  of 
the  vocal  pieces,  with,  in  the  case  of  Spohr's 
'WeihederTone'  (Feb.  23, 1835),  atranslation  of 
Pfeiffer's  'Ode,'  or  of  the  'Pastoral  Symphony' 
(May  1 1, 1835),  some  verses  from  Thomson's  'Sea- 
sons,' or  at  the  first  performance  of  the  overture 
to  '  Leonora,'  No.  i  (due  to  Mendelssohn),  a  short 
account  of  the  origin  and  dates  of  the  four  over- 
tures. 

The  first  attempt  to  assist  amateurs  to  follow 
the  construction  of  classical  music  during  its 
performance  which  the  writer  has  met  with  is 
that  of  Mr.  Thomson,  late  Professor  of  Music 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  who  in  the  year 
1 841,  and  even  earlier,  added  analytical  and 
historical  notices  of  the  pieces  in  the  programmes 
of  the  concerts  of  the  Professional  Society  of 


ANALYSIS. 


ANALYSIS. 


63 


Edinburgh.  His  analyses  entered  thoroughly  into 
the  construction  of  the  ovei'tures  and  symphonies 
performed,  but  did  not  contain  quotations  from 
the  music, — The  next  step  appears  to  have  been 
made  by  Mr,  John  Ella  when  he  stai-ted  the 
matinees  of  the  Musical  Union  in  1845.  His 
'synoptical  analysis,'  with  quotations,  has  pre- 
served its  original  form  and  extent  down  to  the 
present  time, — The  same  thing  was  done,  but  at 
greater  length,  by  Dr,  Wylde  in  the  programme- 
books  of  the  New  Philharmonic  Society,  which 
commenced  its  concerts  in  1852.  Some  of  these 
analyses  were  accompanied  by  extracts,  and  in 
many  cases  are  of  permanent  value,  such  as  those 
of  Beethoven's  *  Pastoral  Symphony,'  Mozart's 
E  flat  ditto,  and  the  overture  to  the  'Zauberflote' 
(1858).  An  analysis  of  the  '  Messiah'  was  issued 
by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  in  1853,  and  was 
followed  by  similar  dissections  of  '  The  Creation,' 
Beethoven's  Mass  in  D,  'Israel  in  Egypt,'  the 
•Lobgesang,'  Mozart's  'Requiem,'  and,  some 
years  later,  'Naaman,' 

As  early  as  1847  Mr,  Hullah  had  given  bio- 
graphical notices  of  composers  in  the  book  of 
words  of  his  historical  concerts  at  Exeter  Hall. 
The  books  of  words  of  the  Handel  Festival 
(1857,  etc.)  contain  historical  accounts  of  the 
works  performed.  In  connection  vnth  the  early 
Handel  Festivals  the  late  Mr,  Chorley  published 
two  pamphlets  called  '  Handel  Studies,'  contain- 
ing analyses  of  the  '  Messiah,'  the  Dettingen  *  Te 
Deum,'  and  'Israel  in  Egypt,' 

In  1859  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  were 
established,  and  the  programmes  contained  notices 
of  the  pieces.  On  the  occasion  of  Mr.  Charles 
Halle's  Beethoven-recitals  two  years  later  full 
and  able  analyses  of  the  whole  of  the  sonatas 
were  published,  accompanied  by  copious  extracts. 
These  have  since  been  incorporated  in  the  Mon- 
day Popular  Concert  books,  with  similar  analy- 
ses of  other  pieces,  the  whole  forming  a  body 
of  criticism  and  analysis  which  does  honour  to 
its  author. — Shortly  after  the  foundation  of  the 
Saturday  Concerts  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  short 
remarks  were  attached  to  some  of  the  more 
prominent  pieces.  These  have  gradually  become 
more  systematic  and  more  analytical,  but  they 
are  of  a  very  mixed  character  when  compared 
with  those  last  mentioned. — The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  remarks  which  adorned  the  pro- 
grammes of  Herr  Pauer's  recitals  in  1862,  '63,  '67, 
which  are  half  biographical  and  half  critical, 
but  do  not  attempt  to  analyse  each  piece. 

In  1869  the  Pliilharmonic  Society  adopted 
analytical  progranunes  prepared  by  Mr.  Mac- 
farren,  which  have  been  maintained  since,  Mr, 
Macfarren  also  prepares  similar  notices  for  the 
British  Orchestral  Society ;  as  he  did  those  for 
the  Chamber  Concerts  of  MM,  Klindworth,  Bla- 
grove,  and  Daubert  in  1861. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  analytical  programmes 
are  issued  by  the  Wagner  Society,  the  Reid 
Concert,  the  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  Choral 
Unions,  the  Liverpool  Philharmonic  Society,  the 
Albert  Hall  Concerts,  IMr,  Walter  Bache,  and 
others.  The  book  of  words  of  Mr.  Sullivan's  ora- 


torio *  The  Light  of  the  World'  contains  a  length- 
ened analysis  of  the  work  number  by  number. 

The  practice  of  analysing  pieces  of  classical 
music  with  the  view  to  enable  the  more  or  less 
cultivated  amateur  to  seize  the  ideas  and  mode 
of  treatment  of  the  composer,  is  one  which,  if 
carried  out  with  skill  and  judgment,  is  surely 
commendable.  The  fact  that  a  movement  is 
written  on  a  definite  plan  or  '  form,'  and  governed 
by  rules  more  or  less  rigid,  though  obvious  to 
the  techrdcal  musician  is  news  to  many  an 
amateur;  and  yet  without  understanding  such 
facts  it  is  impossible  fully  to  appreciate  the 
intention  or  the  power  of  the  composer.  In  fol- 
lowing the  scheme  of  the  music  the  hearer  adds 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  sounds  the  pleasure  of  the 
intellect.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  few  great 
pieces  of  music  in  which  historical  or  biographi- 
cal facts  as  to  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  work, 
key,  etc.,  connecting  the  music  with  the  person- 
ality of  the  composer,  may  not  be  stated  so  as 
to  add  materially  to  the  pleasure  and  profit  of  the 
hearer. 

Analytical  programmes  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  yet  introduced  into  the  concert -rooms 
abroad;  but  elaborate  analyses  of  single  works 
have  been  made  by  foreign  critics,  such  as 
Wagner's  of  the  ninth  Symphony  (translated 
and  circulated  in  1855,  when  Wagner  conducted 
that  Symphony  at  the  Philharmonic),  Liszt's  of 
'  Tannliauser '  and  'Lohengrin,'  and  von  Billow's 
of  Wagner's  '  Faust  Overture ' ;  and  the  step  fi-om 
these  to  illustrated  analyses  like  those  used  in 
England  will  not  impossibly  soon  follow.  [G.] 

ANALYSIS  OF  Compound  Musical  Sounds. 
The  separation  of  such  sounds  into  their  component 
elements,  or  the  determination  of  the  elements 
they  contain.  The  sounds  ordinarily  met  with 
in  music  are  not  simple  and  single  notes  as  is 
commonly  supposed,  but  are  usually  compounds 
of  several  sounds,  namely  one  fundamental  one 
(generally  the  most  powerful)  accompanied  by 
higher  harmonics,  varying  in  number  and  strength 
in  different  cases.  These  however  blend  so  com- 
pletely into  one  sound  that  the  unaided  ear, 
unless  specially  trained,  fails  to  distinguish  the 
separate  elements  of  which  it  is  made  up.  Such 
a  compound  sound  is  intentionally  produced 
artificially  with  the  compound  stops  of  a  large 
organ,  and  if  these  are  well  in  tune  and  well 
proportioned,  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish 
them  separately. 

In  acoustical  investigations  it  is  very  desirable 
to  ascertain  of  what  simple  sounds  a  compound 
one  is  composed,  and  this  is  done  by  a  species  of 
analysis  similar  to  that  so  common  in  chemistry. 
In  compound  chemical  substances  the  elements 
are,  like  the  elements  of  a  compound  sound, 
usually  undistinguishable  by  the  eye,  and  the 
plan  is  adopted  of  applying  to  the  substance  a 
test,  which  having  a  peculiar  affinity  for  some 
particular  element,  will  make  known  its  presence 
in  the  compound.  Such  a  test  exists  for  elemental 
sounds  in  what  the  Germans  call  Miltmen ;  or 
sympathetic  resonance. 

Certain  bodies  will  vibrate  when  certain  notes, 


64 


ANALYSIS. 


ANCIENT  CONCERTS. 


corresponding  to  their  vibratory  capacity,  and 
those  only,  are  sounding  near  them,  and  they 
therefore  test  the  presence  of  such  notes,  whether 
perceptible  or  not  to  the  ear.  Eor  example,  if  we 
wish  to  find  out  whether  the  note  is  present  in  a 
compound  sound,  we  have  only  to  bring  within 
its  range  a  sonorous  body,  tuned  to  that  note, 
as  for  example  the  second  string  of  a  violin,  and 
if  that  note  is  present,  in  sufficient  force,  the 
string  will  be  sympathetically  set  in  vibration. 
We  can  judge  a  pnori  by  the  theoretical  laws  of 
harmonics,  what  notes  are  or  are  not  likely  to  be 
present  in  a  certain  compound  sound,  and  by 
appl}T.ng  tests  for  each,  in  this  way,  the  sound 
may  be  completely  analysed,  both  (as  chemists 
say)  quantitatively  and  qualitatively,  that  is,  we 
may  not  only  find  what  notes  are  present  but 
also,  by  proper  provision  in  the  test  body,  what 
are  the  relative  strengths  of  each  note. 

This  method  of  analysis  is  chiefly  due  to 
Hehnholtz,  the  test  bodies  preferred  by  him  being 
hollow  glass  vessels.  Each  of  these  has  such  a 
capacity  that  the  air  it  contains  will  vibrate  with 
a  particular  note,  and  by  having  several  of  these, 
tuned  to  the  notes  required,  the  presence  of  these 
notes  in  any  compound  sound  may  be  ascertained 
with  great  facility.  [W,  P.] 

ANCIENT  CONCERTS.  The  Ancient  Con- 
certs, or,  to  give  them  their  formal  title.  The 
Concert  of  Antient  Music,  were  established  in 
1776  by  a  committee  consisting  of  the  Earls  of 
Sandwich  and  Exeter,  Viscount  Dudley  and 
Ward,  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  Sir  Watkin  W. 
Wynn,  Bart.,  Sir  R.  Jebb,  Bart.,  and  Messrs. 
Morrice  and  Pelham,  who  were  afterwards  joined 
by  Viscount  Fitzwilliam  and  Lord  Paget  (after- 
wards Earl  of  Uxbridge).  The  performances 
were  also  known  as  '  The  King's  Concerts.'  Mr. 
Joah  Bates,  the  eminent  amateur,  was  appointed 
conductor,  the  band  was  led  by  Mr.  Hay,  and 
the  principal  singers  were  Miss  Harrop  (after- 
wards Mrs.  Bates),  the  Misses  Abrams,  Master 
Harrison  (subsequently  a  famous  tenor),  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Clarke,  Minor  Canon  of  St.  Paul's  (tenor), 
Mr.  D}me  (counter-tenor"),  and  Mr.  Champness 
(bass).  The  chief  rules  of  the  concerts  were  that  no 
music  composed  within  the  previous  twenty  years 
should  be  performed,  and  that  the  directors  in 
rotation  should  select  the  programme.  Mr.  Bates 
retained  the  conductorship  till  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1 779,  and  directed  the  concerts  personally, 
except  for  two  years,  when  Dr.  Arnold  and  Mr. 
Knwett  acted  for  him.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Mr.  Greatorex,  who  remained  in  office  until  his 
death  in  1831,  when  Mr.  Knyvett,  who  had  been 
the  principal  alto  singer  for  many  years,  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him.  The  resolution  of  the 
directors  in  1839  to  change  the  conductor  at  the 
choice  of  the  director  for  each  night  led  to  the 
resignation  of  Mr,  Knyvett,  and  the  post  was  then 
offered  to  Dr.  Crotch,  who  ultimately  declined  it. 
Sir  George  Smart  was  invited  to  conduct  the  first 
two  concerts  of  1 840,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir  Henry)  Bishop,  Mr.  Lucas,  and 
Mr.  Turle.  It  was  found  however  that  this  system 
did  not  work  well,  and  in  1843      Henry  Bishop 


was  appointed  sole  conductor.    There  was  also 
a  change  in  the  leadership  of  the  band,  Mr.  W. 
Cramer  succeeding  Mr.  Hay  in  1 780,  and  being 
succeeded  in  his  turn  by  his  son  Franfois,  who 
filled  the  post  from  his  father's  death  in  1805 
until  1844,  when  he  retired.    Mr.  J.  D.  Loder 
led  the  band  from  1844  to  1846,  in  which  year 
Mr.  T.  Cooke  was  appointed.    Until  1841  it  was 
the  custom  for  the  conductor  to  preside  at  the 
organ,  but  in  that  year  the  directors  appointed 
Mr,  Charles  Lucas  as  their  organist.    The  band 
at  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  concerts 
consisted  of  sixteen  violins,  five  violas,  four 
ceUos,  four  oboes,  four  bassoons,  two  double 
basses,  two  trumpets,  four  horns,  one  trombone, 
and  drum.    At  the  close  of  the  concerts  the 
orchestra  numbered  seventeen  violins,  five  violas, 
five  cellos,  five  double  basses,  three  flutes,  two 
oboes,  two  clarinets,  two  bassoons,  four  horns, 
three  trumpets,  three  trombones,  two  drums, 
one   harp,   two   cymbals,    and  triangle.  The 
canto  chorus  at  first  consisted  entirely  of  boys 
selected  chiefly  from  the  boys  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  and  Westminster  Abbey,  but  they  after- 
wards gave  place  to  ladies.    The  earlier  pro- 
grammes included  an  overture  (usually  one  of 
Handel's),  two  or  three  concertos  by  Handel, 
INIartini,  Corelli,  Avison,  or  Geminiani,  several 
choruses  and  solos  from  Handel's  oratorios,  and 
an  anthem,  glee,  or  madiigal;  but  occasionally 
an  entire  work,  such  as  the  Dettingen  'Te  Deum,' 
was  given  as  the  first  part  of  the  concert.  For 
many  years  the  programmes  were  almost  ex- 
clusively Handelian,  varied  by  songs  from  Gluck, 
Bach,  Purcell,  Hasse,  and  others.  After  the  year 
1826  there  was  greater  variety  in  the  schemes,  and 
Mozart's  Jupiter  Symphony,  his  Symphonies  in 
D  and  E  flat,  the  overture  to  the  '  Zauberflote,' 
and  a  selection  from  his  Requiem  were  included 
in  the  programmes  for  1826.    From  that  date  an 
orchestral  work  by  Mozart  was  performed  at 
nearly   every  concert,  although   Handel  still 
maintained  his  supremacy.    In  1834  we  find 
Haydn's  'Surprise'  symphony,  and  in  1835  a 
selection  from  the  '  Creation '  and  the  *  Seasons  ' 
in  the  programmes.   In  the  latter  year  Beethoven 
was  represented  by  his  '  Prometheus  '  overture, 
and  during  the  last  ten  years  of  the  concerts  his 
symphony  in  D,  overtures  to  '  Fidelio '  and 
*  Egmont,'  a  chorus  from  '  King  Stephen,'  and 
other  works  were  given.    In  1847,  at  a  concert 
directed  by  Prince  Albert,  Mendelssohn  was  the 
solo  organist,  and  played  Bach's  Prelude  and 
Fugue  on  the  name  of 'Bach.'    The  later  pro- 
grammes were  drawn  from  varied  sources,  Handel 
being  only  i-epresented  by  one  or  two  items.  In 
1785  the  Royal  Family  commenced  to  attend 
the  concerts  regularly,  and  then  it  was  that  they 
were  styled  '  The  King's  Concerts,'    As  a  mark 
of  his  interest  in  the  performances  King  George 
the  Third  personally  wrote  out  the  programmes, 
and  in  later  years  Prince  Albert  was  one  of  the 
dii-ectors.    Among  the  distinguished  artistes  who 
appeared  at  these  concerts  were  Madame  Mara 
and  Mrs.  Billington  (1785),   Signora  Storace 
(1787),  Miss  Parke,  Miss  Poole  (1792),  Messrs. 


ANCIENT  CONCERTS. 


ANDERSON. 


65 


Harrison  and  Bartleman  (i  795).  Up  to  1 795  the 
concei'ts  were  held  in  the  new  rooms,  Tottenham 
Street,  afterwards  known  as  the  Queen's  or  West 
London  Theatre,  but  in  that  year  they  were 
removed  to  the  concert- room  in  the  Opera  House, 
and  in  1804  to  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms. 
In  1 81 1  Catalani  made  her  first  appearance,  and 
two  years  later  Miss  Stephens  (afterwards  Countess 
of  Essex)  made  her  debut  at  these  concerts.  In 
1816  Mrs.  Salmon  was  heard,  and  shortly  after- 
wards Messrs.  Braham  and  Phillips  were  engaged. 
In  addition  to  the  twelve  concerts  given  every 
year  a  thirteenth  was  added,  when  *  The  Messiah ' 
was  performed  in  aid  of  the  '  Fund  for  the  Sup- 
port of  Decayed  Musicians  and  their  Families,' 
a  practice  still  maintained  in  the  annual  per- 
formances by  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians. 
In  accordance  with  one  of  the  customs  connected 
with  the  concerts  it  was  the  rule  for  the  director 
of  the  day  to  entertain  his  brother  directors 
and  the  conductor  at  dinner.  The  library  of 
old  masters  belonging  to  the  society  was  after 
its  discontinuance  removed  to  Buckingham 
Palace.  [C.  M.] 

ANDANTE  (Ital.,  participle  of  the  verb 
andare,  'to  go').  Going,  moving  along  at  a 
moderate  pace.  In  modern  music  this  word  is 
chiefly  used  to  designate  a  rather  slow  rate  of 
movement ;  formerly  however  it  was  used  more 
generally  in  its  literal  sense.  Thus  in  Handel's 
music  we  frequently  find  the  indication  '  andante 
allegro,'  a  contradiction  in  terms  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  words,  but  by  which  is  simply  meant 
'  moving  briskly.'  Andante  is  a  quicker  rate  of 
movement  than  larghetto,  but  on  the  other  hand 
is  slower  than  allegretto.  As  with  most  other 
time-indications  it  is  frequently  modified  in 
meaning  by  the  addition  of  other  words,  e,  g. 
'andante  sostenuto'  would  be  a  little  slower, 
and  'andante  un  poco  allegretto'  or  'andante 
con  moto'  a  trifle  faster,  than  'andante'  alone. 
Like  adagio,  largo,  etc.,  this  word  is  also  used 
as  the  name  of  a  piece  of  music  (e.  g.  Beethoven's 
'Andante  in  F')  or  as  the  name  of  a  slow  move- 
ment of  a  S}Tnphony,  sonata,  etc.  [E»  P.] 

ANDANTINO  (Ital.).  The  diminutive  of 
Andante  (q. v.).  As  'andante'  means  literally 
*  going,'  its  diminutive  must  mean  '  rather  going,' 
i.  e.  not  going  quite  so  fast ;  and  properly 
'andantino'  designates  a  somewhat  slower  time 
than  andante.  Some  modem  composers  however, 
forgetting  the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  and 
thinking  of  andante  as  equivalent  with  'slow,' 
use  andantino  for  *  rather  slow,'  i.  e.  somewhat 
quicker.  In  which,  sense  the  word  is  intended 
can  only  ])e  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
music  itself.  No  more  striking  proof  of  the  un- 
certainty which  prevails  in  the  use  of  these  time- 
indications  can  be  given  than  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  three  movements  in  Mendelssohn's 
'Elijah'  the  first  of  which,  'If  with  all  your 
hearts,'  is  marked  'andante  con  moto,'  the 
second,  'The  Lord  hath  exalted  thee,'  merely 
'andante,'  and  the  third,  '0  rest  in  the  Lord,' 
'andantino,'  are  all  in  exactly  the  same  time, 
(c.) 


the  metronome  indication  being  in  each  case 
J  =  72.  [E.  P.] 

ANDER,  Aloys,  one  of  the  most  famous 
German  tenor  singers  of  recent  times ;  born  Au- 
gust 24,  18 2 1,  at  Libitz  in  Bohemia.  His  voice 
though  not  powerful  was  extremely  sympathetic 
in  quality.  He  went  to  Vienna  in  the  hope  that 
his  talents  would  be  recognised  there,  but  it 
required  all  the  energy  and  influence  of  Wild  the 
singer,  at  that  time  Ober-Regisseur  to  the  court 
opera-house  before  he  was  allowed  to  make  the 
experiment  of  appearing  there  for  the  first  time 
(Oct.  22,  1845)  as  Stradella  in  the  opera  of  that 
name,  though  with  no  previous  experience  of  the 
boards  whatever.  His  success  was  complete,  and 
decided  his  course  for  life,  and  that  single  night 
raised  him  from  a  simple  clerk  to  the  rank  of 
a  '  prime  tenore  assoluto.'  Still  more  remarkable 
was  his  success  in  the  'Prophfete,'  which  was 
given  in  Vienna  for  the  first  time  on  Feb.  28, 
1850.  Meyerbeer  interested  him.self  in  the  rapid 
progress  of  Ander,  and  from  that  date  he  became 
the  established  favourite  of  the  Vienna  public,  to 
whom  he  remained  faithful,  notwithstanding 
tempting  offers  of  engagements  elsewhere.  His 
last  great  part  was  that  of  Lohengrin,  in  which 
he  combined  all  his  extraordinary  powers.  As 
an  actor  he  was  greatly  gifted,  and  had  the 
advantage  of  a  very  attractive  appearance.  His 
voice,  not  strong  and  somewhat  veiled  in  tone, 
was  in  harmony  with  all  his  other  qualities  ;  his 
conceptions  were  full  of  artistic  earnestness,  and 
animated  by  a  noble  vein  of  poetry.  His  physical 
strength  however  was  unequal  to  the  excitement 
of  acting,  and  was  impaired  by  the  artificial 
means  which  he  took  to  support  himself.  His 
last  appearance  was  as  Arnold  in  '  William  Tell,' 
on  Sept.  19, 1864 ;  he  was  then  failing,  and  shortly 
afterwards  totally  collapsed.  He  was  taken  to 
the  Bath  of  Wartenberg  in  Bohemia,  where  he 
died  on  Dec.  1 1,  but  was  buried  in  Vienna  amid 
tokens  of  universal  afiection.  [C.  F.  P.] 

ANDERSON,  Mrs.  Lucy,  was  the  daughter  of 
Mr.  John  Philpot,  a  professor  of  music  and 
music-seller  at  Bath,  where  she  was  born  in 
1789,  Miss  PhUpot  early  manifested  a  love  for 
pianoforte  playing,  and  although  she  never  re- 
ceived any  other  instruction  upon  the  instrument 
than  some  lessons  given,  at  very  irregular  inter- 
vals, by  her  cousin,  INIr.  Windsor,  of  Bath,  she 
soon,  by  perseverance  and  observation  of  the 
eminent  players  who  occasionally  appeared  at  the 
Bath  concerts,  arrived  at  such  a  degree  of  sldll 
as  to  be  able  to  perform  in  public  at  those  con- 
certs, which  she  did  with  great  success,  and  also 
to  follow  music  as  a  profession.  Ill  health,  how- 
ever, induced  her  to  quit  Bath  and  to  come  to  Lon- 
don, w^here  her  success  was  speedily  assured,  she 
soon  becoming  eminent  in  her  profession.  In 
July  1820  Miss  Philpot  was  married  to  Mr. 
George  Frederick  Anderson,  a  violinist  engaged 
in  all  the  best  orchestras,  and  subsequently,  for 
many  years,  master  of  the  Queen's  private  band. 
Mrs.  Anderson  was  distinguished  as  being  the 
first  female  pianist  who  played  at  the  Philhar- 


66 


ANDEKSON. 


ANDREOLI. 


monic  Society's  concerts.  She  taught  the  Piano 
to  Princess,  now  Queen,  Victoria  and  her  chil- 
dren. She  died  Dec.  24,  1878.  [W.H.H.] 
ANDRE,  JoHANN,  the  head  of  an  extensive 
musical  family,  was  born  at  Offenbach,  A.M.  on 
March  28,  1741.  His  father  was  proprietor  of  a 
silk  factory,  and  the  boy  was  intended  to  carry  on 
the  business.  But  the  love  of  music  was  too 
strong  in  him;  he  began  by  teaching  himself, 
until  in  1761  he  happened  to  encounter  an 
Italian  opera  company  at  Frankfort,  which 
added  fresh  food  to  his  desire.  His  first  comic 
opera,  'Der  Topfer'  (the  Potter),  was  so 
successful  as  to  induce  Goethe  to  confide  to  him 
his  operetta  of  '  Erwin  und  Elmire,'  (1764)  which 
had  equal  success,  as  had  also  some  songs 
produced  at  the  same  time.  After  this  Andre 
received  a  call  to  act  as  director  of  the  music 
at  the  Dobblin  Theatre'  in  Berlin,  which  he 
obeyed  by  settling  in  Berlin  with  his  family, 
after  handing  over  the  factory  (to  which  since 
1774  he  had  added  a  music  printing  office)  to 
his  younger  brother.  Here  he  enjoyed  the 
instruction  of  Marpurg,  and  composed  a  quantity 
of  songs,  dramas,  and  other  pieces  for  the 
theatre.  Not  being  able  however,  owing  to  the 
distance,  to  give  the  necessary  attention  to 
the  printing-office,  he  returned  to  Offenbach  at 
the  end  of  seven  years,  and  resided  there  in 
the  pursuit  of  his  business  and  his  music  till 
his  death  on  June  18,  1799.  Before  that  date 
his  establishment  had  issued  the  large  number 
of  1200  works,  and  he  himself  had  composed, 
in  addition  to  many  instrumental  pieces,  some 
thirty  operas  and  dramas,  and  a  vast  number 
of  melodious  songs  and  vocal  pieces,  many 
of  which  became  popiilar,  amongst  them  the 
still  favourite  Volkslied  'Bekranzt  mit  Laub.' 
Among  his  operas  was  one  by  Bretzner  in 
four  acts,  'Belmonte  und  Constanza,  oder  die 
Entfiihrung  aus  dem  Serail,'  produced  in  Ber- 
lin on  May  26,  1781,  and  often  repeated  with 
applause.  Shortly  afterwards,  on  July  12, 1782, 
appeared  Mozart's  setting  of  the  same  opera, 
with  alterations  and  additions  to  the  text  by 
Stephanie.  A  paper  war  followed  between  the 
two  librettists,  during  which  Andre  took  occasion 
to  speak  nobly  on  the  side  of  Stephanie,  not- 
withstanding his  having  assisted  Mozart  in  the 
preparation  of  an  opera  which  had  far  surpassed 
his  own.  After  Andre's  death  the  business  was 
carried  on  by  his  third  son,  Johann  Anton,  the 
most  remarkable  member  of  the  family.  He 
was  bom  at  Offenbach,  Oct.  6,  1775,  and  while 
almost  an  infant  showed  great  predilection  and 
talent  for  music.  He  was  an  excellent  player 
both  on  the  violin  and  piano,  and  a  practised 
composer  before  entering  at  the  University  of 
Jena,  where  he  went  through  the  complete 
course  of  study.  He  was  thus  fully  competent 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1 799  to  assume  the 
control  of  the  business,  and  indeed  to  impart 
to  it  fresh  impulse  by  allying  himself  with 
Senefelder  the  inventor  of  lithography,  a  process 
which  he  largely  applied  to  the  production  of 
music.    In  the  same  year  with  his  father's  death 


he  visited  Vienna,  and  acquired  from  Mozart's 
widow  the  entire  musical  remains  of  the  great 
composer,  an  act  which  spread  a  veritable  halo 
round  the  establishment  of  which  he  was  tKe 
head.  Andre  published  the  thematic  catalogue 
which  Mozart  himself  had  kept  of  his  works 
from  Feb  9,  1784  to  Nov.  15,  1791,  as  well  as 
a  further  thematic  catalogue  of  the  whole  of  the 
autographs  of  the  master  which  had  come  into 
his  possession.  Andre  was  equally  versed  in  the 
theory  and  the  practice  of  music  ;  he  attempted 
every  branch  of  composition,  from  songs  to 
operas  and  symphonies,  with  success.  Amongst 
other  things  he  was  the  author  of  'Proverbs,' 
for  four  voices  (op.  32),  an  elaborate  joke  which 
has  recently  been  the  object  of  much  dispute, 
owing  to  its  having  been  published  in  1869  by 
Aibl  of  Munich  as  a  work  of  Haydn's.  As  a 
teacher  he  could  boast  of  a  series  of  distinguished 
scholars.  His  introduction  to  the  violin  and  his 
treatise  on  harmony  and  counterpoint  were  both 
highly  esteemed.  So  also  were  the  two  first 
volumes  of  his  unfinished  work  on  composition. 
Andre  was  dignified  with  the  title  of  Hofrath, 
and  by  the  accumulation  of  musical  treasures  he 
converted  his  house  into  a  perfect  pantheon  of 
music.  He  died  on  April  8,  1842.  An  idea 
of  the  respect  in  which  he  was  held  may  be 
gained  from  various  mentions  of  him  in  Men- 
delssohn's letters,  especially  that  of  July  14, 1836, 
and  a  very  characteristic  account  of  a  visit 
to  him  in  Hiller  s  'Mendelssohn,'  chapter  i. 
Of  his  sons  mention  may  be  made  of  August; 
the  present  proprietor  of  the  establishment,  and 
publisher  of  the  '  Universal-Lexikon  der  Ton- 
kunst'  of  Schladebach  and  Bernsdorf ;  of  JoHANN 
Baptist,  pupil  of  Aloys  Schmitt  and  Kessler, 
and  afterwards  of  Taubert  and  Dehn,  a  resident 
in  Berlin;  of  Julius,  who  addicted  himself  to 
the  organ,  and  was  the  author  of  a  'Practical 
Organ  Schoal,'  which  has  gone  through  several 
editions,  and  of  various  favourite  pieces  for  that 
instrument,  as  well  as  of  four  hand  arrangements 
of  Mozart's  works ;  lastly  of  Karl  August, 
who  in  1835  undertook  the  management  of  the 
branch  establishment  opened  at  Frankfort  by  his 
father  in  1828,  adding  to  it  a  manufactory  of 
pianos,  and  a  general  musical  instrument  business. 
He  named  his  house  '  Mozarthaus,'  and  the 
pianos  manufactured  there  '  Mozartfliigel,'  each 
instrument  being  ornamented  with  a  portrait 
of  the  master  from  the  original  painting  by 
Tischbein  in  his  possession.  In  1855,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Munich  Industrial  Exliibition,  he 
published  a  volume  entitled  '  Pianoforte  making  : 
its  history,  musical  and  technical  importance 
('  Der  Klavierbau,'  etc.).  [C.  F.  P.] 

ANDREOLI,  Giuseppe,  a  celebrated  contra- 
bassist,  born  at  Milan  in  1 757,  died  in  1832  ;  mem- 
ber of  the  orchestra  of  La  Scala  and  professor 
of  his  instrument  at  the  Conservatorio  of  Milan ; 
also  played  the  harp  with  success.       [T.  P.  H.] 

ANDREOLI.  A  musical  family,  not  related 
to  the  foregoing.  Evangelista,  the  father — born 
1 810,  died  June  16,  75 — was  organist  and  teacher 
at  Mirandola  in  Modena.   His  son,  Guglieglmo, 


ANDREOLI, 


ANFOSSI. 


67 


was  born  there  April  22,  1835,  and  was  pupil  at 
the  Conservatorio  of  Milan  from  1847  to  53. 
A  pianist  of  great  distinction,  remarkable  for 
his  soft  and  delicate  touch,  pure  taste,  and  power 
of  expression,  as  well  as  for  great  execution.  He 
was  well  known  in  London,  where  he  appeared 
at  the  Crystal  Palace  (Dec.  13,,  56),  the  Musical 
Union  (April  27,  58),  the  New  Philharmonic 
(May  9,  59),  and  elsewhere.  His  health  was 
never  strong,  and  he  died  at  Nice  i860.  His 
compositions  were  unimportant.  His  brother 
Caklo  was  also  born  at  Mirandola,  and  brought 
up  at  the  Conservatorio  of  Milan,  where  he  is 
now  (1875)  professor  of  the  piano.  He  too  was 
favourably  known  in  London,  though  since  1871 
his  health  has  confined  him  to  Italy  and  the 
south  of  France.  [Gr.] 
ANDREONI  was  an  Italian  singer  engaged 
for  the  season  of  1741  in  London.  He  seems  to 
have  had  an  artificial  low  soprano  or  contralto 
voice,  for  his  name  appears  to  the  song  *  Let 
Hymen  oft  appear '  in  Handel's  '  Allegro,'  to 
which  the  composer  has  added  in  his  MS.  the 
words  'un  tono  piti  basso  in  sop"°/  meaning 
that  it  must  be  transposed  for  him.  The  song 
was  probably  sung  by  him  in  Italian,  as  a  trans- 
lation, beginning  *Se  I'lmeneo  fra  noi  verrk,'  is 
added,  as  also  to  the  song  'And  ever  against 
eating  cares'  (*  E  contro  all'  aspre  cure'),  which 
is  given  to  the  same  singer.  He  had  arrived  too 
recently  to  be  able  to  learn  the  language  in  time 
for  the  performance.  He  sang  the  contralto 
man's  part  in  Handel's  'Imeneo'  the  same  year, 
and  in  'Deidamia,'  that  master's  last  opera.  He 
does  not  seem  to  have  gone  with  him,  however, 
to  Ireland ;  nor  to  have  sung  again  in  London. 
His  subsequent  history  is  not  known.       [J.  M.] 

ANDREVI,  Fkancesco,  bom  near  Lerida  in 
Catalonia  of  Italian  parents  in  1785,  died  at 
Barcelona  in  1 844  ;  was  successively  the  director 
of  music  in  the  cathedrals  of  Valencia,  Seville, 
Bourdeaux  (1832  to  1842)  where  he  fled  during 
the  civil  war,  and  in  the  church  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mercy  at  Barcelona.  His  sacred  compositions 
were  good  and  numerous,  but  a  '  Nunc  Dimittis ' 
and  a '  Salve  Regina,'  printed  in  Eslava's  collection 
I  of  Spanish  church  music,  *  Lira  Sacro-Hispana,'  are 
!  hisonlypublished  works.  His  treatise  on  Harmony 
and  Counterpoint  was  translated  into  French 
(Paris,  1848).  [M.  C.  C] 

ijj       ANERIO,  Felice,  an  Italian  composer  of 
fl     the  Roman  school,  was  bom  about  1560,  and, 
after  completing  his  studies  under  G.  M.  Nanini, 
was  made  Maestro  at  the  English  College.  He 
afterwards  took  service  with  Cardinal  Aldo- 
brandini,  and  upon  the  death  of  Palestrina  was 
named  *  Compositore'  to  the  Papal  Chapel,  on 
April  3,  1594.    The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known.    His  printed  compositions  include  the 
following :  three  books  of  '  Sacred  Madrigals '  for 
five  voices  (Gardano,  Rome  1585)  ;  three  books 
of  'Madrigals' ;  two  books  of  sacred  'Concerti' ; 
j     two   books  of   Hymns,    Canticles,    and  Mo- 
:|     tetti;  'Responsori'  for  the  Holy  Week;  Litan- 
n!    ies,  Canzoni,  and  Motetti.     His  unpublished 


works  are  preserved  in  the  collections  of  S.  Maria 
in  ValUcella,  of  the  Vatican  Basilica,  and  of  the 
Pontifical  Chapel.  In  the  library  of  the  Abbfe 
Santini  also,  there  was  a  considerable  number  of 
Anerio's  Masses,  with  Psalms  and  other  pieces. 
A  Mass,  a  Te  Deum,  and  12  motets  (one  for  8 
voices)  by  him,  are  given  in  Proske's  '  Musica 
divina.'  [E.  H.  P.] 

ANERIO,  Giovanni  Francesco,  a  younger 
brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Rome  about 
1567.  His  first  professional  engagement  was  as 
Maestro  di  CappeUa  to  Sigismund  III,  King  of 
Poland.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  same 
capacity  in  the  cathedral  of  Verona.  Thence  he 
came  to  Rome  to  fill  the  post  of  musical  in- 
structor at  the  Seminario  Romano,  and  was 
afterwards  Maestro  di  CappeUa  at  the  church 
of  the  Madonna  de'  Monti.  Lastly,  in  1600,  he 
was  made  Maestro  at  the  Lateran,  where  he 
remained  until  161 3.  He  then  disappears.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Italians  who  made  use  of  the 
quaver  and  its  subdivisions.  His  printed  works 
form  a  catalogue  too  long  for  insertion  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  they  consist  of  all  the  usual 
forms  of  sacred  music,  and  that  they  were 
published  (as  his  brother's  were)  by  Soldi, 
Gardano,  Robletti,  etc.  Giovanni  Anerio  had  a 
fancy  for  decking  the  frontispieces  of  his  volumes 
with  fantastic  titles,  such  as  'Ghirlanda  di  sacre 
Rose,'  'Teatro  armonico  spirituale,'  'Selva  armo- 
nica,'  '  Diporti  musicale,'  and  the  like.  He  was 
one  of  the  adapters  of  Palestrina's  mass  'Papse 
Marcelli.'  (See  Palestrina).  There  were 
scores  of  several  of  his  masses  in  the  collection  of 
the  Abbfe  Santini.  A  requiem  of  his  for  4  voices 
has  been  recently  published  by  Pustet  of  Regens- 
burg.  [E.  H.  P.] 

ANET,  Baptiste,  a  French  violinist,  pupil  of 
Corelli.  After  studying  for  four  years  under  that 
great  master  at  Rome,  he  appears  to  have  re- 
turned to  Paris  about  1700,  and  to  have  met 
with  the  greatest  success.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  by  his  example  the  principles  of  the 
great  Italian  school  of  violin -playing  were  first 
introduced  into  France.  Probably  owing  to  the 
jealousy  of  his  French  colleagues  Anet  soon  left 
Paris  again,  and  is  said  to  have  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  as  conductor  of  the  private  band  of  a 
nobleman  in  Poland. 

He  published  three  sets  of  sonatas  for  the 
violin.  [P.  D.] 

ANFOSSI,  Pasquale,  an  operatic  composer 
of  the  1 8th  century.  Born  at  Naples  in  or  about 
1729.  He  first  studied  the  violin,  but  deserted 
that  instrument  for  composition,  and  took  lessons 
in  harmony  from  Piccinni,  who  was  then  in  the 
zenith  of  his  fame.  His  two  first  operas,  '  Caio 
Mario'  and  'I  Visionari,'  the  first  brought  out  in 
Venice,  the  second  in  Rome,  were  failures ;  but 
his  third,  'L'Incognita  persequitata,'  made  his 
fortune.  Its  success  was  partly  owing  to  the 
ill-feeling  of  a  musical  clique  in  Rome  towards 
Piccinni,  whom  they  hoped  to  depreciate  by  the 
exaltation  of  a  rival.  Anfossi  lent  himself  to 
their  intrigues,  and  treated  his  old  master  and 
F2 


68 


AOTOSSI. 


ANIMUCCIA. 


benefactor  with  great  ingratitude.  In  his  own 
turn  he  experienced  the  fickleness  of  the  Roman 
public  of  that  day,  and  quitting,  first  the  capital, 
and  afterwards  Italy,  brought  out  a  long  string  of 
operas  in  Paris,  London,  Prague,  and  Berlin,  with 
varying  success.  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1784, 
and  to  Rome  itself  in  1787.  Tiring  of  the  stage, 
he  souficht  for  and  obtained  the  post  of  Maestro 
at  the  Lateran,  and  held  it  till  his  death. 

The  music  of  Anfossi  was  essentially  ephe- 
meral ;  he  was  the  fashion  in  his  day,  and  for 
a  time  eclipsed  his  betters.  But,  although  a 
musician  of  undoubted  talent,  he  was  destitute 
of  real  creative  power,  and  it  is  not  likely  that 
his  reputation  will  ever  be  rehabilitated.  He 
composed  no  less  than  forty-six  operas  and  one 
oratorio,  besides  certain  pieces  of  church-music, 
some  of  which  are  in  the  collection  of  the  Lateran 
and  others  were  in  that  of  the  Abbfe  Santini. 

Mozart  composed  two  airs  for  soprano  and  one 
for  tenor,  for  insertion  in  Anfossi's  opera  of  '  II 
Curioso  indiscrete'  on  the  occasion  of  its  per- 
formance at  Vienna  in  1783,  and  an  arietta  for 
bass  for  the  opera  of  'Le  Gelosie  fortunate'  at 
the  same  place  in  1788.  (See  Kochel's  Cata- 
logue, Nos.  418,  419,  420,  541.)         [E.  H.  P.] 

ANGLAISE.  The  English  country-dance 
(contredanse),  of  lively  character,  sometimes  in 
2-4,  but  sometimes  also  in  3-4  or  3-8  time.  It 
closely  resembles  the  Ecossaise  (q.  v.),  and 
most  probably  took  its  origin  from  the  older  form 
of  the  French  Eigaudon.  [E.  P.] 

ANGLEBERT,  Jean  Henry  d',  chamber- 
musician  to  Louis  XIV,  and  author  of  '  Pieces 
de  Clave9in,'  etc.  (Paris,  1689),  a  collection  of 
fugues  and  of  airs,  some  by  LuUi,  but  mostly 
original,  arranged  for  the  harpsichord.  '  Les 
Eolies  d'Espagne,'  with  twenty -two  variations, 
was  afterwards  similarly  treated  by  Corelli,  and 
has  been  erroneously  supposed  to  be  his  com- 
position. [M.  C.  C] 

ANGRISANI,  Carlo,  a  distinguished  basso, 
bom  at  Reggio,  about  1 760.  After  singing  at 
several  theatres  in  Italy,  he  appeared  at  Vienna, 
where,  in  1798  and  1799,  he  published  two  col- 
lections of  *  Nottumi '  for  three  voices.  In  181 7 
he  sang  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  London  with 
Eodor,  Pasta,  Camporese,  Begrez,  Naldi,  and 
Ambrogetti.  His  voice  was  full,  round,  and 
sonorous.  [J.  M.] 

ANIMATO  or  CON  ANIMA  (Ital.),  'With 
spirit.'  This  direction  for  performance  is  seldom 
to  be  found  in  the  works  of  the  older  masters, 
who  usually  employed  'Con  spirito'  or  'Spiritoso.' 
Haydn  and  Mozart  rarely  if  ever  use  it ;  Bee- 
thoven never  once  employs  at.  In  the  whole  of 
dementi's  sonatas,  numbering  more  than  sixty, 
it  is  only  to  be  found  three  times.  He  uses  it  in 
the  first  allegro  of  the  sonata  in  D  minor.  Op. 
50,  No.  2,  and  in  the  rondo  of  the  'Didone 
abbandonata,'  Op.  50,  No.  3.  In  both  these  cases 
passages  are  simply  marked  '  Con  anima.'  The 
third  instance  is  especially  interesting  as  proving 
that  the  term  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  quick 
tempo.    The  slow  movement  of  his  sonata  in 


E  flat,  Op.  47,  No.  I,  is  inscribed  'Adagio  molto 
e  con  anima.'  Weber  frequently  uses  the  term 
(see  his  sonatas  in  A  flat  and  D  minor),  Chopin 
employs  it  in  his  1st  Scherzo  and  his  E  minor 
Concerto,  and  it  is  also  to  be  met  with  in  Mendels- 
sohn,— e.  g.  '  Lieder  ohne  Worte,'  Book  5,  No.  4, 
'Allegro  con  anima,'  symphony  of  'Lobgesang' 
first  allegro '  animato'  (full  score,  p.  1 7).  In  these 
and  similar  cases  no  quickening  of  the  tempo  is 
necessarily  implied  ;  the  efl'ect  of  animation  is  to 
be  produced  by  a  more  decided  marking  of  the 
rhythmical  accents.  On  the  other  hand  the  term 
is  sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  'stretto,'  as 
for  instance  in  the  first  allegro  of  Mendelssohn's 
Scotch  Symphony,  where  the  indication  'assai 
animate'  is  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the 
metronome  time  from  •  *  =  100  to  p  *  =  120,  or 
at  the  close  of  the  great  duet  in  the  third  act  of 
Auber's  'Haydde,'  where  the  coda  is  marked  only 
'animate,'  but  a  quicker  time  is  clearly  intended. 
In  this,  as  in  so  many  similar  cases,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  lay  down  any  absolute  rule.  A  good 
musician  will  never  be  at  a  loss  as  to  whether  the 
time  should  be  changed  or  not.  [E.  P.] 

ANIMUCCIA,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  composer, 
born  at  Florence  at  the  end  of  the  15th  or  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century.  He  studied 
music  under  Claudeo  Goudimel,  and  in  1555  was 
made  Maestro  at  the  Vatican,  retaining  that 
post  until  his  death.  He  died  beyond  all  question 
ini57i,  for,  although  Poccianti  in  his  'Catalogus 
Scriptorum  Florentinorum'  places  his  death  in 
1569,  Adami,  Pitoni,  and  Sonzonio  all  give  the 
date  1 5  71.  But  better  than  any  such  authority 
are  two  entries  in  the  Vatican  Archives,  one  of 
his  death  in  March  15  71,  and  the  other  of  the 
election  of  Palestrina  in  his  place  in  April 
following.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  although  his 
fame  and  his  work  were  so  soon  to  be  eclipsed  by 
the  genius  of  Palestrina,  that  his  music  was  a 
great  advance  upon  the  productions  of  the 
Flemish  school.  More  than  one  passage  in  the 
dedications  of  his  published  pieces  show  too  that 
he  was  touched  by  the  same  religious  spirit  of 
responsibility  which  filled  the  soul  of  Palestrina  ; 
and  the  friendship  of  Saint  Filippo  Neri,  which 
they  both  shared,  is  alone  an  indication  of  that 
similarity.  The  saint's  admiration  of  Animuccia 
may  be  gauged  by  his  ecstatic  declaration  that 
he  had  seen  the  soul  of  his  friend  fly  upwards 
towards  heaven. 

Animuccia  composed  the  famous  '  Laudi,'  which 
were  sung  at  the  Oratorio  of  S.  Filippo  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  regular  office,  and  out  of  the 
dramatic  tone  and  tendency  of  which  the  '  Ora- 
torio' is  said  to  have  been  developed.  Hence  he 
has  been  called  the  '  Father  of  the  Oratorio.'  It 
is  strange  that  a  form  of  music  which  Protestant- 
ism has  made  so  completely  its  own  should  have 
been  adopted,  even  to  its  very  name,  from  the 
oratory  of  a  Catholic  enthusiast  in  the  later  ages 
of  the  Church's  power. 

Several  volumes  of  his  works,  comprising, 
masses,  motetti,  madrigals.  Magnificats,  and 
some  of  the  *  Laudi,'  were  published  in  his 
lifetime  by  the  Dorici  and  their  successors,  by  , 


ANIMUCCIA. 


ANSWEE. 


69 


Gardano,  and  by  the  successors  of  Baldo.  Martini 
inserted  two  of  his  *  Agnus'  in  his  '  Esemplare' — 
also  reprinted  by  Choron, '  Principes,'  vol,  v.  But 
the  bulk  of  his  compositions  is  probably  in  MS. 

Of  the  rapidity  with  which  he  wrote  some 
proof  is  afforded  by  an  extract  quoted  both  by 
Baini  and  Fetis  from  the  Vatican  Archives.  It 
is  an  order  to  the  Paymaster  of  the  Chapter  to 
pay  Animuccia  twenty -five  scudi  for  fourteen 
hymns,  four  motetti,  and  three  masses,  all  of 
which  are  sho\vn  in  the  order  itself  to  have  been 
composed  in  less  than  five  months.       [E.  H.  P.] 

ANIMUCCIA,  Paolo,  brother  of  the  fore- 
going, but  whether  older  or  younger  does  not 
appear,  Pitoni,  with  inaccuracy,  takes  upon 
himself  to  doubt  the  relationship  altogether ; 
but  Poccianti,  who  was  their  contemporary, 
distinctly  afiirms  it,  speaking  of  Paolo  as,  '  Ani- 
muccia, laudatissimi  Joannis  frater.'  He  was 
made  Maestro  at  the  Lateran  on  the  removal  of 
Rubino  to  the  Vatican  in  1550,  and  held  the 
post  till  1552  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Lupacchini,  Pitoni  insists  that  he  remained  at 
the  Lateran  from  1550  to  1555  ;  but  the  'Libri 
Censuali'  are  against  him.  Baini,  however,  hints 
that  it  is  possible  that  he  may  have  occupied  the 
post  a  second  time  temporarily  in  1555,  just 
before  the  election  of  Palestrina,  and  that  this 
may  have  misled  Pitoni.  He  died,  according 
to  Poccianti,  at  Rome  in  1563.  He  has  left  but 
little  printed  music  behind  him.  Two  madrigals 
of  his  appear  in  two  separate  volumes,  one  in  a 
book  of  pieces  by  Orlando  Lasso,  and  the  other 
in  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  various  authors, 
and  both  published  by  Gardano  of  Venice  in 
1559,  There  is  a  motet  of  his  in  a  Collection 
of  5lotetti  pubKshed  at  Venice  in  1568  ;  and 
Barre  of  Milan  pubKshed  some  of  his  motetti  in 
a  miscellaneous  volume  in  15S8.  According  to 
Fetis  the  Library  of  John  IV,  King  of  Portugal, 
contained  a  collection  of  Paolo  Animuccia's  Mad- 
rigals in  two  books  intituled  '  II  Desiderio,  Mad- 
rigali  a  cinque,  Lib.  2.'  [E.  H.  P.] 

ANNA  AMALIA,  Duchess  of  Saxe  Weimar, 
born  at  Brunswick,  Oct,  24,  1739,  and  learned 
music  from  the  conductors  of  the  ducal  chapel  at 
Weimar,  She 'composed  the  music  in  Goethe's 
melodrama  of  'Erwin  und  El  mi  re,'  a  notice  of 
which  will  be  found  in  the  'Teutscher  Mercur,' 
May,  1776,  The  duchess  was  a  woman  of  fine 
and  noble  taste,  and  to  her  countenance  and 
support  is  greatly  due  the  excellence  of  the  music 
in  the  Weimar  theatre  about  1770.  She  died 
April  12,  1S07.  [F.  G.] 

AXXA  A^MALIA,  Princess  of  Prussia,  sister 
of  Frederic  the  Great,  bom  Xov,  9,  1723,  was 
a  pupil  of  KiRNBERGER ;  she  is  the  composer  of 
a  cantata  by  Ramler,  '  Der  Tod  Jesu,'  the  same 
which  was  set  to  music  by  Graun.  The  princess 
was  an  able  contrapuntist,  and  her  style  is  full  of 
vigour  and  energy,  as  may  be  seen  from  a  portion 
of  her  cantata  which  is  included  in  Kimberger's 
'Kunst  des  reinen  Satzes.'  She  is  also  said  to 
have  played  the  clavier  with  great  taste  and  ability. 
She  died  at  Berlin,  March  30,  1 787.        [F.  G.] 


ANXA  BOLEXA,  opera  by  Donizetti;  li- 
bretto by  Romani;  produced  at  Milan  in  1822, 
in  Pai'is  Sept.  1831,  and  in  London. 

ANXIBALI,  DoMEXico,  an  Italian  sopran- 
ist  at  the  court  of  Saxony ;  was  engaged  by 
Handel  for  his  opera  at  London  in  the  autumn 
of  1736,  and  made  his  debut  in  'Arminio.'  He 
appeared  next  in  *  Poro,'  introducing  three  songs, 
not  by  Handel,  which  probably  he  had  brought 
with  him  from  Italy  to  display  his  particular 
powers — an  example  frequently  followed  since  his 
day.  He  performed  in  the  cantata  '  Cecilia, 
volgi,'  and  sang  the  additional  song,  '  Sei  del 
ciel,'  interpolated  by  Handel  between  the  first 
and  second  acts  of  'Alexander's  Feast.'  In  1737 
he  performed  the  part  of  Justin  in  the  same 
master's  opera  of  that  name,  and  that  of  De- 
metrio  in  his  'Berenice.'  After  that  his  name 
does  not  appear  again.  [J.  M.] 

AXSAXI,  Giovanni,  bom  at  Rome  about 
the  middle  of  the  1 8th  century,  was  one  of  the 
best  tenors  of  Italy.  In  1770  he  was  singing 
at  Copenhagen.  About  1780  he  came  to  London, 
where  he  at  once  took  the  first  place ;  but,  being 
of  a  most  quarrelsome  temper,  he  threw  up 
his  engagement  on  account  of  squabbles  with 
Roncaglia.  He  returned  the  next  year  with 
his  wife,  Maccherini,  who  did  not  succeed. 
He  sang  at  Florence  in  1784,  at  Rome  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  and  elsewhere  in  Italy ; 
and  finally  retired  to  Xaples  at  the  age  of  50, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  tea-ching  singing. 
He  was  stiU  alive  in  181 5.  He  was  a  spirited 
actor,  and  had  a  full,  finely-toned,  and  com- 
manding voice.  Dr.  Buraey  says  it  was  one  of 
the  sweetest  yet  most  powerful  tenors  he  ever 
heard;  to  which,  according  to  Gervasoni,  he 
added  a  very  rare  truth  of  intonation,  great 
power  of  expression,  and  the  most  perfect  method, 
both  of  producing  the  voice  and  of  vocalisation. 
His  wife  had  as  bad  a  temper  as  himself,  and 
they  were,  therefore,  the  most  inharmonious 
couple.  It  is  said  that,  when  singing  together 
in  Italy,  if  one  were  more  applauded  than  the 
other,  the  unsuccessful  one  would  hire  persons 
to  hiss  the  more  fortunate  rival. 

Ansani  was  known  also  as  a  composer  of 
duets  and  trios  for  soprano  and  bass,  with  a 
basso-continuo,  Gerber  reports  that  an  Opera 
of  his  composition,  called  'La  Vendetta  di  Minos,' 
was  performed  at  Florence  in  1791.  The  date 
of  his  death  is  not  known.  [J.  M.] 

AXSWER,  An  answer  in  music  is,  in  strict 
counterpoint,  the  repetition  by  one  part  or  instru- 
ment of  a  theme  proposed  by  another.  In  the 
following  chorus  from  Handel's  'Utrecht  Jubi- 
late' 


70 


AXTHEM. 


a  and  c  are  the  theme,  and  h  and  d  the  successive  | 
answers.    In  Germany  the  theme  and  answer  | 
are  known  as  dux  and  comes,  or  as  Fiihrer  and 
Gefdhrter.    (See  the  articles  Caxon,  Counteb- 
poi>-T,  and  Fugue.) 

The  word  is  used  in  looser  parlance  to  denote 
such  replies  of  one  portion  of  a  phrase  to  another, 
or  one  instnmient  to  another,  as  occur  in  the 
second  subject  of  the  first  movement  of  Bee- 
thoven's 'Sinfonia  Eroica' : — 


etc. 

•J 


or  throughout  the  Scherzo  of  Mendelssohn's 
'Scotch  Symphony,'  or  frequently  elsewhere. [G.] 

ANTHEM  (Gr.  Antiphona;  Ital.  and  Span. 
Antifona ;  Eng.  Antiphon).  The  idea  of  re- 
sponsive singing,  choir  answering  to  choir,  or 
choir  to  priest,  seems  inherent  in  the  term,  and 
was  anciently  conveyed  by  it ;  but  this,  as  a 
necessary  element  of  its  meaning,  has  disappeared 
in  our  modem  Anglicised  synonym  'anthem.' 
This  word — after  imdergoing  several  changes 
in  its  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early-English  forms, 
readily  traceable  in  Chaucer,  and  those  writers 
who  precaJed  and  followed  him,  and  subsequently 
used  by  Shakspere,  Milton,  and  othere, — has  at 
length  acquired  a  meaning  equally  distinctive 
and  widely  accepted.  It  now  signifies  a  musical 
composition,  or  sacred  motet,  usually  set  to 
verses  of  the  Psalms,  or  other  portions  of 
Scripture,  or  the  Liturgy,  and  sung  as  an 
integral  part  of  public  worship.  If  it  be  not 
possible  so  to  trace  the  word  etymologically  as 
to  render  it  '  the  flower  of  song,'  as  some  scholars 
have  wished,  yet  the  anthem  itself  in  an  artistic 
aspect,  and  when  represented  by  its  finest 
examples,  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  culmi- 
nating point  of  the  daily  ritual-music  of  our 
English  Church. 

Anthems  are  commonly  described  as  either 
'full,'  'verse,'  'solo,'  or  'for  a  double  choir'; 
the  two  former  terms  correspond  to  '  tutti '  and 
'soli'  in  current  technical  phraseology.  In  his 
valuable  work  'The  Choral  Service  of  the 
Church'  Dr.  Jebb  makes  a  distinction  between 
'full  anthems,  properly  so  called,  which  consist 
of  chorus  alone,  and  the  full  anthem  with 
verses  ;  these  verses  however,  which  form  a  very 
subordinate  part  of  the  compositions,  do  not 
consist  of  solos  or  duets,  but  for  the  most  part 
of  four  parts,  to  be  sung  by  one  side  of  the  choir. 
In  the  verse  anthem  the  solos,  duets,  and  trios, 
have  the  prominent  place :  and  in  some  the 
chorus  is  a  mere  introduction  or  finale.' 

Nothing  can  be  more  various  in  form,  extent, 
and  treatment,  than  the  music  of  '  the  anthem ' 
as  at  present  heard  in  churches  and  cathedrals. 
Starting  at  its  birth  from  a  point  but  little 
removed  from  the  simplicity  of  the  psalm-  or 
hymn -tune,  and  advancing  through  various 
intermediate  gradations  of  development,  it  has 
frequently  in  its  later  history  attained  large 


dimensions ;  sometimes  combining  the  most 
elaborate  resources  of  counterpoint  with  the 
symmetry  of  modem  forms,  together  with 
separate  organ,  and  occasionally  orchestral, 
accompaniment.  In  its  most  developed  form  the 
anthem  is  peculiarly  and  characteristically  an 
English  species  of  composition,  and  is  perhaps 
the  highest  and  most  individual  point  which 
has  been  reached  by  English  composers. 

The  recognition  of  the  anthem  as  a  stated  part 
of  divine  ser\-ice  dates  from  early  in  Elizabeth's 
reign;  when  were  issued  the  Queens  'Injunc- 
tions,' granting  permission  for  the  use  of  'a 
hymn  or  such  like  song  in  churches.'  A  few 
years  later  the  word  '  anthem '  appears  in  the 
second  edition  of  Day's  choral  collection,  entitled 
'  Certain  Xotes  set  forth  in  four  and  five  Parts 
to  be  sung  at  the  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer 
and  Communion' ;  and  at  the  last  revision  of 
the  Prayer  Book  in  1662  the  word  appeared  in 
that  rubrick  which  assigns  to  the  anthem  the 
position  it  now  occupies  in  Matins  and  Evensong. 
Only  one  year  later  than  the  publication  of  the 
'Injunctions'  Strype  gives  probably  the  earliest 
record  of  its  actual  use,  at  the  Chapel  Royal  on 
mid-Lent  Sunday,  1560:  'And,  Service  con- 
cluded, a  good  Anthem  was  sung.'  (The  prayers 
at  that  time  ended  with  the  third  coUect.) 
Excepting  during  the  Great  Rebellion,  when 
music  was  banished  and  organs  and  choir-books 
destroyed,  the  anthem  has  ever  since  held  its 
place  in  choral  service.  At  the  present  day,  so 
far  firom  there  being  any  prospect  of  its  with- 
drawal, there  seems  to  exist  an  increasing  love 
for  this  special  form  of  sacred  art,  as  well  as  an 
eamest  desire  to  invest  its  performance  always, 
and  particularly  on  festivals,  with  all  attainable 
completeness  and  dignity. 

Ever  since  the  Reformation  anthems  have 
been  composed  by  weUnigh  all  the  eminent 
masters  which  this  country  has  produced,  from 
Tye  and  his  contemporaries  onwards  to  Gibbons, 
PurceU,  Boyce,  Attwood,  and  our  stiU -lamented 
Stemdale  Bennett.  The  history  of  the  anthem 
accordingly  can  only  be  completely  told  in  that 
of  music  itself.  The  following  attempt  at 
classification,  and  references  to  examples,  may 
serve  in  some  measure  to  illustrate  the  sub- 
ject. 

Eaely  School,  15 20-1625.  —  Tye,  TaUis, 
Byrd,  Gibbons.  The  vagueness  of  tonality 
anciently  prevalent  begins  in  the  music  of 
Tye  to  exliibit  promise  of  settlement ;  while 
in  that  of  Gibbons  it  almost  entirely  disappears. 
Tye's  anthem  'I  will  exalt  Thee,  0  Lord'  is 
remarkable  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  for  its 
general  clearness  and  purity  of  harmony.  Of 
Tallis'  style  'I  call  and  cry,'  and  'All  people 
that  on  earth  do  dwell,'  are  good  examples. 
'Bow  Thine  ear'  and  'Sing  joyfully, '  Byrd,  with 

*  Hosanna,'  *  Lift  up  your  heads,'  '  0  clap  your 
hands  together,'  and  '  Almighty  and  everlasting 
God,'  Gibbons,  are  assuredly  masterpieces  of 
vocal  writing,  which  can  never  grow  out  of  date. 
Most  of  the  anthems  of  this  period  are  '  fuU ' ; 

*  verse '  or  '  solo '  anthems,  however,  are  at  least 


ANTHEM. 


ANTHEM. 


71 


as  old  as  the  time  of  Gibbons.  Sir  F.  Ouseley 
has  done  good  service  to  the  cause  of  church 
music  and  the  memory  of  our  '  English  Palestrina' 
by  his  recent  publication  of  a  '  Collection  of  the 
Sacred  Compositions  of  Orlando  Gibbons.'  In 
this  interesting  and  most  valuable  work  will  be 
found  (besides  several  *  full '  anthems,  and  other 
matter)  not  less  than  twelve  '  verse '  anthems, 
some  of  which  have  solos;  none  of  these  are 
contained  in  Boyce's  '  Cathedral  Music,'  and  all 
may  probably  be  reckoned  among  the  earliest 
known  specimens  of  this  kind  of  anthem.  The 
employment  of  instruments  in  churches  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  singers  dates  as  far  back 
as  the  4th  century,  when  St.  Ambrose  introduced 
them  into  the  cathedral  service  at  Milan.  Later 
on,  some  rude  form  of  organ  began  to  be  used ; 
but  only  to  play  the  plainsong  in  unison  or 
octaves  with  the  voices,  as  is  now  often  done 
with  a  serpent  or  ophicleide  in  French  choirs. 
It  seems  to  be  beyond  doubt  that  the  use  of 
some  kind  of  instrumental  accompaniment  in 
churches  preceded  that  of  the  organ.  During  our 
'first  period'  it  would  seem  that  anthems  when 
performed  Avith  any  addition  to  the  voices  of  the 
choir  were  always  accompanied  by  such  bow 
instruments  as  then  represented  the  infant 
orchestra.  'Apt  for  viols  and  voices'  is  a 
common  expression  on  the  title-pages  of  musical 
publications  of  this  age.  The  stringed  instrument 
parts  were  always  in  unison  with  the  voices,  and 
had  no  separate  and  independent  function,  except 
that  of  filling  up  the  harmony  during  vocal 
'rests,'  or  occasiona,lly  in  a  few  bars  of  brief 
symphony.  Before  the  Eestoration,  according 
to  Dr.  Rimbault,  'verses'  in  the  anthems  'were 
accompanied  with  viols,  the  organ  being  used 
only  in  the  fidl  parts.'  The  small  organs  of  this 
period  were  commonly  portable ;  a  fact  which 
seems  to  indicate  that  -such  instrumental  aid 
as  was  emploj'ed  to  support  the  singers  was 
placed  in  close  proximity  to  them :  an  arrange- 
ment so  natural,  as  well  as  desirable,  that  it 
is  surprising  to  find  it  ever  departed  from  in  the 
present  day. 

Second  Period,  1650- 17  20. — Pelham  Hum- 
phrey, Wise,  Blow,  Henry  Purceil,  Croft, 
Weldon,  J eremiah  Clarke.  Such  great  changes 
in  the  style  and  manner  of  anthem-writing  are 
observable  in  all  that  is  here  indicated,  that  a 
new  era  in  the  art  may  be  said  to  have  begun. 
Traceable,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  taste  and 
fancy  of  Humphrey  and  his  training  under 
LuUi,  this  was  still  more  largely  due  to  the 
renowned  Purceil,  whose  powerful  genius  towers 
aloft,  not  only  among  his  contemporaries,  but  in 
the  annals  of  all  famous  men.  The  compositions 
of  this  period  are  mostly  distinguished  by  novelty 
of  plan  and  detail,  careful  and  expressive  treat- 
ment of  the  text,  daring  haiTnonies,  and  flowing 
ease  in  the  voice  parts ;  while  occasionally  the 
very  depths  of  pathos  seem  to  have  been  sounded. 
The  following  may  be  mentioned  as  specimens  of 
the  above  masters.  '  Hear,  O  heavens '  and  '  O 
Lord  my  God,'  Humphrey;  'Prepare  ye  the 
way '  and  '  Awake,  awake,  put  on  thy  strength,' 


Wise  ;  '  I  was  in  the  Spirit,'  and  '  I  beheld,  and 
lo  ! '  Blow  ;  '  O  give  thanks,'  '  0  God,  Thou  hast 
cast  us  out,'  and  '  O  Lord  God  of  Hosts,'  Purceil ; 
'God  is  gone  up,'  'Cry  aloud  and  shout'  (from 
'0  Lord,  I  will  praise  Thee'),  and  'Hear  my 
prayer,  0  Lord,'  Croft ;  '  In  Thee,  0  Lord '  and 
'Hear  my  crying,'  Weldon;  and  'I  will  love 
Thee '  and  '  0  Lord  God  of  my  salvation,'  Clarke. 
While  all  these  pieces  are  more  or  less  excellent, 
several  of  them  can  only  be  described  in  the 
language  of  unreserved  eulogy.  As  the  'full' 
anthem  was  most  in  vogue  in  the  former  period, 
so  in  this  the  'verse'  and  'solo'  anthem  gTew 
into  favour.  It  seems  to  have  been  reserved  for 
Purceil,  himself  through  life  a  'most  distinguished 
singer,'  to  bring  to  perfection  the  airs  and  graces 
of  the  'solo'  anthem. 

During  this  period  instrumental  music  began 
to  assume  new  and  individual  importance,  and  to 
exercise  vast  influence  upon  the  general  progress 
of  the  art.  Apart  from  the  frequent  employment 
of  instrumental  accompaniments  by  anthem  com- 
posers, the  effect  of  such  additions  to  the  purely 
vocal  element  upon  their  style  and  manner  of 
vrriting  is  clearly  traceable  from  the  time  of  Pel- 
ham  Humphrey  downwards. 

Some  interesting  notices  ^  of  this  important 
change  and  of  the  general  performance  of 
anthems  in  the  Chapel  Eoyal  may  be  gleaned 
from  the  diaries  of  Pepys  and  Evelyn.  To  quote 
a  few  :  Pepys,  speaking  of  Christmas  Day  there 
in  1662,  says,  'The  sermon  done,  a  good  anthem 
followed  with  vialls,  and  the  King  came  down 
to  receive  the  Sacrament.'  Under  the  date  Nov. 
22,  1663,  recording  his  attendance  at  the  chapel, 
the  writer  says,  '  The  anthem  was  good  after 
sermon,  being  the  fifty -first  psalme,  made  for  five 
voices  by  one  of  Captain  Cooke's  boys,  a  pretty 
boy,  and  they  say  there  are  four  or  five  of  them 
that  can  do  as  much.  And  here  I  first  perceived 
that  the  King  is  a  little  musical,  and  kept  good 
time  with  his  hand  aU  along  the  anthem.' 
Evelyn,  on  Dec.  21,  1663,  mentions  his  visit 
to  the  chapel,  and  records  it  in  the  following 
important  passage '  One  of  his  Majesty's  chap- 
lains preached ;  after  which,  instead  of  the 
ancient,  grave,  and  solemn  wind  music  ac- 
companying the  organ,  was  introduced  a  concert 
of  twenty-four  violins  between  every  pause,  after 
the  French  fantastical  light  way,  better  suiting 
a  tavern,  or  playhouse,  than  a  church.  This 
was  the  Jirst  time  of  change,  and  now  we  no 
more  heard  the  comet  which  gave  life  to  the 
organ ;  that  instrimient  quite  left  off"  in  which 
the  English  were  so  skilful ! ' 

The  development  of  the  simple  stringed  quartet 
of  Charles  the  Second's  royal  band  was  rapid  and 
important.  Purceil  himself  wrote  trumpet  parts 
to  his  celebrated  'Te  Deum,'  and  in  1755  Boyce 
added  hautboys,  bassoons,  and  drums  to  the  score. 
Handel's  Chandos  anthems  were  variously  instru- 
mented ;  amongst  them,  in  addition  to  the  stringed 
quartet,  are  parts  for  flutes,  oboes,  bassoons,  and 
trumpets;  though  all  these  instruments  are  not 

1  I  am  indebted  for  these  to  the  kindness  of  my  friend  Dr.  Rim- 
bault. 


72 


ANTHEM. 


ANTHEM. 


combined  in  any  single  piece.  After  tliis,  with 
Haydn  and  Mozart  shining  high  in  the  musical 
firmament,  it  was  but  a  short  and  easy  step  to 
the  complete  grand  orchestra  of  Attwood's  coro- 
nation anthems. 

Third  Period,  i  720-1845. — Greene,  Boyce, 
W.  Hayes,  Battishill,  Attwood,  Walmisley.  At 
the  beginning  of  this  period  the  anthem  received 
little  accession  of  absolute  novelty  ;  yet,  probably 
owing  to  the  influence  of  Handel,  it  found  able 
and  worthy  cultivators  in  Greene  and  several  of 
his  successors.  *  I  will  sing  of  Thy  power '  and 
*  0  clap  your  hands,'  Greene ;  '  O  give  thanks,' 
and  the  first  movement  of  '  Turn  Thee  unto  me,' 
Boyce  ;  with  *  0  worship  the  Lord  '  and  '  Praise 
the  Lord,  0  Jerusalem,'  Hayes,  are  admirable 
examples  of  these  several  authors.  To  Battishill 
we  owe  one  work  of  eminent  and  expressive 
beauty  :  his  '  Call  to  remembrance '  seems  like 
a  conception  of  yesterday,  so  nobly  does  it 
combine  the  chief  merits  of  our  best  modern 
church  composers  with  the  skiU  and  power  of 
the  elder  masters.  '  Withdraw  not  Thou '  and 
'Grant  we  beseech  Thee,'  Attwood,  with  'Re- 
member, 0  Lord '  and '  0  give  thanks,'  Walmisley, 
belong  almost  to  the  present  day.  With  names 
so  familiar  in  'quires  and  places  where  they 
sing'  this  brief  record  of  notable  an  them- writers 
of  the  past  may  be  fitly  closed. 

The  number  of  anthems  composed  previously 
to  the  last  hundred  years,  and  scattered  among 
the  MS.  part-books  of  cathedral  libraries, 
considerable  though  it  be,  represents  but 
imperfectly  the  productive  powers  of  the  old- 
English  school.  It  is  probable  that  many 
hundreds  of  such  pieces  have  been  irretrievably 
lost,  either  by  the  sacrilegious  hand  of  the 
spoiler  or  the  culpable  neglect  of  a  mean 
parsimony.  Of  the  seventy -one  anthems  written 
by  Blow,  and  sixty  by  Boyce,  as  composers  to 
the  Chapel  Royal,  how  few  remain,  or  at  least 
are  accessible !  And,  to  glance  farther  back, 
where  are  the  missing  outpourings  of  the  genius 
of  Orlando  Gibbons,  or  the  numerous  'com- 
posures' of  all  his  fertile  predecessors?  The 
principal  treasures  actually  preserved  to  us  are 
contained,  for  the  most  part,  in  Day's  '  Collection,' 
already  mentioned,  Barnard's  'Church  Music,' 
the  volumes  of  Tomkins,  Purcell,  Croft,  Greene, 
and  Boyce,  the  collections  of  Boyce,  Arnold,  and 
Page  in  print,  and  of  Aldrich,  Hawkins,  and 
Tudway  in  MS.,  together  with  that  of  the 
twenty-two  anthems  of  the  Madrigalian  era, 
edited  by  Dr.  Rimbault  for  the  Musical  Anti- 
quarian Society,  and  Sir  F.  Ouseley's  edition 
of  Gibbons  already  mentioned. 

Foremost  among  all  foreign  contributions  to 
our  national  school  of  church  music  must  be 
placed  the  twelve  anthems  written  by  Handel 
for  his  princely  patron  the  Duke  of  Chandos. 
Standing  apart  from  any  similar  productions 
composed  on  English  soil  to  texts  from  the 
English  Bible  and  for  the  chapel  of  an  English 
nobleman,  these  works  of  England's  great  adopted 
son  may  justly  be  claimed  as  part  of  her  rich 
inheritance  of  sacred  art.    Belonging  to  a  class 


suited  for  special  occasions  are  the  Funeral  and 
Coronation  anthems  of  the  same  master.  These, 
together  with  Mendelssohn's  stately  yet  moving 
psalms  and  anthems — some  of  them  also  com- 
posed to  English  words — may  be  legitimately 
adopted  as  precious  additions  to  our  native  store 
of  choral  music. 

Widely  difi"erent  from  such  genuine  com- 
positions are  those  adaptations,  in  the  first 
instance  from  Handel  by  Bond,  and  later  on 
from  Masses  and  other  works,  which  have  found 
their  way  into  use  in  this  country.  Whether 
in  these  we  regard  the  application  of  strange 
words  to  music  first  inspired  by  other  and  widely 
difierent  sentiments,  or  the  afi'ront  to  art  involved 
in  thus  cutting  and  hacking  the  handywork  of  a 
deceased  master  (even  in  his  lightest  mood)  for 
the  sake  of  pretty  phrases  or  showy  passages — 
which,  however  appropriate  to  their  original 
shape  and  purpose,  are  palpably  out  of  keeping 
in  an  Anglican  service,  as  well  as  unsuited  to 
our  churches  and  their  simpler  executive  means 
— such  adaptations  are  radically  bad,  and 
repugnant  to  all  healthy  instincts  and  true 
principles  of  feeling  and  taste.  The  adaptations 
of  Aldrich  in  the  last  and  Rimbault  and  Dyce 
in  the  present  century  from  Palestrina  and  other 
old  continental  composers,  though  not  free  from 
objection  as  such,  are  not  included  in  the 
foregoing  condemnation. 

The  eclecticism  of  existing  usage  in  the 
selection  of  anthems  is  well  shown  by  the 
contents  of  a  book  of  words  recently  put  forth 
for  cathedral  use.  In  addition  to  an  extensive 
array  of  genuine  church  anthems  of  every  age 
and  school,  from  Tye  and  Tallis  to  the  latest 
living  aspirants,  here  are  plentiful  extracts  from 
the  oratorios  of  Handel,  Haydn,  Spohr,  and 
Mendelssohn  ;  two  from  Prof.  Macfarren's  '  St. 
John  the  Baptist,'  a  few  of  Bach's  motets  and 
choruses,  several  highly  objectionable  adaptations 
from  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and  lastly 
some  specimens  of  French  taste  in  'church 
music'  from  the  pen  of  M.  Gounod.  A  wide 
range  of  art,  truly  ! 

Concerning  the  choice  of  the  anthem  the  same 
clerical  and  high  authority  before  quoted  remarks 
that  '  it  ought  to  be  a  matter  of  deliberate  and 
religious  study';  and  being  a  'prescribed  part 
of  the  service,  every  notion  of  ecclesiastical 
propriety  dictates  that  it  should  harmonise  with 
some  portion  of  the  service  of  the  day.'  Dr. 
Jebb  further  says  that  'at  each  of  the  particular 
seasons  of  the  year  it  would  be  well  to  have  a 
fixed  canon  as  to  the  anthems  from  which  a 
selection  should  invariably  be  made.'  These 
opinions  carry  conviction  with  them,  and  need 
no  enforcement. 

In  counterpoint  and  its  concomitants,  the  great 
works  of  former  ages  will  scarcely  ever  be 
equalled,  still  less  surpassed.  Yet,  while  the 
English  Church  can  reckon  among  her  living 
and  productive  writers  Dr.  S.  S,  Wesley,  whose 
anthems,  whether  for  originality,  beauty,  or 
force,  would  do  honour  to  any  school  or  country, 
together  with  the  genial  and  expressive  style  of 


ANTHEM. 


ANTIPHON. 


73 


Sir  John  Goss,  and  the  facile  yet  masterly  art 
of  Sir  Frederick  Ouseley,  not  to  particularise 
other  well-known  names,  we  may  be  well  content 
with  the  present  fortune  of  the  anthem,  as  well 
as  hopeful  for  its  future. 

While  many  fine  examples  of  eight-part  writing 
exist  among  the  anthems  of  Gibbons,  Purcell, 
and  various  later  composers,  it  is  much  to  be 
desired  that  the  plan  of  writing  for  two  choirs, 
treated  antiphonally,  were  more  cultivated  among 
us,  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case.  The  ample 
spaces  and  acoustical  properties  of  our  cathedrals 
and  large  churches  are  eminently  suited  to 
enhance  the  effects  belonging  to  such  a  disposition 
of  voices  ;  while  the  attendance  of  trained  and 
self-dependent  bodies  of  singers  would  ensure 
all  necessary  point  and  firmness  of  attack  in 
performance.  In  this  direction,  and  in  the 
employment  of  an  independent  obbligato  ac- 
companiment for  organ,  orchestra,  or  both  com- 
bined, probably  lie  the  most  promising  paths  to 
*  fresh  fields  and  pastures  new '  for  the  rising 
school  of  musicians  who  aspire  to  distinction  as 
composers  of  the  anthem.  [E.  G.  M.] 

AXTICIPATIOX  is  when  a  part  of  a  chord 
about  to  follow  is  introduced  beforehand.  Thus 
it  has  been  very  customary  in  a  perfect  cadence 
at  the  end  of  a  strain,  to  anticipate,  before  the 
conclusion  of  the  dominant  harmony,  one  of 
the  notes  of  the  tonic  or  following  chord.  This 
is  very  common  in  the  old  masters,  as  in  the 
following  example  from  the  '  Messiah' : — 


It  is  considered  a  grace  of  style  by  modem 
singers  to  give  the  anticipated  note  with  peculiar 
deliberation  and  emphasis. 

The  following  passage  from  Handel's  'Funeral 
Anthem'  contains  an  anticipation  of  two  notes 
in  the  closing  chord. 


Professor  Ouseley  ('Harmony,'  p.  204)  is  of 
opinion  that  the  third  note,  "^G,  of  the  first 
soprano  is  also  a  sort  of  anticipation  of  the 
succeeding  chord. 


Beethoven  has  many  striking  examples  of 
anticipation  of  a  quite  different  and  bolder  kind. 
Thus,  in  a  well  known  passage  in  the  last  move- 
ment of  the  C  minor  Symphony,  the  basses,  first 
with  the  drums  alone  and  then  with  the  stringed 
instruments,  anticipate  the  harmony  of  the  great 
crash  of  the  Allegro  four  bars  before  it  breaks  in 
(see  the  original  Svo  score,  p.  150). 

There  is  a  similar  anticipation  of  four  bars 
at  the  beginning  of  the  last  movement  of  the 
Pastoral  S}-mphony. 

In  the  first  movement  of  the  *  Sinfonia  Eroica,' 
just  before  the  reprise  of  the  principal  subject, 
there  is  an  anticipation  of  four  bars  of  a  melody, 
still  more  daring  because  it  is  more  completely 
separated  from  the  part  anticipated. 


This  is  a  musical  illustration  of  the  adage, 
'Coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before,'  and 
it  is  ditticult  to  explain  it  on  any  other  principle. 
(See  Harmony.)  [W.  P.] 

AXTIGOXE  of  Sophocles.  Mendelssohn  in 
Sept.  1 84 1  composed  music — Introduction  and 
seven  niunbers  (Op.  55) — to  Donner's  version. 
First  performance  at  Xew  Palace,  Potsdam,  Oct. 
28,  1S41 ;  first  pubHc  do.  at  BerUn  opera,  Xov.  6. 

AXTIXOEI,  LuiGi,  was  bom  at  Bologna 
about  169",  He  was  one  of  the  best  tenor 
singers  of  the  beginning  of  the  iSth  centur}-, 
being  gifted  with  a  voice  of  pure  and  penetrating 
quality,  and  having  acquired  an  excellent  method 
of  using  it.  He  came  to  London  in  1725  and 
sang  in  'Elisa,'  an  anonymous  opera;  and  in 
'Elpidia,'  by  Yinci  and  otlaers,  a  pasticcio  given 
by  Handel,  in  which  Antinori  took  the  place  of 
Borosini,  who  sang  in  it  at  first.  In  the  season 
of  T726  he  appeared  in  Handel's  'Scipio'  and 
'  Alessandro.'  After  that  season  his  name  does 
not  appear  again.  [J.  M.] 

AXTIPHOX  (from  the  Greek  dvTj^cuj/ecy,  to 
raise  the  voice  in  reply),  a  short  piece  of  plain- 
song  introduced  before  a  psalm  or  canticle,  to  the 
Tone  of  which  it  corresponds,  while  the  words  are 
selected  so  as  specially  00  illustrate  and  enforce 
the  evangelical  or  prophetic  meaning  of  the  text. 

The  following  is  the  antiphon  which  opens 
the  ser\-ice  of  Lauds  (corresponding  to  the  Eng- 
lish Morning  Prayer)  on  Easter  Day,  and  supplies 
the  evangelical  comment  on  the  Psalm  which 
follows  it.  The  same  Psalm  is  sung  at  the 
beginning  of  Lauds  ever}'  Sunday,  but  with  a 
different  antiphon,  suggesting  a  different  appli- 
cation of  its  contents. 

Antiphona. 


ge  -  lu3 


au    -    lem  Do 


74 


ANTIPHON. 


scen-dit  de        coe  -  lo,  et  ac  -  ce    •  -  dens 


jS2_ 


re  -  vol   -   vit    la    -    -    pi  -  dem,  et    se     de    -  bat 


EU  -  per    e  -  um,  al-le  -  -  lui-a,  al-le-lui-a. 

Psalm  92  (=93  Eng.  Ps.) 

-0- -G- 


Do  -  mi-nus  reg-na-vit,  de -co-rem  in- du  -  tus  est: 


In-du-tus  est  Do-mi-nus  for-ti  -  tu  -  di-nem,  et  praecinxit  se.  etc 

The  connection  of  the  music  of  the  antiphon 
with  that  of  the  psalm  is  explained  by  Durandus 
from  the  etymology  of  the  term — 'because  an- 
tiphons  are  as  keys  and  indices  according  to  the 
modulation  and  sound  of  which  the  following 
canticle  or  psalm  is  sung  alternately.  For  the 
tone  of  the  whole  psalm  is  taken  from  the  tone 
of  the  antiphon.' 

Antiphonal  or  alternate  singing,  as  in  the 
chanting  of  psalms  verse  by  verse — or  by  half 
verses,  as  heard  by  Mendelssohn  in  Rome  during 
the  Holy  Week  (see  his  Letter  of  June  16,  1831) 
— is  of  very  high  antiquity.  It  was  character- 
istic of  the  Hebrew  and  early  Christian  worship, 
and  is  mentioned  by  Philo  in  the  midflle  of  the 
first  century,  describing  the  Therapeutse  (De  Vit. 
Cont.),  and  has  always  been  more  or  less  prac- 
tised in  the  Church. 

The  French  term  'antienne'  and  the  English 
*  anthem '  are  derived  from  antiphon,  probably  in 
reference  to  each  of  the  meanings  given  above, 
as  an  independent  piece  of  music  sung  from  side 
to  side  of  the  choir.  [T.  H.] 

AXTIQUIS,  Giovanni  d',  lived  in  the  second 
half  of  the  i6th  centiiry  director  of  music  in  the 
church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Bari  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  and  author  of  two  collections — '  Villa- 
nelle  alia  Napolitana,  a  tre  voci,  di  diversi  musici 
di  Bari'  (Venice,  1574),  and  'II  prime  libro  di 
canzonette  a  due  voci,  da  diversi  autori  di  Bari' 
(Venice,  1584) — of  the  works  of  local  composers, 
24  in  all,  few  if  any  of  whom  are  knovm  else- 
where. The  list  will  be  found  in  Fetis,  and 
a  copy  of  the  first  of  the  two  collections  is  in 
the  Munich  Library.  [M.  C.  C] 

A  PIACERE  (Ital.),  'At  pleasure.'  An  indi- 
cation to  the  performer  to  use  his  discretion 
as  to  time.  A  rallentando  is  almost  always  im- 
plied. 

APOLLOXICON.  The  name  given  to  a  large 
chamber  organ  of  peculiar  construction,  com- 
prising both  keyboards  and  barrels,  erected  by 


APOLLOXICON. 

Messrs.  Flight  and  Robson,  organ-builders,  and 
for  many  years  publicly  exhibited  by  them  at 
their  rooms  in  St.  Martin's  Lane.  Prior  to 
building  the  Apollonicon,  Messrs.  Flight  and 
Robson  had  constructed,  under  the  inspection 
of  Purkis,  the  organist,  a  similar  but  smaller 
instrument  for  Viscount  Kirkwall,  a  well-known 
musical  amateur.  This  instrument,  being  ex- 
hibited at  the  builders'  factory  and  attracting 
great  attention,  induced  its  fabricators  to  form 
the  idea  of  constructing  a  larger  instrument  upon 
the  same  plan  for  public  exhibition.  They 
accordingly  in  181 2  commenced  the  building  of 
the  Apollonicon.  They  were  engaged  nearly 
five  years  in  its  construction,  and  expended 
£10,000  in  perfecting  it. 

The  instrument  contained  about  1900  pipes, 
the  lowest  (twenty-four  feet  in  length  and  twenty- 
three  inches  in  aperture)  sounding  GGG,  and  the 
highest  sounding  A  in  altissimo.  There  were 
forty-five  stops,  several  of  which  gave  excellent 
imitations  of  the  tones  of  the  wind  instruments 
of  a  complete  orchestra,  viz.  flute,  oboe,  clarinet, 
bassoon,  trumpet,  horn,  and  trombone.  A  pair 
of  kettledrums  were  inclosed  within  the  case, 
and  struck,  when  required,  by  curiously  contrived 
machinery.  The  manuals  were  five  in  number, 
a  central  one  comprising  a  scale  of  five  octaves, 
and  four  others,  two  on  either  side  of  the  central 
one,  each  having  a  scale  of  two  octaves.  To  the 
central  manual  were  attached  a  swell  and  some 
composition  pedals,  and  also  a  pedal  keyboard  of 
two  octaves.  The  manuals  were  detached  from 
the  body  of  the  organ,  so  that  the  players  sat 
with  their  faces  to  the  audience  and  their  backs 
to  the  instrument.  The  barrels  were  three  in 
number,  each  two  feet  in  diameter  and  eight  feet 
long,  and  each  acting  on  a  distinct  division  of  the 
instrument.  In  their  revolution  they  not  only 
admitted  the  -ndnd  to  the  pipes,  but  regulated 
and  worked  the  stops,  forming  by  instantaneous 
mechanical  action  all  the  necessary  combinations 
for  producing  the  various  gradations  of  power. 
To  secure  the  means  of  performing  pieces  of 
greater  length  than  were  usually  executed  by 
barrels,  spiral  barrels  were  introduced,  in  which 
the  pins,  instead  of  being  arranged  in  circles, 
were  disposed  in  spiral  lines.  The  instrument, 
with  the  exception  of  the  keyboards,  was  in- 
closed in  a  case  twenty  feet  wide  and  deep,  and 
tw5nty-four  feet  high,  the  front  being  divided 
into  three  compartments  by  pilasters  of  the 
Doric,  surmounted  by  others  of  the  Ionic  order. 
Between  the  upper  pilasters  were  three  paintings 
by  an  artist  named  Wright,  the  central  one 
representing  Apollo,  and  the  others  the  Muses 
Clio  and  Erato,  all  somewhat  larger  than  life- 
size.  The  mechanical  action  of  the  Apollonicon 
was  first  exhibited  in  June  181 7,  when  the 
barrels  performed  the  overtures  to  Mozart's 
*  Clemenza  di  Tito '  and  Cherubini's  *  Anacreon.' 
In  November  following  a  selection  of  sacred 
music  was  played  on  the  keys  by  Purkis.  The 
mechanical  powers  of  the  instrument  were  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  exhibited  daily, 
and  on  Saturday  afternoons  Purkis  perfonned 


APOLLONICON. 


APPOGGIATURA.  75 


selections  of  music  on  the  keys.  The  following 
programme,  performed  by  him  in  1830,  affords 
a  fair  sample  of  the  quality  of  these  selections  : — 
overtures  to  Mozart's  *  Zauberflote '  and  Paer's 
*  Sophonisba' ;  divertimento  by  Purkis  on  Swiss 
airs ;  the  grand  scena  for  soprano  from  Weber's 
'  Freischiitz ' ;  songs  by  Barnett  and  Phillips  ; 
and  movements  by  Pleyel  and  Dussek.  For 
some  time  annual  evening  performances  were 
given  under  the  superintendence  of  Thomas 
Adams. 

At  various  periods  additional  sets  of  barrels 
were  provided  which  performed  the  following 
pieces: — the  overtures  to  Mozart's  'Idomeneo,' 
'Nozze  di  Figaro,'  and  'Zauberflote';  Bee- 
thoven's 'Prometheus';  Webers'  'Freischiitz' 
and  '  Oberon ' ;  and  the  military  movement 
from  Haydn's  twelfth  symphony.  The  per- 
formance of  the  overture  to  'Oberon'  in  par- 
ticular has  been  recorded  as  a  perfect  triumph 
of  mechanical  skill  and  ingenuity,  every  note 
of  the  score  being  rendered  as  accurately  as 
though  executed  by  a  fine  orchestra.  The 
setting  of  the  music  on  the  barrels  was  entrusted 
to  the  younger  Flight  (the  present  representative 
of  the  firm),  who  used  for  the  purpose  a  micro- 
meter of  his  own  invention.  About  the  year 
1840,  the  exhibition  of  the  instrument  having 
become  unremunerative,  the  Apollonicon  was 
taken  down  and  its  component  parts  employed  in 
the  construction  of  other  organs,  A  lengthened 
technical  description,  illustrated  by  engraved 
figures,  of  the  instrument  made  for  Lord  Kirk- 
wall will  be  found  embodied  in  the  article 
'Organ'  in  Eees'  Cyclopedia.  [W.  H.  H.] 

APPASSIONATA(Ital.),  'Impassioned.'  Best 
known  by  its  use  in  '  Sonata  appassionata '  as  a 
title  for  Beethoven's  Op.  57.  The  title  was  not 
his,  but  was  added  by  Cranz  the  publisher,  or 
some  one  else.  He  himself  only  uses  the  term 
twice — in  Sonatas  Op.  106  and  iii. 

APPLICATIO  and  APPLICATUR  are  re- 
spectively the  ancient  and  modern  German  terms 
for  Fingering. 

APPOGGIATURA.  (Ital.  from  appoggiare,  to 
lean  upon  ;  Ger.  Vorschlag,  Vorhalt ;  Fr.  Port 
de  voix.)  One  of  the  most  important  of  melodic 
ornaments,  much  used  in  both  vocal  and  instru- 
mental compositions.  It  consists  in  suspending 
or  delaying  a  note  of  a  melody  by  means  of  a 
note  introduced  before  it ;  the  time  required  for 
its  performance,  whether  long  or  short,  being 
always  taken  from  the  value  of  the  principal 
note.  It  is  usually  written  in  the  form  of  a 
small  quaver,  semiquaver,  or  demisemiquaver, 
either  with  or  without  a  stroke  across  the  stem 
(Ex.  I). 

The  appoggiatura  may  belong  to  the  same 
harmony  as  the  principal  note  (Ex.  2),  or  it 
may  be  one  degree  above  or  below  it.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is  a  so-called  'auxiliary  note' 
(sometimes called  'transient'  or  'changing'  note — ■ 
Wechselnote),  and  follows  the  known  rule  of  such 
notes,  that  the  lower  auxiliary  note  should  be 
only  one  semitone  distant  from  the  principal 


note,  the  upper  being  either  a  tone  or  a  semi- 
tone according  to  the  scale  (Ex.  3). 


With  regard  to  its  length,  the  appoggiatura 
is  of  two  kinds,  long  and  short ;  the  long  appog- 
giatura bears  a  fixed  relation  to  the  length,  of  the 
principal  note,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  but  the 
short  one  is  performed  so  quickly  that  the  ab- 
breviation of  the  following  note  is  scarcely 
perceptible.  There  is  also  a  difference  between 
the  two  kinds  in  the  matter  of  accent ;  the  long 
appoggiatura,  is  always  made  stronger  than  the 
principal  note,  while  in  the  case  of  the  short 
one  the  accent  falls  on  the  principal  note  itself 
(Ex.  4). 


4.  Written. 


On  this  subject  authorities  would  seem  to 
differ,  Leopold  Mozart,  Hummel,  and  others 
holding  the  view  advanced  above,  while  Emanuel 
Bach,  Marpurg,  and  Agricola  give  the  rule  that 
all  appoggiaturas  should  be  accented.  It  is 
however  evident  that  a  note  which  passes  away 
so  quickly  as  a  short  appoggiatura  can  scarcely 
receive  any  effective  accent,  and  besides  this  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  above-named  writers  may 
not  have  intended  the  rule  to  refer  exclusively  to 
the  long  appoggiatura  ( Vorhalt),  as  they  often 
used  the  word  Vorschlag  for  both  kinds  indis- 
criminately. Since  then  there  is  no  accent  on 
the  short  appoggiatura,  the  term  itself,  which 
means  a  note  dwelt  upon,  seems  inappropriate, 
and  accordingly  the  word  '  acciacatura '  has  been 
very  generally  substituted  for  it,  though  properly 
belonging  to  another  similar  kind  of  ornament. 

(See  ACCIACCATUKA.) 

The  rules  relating  to  the  length  of  the  long 
appoggiatura  are  three,  and  are  thus  given  by 
Tiirk  in  his  'Clavierschule' : — 'Whenever  it  is 
possible  to  divide  the  principal  note  into  two 
equal  parts,  the  appoggiatura  receives  one  half 
(Ex.  5).  'When  the  principal  note  is  dotted 
the  appoggiatura  receives  two-thirds  and  the 
principal  note  one'  (Ex.  6).  If  the  principal 
note  is  tied  to  another  shorter  note,  the  appog- 
giatura receives  the  whole  value  of  the  principal 
note'  (Ex.  7).  The  third  rule  is  commonly 
though  not  invariably  followed  when  the  principal 
note  is  followed  by  a  rest  (Ex.  8). 


76  APPOGGIATURA. 


5.    MozAET,  Sonata  in^A  minor. 


6.    Hummel,  '  Pianoforte  School.' 


7.    Bach,  '  Passionsmusik.' 


8.   Beethoven,  'Adelaide.' 


In     der    spie  -  -  gel -den  Fluth. 


Exceptions  to  the  above  rules  are  met  with  as 
follows  . — to  the  first  and  second  rules  in  Bach 
and  Mozart,  who  frequently  employed  an  appog- 
giatura  (called  by  Marpurg  '  der  kiirzeste  Vor- 
halt')  which  was  worth  one  third  or  less  of  the 
principal  note,  but  which  differed  from  the  short 
appoggiatura  in  being  accented  (Ex.  9).  An  ex- 
ception to  the  second  rule  occurs  whenever  its 
strict  observance  would  occasion  a  fault  in  the 
harmonic  progression  (Ex.  10),  or  when  it  would 
interfere  with  the  rhythmic  regularity  of  the 
passage  (Ex.  11).  Exceptions  to  the  third  rule 
are  of  stiU  more  frequent  occurrence ;  many 
passages  containing  a  tied  note  preceded  by  an 
appoggiatura  would  entirely  lose  their  signi- 
ficance if  the  rule  were  strictly  adhered  to. 
Taste  and  experience  alone  can  decide  where 
similar  exceptions  are  admissible. 

In  the  works  of  some  of  the  earlier  composers 
an  appoggiatura  is  occasionally,  though  very 
rarely,  to  be  met  with,  which  although  placed  be- 
fore a  note  capable  of  being  halved,  yet  receives 
three-fourths  of  its  value.  This  appoggiatura 
was  usually  dotted  (Ex.  1 2). 


9.    Bach,  *  Passionsmusik.' 


APPOGGLiTURA. 


Mozart,  Fantasia  in  C  minor. 


10.    Bach,  '  Suites  Fran^aises.' 


1 1 .    Schubert,  Rondo,  Pianoforte  and  Violin. 


The  appoggiatura,  whether  long  or  short,  is 
always  included  in  the  value  of  the  principal 
note ;  if  therefore  it  is  applied  to  a  chord  it 
delays  only  the  note  to  which  it  belongs,  the 
other  notes  of  the  chord  being  played  with  it 
(Ex.  13). 

13.    Beethoven,  Andante  in  F. 


The  manner  of  writing  the  appoggiatura  bears 
no  very  definite  relation  to  its  performance,  and 
its  appearance  is  unfortunately  no  sure  guide  as 
to  its  length.    In  music  of  the  1 7th  century,  at 


APPOGGIATURA. 


APPOGGIATURA. 


77 


which  period  the  short  appoggiatura  appears  to 
have  first  come  into  use,  it  was  customary  to  make 
use  of  certain  signs  (Ex.  14),  but  as  after  a  time 
the  long  appoggiatura  was  introduced,  these  were 
given  up  in  favour  of  the  small  note  still  used. 
This  small  note  ought  always  to  be  -m-itten  of 
the  exact  value  which  it  is  to  bear,  if  a  long 
appoggiatura  (Ex.  15)  ;  or  if  a  short  one  it  should 
])e  written  as  a  quaver  or  semiquaver  with  a 
short  stroke  across  the  stem  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  hook  (Ex.  16).^ 


14.  Written. 


Played. 


20.    Mozart,  Sonata  in  A  minor. 


But  the  earlier  writers  often  wrote  the  short  ap- 
poggia,tura  as  a  semiquaver  or  demisemiquaver 
without  the  stroke,  and  in  many  new  editions  of 
old  compositions  we  find  the  small  note  printed 
with  the  stroke  even  where  it  should  be  played 
long,  while  in  modern  music  the  semiquaver 
without  the  stroke  is  often  met  with  where  the 
short  appoggiatura  is  obviously  intended.  In 
this  uncertainty  the  surest  guide  is  the  study  of 
the  treatment  of  the  appoggiatura  by  the  great 
masters  in  the  numerous  cases  in  which  they 
have  written  it  out  in  notes  of  the  ordinary  size 
(see  Beethoven,  Bagatelles,  Op.  119,  No.  4,  Bar 
2  ;  Mozart,  Sonata  in  C,  Halle's  edition,  No.  6, 
Bar  37,  &c.),  as  by  analogy  we  may  hope  to 
arrive  at  some  understanding  of  their  intentions 
respecting  it  when  we  find  it  merely  indicated 
by  the  small  note. 

The  following  series  of  examples  of  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  several  kinds  of  appog- 
giatura are  most  commonly  met  with,  may  also 
be  of  service  in  the  same  direction. 

The  appoggiatura  is  short  when  used  before  two 
or  more  repeated  notes  (Ex.  1 7),  before  detached 
or  staccato  notes  (Ex.  18),  or  leaps  (Ex.  19),  at 
the  conmiencement  of  a  phrase  (Ex.  20),  and  be- 
fore groups  containing  dotted  notes  in  somewhat 
quick  tempo  (Ex.  21). 

17.   Beethoven,  Septett. 


18.    Mozart,  Sonata  in  C. 


19.    Mozart,  Sonata  in  C. 


EE 


21.   Hummel,  Op.  55. 


In  triplets,  or  groups  of  four  or  more  equal 
notes,  the  appoggiatura  is  short  (Ex.  22),  except 
in  groups  of  three  notes  in  slow  triple  time  (Ex. 
23).  The  appoggiatura  at  a  distance  from  its 
principal  note  is  short  (Ex.  24),  except  sometimes 
in  slow  cantahile  passages  (Ex.  25).  Appog- 
giaturas  occurring  in  a  melody  which  ascends  or 
descends  by  diatonic  degrees  are  moderately 
short  (Ex.  26),  as  are  also  those  which  occur  in  a 
melody  descending  by  thirds  (Ex.  27).  Ema- 
nuel Bach  says  of  these — 'when  the  appog- 
giaturas  fill  up  leaps  of  a  third  in  the  melody 
they  are  certainly  short,  but  in  adagio  their  ex- 
pression should  be  smoother,  as  though  repre- 
senting one  of  a  triplet  of  quavers  rather  than 
a  semiquaver.'  Tiirk  calls  them  'undecided 
appoggiaturas.' 

Beethovex 


Op.  22. 


^  This  transverse  stroke  is  probably  an  imitation  of  the  stroke  across 
th^  note  in  the  (now  obsolete)  acciacatura.  (See  that  word.) 


i 


23.    Mozart,  '  Don  Giovanni. 


Toe  -  ca      mi  qu^. 

24.    Haydn,  Sonata  in  E  b. 


25.    Mozart,  'Eequiem.' 


Do     -     mi     -  m. 


m 


26.    Bach,  Passepied  in  B. 


27.    Mozart,  Rondo  in  D. 

^-  J'.  /.  I  r- 


In  groups  of  two  equal  notes  the  appoggiatura 
is  long  if  in  slow  tempo  or  at  the  end  of  a  phrase 
(Ex.  28)  ;  if  otherwise,  short  (Ex.  29). 


78 


APPOGGIATURA. 


APPOGGIATURA. 


28.    Gkaun,  '  Der  Tod  Jesu.' 


-  ber-wun-den    der  I 

'  Pianoforte  School. 

-  L-  ^ 


When  applied  to  the  last  note  but  one  of  a 
final  cadence  the  appoggiatura  should,  according 
to  Emanuel  Bach,  be  short.  But  later  composers 
have  usually  preferred  the  long  appoggiatura  un- 
der these  circumstances,  especially  when  accom- 
panied by  the  seventh  of  the  chord  (Ex.  30),  or 
by  a  part  moving  in  sixths  with  it  (Ex.  31), 
Beethoven  has  even  lengthened  it  beyond  the 
value  of  the  principal  note,  but  in  this  case  it  is 
always  written  as  an  ordinary  note  (Ex.  32). 
When  however,  in  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  all  later 
composers,  the  final  note  of  the  cadence  is  anti- 
cipated, the  appoggiatura  to  the  preceding  note 
is  short  (Ex.  33). 

MozAET,  First  Mass. 


30. 


i 


r  I 

Kr  -  ri 


r 


i 


i 


3i. 


Haydn,  Symphony  in  Eb. 




32. 


i 


Beethoven,  Op.  30,  No.  3. 




33.    MozAET,  Sonata  in  F. 


In  vocal  recitative,  at  the  close  of  a  phrase, 
or  of  a  section  of  a  phrase,  an  appoggiatura 
is  often  introduced  which  has  the  full  value 


of  the  principal  note,  and  indeed  appears 
in  its  stead  (Ex.  34)  ;  such  an  appoggiatura 
is  often  not  indicated,  but  is  left  to  the  discretion 
(or  want  of  discretion)  of  the  singer  (Ex.  35). 
It  is  more  appropriate  at  the  close  of  the  whole 
recitative  than  after  its  component  phrases,  and 
is  especially  so  when  the  melody  descends  a  third 
or  a  fourth  (Ex.  36). 


Der  Freischiitz. 


36.    Bach,  *  Passionsmusik.' 


They    an  -  swered      no  -  thing. 


Handel,  'Messiah.' 


have  them  in 


When  a  trill  or  other  ornament  appears  in  com- 
bination with  an  appoggiatura,  the  latter  is  long, 
and  the  triU  is  performed  on  the  principal  note 
or  on  the  appoggiatura,  according  as  it  is  ' 
above  the  one  or  the  other  (Ex.  37). 


37.  Haydn,  Sonata  in  F. 


TUBK. 


i 


The  proper  execution  of  the  appoggiatura 
seems  to  be  most  doubtful  in  the  group  in  which 
the  note  bearing  the  appoggiatura  is  followed  by 
two  or  four  notes  of  half  its  own  value.  In  the 
majority  of  such  cases  the  appoggiatura  should 
be  long  (Ex.  38),  and  particularly  in  smoothly 
flowing  passages  in  moderate  or  slow  tempo  (Ex. 
39).  But  there  are  numerous  exceptions,  as  for 
example  when  the  employment  of  the  long  ap- 
poggiatura would  alter  the  rhythm  of  the  passage 


APPOGGIATURA. 

(Ex.  40),  or  when  (according  to  Turk)  only  a 
single  example  is  present  (Ex.  41). 

38.    Beethoven,  Op.  10,  No.  3. 


Mozart,  Sonata  in  D. 


39.    MozAKT,.  Sonata  in  C,  Andante, 


40.    Weber,  *  Der  Freischiitz.' 


In  such  cases  no  definite  rule  can  be  given, 
and  the  question  becomes  a  matter  of  taste  and 
feeling.  [F.  T.] 

APPOGGIATURA,  DOUBLE.   (Ital.  Ap- 

poggiatura  doppia ;  Ger.  Doppelvorschlag  ;  Fr. 
Port  de  voix  double.)  An  ornament  composed 
of  two  short  notes  preceding  a  principal  note,  the 
one  being  placed  above  and  the  other  below  it. 
Xhey  are  usually  written  as  small  semiquavers. 

The  first  of  the  two  may  be  at  any  distance 
from  the  principal  note,  but  the  second  is  only 
one  degree  removed  from  it.  They  have  no  fixed 
duration,  but  are  generally  slower  when  applied 
to  a  long  note  (Ex.  i)  than  when  the  principal 
note  is  short  (Ex.  2)  ;  moreover,  the  double  ap- 
poggiatura,  in  which  the  first  note  lies  at  a 
distance  from  the  principal  note,  should  always 
be  somewhat  slower  than  that  in  which  both  notes 
are  close  to  it  (Ex.  3).  In  all  cases  the  time 
required  for  both  notes  is  subtracted  from  the 
value  of  the  principal  note. 


The  double  appoggiatura  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  met  with  in  an  inverted  form  (Ex.  4),  and 
Emanuel  Bach  mentions  another  exceptional 


A  QUATRE  MAINS.  79 

kind,  in  which  the  first  of  the  two  small  notes 
is  dotted,  and  receives  the  whole  accent,  while 
the  principal  note  becomes  as  short  as  the  second 
of  the  two  small  notes  (Ex.  5). 


9J 


The  dotted  double  appoggiatura,  written  as 
above,  is  of  very  rare  occurrence ;  but  it  is 
frequently  found  in  the  works  of  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  etc.,  written  in  notes  of  ordinary  size 
(Ex.  6). 


6,  Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op.  53. 


[F.  T.] 

APRILE,  Giuseppe,  bom  at  Bisceglia  in 
Apulia,  1738,  an  eminent  soprano  singer;  was 
educated  at  the  Conservatorio  of  'La  Pietk'  at 
Naples,  and  sang  in  all  the  principal  theatres  of 
Italy  and  Germany.  Dr.  Burney  heard  him  at 
Naples  in  1770  and  says  that  he  had  a  weak  and 
unequal  voice,  but  was  perfectly  in  tune,  had  an 
excellent  shake,  and  great  taste  and  expression. 
He  was  an  excellent  teacher  of  singing,  and  was 
one  of  Cimarosa's  masters.  He  composed  songs, 
but  his  best  work,  a  system  of  solfeggi  (London 
and  Paris),  has  passed  through  many  editions  and 
is  still  valued.  It  is  included  in  Peters'  edition. 
He  was  living  in  Naples  in  1792.        [M.  C.  C] 

A  PRIMA  VISTA  (Ital.),  'At  first  sight.' 

A  PUNTA  D'ARCO  (Ital.).  'With  the 
point  of  the  bow'  (in  violin  music). 

A  QUATRE  MAINS  (Fr. ;  Germ.  Zu  vier 
Hdnden,  Vierh'dndig ;  Ital.  a  quattro  mani). 
Music  written  for  two  performers  upon  one 
pianoforte,  and  usually  so  printed  that  the  part 
for  each  player  occupies  the  page  which  is 
directly  opposite  to  him. 

By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  music  *a 
quatre  mains'  consists  of  arrangements  of  orches- 
tral and  vocal  compositions  and  of  quartetts,  etc. 
for  stringed  instruments;  indeed,  scarcely  any 
composition  of  importance  for  any  combination 
of  instruments  exists  which  has  not  been  arranged 
and  published  in  this  form,  which  on  account 
of  its  comparative  facility  of  performance  is 
calculated  to  reproduce  the  characteristic  effects 
of  such  works  more  readily  and  faithfully  than 
arrangements  for  pianoforte  solo. 

But  besides  this,  the  increase  of  power  and 
variety  obtainable  by  two  performers  instead  of 
one  offers  a  legitimate  inducement  to  composers 
to  write  original  music  in  this  form,  and  the 
opportunity  has  been  by  no  means  neglected, 


80  A  QUATRE  MAINS. 


ARBEAU. 


although  cultivated  to  a  less  extent  than  might 
have  been  expected. 

The  earliest  printed  works  for  the  pianoforte 
a  quatre  mains  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
ledge were  published  in  Dessau  about  1782, 
under  the  title  'Drey  Sonaten  fiirs  Clavier  als 
Doppelstiicke  fiir  zwey  Personen  mit  vier  Han- 
den  von  C.  H.  Miiller' ;  before  this  however, 
E.  W.  Wolf,  musical  director  at  Weimar  in 
1761,  had  written  one  or  more  sonatas  for  two 
performers,  which  were  published  after  his  death. 
So  far  as  is  known  these  were  the  first  com- 
positions of  their  kind,  although  the  idea  of  the 
employment  of  two  performers  (but  not  on  one 
instrument)  originated  with  Sebastian  Bach,  who 
wrote  three  concertos  for  two  pianofortes,  or 
rather  harpsichords,  three  for  three,  one  of  which, 
in  D  major,  is  still  unpublished,  and  one  for  four, 
all  with  accompaniment  of  stringed  instruments. 
But  the  short  compass  of  the  keyboard,  which  in 
Bach's  time  and  indeed  until  about  1770  never 
exceeded  five  octaves,  was  ill  adapted  to  the 
association  of  two  performers  on  the  same 
instrument,  and  it  is  doubtless  on  this  account 
that  the  earlier  composers  have  left  so  little 
music  of  the  kind. 

Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  appear  to 
have  had  but  little  inclination  for  this  description 
of  composition.  According  to  Fdtis,  Haydn 
wrote  but  one  piece  'a  quatre  mains,'  a  di- 
vertissement, which  was  never  published,  the 
two  sonatas  op.  81  and  86  published  under  his 
name  being  spurious.  Of  the  nine  pianoforte 
duets  by  Mozart  the  two  finest,  the  Adagio  and 
Allegro  in  F  minor  and  the  Fantasia  in  F  minor, 
were  originally  written  for  a  mechanical  organ  or 
tnusical  clock  in  a  Vienna  exhibition,  and  were 
afterwards  arranged  for  piano  by  an  unknown 
hand.  Beethoven  left  but  one  sonata,  op.  6, 
three  marches,  op.  45,  and  two  sets  of  variations, 
none  of  which  are  of  any  great  importance. 

But  of  all  the  great  composers  Schubert  has 
made  the  fullest  use  of  the  original  effects 
possible  to  music  *a  quatre  mains,'  some  of  his 
most  genial  and  effective  compositions  being  in 
this  form,  as  for  instance  the  'Grand  Duo,' 
op.  140,  and  the  'Divertissement  Hongrois,' 
op.  54.  In  addition  to  these  he  wrote  fourteen 
marches,  six  polonaises,  four  sets  of  variations, 
three  rondos,  one  sonata,  one  set  of  dances,  and 
four  separate  pieces,  all,  almost  without  exception, 
masterpieces  of  their  kind. 

Among  modern  compositions  *k  quatre  mains,' 
those  of  Schumann  and  Brahms  are  the  most 
interesting,  Mendelssohn  having  left  but  one 
original  work  of  the  kind,  although  he  himself 
arranged  some  of  his  orchestral  works  and  also 
the  octett,  op.  20,  and  the  variations  for  piano- 
forte and  violoncello,  op.  83,  in  this  form. 
Besides  writing  a  number  of  small  pieces  for  two 
performers,  Schumann  made  a  very  novel  and 
successful  experiment  in  his  'Spanische  Liebes- 
lieder,'  op.  138,  which  consist  of  ten  pieces 
for  four  voices,  being  songs,  duets,  and  a 
quartett,  with  pianoforte  accompaniment  a 
quatre  mains,  and  an  analogous  idea  has  since 


been  carried  out  by  Brahms,  who  has  wi-itten 
two  sets  of  waltzes  (Liebeslieder,  opp.  52  ;  65)  for 
pianoforte  a  quatre  mains,  with  accompaniment 
of  four  voices. 

Organ  music  a  quatre  mains  is  very  rare, 
although  the  experiment  has  been  made  by  Hesse, 
Hopner,  and  especially  by  Julius  Andre,  who  has 
written  twenty -four  pieces  for  two  performers 
on  the  organ  ;  but  no  increased  effect  appears 
to  be  obtainable  from  such  an  arrangement 
which  can  at  all  compensate  for  its  practical 
inconvenience,  and  the  same  observation  applies 
to  compositions  for  the  pianoforte  '  a  six  mains,' 
of  which  a  few  specimens  exist,  mostly  by 
Czemy.  [F.  T.] 

ARABESQUE  (Germ.  ArahesJce).  Originally 
an  architectural  term  applied  to  ornamentation 
in  the  Arabic  style,  whence  its  name,  (i)  The 
title  has  been  given,  for  what  reason  is  not  very 
clear,  by  Schumann  to  one  of  his  pianoforte 
pieces  (op.  18),  which  is  written  in  a  form 
bearing  some  analogy  to  that  of  the  rondo,  and  it 
has  been  since  occasionally  used  by  other  writers 
for  the  piano.  (2)  The  word  'Arabesque'  is 
sometimes  used  by  writers  on  music  to  express 
the  ornamentation  of  a  theme.  Thus  Dr.  Hans 
von  Bulow,  in  his  edition  of  Beethoven's  sonatas, 
in  a  note  on  the  adagio  of  the  sonata  in  Bb, 
op.  106,  speaks  of  the  ornaments  introduced  at 
the  return  of  the  first  subject  as  'diese  un- 
vergleichlich  seelenvollen  Arabesken' — these  in- 
comparably expressive  Arabesques.  [E.  P.] 

ARAGONI,  SiGNOR.  This  name,  with  that 
of  Strada,  is  affixed  by  Walsh  to  the  cantata 
'  Cecilia,  volgi,'  added  to  the  first  edition  of '  Alex- 
ander's Feast.'  It  is  evidently  a  blunder,  being 
doubtless  meant  for  Annibali,  who  in  fact  sang  it 
with  Strada,  and  whose  name  (Hannibali)  appears 
to  the  succeeding  song,  '  Sei  del  ciel.'       [J.  M.] 

ARANAZ,  Pedeo,  a  Spanish  priest  and 
composer,  born  at  Soria  in  Old  Castile ;  was 
appointed  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century 
conductor  of  the  choir  in  the  cathedral  at 
Cuenfa,  and  died  there  in  1825  at  a  considerable 
age.  His  church  music,  which  was  good,  is  to 
be  found  at  CuenQa,  in  the  Escurial,  and  scat- 
tered in  various  churches  of  Spain ;  but  Eslava 
has  preserved  in  his  '  Lira  Sacro-Hispana '  an 
'  Offertorium '  for  five  voices  and  a  '  Laudate 
Dominum'  for  six  voices,  with  strings,  horns, 
and  organ.  [M.  C.  C] 

ARBEAU,  Thoinot,  priest  of  Langres  in 
France.  His  real  name  was  Tabourot,  of  which 
the  above  is  a  kind  of  anagram.  He  lived  about 
the  end  of  the  16th  century,  and  was  the  author 
of  a  remarkable  book,  now  of  excessive  rarity, 
entitled  '  Orchesographie  et  Traite  en  forme  de 
dialogue  par  lequel  toutes  personnes  peuvent 
facilement  apprendre  et  pratiquer  Thonnete 
exercise  des  danses '  (Langres  :  Jean  de  Preys, 
1589).  It  contains  a  great  number  of  French 
dance-tunes  with  words  fitted  to  the  melodies, 
and  is  of  great  interest  and  use  in  the  history 
of  dance  music.  [F.  G.] 


ARCADELT. 


ARDITI. 


81 


ARCADELT,  Jacob,  one  of  the  most  proml- 
nent  among  the  distinguished  band  of  Nether- 
land  musicians  who  taught  in  Italy  in  the  i6th 
century  and  saw  the  fruit  of  their  labours 
in  the  foundation  of  the  great  Italian  school. 
He  was  singing-master  to  the  boys  at  St.  Peter's, 
Rome,  during  the  year  1539,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  college  of  papal  singers  in  1540. 
Many  masses  and  motets  of  Arcadelt  are  among 
the  manuscripts  of  the  papal  chapel,  but  those 
of  his  works  which  were  published  during  his 
life  in  Rome  were  entirely  secular,  and  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  famous  madrigals  which  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  so-called  "  Venetian 
school"  of  madrigal  wi-iting.  Five  books  of 
madrigals,  each  containing  forty  or  fifty  separate 
numbers,  were  printed  in  Venice,  and  many 
editions  of  these  were  published  with  great 
rapidity.  An  excellent  copy  of  the  first  four 
books  is  in  the  library  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  the  same  library  may  be  found  a  few 
of  the  many  collections  of  madrigals  which 
contain  compositions  by  Arcadelt.  In  the  year 
1555  he  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  duke  of  Guise,  and  went  with  him 
to  Paris,  where  he  probably  ended  his  life.  In 
Paris  three  books  of  his  masses  were  published 
in  1557,  other   sacred  works   appear  in 

collections  printed  since  he  left  Italy.  It  seems 
probable  therefore  that  he  devoted  this  second 
or  Parisian  period  of  his  life  to  church  com- 
position, but  it  is  as  a  madrigal  writer  that  his 
name  is  most  celebrated.  Thus  Pitoni,  in 
speaking  of  the  first  book  of  madrigals,  says 
that  their  exceedingly  lovely  and  natural  style 
caused  them  still  to  be  sung  in  his  time  (1657- 
1743).  Burney  gives  one,  *I1  bianca,'  in  his 
•  History'  (iii.  303) ;  and  two  to  Michel  Angelo's 
words  *  Deh  dimm'  Amor,'  and  *Io  dico  che  fra 
voi,'  will  be  found  inGotti's  'Vita  di  M.'  (1875). 
An  Ave  Maria  has  been  edited  by  Sir  Henry 
Bishop  and  other  English  musicians,  is  quoted 
by  Mr.  Hullah  in  his  musical  lectures,  and  has 
been  printed  in  the  'Musical  Times'  (No.  183) ; 
but  the  authorship  is  disputed.  A  Pater  noster 
for  8  voices  is  given  by  Commer,  'Collectio,' 
^^ii.  21.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

ARCHLUTE  (Fr.  VArcUluth-,  Ital.  Arci- 
livto ;  Ger.  Erzlaute).  A  large  theorbo  or  double- 
necked  lute,  large  especially  in  the  dimensions  of 
the  body,  and  more  than  four  feet  high; — that 
in  the  figure  is  4  ft.  5  in.  over  all.  The  double 
neck  contains  two  sets  of  tuning  pegs,  the  lower — 
in  the  subjoined  example  in  South  Kensington 
Museum— holding  14,  and  the  upper  10.  The 
strings  of  catgut  or  metal  were  often  in  pairs, 
tuned  in  unison,  and  comprised  a  compass  of 
about  two  octaves  from  G  below  the  bass  clef. 
The  archlute  is  described  by  Mersenne  ('  Har- 
monie  Universelle,'  1636)  and  Kircher  ('  Musur- 
gia,'  1650),  but  not  being  named  in  Luscinius 
(I5.\6)  it  may  be  assumed  to  be  of  later  intro- 
duction than  that  date.  It  was  used  in  the  1 7th 
century  in  common  wdth  the  chitarrone  and 
violone  (bass  viol)  for  the  lowest  part  in  in- 
strumental music  and  accompaniments,  particu- 

{€.) 


larly  in  combination  with  the  clavicembalo  for 
the  support  of  the  re- 
citative. Early  edi- 
tions of  Corelli's  So- 
natas had  for  the  bass 
the  violone  or  arciliuto, 
and  Handel  also  em- 
ployed the  archlute. 
The  sound  -  board, 
pierced  with  from  one 
to  three  ornamental 
soundholes,  was  of 
pine,  and  the  vaulted 
back  was  built  up  of 
strips  of  pine  or  cedar 
glued  together.  The 
frets  adjusted  along 
the  neck  to  fix  the  in- 
tervals were  of  wire  or 
catgut,  examples  dif- 
fering. A  wealth  of 
ornament  was  be- 
stowed upon  the  necks 
and  backs  of  these 
beautiful  instruments, 
in  common  with  other 
varieties  of  the  lute 
and  cither.  The  chi- 
tarrone had  a  smaller 
body  and  much  longer 
neck,  and  differs  so 
much  as  to  require  se- 
parate description.  In 
the  photographs  pub- 
lished by  the  Liceo 
Comunale  di  Musica 
of  Bologna,  the  appli- 
cation of  the  names 
archlute  and  chitar- 
rone is  reversed. 
( See  Chitarkone, 
Lute,  Theorbo.) 

[A.  J.  H.] 

ARCO,  Italian  for  'bow.'  As  a  musical 
term  'arco'or  'col  arco'  is  employed  whenever 
after  a  pizzicato  passage  the  bow  is  to  be  used 
again.  [P.  D.] 

ARDITI,  Luigt,  bom  at  Crescentino  in  Pied- 
mont, July  16,  1825  ;  studied  music  at  the  Con- 
servatorio  at  Milan,  and  began  his  career  as  a 
violin  player.  In  1840  lie  produced  an  overture, 
and  in  the  Carnival  of  1841  an  opera  'I  Briganti,' 
at  the  Conservatorio.  In  1842  he  followed  these 
by  a  second  Overture  and  a  '  Sovenir  di 
Donizetti.'  He  made  his  debut  as  director  of 
the  opera  at  Vercelli  in  1843,  and  was  made 
honorary  member  of  the  Accademia  Filarinonica 
there.  In  1846  he  left  Italy  with  Bottesini  for 
the  Havannah,  where  he  composed  and  produced 
an  opera  '  II  Corsaro.'  He  made  frequent  visits 
to  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia,  and 
amongst  other  things  conducted  the  opera  at  the 
opening  of  the  Academy  of  Music  in  New  York, 
and  produced  a  new  opera  of  his  own  *  La  Spia 
(1856).  The  same  year  he  left  America  for 
Constantinople,  and  finally  settled  in  London  in 


AEDITI. 


ARIA  DI  BRAVURA. 


58  as  conductor  to  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  under 
the  successive  managements  of  Lumley,  E.  T. 
Smith,  and  Mapleson.  Mr.  Lumley  has  left  on 
record  his  verdict  of  Signor  Arditi,  *  than  wliom, 
taking  all  qualities  into  account,  a  more  able 
conductor  never  reigned  in  this  country' 
('Reminiscences,'  4^7  note).  Arditi  took  an 
Italian  company  (Piccolomini,  Giuglini,  etc.)  on 
an  artistic  tour  to  Hamburgh,  Berlin,  Dresden, 
etc.,  and  thus  became  known  and  likeJ  by  the 
German  public.  In  the  winters  of  18  71  and 
1873  he  conducted  the  Italian  Opera  at  St. 
Petersburgh,  and  since  1870  has  performed  the 
same  office  each  spring  at  Vienna.  His  compo- 
sitions, besides  those  mentioned  above,  comprise 
a  'Commemoration  Ode,'  performed  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  June  10,  1873.  His  vocal  waltz  'II  Bacio' 
is  a  universal  favourite.  [G.] 
ARGYLL  ROOMS.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century  there  stood  in  Argyll 
Street,  Oxford  Street,  a  mansion  which  had  been 
occupied  by  a  Mr.  JolifFe.  This  was  taken  a 
few  years  afterwards  by  Col.  Greville,  who 
altered  and  added  to  it,  and  fitted  it  up  for  the 
meetings  of  a  fashionable  association  termed 
the  Pic-Xics,  who  had  burlettas,  vaudevilles 
and  ballets  on  a  small  scale  performed  there. 
But  the  fashionable  folk,  with  their  accustomed 
fickleness,  soon  deserted  the  place,  and  Greville 
was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  on  the  continent, 
having  been  obliged  to  make  over  '  The  Argyll 
Rooms'  (as  he  had  named  them)  to  a  Mr.  Slade, 
to  whom  he  was  indebted.  Slade  conducted  the 
business  of  the  rooms  for  several  years,  letting 
them  for  concerts  and  other  entertainments. 
During  his  management  one  of  the  events  of 
interest  which  occurred  there  was  a  reading  by 
Mrs.  Siddons,  on  Feb.  10,  181 3,  of  Shakspere's 
Macbeth,  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  of 
Andrew  Cherry,  dramatist  and  actor.  In  the 
same  year  the  rooms  acquired  greater  celebrity 
by  being  selected  by  the  then  newly-formed 
Philharmonic  Society  as  their  place  of  per- 
formance. In  1 818  the  western  end  of  tho 
concert  room  falling  within  the  line  required 
for  the  formation  of  Regent  Street,  Slade  was 
awarded  by  a  jury  £23,000  as  compensation 
(a  sum  considered  at  the  time  as  exceedingly 
beyond  the  real  value  of  the  property),  and  the 
whole  of  the  old  building  was  removed  and  new 
rooms  erected  on  the  east  side  of  Regent  Street 
at  the  north-west  comer  of  Argyll  Place.  The 
new  building  was  designed  by  John  Nash,  and 
had  all  the  defects  of  his  manner.  On  the  side 
next  Regent  Street  was  a  balcony  supported  by 
eight  heavy  and  clumsily  designed  caryatides. 
The  persons  by  whom  the  new  rooms  were 
erected  were  twenty-one  of  the  principal  pro- 
fessors of  music  in  London,  who  had  formed 
themselves  into  an  association  for  the  purpose 
of  printing  the  best  music  in  the  best  manner 
and  selling  it  at  a  moderate  profit.  This 
association  was  called  The  Royal  Harmonic 
Institution,  and,  for  the  purposes  of  its  trade, 
occupied  the  south-western  angle  of  the  new 
building  (at  the  comer  of  Regent  Street  and 


Aroyll  Place),  a  circular  fronted  erection  with 
a  domed  roof  The  great  expense  incurred  in 
the  erection  of  the  building,  joined  to  other 
untoward  events,  soon  led  to  the  withdrawal 
of  most  of  the  original  speculators,  at  a  loss  of 
about  £1800  to  each,  and  the  place  eventually 
fell  into  the  hands  of  two  of  their  body,  Welsh 
and  Hawes.  But  differences  soon  arose  between 
these  two,  and  ultimately  Hawes.  by  the  com- 
m-ssion  of  an  act  of  bankruptcy,  forced  a 
dissolution  of  the  partnership,  and  the  concern 
remained  in  the  hands  of  Welsh  alone.  During 
the  Philharmonic  Society's  tenure  of  the  rooms 
(old  and  new),  a  period  of  about  seventeen  years, 
many  events  of  great  interest  to  musicians  oc- 
curred there.    There,  on  March  6  and  April  10, 

1820,  Spohr  appeared,  first  as  violinist  and  last  as 
conductor  (Selbstbiog.  ii.  86),  when  a  baton  was 
used  for  perhaps  the  first  time  at  an  English 
concert.  There  also  on  June  18  following,  at  his 
benefit  concert,  his  first  wife  (Dorette  Scheidler) 
made  her  only  appearance  in  England  (and  her 
last  on  earth)  as  a  harpist.    There,  on  June  11, 

1821,  Moscheles  made  his  first  appearance  in  this 
country.  There  too  Weber,  on  April  3,  1826, 
two  months  before  his  decease,  conducted  one 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society's  concerts.  And 
there  a  still  greater  musician  than  either  first 
presented  himself  before  an  English  audience  ; — 
on  May  25,  1829,  the  youthful  Mendelssohn 
conducted,  at  one  of  the  concerts  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  his  symphony  in  C  minor,  and 
a  month  later,  at  the  benefit  concert  of  Drouet, 
the  flautist,  on  midsummer  night,  June  24,  pro- 
duced for  the  first  time  in  England  his  beautiful 
overture  to  *A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.' 
Besides  concerts  the  rooms  were  let  for  miscella- 
neous performances  and  exhibitions.  One  of  the 
most  attractive  of  the  latter  was  a  French  exhi- 
bition of  dramas  performed  by  puppets,  called 
'The  French  Theatre  du  Petit  Lazary,'  which 
was  given  in  1828  and  1829.  In  1829-1830  the 
rooms  were  tenanted  by  a  M.  Chabert,  calling 
himself  'The  Fire  King,'  who  entertained  the 
public  by  entering  a  heated  oven  and  cooking  a 
steak  in  it,  swallowing  phosphorus,  etc.  During 
his  tenure  of  the  place,  at  10  o'clock  in  the 
evening  of  Feb.  6,  1830,  a  fire  broke  out,  which 
in  a  short  time  completely  destroyed  the  building. 
It  was  re-edified  soon  afterwards,  but  never  re- 
gained its  former  reputation.  The  Philharmonic 
concerts  were  removed  after  the  fire  to  the 
concert-room  of  the  King's  Theatre,  and  thence 
to  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  and  although 
a  few  concerts  and  other  entertaimnents  were 
occasionally  given  in  the  Argyll  Rooms  the  place 
became  by  degrees  deserted  by  caterers  for  public 
amusement  and  was  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
converted  into  shops.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ARIA,  Italian  for  AiB. 

ARIA  DI  BRAVURA.  The  composition  and 
performance  of  this  class  of  aria  began  and 
ended  with  the  last  century  ;  the  century  par 
excellence  of  great  Italian  singers,  as  the  word 
'singer'  was  once  interpreted.  [J.  H.] 


AEIA  PAELANTE. 


ARNE. 


83 


ARIA  PARLAXTE.    See  Arioso. 

ARIETTA.  Diminutive  of  Aria.  A  short  air, 
generally  of  sprightly  character,  and  having  no 
second  part.  [J.  H.] 

ARIOSO.  Literally  'airy.'  Tsed  substan- 
tively, it  would  seem  to  mean  that  kind  of  air 
which,  partaking  both  of  the  character  of  air 
and  recitative,  requires  rather  to  be  said  than 
sung.  Mendelssohn's  two  pieces,  'But  the  Lord 
is  mindful'  and  'Woe  unto  them  that  forsake 
Him'  are  marked  'Arioso,'  and  are  both  of  the 
character  indicated.  [J.  H.] 

ARIOSTI,  Attilto,  a  Dominican  monk  and 
an  operatic  composer ;  was  bom  about  the  year 
1660.  Under  a  papal  dispensation  he  gave  up 
his  ecclesiastical  profession  for  that  of  music,  of 
which  he  had  from  his  youth  been  a  regular 
student.  His  first  opera  was  'Dafne,'  written 
to  the  words  of  Apostolo  Zeno.  It  was  brought 
out  at  Venice  in  16S6.  Its  success  was  suflScieut 
to  determine  the  direction  of  his  talent,  for 
thenceforth,  with  the  exception  of  one  oratorio 
and  some  cantate  to  be  hereafter  mentioned,  he 
wrote  only  for  the  stage.  In  1690  he  became 
either  private  composer  or  Maestro  di  CappeUa 
to  the  Electress  of  Brandenburg ;  and  he  re- 
mained a  member  of  her  household  until  1716, 
when,  at  the  invitation  of  the  managers  of  the 
Italian  opera  in  London,  he  came  to  England. 
This  interval,  however,  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
spent  altogether  at  Berlin,  Apparently  he  had 
paid  one  visit  at  least  to  Italy,  and  one  to 
Austria,  bringing  out  his  '  Xabucodonosor'  at 
Venice,  his  '  La  piu  gloriosa  fatica  d'  Ercole ' 
at  Bologna,  and  his  'Amor  tra  Xemici'  at 
Venice.  His  first  appearance  in  London  was 
at  the  representation  of  Handel's  'Amadis,'  at 
which  he  played  a  solo  on  the  then  little-known 
instrument  the  viole  d' amour.  In  1720  the 
directors  of  the  opera  made  formal  engagements 
for  a  term  with  Ariosti,  Bononcini  and  Handel 
to  write  operas  in  turn  for  the  theatre.  It  was 
arranged  that  the  first  to  be  produced,  which 
was  '  Mucius  Scsevola,'  should  be  the  joint  work 
of  the  three  authors,  Ariosti  writing  the  first  act. 
The  stipulations  of  this  engagement  were  rigidly 
adhered  to  without  the  slightest  tinge  of  jealousy 
or  ill-feeling  ever  having  man-ed  the  relations  of 
the  rival  composers.  But  not  the  less  was  it 
inevitable  that  the  genius  of  Handel  should 
assert  itself,  and  at  the  close  of  the  season  of 
1727  Ariosti  and  Bononcini  were  honourably 
dismissed.  Bononcini  was  subsequently  supported 
by  the  Marlborough  family,  but  Ariosti,  finding 
himself  without  a  patron,  quitted  England  in 
1728,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  an 
obscurity  which  no  biographer  has  been  able 
to  pierce.  Fetis  says  that  on  the  eve  of  his 
departure  from  England  he  published  a  volume 
of  Cantate  by  subscription,  and  that  they 
realised  £1000.  It  may  be  hoped  that  this  is 
a  fact,  and  that  the  destitution  hinted  at  by 
other  writers  was  not  the  absolute  condition  of 
his  old  age. 

Ariosti  wrote  fifteen  complete  operas,  of  which 


the  names  and  dates  of  publication  are  as 
follows  : — 'Dafne,'  1696  ;  'Eriphyle,'  1697  ;  'La 
Madre  dei  Maccabei,'  1 704  ;  '  La  Festa  d'lmenei,' 
1700;  'Atys,'  1700;  'Xabucodonosor,'  1706; 
'  La  piil  gloriosa  fatica  d'  Ercole,'  1 706  ;  '  Amor 
tra  Nemici,  1708;  'Giro,'  1721  ;  'Coriolanus,' 
1723;  *  Vespasien,'  1724;  *  Artaserses,'  1 724  ; 
'  Dario,'  1725;  '  Lucius  Verus,'  1726;  '  Teuzone,' 
1727.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  first  act 
of  'Mucins  Scaevola' ;  the  'Cantate'  above 
mentioned,  published  along  with  some  lessons 
for  the  viola  d'amore,  1728  ;  and  his  one  oratorio 
'  Radegonda  Regina  di  Francia,'  1693.  [E.  H.  P.] 
ARMIDE.  One  of  Gluck's  greatest  operas, 
produced  (in  his  sixty-fourth  year)  on  Sept.  23, 
1777,  at  the  Academie  royale.  The  libretto  is 
by  Quinault,  the  same  which  was  set  by  Lulli 
in  16S6.  'Armide'  followed  'Alceste'  (1776)  and 
preceded 'Iphigenie  in  Tauris'  (1779).  Comparing 
it  with  'Alceste,'  Gluck  himself  says,  'The  two 
operas  are  so  diflferent  that  you  will  hai-dly  be- 
lieve them  to  be  by  the  same  composer.  ...  I 
have  endeavoured  to  be  more  of  the  painter  and 
the  poet  and  less  of  the  musician,  and  I  confess 
that  I  should  like  to  finish  my  career  with  this 
opera.  ...  In  Armide  there  is  a  delicate  quality 
which  is  wanting  in  Alceste,  for  I  have  dis- 
covered the  method  of  making  the  characters 
express  themselves  so  that  you  will  know  at  once 
whether  it  is  Amnida  who  is  speaking  or  one  of 
her  followers.'  The  overture  was  originally 
written  27  years  before  for  'Telemacco.' 

ARMOURER  OF  XAXTES,  THE,  an  opera 
in  three  acts,  founded  on  Victor  Hugo's  'Mary 
Tudor' ;  words  by  J.  V.  Bridgman,  music  by 
i  Balfe ;  produced  at  Covent  Garden,  under  the 
P\-ne  and  Harrison  management,  Feb.  12, 
1863. 

ARXE,  Michael,  the  son  (Bumey  says  the 
natural  son)  of  Dr.  Ame,  was  bom  in  1741. 
He  was  brought  on  the  stage  at  an  early  age 
by  his  aunt,  3Irs.  Gibber,  who  took  great  pains 
in  teaching  him  the  part  of  the  Page  in  Ot- 
way's  tragedy,  '  The  Orphan'  ;  and  his  father 
was  equally  assiduous  in  qualindng  him  as  a 
singer,  and  brought  him  out  in  that  capacity 
at  Marylebone  Gardens  in  1751.  But  neither 
acting  nor  singing  was  his  vocation.  At  ten  or 
eleven  years  of  age  he  had  acquired  such  skill  on 
the  harpsichord  as  to  be  able  to  execute,  with 
unusual  correctness  and  rapidity,  the  lessons  of 
Handel  and  Scarlatti,  and  some  years  later  he 
manifested  some  ability  as  a  composer.  In  '  The 
Flow'ret,  a  new  Collection  of  English  Songs, 
by  Master  Ame,'  is  a  song  called  'The  Highland 
Laddie,'  which  attained  great  popularity,  and 
was  in  1755  adapted  by  Linley  to  the  words 
'Ah,  sure  a  pair  were  never  seen,'  in  Sheridan's 
opera,  'The  Duenna.'  In  17'' 3  M.  Ame  ap- 
peared as  a  dramatic  composer  with  '  The  Fairy 
Tale.'  In  1764  he  composed,  in  conjunction  with 
BattishiU,  the  music  for  the  opera  of  '  Ahnena,' 
which  was  withdrawn  after  a  few  nights,  not 
from  want  of  merit  in  the  music,  but  owing  to 
the  dulness  of  the  dialogue.    On  Xov.  s,  1 766, 

G  2 


84 


ARNE. 


ARNE. 


Ame  married  Miss  Elizabeth  Wright,  a  vocalist 
of  some  repute.  In  1767  he  wrote  the  music  for 
G-arrick's  dramatic  romance,  'Cj'mon,'  which  was 
highly  successful,  and  is  his  best  work.  Soon 
afterwards  he  gave  up  his  profession  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  and  built  a 
laboratory  at  Chelsea,  where  he  attempted  the 
discovery  of  the  philosopher's  stone.  Foiled  in 
his  object,  and  ruined  by  the  expenses,  he  re- 
turned to  the  pursuit  of  music,  and  wrote  the 
music  for  several  dramatic  pieces— amongst  them 
O'Keefe's  '  Positive  Man,'  in  which  is  the  well- 
known  song,  'Sweet  Poll  of  Plymouth' — and 
numerous  songs  for  Vauxhall  and  the  other  public 
gardens.  In  1779  he  was  engaged  as  director  of 
the  music  at  the  Dublin  Theatre,  and  in  1784 
and  subsequent  years  had  the  direction  of  some 
of  the  Lenten  Oratorios  at  the  London  theatres, 
Michael  Arne's  dramatic  compositions  were  *  The 
Fairy  Tale,'  1763;  'Hymen,'  1764;  '  Almena,' 
1764;  'Cymon,'  1767;  'The  Fathers,'  1778; 
'The  Belle's  Stratagem,'  1780;  'The  Choice  of 
Harlequin,'  1781  ;  'The  Positive  Man,'  1782; 
'Tristram  Shandv,'  1783.  He  died  about 
1806.  "  [W.  H.  H.] 

ARNE,  Thomas  Augustine,  Mus.  Doc,  was 
the  son  of  an  upholsterer  in  King  Street,  Covent 
Garden,  where  he  was  bom  on  March  1 2  or  May 
28  (the  precise  date  cannot  be  ascertained),  1710. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  being  intended 
by  his  father  for  the  profession  of  the  law,  was 
on  leaving  college  placed  in  a  solicitor's  office  for 
three  years.  But  his  love  for  music  predominated, 
and  instead  of  applying  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  law,  he  privately  conveyed  a  spinet  to  his 
bedroom,  and  by  muffling  the  strings  with  a 
handkerchief  contrived  to  practice  during  the 
night  undetected.  He  took  lessons  on  the  violin 
from  Festing,  and  would  occasionally  borrow  a 
livery  in  order  to  gain  admission  to  the  servant's 
gallery  at  the  opera.  He  made  such  progress  on 
the  violin  as  to  be  able  to  lead  a  chamber  band 
at  the  house  of  an  amateur  who  gave  private 
concerts.  There  he  was  one  evening  accidentally 
discovered  by  his  father  in  the  act  of  playing  the 
first  violin.  After  some  fruitless  efforts  to  induce 
his  son  to  devote  himself  to  the  profession  for 
which  he  had  designed  him,  the  father  gave  up 
the  attempt  as  hopeless,  and  permitted  the  youth 
to  follow  the  bent  of  his  inclination.  Being  free 
to  practice  openly,  Arne  soon,  by  his  skill  on  the 
violin,  charmed  the  whole  family,  and  finding 
that  his  sister,  Susanna  Maria  (who  afterwards 
as  Mrs,  Cibber  became  famous  as  a  tragic  actress) 
had  an  agreeable  voice,  he  gave  her  such  in- 
structions as  enabled  her  to  appear  in  1732  in 
Lampe's  opera  'Amelia,'  Her  success  was  such 
as  to  induce  her  brother  to  re -set  Addison's  opera 
'Rosamond,'  and  his  composition  was  produced 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre,  March  7,  1733, 
Miss  Ame  performing  the  heroine,  and  her 
younger  brother  the  page.  Soon  afterwards  Arne 
got  Fielding's  '  Tragedy  of  Tragedies'  altered  into 
the  'Opera  of  Operas,'  and,  setting  it  to  music 
'after  the  Italian  manner,'  brought  it  out  at  the 
Haymarket   Theatre,   his  young  brother  re- 


presenting the  hero,  Tom  Thumb,  In  1734  he 
set  for  the  same  theatre  a  masque  called  '  Dido 
and  JEnesLS,'  which  was  perfomied  (as  then 
customary)  with  a  harlequinade  intermixed.  In 
1736  he  composed  some  music  for  Aaron  Hill's 
tragedy  of  'Zara,'  in  which  his  sister  made  'her 
first  attempt  as  an  actress.'  In  1736  Ame 
married  Cecilia,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Charles 
Young,  organist  of  AllhaUows,  Barking,  a  pupil 
of  Geminiani  and  a  singer  of  eminence,  who 
was  frequently  engaged  by  Handel  for  his 
performances.  In  1738  Ame  was  engaged  to 
compose  the  music  for  Dr.  Dalton's  adaptation 
oi  Milton's  'Comus,'  which  was  brought  out  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre.  This  work  fully  established 
his  reputation  ;  its  graceful  and  flowing  melodies 
making  an  immediate  and  lasting  impression. 
In  1740  he  re-set  Congreve's  masque  'The 
Judgment  of  Paris,'  which  was  performed  at 
Drury  Lane.  On  August  14  in  the  same  year, 
to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  accession  of 
the  House  of  Hanover,  Thomson  and  Mallet's 
masque  of  'Alfred,'  with  music  by  Ame,  was 
performed,  for  the  first  time,  in  a  temporary 
theatre  in  the  garden  of  CHeifden,  Bucks,  then 
the  residence  of  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
The  work  contains  some  fine  songs,  but  is  more 
especially  distinguished  by  its  finale,  the  famous 
patriotic  song  '  Rule  Britannia,'  a  song  which 
will  continue  to  be  heard  as  long  as  love  of 
country  animates  the  breasts  of  Englishmen.  On 
Dec,  20,  in  the  same  year,  Shakspere's  'As  You 
Like  It'  being  performed  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
after  having  been  laid  aside  for  forty  years,  Ame 
gave  to  the  world  those  beautiful  settings  of  the 
songs  *  Under  the  greenwood  tree,'  '  Blow,  blow, 
thou  winter  wind,'  and  'When  daisies  pied,' 
which  seem  to  have  become  indissolubly  allied  to 
the  poetry.  After  producing  some  minor  pieces 
Arne  went  in  1742  with  his  wife  to  Dublin, 
where  they  remained  until  1 744.  During  his  stay 
there  he  produced,  besides  his  former  pieces,  his 
operas  'Britannia'  and  'Eliza,'  and  his  musical 
farce  '  Thomas  and  Sally,'  and  also  gave  concerts 
with  great  success.  On  his  retum  he  was  again 
engaged  as  composer  at  Drury  Lane,  and  on  the 
death  of  Gordon  he  succeeded  him  as  leader  of 
the  band  there.  In  1745  Arne  was  engaged  as 
composer  to  Vauxhall  Gardens,  and  wrote  for 
Mrs.  Ame  and  Lowe  the  pastoral  dialogue  '  Colin 
and  Phoebe,'  which  proved  so  successful  that  it 
was  performed  throughout  the  entire  season.  He 
held  that  engagement  for  many  years,  during 
which  he  composed  for  the  Gardens,  as  well  as 
for  Ranelagh  and  Marylebone  Gardens,  an 
immense  number  of  songs.  On  a  revival  of 
Shakspere's  '  Tempest '  in  1 746  (at  Drury  Lane), 
Arne  supplied  new  music  for  the  masque  and  the 
song  'Where  the  Bee  sucks,'  a  composition  of 

Eerennial  beauty.  On  March  12,  1755,  he  made 
is  first  essay  in  oratorio  by  the  production  of 
'Abel,'  in  which  the  simple  and  beautiful  melody 
known  as  the  H^nnn  of  Eve  became  exceedingly 
popular.  On  July  6,  1759,  the  University  of 
Oxford  created  Arne  Doctor  of  Music.  In  1762 
the  Doctor  ventured  on  the  bold  experiment  of 


ARNE. 


ARNOLD. 


85 


placing  before  an  English  audience  an  opera 
composed  after  the  Italian  manner,  with  recitative 
instead  of  spoken  dialogue.  For  this  purpose 
he  selected  the  *  Artaserse'  of  Metastasio,  which 
he  himself  translated  into  English.  Departing 
to  a  great  extent  from  his  former  style  he  crowded 
many  of  the  airs  with  florid  divisions,  particularly 
those  in  the  part  of  Mandane,  which  he  composed 
for  his  pupil,  Miss  Brent.  The  other  singers 
were  Teuducci,  Peretti,  Beard,  Mattocks,  and 
Miss  Thomas.  The  success  of  the  work  was 
decided,  and  'Artaxerxes'  retained  possession 
of  the  stage  for  upwards  of  three-quarters  of  a 
century.  The  part  of  Mandane  was  long  con- 
sidered the  touchstone  of  the  powers  of  a  soprano 
singer.  The  composer  sold  the  copyright  for 
sixty  guineas,  an  insignificant  amount  compared 
with  the  sums  which  later  composers  obtained, 
but  probably  as  much  as  the  then  more  limited 
demand  for  music  justified  the  publisher  iu  giving. 
On  Feb.  29,  1 764,  Dr.  Arne  produced  his  second 
oratorio,  'Judith,'  at  the  chapel  of  the  Lock 
Hospital,  in  Grosvenor  Place,  Pimlico,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  charity.  In  1 765  he  set  Metastasio's 
opera  'Olimpiade,'  in  the  original  language,  and 
had  it  performed  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the 
Haymarket.  It  was  represented  however  but 
twice,  owing,  it  has  been  supposed,  to  some  petty 
jealousy  of  an  Englishman  composing  for  an 
Italian  theatre.  In  1769  Dr.  Arne  set  such 
portions  of  the  ode,  written  by  Garrick  for  the 
Shakspere  jubilee  at  Stratford -on -Avon,  as  were 
intended  to  be  sung,  and  some  other  incidental 
music  for  the  same  occasion.  His  last  dramatic 
composition  was  the  music  for  Mason's  'Carac- 
tacus'  in  1776.  Dr.  Arne  produced  numerous 
glees,  catches,  and  canons,  seven  of  which  obtained 
prizes  at  the  Catch  Club,  and  instrumental  music 
of  various  kinds.  He  died  March  5,  1778,  and 
was  buried  at  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden.  Shortly 
before  his  dissolution  he  sang  with  his  dying 
breath  a  Hallelujah.  Mrs.  Arne  survived  her 
husband  about  seventeen  years,  dying  in  1795. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Dr.  Arne  was  the 
first  introducer  of  female  voices  into  oratorio 
choruses ;  which  he  did  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  on  Feb.  26,  1773,  in  a  performance  of 
his  own  '  Judith.'  Dr.  Arne  was  author  as  well 
as  composer  of  'The  Guardian  outwitted,'  'The 
Rose,'  'The  Contest  of  Beauty  and  Virtue,'  and 
'Phoebe  at  Court,'  and  the  reputed  author  of 
'Don  Saverio'  and  'The Cooper.'  A  fine  portrait 
of  him  by  Zoff'any  is  in  the  possession  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Dr.  Arne's  com- 
positions : — 


Oratorios:  Abel,  1755.  Judith, 
1764.  Operas  and  other  musical 
pieces :  Eosamond,  1733.  The  Opera 
of  Operas,  or  Tom  Thumb  the 
Great.  1733.  Dido  and  .Eneas.  1734. 
The  Fall  of  Phaeton.  1736.  Music 
In  Zara.  1736.  Comus.  1738.  The 
Judgment  of  Paris,  1740.  Alfred, 
1740.  Songs  in  As  You  Like  It, 
1740.  Songs  in  Twelfth  Xight,  1741. 
The  Blind  Beggar  of  Bethnal  Green. 


Pepin's  Campaign,  1745.  Music  in 
The  Tempest,  1746.  Neptune  and 
Amphitrite,  1746.  Don  Saverio, 
1749.  Dirge  in  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
17.^0.  Tlie  Prophetess,  1759.  The 
Sultan,  17r)0.  Artaxerxes,  1762. 
Love  in  a  Village  (chiefly  compiled), 
1762.  The  Birth  of  Hercules  (not 
acte.l),  1763.  The  Guardian  out- 
witted, 1764.  Olimpiade  (Italian 
opera',  17(Vi.  The  Ladies'  Frolic, 


1773.  The  Contest  of  Beauty  and 
Virtue.  1773.  Achilles  in  Petticoats, 
1773.  May  Day,  1775.  Phoebe  at 
Court,  1776.  Music  in  Mason's 
Caractacus,  1776.  Besides  these 
Arne  composed  many  incidental 
songs,  etc.  for  other  plays,  as  The 
Tender  Husband,  The  Rehearsal, 
The  Rival  Queens,  etc.  Collections 
of  songs  under  the  foUovf  ing  titles  : 
Lyric  Harmony,  The  Agreeable 
Musical  Choice,  Summer  Amuse- 


ment, The  Winter's  Amusements, 
The  Syren,  Vocal  Melody,  1753, 
The  Vocal  Grove,  1774,  and  nearly 
twenty  books  of  songs  sung  at 
Vauxhall,  Ranelagh,  and  Maryle- 
bone  Gardens.  Glees,  Catches,  and 
Canons :  thirteen  glees,  ten  catches, 
and  six  canons,  are  printed  in  War- 
ren's collections.  Ode  on  Shak- 
spere, 1769.  Sonatas  or  lessons  for 
the  harpsichord.  Organ  Concertos. 
Overtures  etc.  for  the  orchestra. 


1741.  Songs  in  The  Merchant  of  j  1770.  Additions  to  Purcell's  King 
Venice.  1742.  Britannia.  174.3.  Eliza.  Anhur,  1770.  The  Fairy  Prince, 
1743,  Thomas  and  Sally.  1743.  The  1771.  The  Cooper,  1772,  Choruses 
Temple  of  Dulness,  1745.    King '  iu  Mason's  Elfrida,  ITTi  The  Kose. 


[W.  H.  H.] 

ARNOLD,  JoHANN  Gottfried,  violoncellist 
and  composer,  born  in  1773,  was  the  son  of  the 
schoolmaster  of  Niedernhall  near  Oehringen  in 
Wiirtemberg.  From  his  earliest  childhood  he 
showed  such  a  passion  and  aptitude  for  music 
that  his  father  apprenticed  him  in  his  twelfth 
year  to  the  musical  director  (Stadtmusikus)  of 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Kiinzelsau.  During 
this  time  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
practice  of  the  violoncello,  at  which,  under  the 
influence  of  a  most  exacting  master,  he  worked 
with  such  diligence  as,  it  is  said,  permanently  to 
injure  his  health.  In  1 789  his  term  of  apprentice- 
ship came  to  an  end,  and  the  following  year  he 
took  his  first  regular  engagement  at  Wertheim, 
where  his  uncle,  Friedrich  Adam  Arnold,  was 
established  as  musical  director.  He  continued  to 
study  with  unabated  energy.  After  making 
concert  tours  in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  he 
spent  some  time  at  Ratisbon  in  order  to  take 
advantage  of  the  instruction  of  the  able  violon- 
celli.st  Willmann.  Making  constant  improvement, 
he  visited  Berlin  and  Hamburg,  at  which  latter 
town  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  make  the 
acquaintance  of  Bernard  Romberg,  whose  style 
and  method  he  studied  to  great  advantage. 
In  1798  he  became  attached  to  the  theatre 
at  Frankfort  as  first  violoncellist,  where  he 
occupied  himself  much  with  composition,  and 
enjoyed  a  great  reputation  both  as  executant  and 
teacher.  The  career  however  of  this  young  and 
talented  artist  was  speedily  cut  short,  for  he  died 
of  an  affection  of  the  lungs  in  1806  at  the  early 
age  of  thirty-four.  Besides  compositions  and 
'transcriptions'  for  his  own  particular  instru- 
ment, he  wrote  original  pieces  for  the  flute  and 
piano,  and  made  quartet  arrangements  of  various 
operas,  etc.  Fetis  (^' Biographie ')  gives  a  list  of 
his  compositions,  including  five  concertos  for  the 
violoncello;  a  symphonic  concertante  for  two  flutes 
and  orchestra ;  airs  with  variations,  op.  9  (Bonn) ; 
easy  pieces  for  the  guitar,  etc.  [T.  P.  H.] 

ARNOLD,  Samuel,  Mus.  Doc.  Born  in  Lon- 
don, Aug.  10,  1740,  and  educated  in  the  Chapel 
Royal  under  Bernard  Gates  and  Dr.  Nares. 
His  progress  was  so  great  that  before  he  had 
attained  his  twenty-third  year  Beard  engaged 
him  as  composer  to  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
where  in  1765  he  brought  out  the  opera  of 
'The  Maid  of  the  Mill.'  Many  of  the  songs 
were  selected  from  the  works  of  Bacb,  Galuppi, 
Jomelli,  atid  other  Itahan  writers.  Tlii.s  opera 
was  one  of  the  fii'st,  since  the  time  of  Purcell,  in 
which  concerted  music  was  employed  to  carry 
on  the  business  of  the  stage,  and  it  was  used  by 
Arnold  with  great  cleverness.  The  success  of  the 
work  decided  the  composer's  future  connection 


86 


ARNOLD. 


ARXOULD. 


"vdtli  the  stage,  which  he  cultivated  with  such 
diligence  and  success,  that  from  1765  to  1S02  he 
produced  no  less  than  forty-three  operas,  musical 
afterpieces,  and  pantomimes.  His  attention  was 
early  directed  to  sacred  music,  and  his  first  pro- 
duction of  this  kind  was  an  oratorio  called  '  The 
Cure  of  Saul,'  performed  in  1767.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  produced  'Abimelech,'  and  after- 
wards 'The  Resurrection,'  and  'The  Prodigal  Son,' 
which  were  performed  during  several  successive 
seasoiLS  under  his  own  direction. 

In  1769  Arnold  purchased  Marylebone  Gar- 
dens, then  a  place  of  fashionable  resort,  which 
he  rendered  more  attractive  by  composing  and 
producing  several  burlettas,  performed  by  the 
principal  singers  of  the  time.  Ultimately,  how- 
ever, he  retired  from  the  speculation  with  con- 
siderable loss.  (See  MARTLEBoyE  Gardens.) 
In  1773  Arnold's  oratorio  of  'The  Prodigal 
Son '  was  performed  at  the  installation  of  Lord 
Xorth  as  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford. On  this  occasion  Arnold  was  offered  the 
honorary  degree  of  Doctor  in  Music,  but  he 
preferred  taking  it  in  the  prescribed  mode.  It  is 
said  that  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Professor,  returned  th  e 
candi^late's  exercise  unopened,  remarking,  'Sir, 
it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  scrutinise  an  exercise 
written  by  the  composer  of  The  Prodigal  Son.' 

Dr.  Arnold  succeeded  Dr.  Xares  in  1783  as 
Organist  and  Composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  for 
which  establishment  he  wrote  several  services 
and  anthems.  Shortly  afterwards  he  published 
a  continuation  of  Boyce"s  'Cathedral  Music,'  in 
four  volumes,  a  new  edition  of  which  was  issued 
in  1847  by  the  writer  of  the  present  article.  In 
1 791,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Callcott,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled,  'The  Psalms  of  David,' 
etc.  He  also  published  'An  Ode  for  the  Anni- 
versary of  the  London  Hospital.' 

In  17S6  Dr.  Arnold  issued  proposals  for  a 
uniform  edition  of  Han  del"  s  works,  and  the 
list  was  headed  by  George  III  as  a  subscriber 
for  twenty-five  copies.  He  met  with  sufficient 
encouragement  to  carry  it  on  to  168  numbers, 
or  about  forty  volumes,  but  not  enough  to  enable 
him  to  complete  his  plan,  for  the  edition  con- 
tains only  five  out  of  Handel's  forty-three  operas. 
It  was  about  this  time  that,  in  conjunction 
with  his  friend  Callcott,  he  established  the  Glee 
Club  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Stanley  he  joined 
Linley  as  conductor  of  the  oratorios  at  Drury 
Lane,  for  some  time  a  profitable  speculation,  but 
at  length  opposed  by  Ashley  at  Covent  Garden, 
who  by  converting  the  so-called  oratorio  into  a 
medley  of  light  compositions,  stimulated  the 
public  apf)etite  for  novelty,  and  the  more  clas- 
sical performance  at  the  rival  theatre  was  de- 
serted. His  last  oratorio,  '  Elijah,'  was  produced 
in  1 8 10,  but  it  met  with  little  success,  and  was 
not  repeated. 

In  1 789  Dr.  Arnold  was  appointed  Conductor 
of  the  Academy  of  AxcrEXT  Mu.sic,  a  noble 
institution  then  in  its  decline  ;  in  1793  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Cooke  as  Organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  three  years  later,  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
P.  Hayes,  was  requested  to  conduct  the  yearly 


performance  at  St.  Paul's  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Sons  of  the  Clergy.  About  two  years  afterwards 
a  fall  from  the  steps  of  his  library  occasioned 
a  tedious  confinement,  and  probably  hastened 
his  death.  He  died  October  22,  1802.  His 
remains  were  deposited  near  those  of  his  great 
predecessors,  PurceU,  Blow,  and  Croft,  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Dr.  Arnold  wrote  with  great  facility  and  cor- 
rectness, but  the  demand  upon  his  powers  was 
j  too  varied  and  too  incessant  to  allow  of  his 
attaining  great  excellence  in  any  department  of 
his  art. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  dramatic  compo- 
sitions : — 

Maid  of  the  Mm.  IT'S.  Boa- 1 179a  Basket  Maker,  im  Pnrrender 
mond.  1767.  Portrait,  1770  Mother  of  Calais,  IT&L  Harlequin  and 
Shipton.  1770.  Son-in-lAw,  1779.  |  Faostus,  1798.  Children  in  the 
Summer  Amusement,  1.-3.  Fire 'Wood,  1793.  Anld  Bobin  Gray, 
and  Water.  17*0.  Wedding  Xizht,  17M.  Zorinskl.  1795.  Mountaineers, 
17*0.  Silver  Tankard.  17S0.  Dead  17».  Who  Pays  the  Beckoning. 
Alive,  17>a.  Cartel  of  Andalusia, !  1795.  Love  and  Money,  ITte.  Ban- 
17>2.  Harlequin  Teague,  17*2.  |  nian  Day,  17W.  Shipwreck.  1796. 
Gretna  Green,  17»3.  Hunt  the  Italian  Monk,  1797.  FaL=€  and  True. 
Slipper,  1784.  Two  to  One,  17St  179*.  Throw  Physic  to  the  Dogs, 
Here.  There,  and  Everywhere,  1764.  179R.  Cambro-Britons,  172<.  Obi, 
Turk  and  Xo  Turk.  17S.5.  Siege  of  or  Three-fingered  Jack,  1800.  Ke- 
Cuzzola,  17sS.  Inkle  and  Yarico,  view,  isoi.  Corsair.  IBOl.  Veteran 
17;7.  Enrazed  Musician,  17$?.  Bat-  Tar,  l?<:il.  Siity-Thlrd  Letter,  1*02. 
tie  of  Hexham,  17S9.  Xew  Spain,  Fairies"  Beyels,  1S02. 

The  work  by  which  Arnold  will  be  longest 
remembered  is  entitled  '  Cathedral  Music,  being 
a  collection  in  score  of  the  most  valuable  and 
useful  compositions  for  that  service  by  the  several 
English  masters  of  the  last  200  years  ;  selected 
and  revised  by  Dr.  Samuel  Arnold,  Organist  and 
Composer  to  His  ^Majesty's  Royal  Chapels.'  The 
Preface  is  dated  480,  Strand,  Nov.  i,  1790.  The 
contents  are  as  fcjlows  : — 


VOL.  1. 

Patrick,  M.  and  E.  Serr.  G  minor. 
Chilli,  M.  and  E.  Serr.  E  minor. 
Do.  Fun  Anth.,  If  the  Lord. 
Do.  F-A.  O  pray. 
Clark.  Sanctus. 
Kent,  F.  A.  Hearken  unto. 
Croft.  Vers«  .\nth..  I  wiU  give. 
King,  F.  .K.  Hear  O  Lord. 
Do.  F.  A.  Eejoice  in  the  Lord. 
Do.  M.  and  E.  Serv.  B  flat- 
Croft,  M.  Serv.  B  minor. 
Aldrich,  M.  and  E.  Serr.  in  A. 
Do.  2  Chants. 

Purcell,  Verse  A.  Blessed  are  ttiey. 
T.Vilii,  F.  A.  All  people. 
Goldwin,  M.  and  E.  Serr.  in  F. 
Weldon,  Solo  A.  0  God  Thou  hast, 
Aldrich,  F.  A.  We  have  heard. 
Goldwin,  F,  A.  Behold  my  servant 
Aldrich,  F.  A.  Xot  unto  ua. 
Do.  F.  A.  O  praise. 

VOL.  2. 
Greene,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  In  C. 
Do.  Solo  A.  Praise  the  Lord- 
Do.  V.  A.  Like  as  the  hart. 
Croft,  V.  A.  Be  merciful. 
King.  M.  and  E.  Serr.  in  F. 
Do.  F.  A.  O  pray. 
Greene,  V.  A.  O  Lord  I  wflL 
Do.  V.  A.  I  will  magnify. 
Kin?,  M.  and  E.  .Serv.  in  A- 
Tudway,  V.  A.  Thou  o  Lord, 
Weldon,  F.  A.  Who  can  tell. 
Greene,  V.  A.,  O  praise. 

(Harmonicon  for  1 830;  Old  Playbills;  Biog. 
Diet.  U.  K.  5.)  [E.  F.  E.] 

ARXOULD,  Madeleine  Sophie,  a  famous 
actress  and  singer,  and  the  original  Iphigenie  in 
Gluck's  opera.  Bom  in  Paris,  Feb.  14,  1744, 
in  the  same  room  in  the  Rue  de  Bethisy  in  which 
Admiral  Coligny  was  murdered,  Aug.  24,  1572. 


Bryan,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  in  G. 
Travers,  M,  Serv.  in  F. 

VOL  3. 
Boyce.  M.  Serv.  in  A. 
Do.  Solo  A.  Lord  what  Is. 
Do.  F.  A.  Save  me  o  Go^l. 
Chants  by  Savage,  Travers,  Xares, 
Kent 

Boyce.  Solo  A,  Lord  teach  as. 
TalRs.  F.  A.  Hear  the  voice. 
Aldrich.  V.  A.  I  am  well  pleased. 
Travers,  S,  A,  Ponder  my  words. 
Kares,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  in  F. 
Do.  F.  A.  Blessed  is  he. 
Do.  F.  A.  O  Lord  grant 
Do.  F.  A.  Try  me. 
Do.  Chant 

Travers.  Te  Denm  in  D. 
Kiriz,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  in  a 
Do.  V.  A.  WherewithaL 
Greene,  V.  A.  Hear  my  prayer. 
Boyce.  S.  A.  Turn  Thee. 
Do.  F.  A.  Blessing  and  glory. 
King,  M.  Serv.  in  A. 
Hall  and  Hine,  Te  Deran  and  Jnb. 
Greene,  V.  A.  O  God  Thou  hast. 
Ayrton.  Chant 
Travers,  V.  A.  Ascribe. 
Aldrich,  E.  Serr.  in  F. 
Dupuis,  Chant 

Boyce,  8.  A.  Ponder  my  words. 
Greene,  a  A.  0  Lord  God, 

VOL.  4. 

The  Organ  p*rt  to  the  foregoing. 


ARNOULD. 


AEPEGGIO. 


87 


The  Princess  of  Modena  hearing  the  child  sing 
in  the  church  of  Val  de  Grace  was  so  charmed 
that  she  recommended  her  to  the  royal  Intendant 
of  Music.  Against  the  wiD  of  her  mother,  , 
Sophie  became  a  member  of  the  Chapelle  Roy- 
ale,  and  was  taught  comedy  by  Mile.  Hippolyte 
Clairon,  and  singing  by  Mile.  Tel.  Mme.  de 
Pompadour  hearing  her  on  one  occasion  was  so 
much  struck  by  the  young  artist  that  she 
characteristically  said,  'With  such  talents  you 
may  become  a  princess.'  She  made  her  debut  on 
Dec.  15,  1757,  and  remained  on  the  stage  till 
1778,  the  most  admired  artist  of  the  Paris  Oi)era. 
In  that  year  she  left  the  boards  and  retired  into 
private  life.  Mile.  Arnould  was  not  less  re- 
nowned for  her  wit  and  power  of  conversation 
than  for  her  abUity  as  a  singer  and  actor,  ITie 
*  Amouldiana '  contain  a  host  of  her  caustic  and 
witty  speeches.    She  died  in  1803.  [F.  G,] 

ARPEGGIO  (Ital,,  from  Arpa,  the  harp  ; 
Arpeggiare,  to  play  upon  the  harp).  The 
employment  in  vocal  or  instrumental  music  of 
the  notes  of  a  chord  in  succession  instead  of 
simultaneously ;  also,  in  pianoforte  music,  the 
breaking  or  spreading  of  a  chord,  either  upwards 
or  downwards. 

The  introduction  of  the  arpeggio  as  an  ac- 
companiment to  a  melody  marks  an  important 
epoch  in  the  history  of  pianoforte  music.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  invented  about  1730  by 
Alberti,  a  Venetian  amateur  musician,  in  whose 
'  VIII  Sonate  per  Cembalo '  are  found  the  earliest 
signs  of  emancipation  from  the  contrapuntal  form 
of  accompaniment  exclusively  used  up  to  that 
time.  The  simple  kind  of  arpeggio  employed  by 
him,  which  is  still  known  as  the  '  Alberti  bass,' 
(Ex.  i)  has  since  become  fully  developed,  not 
alone  as  accompaniment,  but  also  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  most  brilliant  instrumental  passages 
of  modem  music. 

I. 


-•- 

• 

'^''PSqoi'^  passages  such  as  those  alluded  to  are 
almost  invariably  written  out  in  fuU,  but  the 
simple  spreading  of  the  notes  of  a  chord  (in 
contradistinction  to  concento,  the  sounding  of  all 
the  notes  together)  is  usually  indicated  by  certain 
signs.  According  to  Tiirk  ('  Clavierschule ')  the 
signs  for  the  arpeggio,  beginning  with  the  lowest 
note,  are  as  in  Ex.  2,  those  for  the  descending 
arpeggio  as  iu  Ex.  3.  The  latter  is  however  only 
met  with  in  old  music  ;  the  downward  arpeggio, 
which  is  but  rarely  employed  in  modern  music, 
being  now  always  written  in  full. 


2. 


The  arpeggio  in  modern  music  is  usually 
indicated  as  in  Ex.  4,  and  occasionally  (as  for 
instance  in  some  of  Hunrniel's  compositions)  by  a 
stroke  across  the  chord  (Ex.  5),  This  is  however 
incorrect,  as  it  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  the 
combination  of  arpeggio  with  Acciacatdra, 
which,  according  to  Emanuel  Bach,  is  to  be 
written  and  played  as  in  Ex.  6. 


4- 

5- 

6, 

 ' 

L_ 

is 
>-  -• 

=1—3— 

In  the  arpeggio  as  above,  the  notes  when  once 
sounded  are  all  sustained  to  the  full  value  of  the 
chord,  with  the  exception  only  of  the  foreign 
note  (the  acciacatura)  in  Ex,  6.  Sometimes 
however  certain  notes  are  required  to  be  held 
while  the  others  are  released;  in  this  case  the 
chord  is  written  as  in  Ex.  7. 

7-  ^   

J  I 

The  arpeggio  should,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  begin  at  the  moment  due  to  the 
chord,  whether  it  is  indicated  by  the  sign  or  by 
small  notes,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
effect  of  a  chord  is  weakened  and  often  spoilt  by 
being  begun  before  its  time,  as  is  the  bad  habit, 
of  many  inexperienced  players.  Thus  the  com- 
mencement of  Mozart's  'Sonata  in  C  (Ex.  8) 
should  be  played  as  in  Ex.  9,  and  not  as  in  Ex.  10. 

o 

°*  Allegro. 

^^^^^^ 


Nevertheless  it  appears  to  the  writer  that  there 
are  cases  in  modem  music  in  which  it  is  advis- 
able to  break  the  rule  and  allow  the  last  note 


88 


ARPEGGIO. 


ARPEGGIO. 


of  the  arpeggio  to  fall  upon  the  beat,  as  for  in- 
stance in  Mendelssohn's  'Lieder  ohne  Worte,' 
Book  V.  No.  I,  where  the  same  note  often  serves 
as  the  last  note  of  an  arpeggio  and  at  the  same 
time  as  an  essential  note  of  the  melody,  and  on 
that  account  will  not  bear  the  delay  which  would 
arise  if  the  arpeggio  were  played  according  to 
rule.  (See  Ex.  ii,  which  could  scarcely  be 
played  as  in  Ex.  12). 


In  music  of  the  time  of  Bach  a  sequence  of 
chords  is  sometimes  met  with  bearing  the  word 
'  arpeggio'  ;  in  this  case  the  order  of  breaking  the 
chord,  and  even  the  number  of  times  the  same 
chord  may  be  broken,  is  left  to  the  taste  of  the 
performer,  as  in  Bach's  'Sonata  for  Pianoforte 
and  Violin,'  No.  2  (Ex.  13),  which  is  usually 
played  as  in  Ex.  14.* 


Bach's  'Fantasia  Cromatica,'  (Ex.  15),  which  is 
intended  to  be  played  as  in  Ex.  16.  Such 
indications  however  need  not  always  be  strictly 
followed,  and  indeed  Mendelssohn,  speaking  of 
the  passage  quoted,  says  in  a  letter  to  his  sister  : 
'  I  take  the  liberty  to  play  them  (the  arpeggios) 
with  every  possible  crescendo  and  piano  and  ff., 
with  pedal  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  the  bass 
notes  doubled  as  well.  .  .  .  N.B.  Each  chord 
is  broken  ticice,  and  later  on  only  once,  as  it 
happens.'  (Mendelssohn,  'Briefe,'  ii.  p.  241), 
In  the  same  letter  he  gives  as  an  illustration  the 
passage  as  in  Ex.  1 7. 


When  an  appoggiatura  is  applied  to  an  arpeggio 
chord,  it  takes  its  place  as  one  of  the  notes  of  the 
arpeggio,  and  occasions  a  delay  of  the  particular 
note  to  which  it  belongs  equal  to  the  time 
required  for  its  performance,  whether  it  be  long 
or  short  (Ex.18). 


Sometimes  the  arpeggio  of  the  first  chord  of 
a  sequence  is  written  out  in  full,  as  an  indication 
to  the  player  of  the  rate  of  movement  to  be 
applied  to  the  whole  passage.    This  is  the  case  in 


Chords  are  occasionally  met  with  (especially  in 
Haydn's  pianoforte  sonatas)  which  are  partly 
arpeggio,  one  hand  having  to  spread  the  chord 


ARPEGGIO. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


89 


while  the  other  plays  the  notes  all  together ; 
the  correct  rendering  of  such  chords  is  as  follows 
(Ex.  19). 


[F.  T.] 

ARPEGGIONE,  or  Guitar  Violoncello, 
a  stringed  instrument,  played  with  a  bow,  which 
was  invented  by  G.  Staufer,  of  Vienna,  in  1823, 
but  appears  never  to  have  come  much  into  use, 
and  whose  very  name  would  probably  now  be 
unknown,  if  it  were  not  for  an  interesting  sonata 
(in  A)  for  pianoforte  and  arpeggione  by  Franz 
Schubert,  written  in  1824,  and  only  lately  pub- 
lished (Vienna,  J.  P.  Gotthardt). 

The  arpeggione  appears  to  have  been  of  the 
size  of  the  viol-da-gamba,  or  a  small  violoncello  ; 
the  shape  of  the  body  something  like  that  of  the 
guitar.  The  finger-board  had  frets,  and  the  six 
strings  were  tuned  thus — 

^  ^  —  


An  instruction-book  for  the  arpeggione  by  Vine. 
Schuster,  the  same  for  whom  Schubert  wrote 
his  sonata,  has  been  published  by  A.  Diabelli 
and  Co.,  of  Vienna.  [P.  D.] 

ARRANGEMENT,  or  ADAPTATION,  is 
the  musical  counterpart  of  literary  translation. 
Voices  or  instruments  are  as  languages  by  which 
the  thoughts  or  emotions  of  composers  are  made 
known  to  the  world  ;  and  the  object  of  arrange- 
ment is  to  make  that  which  was  written  in  one 
musical  language  intelligible  in  another. 

The  functions  of  the  arranger  and  translator 
are  similar ;  for  instruments,  like  languages,  are 
characterised  by  peculiar  idioms  and  special 
aptitudes  and  deficiencies  which  call  for  critical 
ability  and  knowledge  of  corresponding  modes 
of  expression  in  dealing  with  them.  But  more 
than  all,  the  most  indispensable  quality  to  both 
is  a  capacity  to  understand  the  work  they  have 
to  deal  with.  For  it  is  not  enough  to  put  note 
for  note  or  word  for  word  or  even  to  find 
corresponding  idioms.  The  meanings  and  values 
of  words  and  notes  are  variable  with  their 
relative  positions,  and  the  choice  of  them 
demands  appreciation  of  the  work  generally,  as 
well  as  of  the  details  of  the  materials  of  which 
it  is  composed.  It  demands,  in  fact,  a  certain 
correspondence  of  feeling  with   the  original 


author  in  the  mind  of  the  arranger  or  translator. 
Authors  have  often  been  fortunate  in  having  other 
great  authors  for  their  translators,  but  few  have 
written  their  own  works  in  more  languages  than 
Mie.  Music  has  had  the  advantage  of  not  only 
having  arrangements  by  the  greatest  masters,  but 
arrangements  by  them  of  their  own  works.  Such 
cases  ought  to  be  the  highest  order  of  their  kind, 
and  if  there  are  any  things  worth  noting  in  the 
comparison  between  arrangements  and  originals 
they  ought  to  be  found  there. 

The  earliest  things  which  answered  the  purpose 
of  arrangements  were  the  publications  of  parts 
of  early  operas,  such  as  the  recitatives  and  airs 
with  merely  figured  bass  and  occasional  indi- 
cations of  a  figure  or  a  melody  for  the  accom- 
paniment. In  this  manner  were  published  operas 
of  Lulli  and  Handel,  and  many  now  forgotten 
composers  for  the  stage  of  their  time  and  before ; 
but  these  are  not  of  a  nature  to  arouse  much 
interest. 

The  fi.rst  arrangements  which  have  any  great 
artistic  value  are  Bach's  ;  and  as  they  are  many 
of  them  of  his  own  works,  there  is,  as  has  been 
before  observed,  especial  reason  for  putting  con- 
fidence in  such  conclusions  as  can  be  arrived  at 
from  the  consideration  of  his  mode  of  proce- 
dure. At  the  time  when  his  attention  was  first 
strongly  attracted  to  Italian  instrumental  music 
by  the  principles  of  form  which  their  composers 
had  originated,  and  worked  with  great  skill, 
he  arranged  sixteen  violin  concertos  of  Vivaldi's 
for  the  clavier  solo,  and  thiee  of  the  same  and  a 
first  movement  for  the  organ.  Of  the  originals  of 
these  it  appears  from  Spitta^  that  there  is  only 
one  to  be  found  for  comparison ;  but,  as  Spitta 
observes,  from  the  freedom  with  which  Bach 
treated  his  original  in  this  instance  it  is 
legitimate  to  infer  his  treatment  of  the  others. 
Vivaldi's  existing  concerto  is  in  G  major,  and  is 
the  basis  of  the  second  in  Bach's  series — in  the 
same  key  (DorfFel,  442).^  In  form  it  is  excellent, 
but  its  ideas  are  frequently  crude  and  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  their  treatment  is  often  thin  and  weak. 
Bach's  object  being  rather  to  have  good  illus- 
trations of  beauty  of  form  than  substance,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  alter  the  details  of  figures,  rhythms, 
and  melodies,  and  even  successions  of  keys,  to 
amplify  cadences,  and  add  inner  parts,  till  the 
whole  is  transformed  into  a  Bach-commentary  on 
the  form-principles  of  the  Italians  rather  than  an 
arrangement  in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term. 
It  is  not  however  an  instance  to  justify  arrangers 
in  like  fi-eedom,  as  it  is  obviously  exceptional, 
and  is  moreover  in  marked  opposition  to  Bach's 
arrangements  of  his  own  works. 

Some  of  these  are  of  a  nature  to  induce  the 
expectation  that  the  changes  would  be  consider- 
able ;  as  for  instance  the  arrangement  of  the 
prelude  to  the  Solo  Violin  Sonata  in  E,  as  the 
introduction  in  D  to  the  Cantata  '  Wir  danken  dir 
Gott'^  for  obligate  organ  with  accompaniment 

'  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  von  Philipp  Spitta,  voL  1.  p.  410  (Breit- 
kopf,  1873). 

2  This  and  similar  references  are  to  the  Thematic  Catalogue  of  Bach's 
publislied  instrumental  works  by  .\lfred  Dorffel  (Peters,  1807). 
»  Leipzig  Bachgesellschaft,  Cantata  29  (Vol.  v.  No.  9). 


90  ARKANGEMENT. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


of  strings  oboes  and  trumpets.  The  original 
movement  consists  almost  tlirougliout  of  con- 
tinuallv  moving  semiquavers  embracing  many- 
thorough  violin  passages,  and  certainly  does  not 
seem  to  afford  much  material  to  support  its 
changed  condition.  But  a  comparison  sho^ys 
that  there  is  no  change  of  material  importance  in 
the  whole,  unless  an  accompaniment  of  masterly 
simplicity  can  be  called  a  change.  There  are 
immaterial  alterations  of  notes  here  and  there  for 
the  convenience  of  the  player,  and  the  figure 


in  the  violin  sonata,  is  changed  into 


Violin 


in  the  organ  arrangement — and  so  on,  for  effect, 
and  that  is  all. 

Another  instance  of  a  like  nature  is  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  fugue  from  the  solo  violin 
sonata  in  G  minor  (No.  i)  for  Organ  in  D  minor 
(Dorffel,  821).  Here  the  changes  are  more  impor- 
tant though  still  remarkably  slight  considering 
the  difference  between  the  violin  and  the  two 
hands  and  pedals  of  an  or^an. 

The  most  important  changes  are  the  follow- 


The  last  half  of  bar  5  and  the  first  of  bar  6  ! 
are  amplified  into  a  bar  and  two  halves  to  en- 
able the  pedals  to  come  in  with  the  subject  in 
the  orthodox  manner. 


Violin 


In  the  same  manner  two  half-bars  are  inserted 
in  the  middle  of  bar  28,  where  the  pedal  comes 
in  a  second  time  with  a  quotation  of  the  subject 
not  in  the  original.  In  bar  16  there  is  a  similar 
point  not  in  the  original,  which  however  makes 
no  change  in  the  harmony. 

The  further  alterations  amount  to  the  filling 
up  and  wider  distribution  of  the  original  harmonies, 
the  addition  of  passing  notes  and  grace  notes, 
and  the  remodelling  of  violin  passages :  of  the 
nature  of  all  which  changes  the  following  bar 
is  an  admirable  instance — 


Two  other  arrangements  of  Bach's,  namely  that 
of  the  first  violin  concerto  in  A  minor,  and  of 
the  second  in  E  major  as  concertos  for  the 
clavier  in  G  minor  and  D  major  respectively 
(Dorffel,  600,  603  ;  564,  570),  are  not  only  inter- 
esting in  themselves,  but  become  doubly  so  when 
compared  wnth  Beethoven's  arrangement  of  his 
violin  concerto  in  D  as  a  pianoforte  concerto.  * 

The  first  essential  in  these  cases  was  to  add 
a  sufficiently  important  part  for  the  left  hand, 
and  the  methods  adopted  afford  interesting 
illustrations  of  the  characteristics  of  the  two 
great  masters  themselves,  as  well  as  of  the 
instruments  they  wrote  for.  A  portion  of  this 
requirement  Bach  supplies  from  the  string  ac- 
companiment, frequently  without  alteration ;  but 
a  great  deal  appears  to  be  new  till  it  is  analysed  ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  independent  part  given  to  the 
left  hand  in  the  first  movement  of  the  concerto  in 
G  minor  from  the  twenty-fifth  bar  almost  to  the 
end,  which  is  as  superbly  fresh  and  pointed  as  it 
is  smooth  and  natural  throughout.  On  examina- 
tion this  passage — which  deserves  quotation  if  it 
were  not  too  long — proves  to  be  a  long  variation 
on  the  original  bass  of  the  accompaniment,  and 
perfectly  faithful  to  its  source. 

Bach's  principle  in  this  and  in  other  cases  of 
like  nature  is  contrapuntal ;  Beethoven's  is  the 
exact  contrary  almost  throughout.  He  supplies 
his  left  hand  mainly  with  unisons  and  unisons 
disguised  by  various  devices  (which  is  in  con- 
formity with  his  practice  in  his  two  great  concertos 
in  G  and  E  flat,  in  which  the  use  of  unisons 
and  disguised  unisons  for  the  two  hands  is  very 
extensive) ;  and  where  a  new  accompaniment  is 
inserted  it  is  of  the  very  simplest  kind  possible, 
such 


after  the  cadenza  in  the  first  movement ;  or  else 
it  is  in  simple  chords,  forming  unobtrusive 
answers  to  figures  and  rhythms  in  the  orchestral 
accompaniment. 

•  Breitkopf 's  edition  of  Beethoven,  No.  73. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


91 


Both  masters  alter  the  original  violin  fisfures 
here  and  there  for  convenience  or  effect.  Thus 
Bach,  in  the  last  movement  of  the  G  minor 
clavier  concerto  (Dorffel,  566),  puts 


for  the  violin  figure 

ft  ft 


and  in  the  last  movement  of  the  D  major  (DorfFeL 
572")  puts 


in  the  E  major  violin  concerto. 

The  nature  of  Beethoven's  alterations  may  be 
jud<red  of  from  the  following  quotation  from  the 
last  movement,  after  the  cadenza  : — 


Violin 


P 


Pianoforte  ,  (j- 


rrrr- 


!  Another  typical  alteration  is  after  the  coda  in 
the  first  movement,  where,  in  the  thirteenth  bar 
from  the  end,  in  order  to  give  the  left  hand  some- 
thing to  do,  Beethoven  anticipates  the  figure 
'  of  smoothly  flowing  semiquavers  with  which  the 
j  part  of  the  violin  closes,  making  the  two  hands 
j  alternate  till  they  join  in  playing  the  last  passage 
j  in  octaves.  In  both  masters'  works  there  are 
instances  of  holding  notes  being  changed  into 
shakes  in  the  arrangements,  as  in  the  7th  and 
8t.h  bars  of  the  slow  movement  of  the  D  concerto 
of  Bach,  and  the  2nd  and  5th  bars  after  the  first 
tutti  in  the  last  movement  of  Beethoven's  concerto. 
In  both  there  are  instances  of  simple  devices  to 
avoid  rapid  repetition  of  notes,  which  is  an  easy 
process  on  the  violin,  but  an  effort  on  the  piano- 
forte, and  consequently  produces  a  different  effect. 
They  both  amplify  arpeggio  passages  within 
moderate  bounds,  both  are  alike  careful  to  find 
a  precedent  for  the  form  of  a  change  when  one 
becomes  necessary,  and  in  both  the  care  taken  to 
be  faithful  to  the  originals  is  conspicuous. 

The  same  care  is  observable  in  another 
arrangement  of  Beethoven's,  viz.  the  Pianoforte 
Trio  ^  made  from  his  second  symphony. 

The  comparison  between  these  is  very  interest- 
ing owing  to  the   unflagging  variety  of  the 

I  »  Breitkopf's  edition  of  Beethoven,  No.  90. 


distribution  of  the  orchestral  parts  to  the  three 
instruments.  The  pianoforte  naturally  takes  the 
substance  of  the  work,  but  not  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  throw  the  others  into  subordination.  The 
strings  are  used  mostly  to  mark  special  orchestral 
points  and  contrasts,  and  to  take  such  things  as 
the  pianoforte  is  unfitted  for.  Their  distribution 
is  so  free  that  the  violin  will  sometimes  take 
notes  that  are  in  the  parts  of  three  or  more  in- 
struments in  a  single  bar.  In  other  respects  the 
strings  are  used  to  reinforce  the  accompaniment, 
so  that  in  point  of  fact  the  violin  in  the  trio 
plays  more  of  the  second  violin  part  than  of  the 
first,  and  the  violoncello  of  any  other  instrument 
from  basso  to  oboe  than  the  part  given  to  it  in 
the  symphony. 

The  changes  made  are  few  and  only  such  as 
are  necessitated  by  technical  differences,  and  are 
of  the  same  simple  kind  with  those  in  the  concerto, 
and  originating  in  similar  circumstances.  Every- 
thing in  the  distribution  of  the  instruments  sub- 
serves some  purpose,  and  the  re-sorting  of  the 
details  always  indicates  some  definite  principle 
not  at  variance  with  the  style  of  the  original. 

An  illustration  of  the  highest  order  in  more 
modem  works  is  found  in  the  exquisitely  artistic 
arrangement  of  the  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream' 
music  for  four  hands  on  one  pianoforte  by 
Mendelssohn  himself. 

The  step  from  Beethoven  to  Mendelssohn 
embraces  a  considerable  development  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  technical  and  tonal  qualities 
of  the  pianoforte,  as  well  as  of  its  mechanical 
improvement  as  an  instrument.  This  becomes 
apparent  in  the  different  characteristics  of  Men- 
delssohn's work,  which  in  matter  of  detail  is 
much  more  free  than  Beethoven's,  though  quite 
as  faithful  in  general  effect. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  the  overture  is  an 
instance  in  point,  where  that  which  appears  in 
the  score  as 

Violins  divided 


is  in  the  pianoforte  arrangement  given  as 


the  object  evidently  being  to  avoid  the  repetition 
and  the  rapid  thirds  which  would  mar  the  light- 
ness and  crispness  and  delicacy  of  the  passage. 

In  one  instance  a  similar  effect  is  produced  by 
a  diametrically  contrary  process,  where  Bottom's 
bray,  which  in  the  original  is  given  to  strings  and 
clarinets  (a),  is  given  in  the  pianoforte  arrange- 
ment as  at  {h)  : — 


92 


AERANGEMEOT. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  overture  is  written  in  notes  of  half  the 
value  of  those  of  the  orchestral  score,  with  twice 
the  amount  in  each  bar ;  except  the  four 
characteristic  wind-chords— tonic,  dominant,  sub- 
dominant,  and  tonic — which  are  semibreves,  as 
in  the  original,  whenever  they  occur ;  in  all  the 
rest  semiquavers  stand  for  quavers,  quavers  for 
crotchets,  crotchets  for  minims,  etc.,  as  may  be 
seen  by  referring  to  the  above  examples.  The 
change  may  possibly  have  been  made  in  the 
hope  that  the  players  would  be  more  likely 
to  hit  the  character  of  the  work  when  playing 
from  the  quicker  looking  notes ;  or  it  may  have 
been  a  vague  idea  of  conforming  to  a  kind  of 
etiquette  noticeable  in  music,  church  music  affect- 
ing the  longer  looking  notes,  such  as  semibreves 
and  minims,  while  orchestral  music  has  the  faster 
looking  notes,  such  as  quavers  (overtures  to 
*  Coriolan,'  '  Leonore,' '  Fidelio,'  *  J essonda,'  etc.), 
and  pianoforte  music  descends  to  semiquavers — 
as  though  to  mark  the  relative  degrees  of  dignity. 

The  pianoforte  an-angement  of  the  scherzo  of 
the  '  Midsummer  Night's  Dream '  abounds  with 
happy  devices  for  avoiding  rapid  repetitions,  and 
for  expressing  contrasts  of  wind  and  strings,  and 
imitating  the  eflfect  of  many  orchestral  parts  which 
it  would  be  impossible  to  put  into  the  arrangement 
in  their  entirety.  One  of  the  happiest  passages 
in  the  whole  work  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
passage  on  the  tonic  pedal  at  the  end  of  this 
movement. 


{G  pedal,  pizzieati  bassi,  and  Corni  and  Trombe  on  first 
beat  of  each  bar.) 


Mendelssohn  often  takes  the  freedom  of  slightly 
altering  the  details  of  a  quick  passage  in  order 
to  give  it  greater  interest  as  a  pianoforte  figure  ; 
which  seems  to  be  a  legitimate  development  of 
the  theory  of  the  relative  idiomatic  modes  of 
expression  of  different  instruments,  and  its  adap- 
tation to  details. 

The  method  most  frequently  adopted  by  him 
to  imitate  the  effect  of  the  contrast  of  wind 
and  strings  in  the  i-ame  position,  is  to  shift  the 
figure  or  chords  of  one  of  them  an  octave  higher 
or  lower,  and  to  give  them  respectively  to  the  right 
and  left  hands,  as  in  the  first  part  of  the  music 


to  the  first  scene  of  the  second  act.  The  con- 
tinual alternation  of  the  hands  in  the  same  position 
in  the  Intermezzo  after  the  second  act  represents 
the  alternation  between  violins  and  oboi,  and 
clarinets  and  flutes. 

In  the  music  to  the  first  scene  of  the  third  act 
an  important  drum  ,  roll  is  represented  by  a  bass 
shake  beginning  on  the  semitone  below  the  prin- 
cipal note,  which  is  much  happier  than  the  usual 
method.  In  these  respects  Mendelssohn's  princi- 
ples of  arrangement  accord  with  those  of  Bach 
and  Beethoven,  differing  only  in  those  respects 
of  treatment  of  detail  which  are  the  result  of  a 
more  refined  sense  of  the  qualities  of  the  piano- 
forte arising  from  the  long  and  general  cultiva- 
tion of  that  instrument. 

A  still  further  development  in  this  direction  is 
found  in  the  arrangement  by  Herr  Brahms  of 
his  pianoforte  quintett  in  F  minor  (op.  .^4)  as 
a  sonata  for  two  pianofortes.  In  this  the  main 
object  seems  to  have  been  to  balance  the  work 
of  the  two  pianofortes.  Sometimes  the  first 
pianoforte,  and  sometimes  the  second  has  the 
original  pianoforte  part  for  pages  together,  and 
sometimes  for  a  few  bars  at  a  time  ,  but  when- 
ever the  nature  of  the  passages  admits  of  it, 
the  materials  are  distributed  evenly  between 
the  two  instruments.  There  are  some  changes — 
such  as  the  addition  of  a  bar  in  two  places  in  the 
first  movement,  and  the  change  of  an  accidental 
in  the  last — which  must  be  referred  to  critical 
considerations,  and  have  nothing  to  do  with 
arrangement. 

The  technical  changes  in  the  arrangement  are 
the  occasional  development  of  a  free  inner  part 
out  of  the  materials  of  the  original  without 
further  change  in  the  harmonies,  the  filling  up 
of  rhythm-marking  chords  of  the  strings,  frequent 
reinforcement  of  the  bass  by  doubling,  and,  which 
is  especially  noticeable,  frequent  doubling  of 
both  melodies  and  parts  of  important  figures.  It 
is  this  latter  peculiarity  which  especially  marks 
the  adaptation  of  certain  tendencies  of  modern 
pianoforte-playing  to  arrangement, — the  tendency, 
namely,  to  double  all  the  parts  possible,  to  fill  up 
chords  to  the  utmost,  and  to  distribute  the  notes 
over  a  wider  space,  with  greater  regard  to  their 
tonal  relations  than  formerly,  and  by  every  means 
to  enlarge  the  scope  and  effective  power  of  the 
instrument,  at  the  same  time  breaking  down  all 
the  obstructions  and  restrictions  which  the  old 
dogmas  of  style  in  playing  placed  in  the  way  of 
its  development. 

Another  admirable  instance  of  this  kind  is  the 
arrangement  by  Herr  Brahms  of  a  gavotte  of 
Gluck's  in  A  ;  which  however  in  its  new  form 
is  as  much  marked  by  the  personality  of  the 
arranger  as  that  of  the  composer — a  dangerous 
precedent  for  ordinary  arrangers. 

The  most  remarkable  instance  of  the  adaptation 
of  the  resources  of  modem  pianoforte-playing 
to  arrangement,  is  that  by  Tausig  of  Bach'a 
toccata  and  fugue  for  the  organ  in  D,  '  zum 
Conzertvortrag  frei  bearbeitet.'  The  difficulty  in 
such  a  case  is  to  keep  up  the  balance  of  the  en- 
larged scale  throughout.  Tausig's  perfect  mastery 


ARRANGEMENT. 

of  his  art  has  carried  him  through  the  ordeal 
unscathed,  from  the  first  bar,  where 


ARRANGEMENT. 


93 


becomes 


down  to  the  end,  where  Bach's 

A  nr-^  -fe-N- 


becomes 


. — K 

10 

i— — 

«^        -ri  1 

>  1  1  !  1 

"n  si 

and  the  result  in  the  hands  of  a  competent  per- 
former is  magnificent. 

Tlie  point  which  this  arrangement  has  in 
common  with  the  foregoing  classical  examples, 
is  its  remarkable  fidelity  to  the  materials 
of  the  original,  and  the  absence  of  irrelevant 
matter.  The  tendency  of  high  class  modern  ar- 
rangements is  towards  freedom  of  interpretation  ; 
and  the  comparison  of  classical  arrangements 
with  their  originals  shows  that  this  is  legitimate, 
up  to  the  point  of  imitating  the  idioms  of  one 
instrument  by  the  idioms  of  another,  the  effects 
of  one  by  the  effects  of  another.  Beyond  that 
lies  the  danger  of  marring  the  balance  of  the 
original  works  by  undue  enlargement  of  the 
scale  of  pai-ticular  parts,  of  obscuring  the  per- 
sonality of  the  original  composer,  and  of  ca- 
ricature,— that  pitfall  of  ill-regulated  admira- 
tion,— instances  of  which  may  be  found  in  modem 
*  transcriptions,'  which  are  the  most  extreme  ad- 
vance yet  achieved  in  the  direction  of  freedom  of 
interpretation. 

The  foregoing  is  very  far  from  exhausting  the 
varieties  of  kinds  of  arrangement ;  for  since  these 
are  almost  as  numerous  as  the  possible  inter- 
changes between  instruments  and  combinations 
of  instruments,  the  only  course  open  is  to  take 
typical  instances  from  the  best  sources  to  illustrate 
general  principles— and  these  will  be  found  to 
S'Pply  to  all  arrangements  which  lay  claim  to 
artistic  merit.  To  take  for  instance  an  arrange- 
ment of  an  orchestral  work  for  wind  band  : — the 


absent  strings  will  be  represented  by  an  increased 
number  of  clarinets  of  different  calibres  andcorni 
di  bassetto,  and  by  the  bassoons  and  increased 
power  of  brass.  But  these  cannot  answer  the 
purpose  fully,  for  the  clarinets  cannot  take  the 
higher  passages  of  the  violin  parts,  and  they 
will  not  stand  in  an  equally  strong  degree  of 
contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  band.  Consequently 
the  flutes  have  to  supplement  the  clarinets  in 
places  where  they  are  deficient,  and  the  parts 
originally  belonging  to  them  have  to  be  pro- 
portionately modified ;  and  in  order  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  an  effect  of  contrast,  the 
horns,  trombones,  etc.  for  lower  parts,  have  to 
play  a  great  deal  more  than  in  the  original, 
both  of  melody  and  accompaniment.  The  part 
of  the  oboes  will  probably  be  more  similar  than 
any  other,  though  it  will  need  to  be  modified 
to  retain  its  relative  degree  of  prominence  in 
the  band.  On  the  whole  a  very  general  inter- 
change of  the  parts  of  the  instruments  becomes 
necessary,  which  is  done  with  due  respect  to 
the  peculiarities  of  the  different  instruments, 
both  as  regards  passages  and  relative  tone 
qualities,  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  mar  the 
relevancy  and  balance  of  parts  of  the  whole 
work. 

Of  arrangements  of  pianoforte  works  for  full 
orchestra,  of  which  there  are  a  few  modern 
instances,  it  must  be  said  that  they  are  for  the 
most  part  unsatisfactory,  by  reason  of  the  marked 
difference  of  quality  between  pianoforte  and 
orchestral  music.  It  is  like  trying  to  spread 
out  a  lyric  or  a  ballad  over  sufficient  space  to 
make  it  look  like  an  epic.  Of  this  kind  are  the 
arrangements  of  Schumann's  'Bilder  aus  Osten' 
by  Reinecke,  and  Raff's  'Abends'  by  himself 
Arrangements  of  pianoforte  accompaniments  are 
more  justifiable,  and  Gounod's  'Meditation'  on 
Bach's  Prelude  in  C,  Liszt's  scoring  of  the 
accompaniment  to  Schubert's  hymn  '  Die  All- 
macht,'  and  his  development  of  an  orchestral 
accompaniment  to  a  Polonaise  of  Weber's  out 
of  the  materials  of  the  original,  without  marring 
the  Weberish  personality  of  the  work,  are  both 
greatly  to  the  enhancement  of  the  value  of  the 
works  for  concert  purposes.  The  question  of 
the  propriety  of  eking  out  one  work  with  portions 
of  another  entirely  independent  one — as  Liszt 
has  done  in  the  Introduction  to  his  version  of 
this  Polonaise — belongs  to  what  may  be  called 
the  morale  of  arrangement,  and  need  not  be 
touched  upon  here.  Nor  can  we  notice  such 
adaptations  as  that  of  Palestrina's  '  Missa  Papae 
Marcelli' — originally  written  for  6  voices — for 
8  and  4,  or  that  by  the  late  Vincent  Novello 
of  Wilbye's  3-part  madrigals  for  5,  6,  and  7 
voices. 

As  might  be  anticipated,  there  are  instances 
of  composers  making  very  considerable  alterations 
in  their  own  works  in  preparing  them  for  per- 
formance under  other  conditions  than  those  for 
which  they  were  originally  written,  such  as  the 
arrangement,  so-called,  by  Beethoven  himself  of 
his  early  Octett  for  wind  instruments  in  Eb 
(op.  103)  as  a  quintett  for  strings  in.  the  same 


94 


AERANGEMENT. 


ARRANGEMENT. 


key  (op.  4)  and  Mendelssohn's  edition  of  the 
scherzo  from  his  Octett  in  Eb  (op.  20)  for  full 
orchestra,  introduced  by  him  into  his  symphony 
in  C  minor — which  are  rather  new  works  founded 
on  old  materials  than  arrangements  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  term.  They  are  moreover  exceptions 
even  to  the  practice  of  composers  themselves,  and 
do  not  come  under  the  head  of  the  general  subject 
of  arrangement.  For  however  unlimited  may  be 
the  rights  of  composers  to  alter  their  own  works, 
the  rights  of  others  are  limited  to  redistribution 
and  variation  of  detail ;  and  even  in  detail  the 
alterations  can  only  be  legitimate  to  the  degree 
which  is  rendered  indispensable  by  radical 
differences  in  the  instruments,  and  must  be 
such  as  are  warranted  by  the  quality,  proportions, 
and  style  of  the  context. 

It  may  be  convenient  to  close  this  article  with 
a  list  of  adaptations  of  their  own  works  by  the 
composers  themselves,  as  far  as  they  can  be 
ascertained : — 

1.  Bach's  arrangements  of  his  own  works  are 
numerous.  Some  of  them  have  already  been 
noticed,  but  the  following  is  a  complete  list  of 
those  indicated  in  Dorffel's  Thematic  Catalogue. 

Concerto  in  F  for  clavier  and  two  flutes  with 
4tett  acct.  (D,  561-3),  appears  also  in  G  as 
concerto  for  violin  and  two  flutes  with  stett 
acct  (D,  1072-4). — Concerto  in  G  minor  for  clavier 
with  5tett  acct.  (D.  564),  as  concerto  in  A 
minor  for  violin  with  4tett  acct.  (D,  600). — 
Concerto  in  D  major  for  clavier  with  4tett  acct. 
(D.  570),  as  concerto  for  violin  in  E  major  with 
4tett  acct.  (D,  603). — The  Prelude  and  Fugue  in 
A  minor  for  clavier  solo  (D.  400,  401),  appears, 
with  much  alteration,  as  ist  and  3rd  movements 
of  concerto  for  clavier,  flute,  and  violin  in  same 
key,  with  stett  acct.  (D.  582,  584).  The  slow 
movement  of  the  same  concerto,  in  C  (D.  583), 
is  taken  from  the  third  organ  sonata,  where  it 
stands  in  F  (D.  774). — The  fugue  in  G  minor  for 
violin  solo,  from  Sonata  1  (D.  610)  appears  in 
D  minor,  arranged  for  the  organ  (D.  821). — 
Sonata  3  for  violin  solo  in  A  minor  (D.  621-4)^ 
appears  in  D  minor  for  clavier  solo  (D.  108-1 1). — 
The  prelude  in  E  for  violin  solo  to  Sonata  6  (D. 
634)  is  arranged  for  organ  and  full  orchestra  in 
D,  as  *  sinfonia '  to  the  Rathswahl  cantata  *  Wir 
danken  dir,  Gott,'  No.  29  of  the  Kirchencantaten 
of  the  Bachgesellschaft  (vol.  v.  i),  and  the  first 
movement  of  the  5th  Sonata  for  Violin  in  C  (D. 
630)  appears  as  a  separate  movement  for  Clavier 
in  G  (D.  141). — The  first  movement  of  the  Con- 
certo in  E  for  Clavier  appears  in  the  Introduction 
to  the  Cantata  *Gott  soil  allein';  and  the  two 
first  movements  of  the  Concerto  in  D  minor  ap- 
pear in  the  Cantata  *Wir  mtissen  durch  viel 
Triibsal.' 

2.  Handel  was  very  much  in  the  habit  of 
using  up  the  compositions  both  of  himself  and 
others,  sometimes  by  transplanting  them  bodily 
from  one  work  to  another — as  his  own  Allelujahs 
from  the  Coronation  Anthems  into  'Deborah,' 
or  Kerl's  organ  Canzona,  which  appears  nearly 
note  for  note  as  'Egypt  was  glad'  in  'Israel  in 
Egypt ' ;  and  sometimes  by  conversion,  as  in  the 


'Messiah,'  where  the  Choruses  'His  yoke'  and 
'All  we'  are  arranged  from  two  of  his  own 
Italian  Chamber  duets,  or  in  '  Israel  in  Egypt ' 
where  he  laid  his  organ  Fugues  and  an  early 
Magnificat  under  large  contribution.  In  other 
parts  of  '  Israel,'  and  in  the  '  Dettingen  Te  Deum' 
he  used  the  music  of  Stradella  and  Urio  with 
greater  or  less  freedom.  But  these  works  come 
under  a  different  category  from  those  of  Bach,  and 
will  be  better  examined  under  their  own  heads. 
More  to  the  present  purpose  are  his  adaptations 
of  his  Orchestral  works,  such  as  the  2nd,  3rd, 
4th,  and  5th  of  the  2nd  Set  of  Organ  Concertos, 
which  are  mere  adaptations  of  the  i  ith,  loth,  ist, 
and  6th  of  the  12  Concerti  Grossi  (op.  6).  No.  i 
of  the  same  set  of  Organ  Concertos  is  partly 
adapted  from  the  6th  Sonata  or  Trio  (op,  5). 

3.  Beethoven.  The  arrangements  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  symphonies  for  two  bands,  published 
by  Steiner  at  the  same  -time  with  the  scores, 
although  not  by  Beethoven  himself,  were  looked 
through  and  corrected  by  him.  He  arranged  the 
Grand  Fugue  for  String  Quartett  (op.  133)  as  a 
duet  for  Piano.  No  other  pianoforte  arrange- 
ments by  him  are  known ;  but  he  is  said  to 
have  highly  approved  of  those  of  his  symphonies 
by  Mr.  Watts.  Beethoven  however  rearranged 
several  of  his  works  for  other  combinations  of 
instruments  than  those  for  which  he  originally 
composed  them.  Op.  i.  No.  3,  pianoforte  trio, 
arranged  as  string  quintett  (op.  104).  Op.  4, 
string  quintett  (two  violins),  arranged  from  the 
octett  for  wind  instruments  (1796),  published 
later  as  op.  103.  Op.  14,  No.  i,  pianoforte  sonata 
in  E,  arranged  as  a  string  quartett  in  F.  Op.  16, 
quintett  for  pianoforte  and  wind  instruments, 
arranged  as  a  pianoforte  string  quartett.  Op.  20, 
the  Septett,  arranged  as  a  trio  for  pianoforte, 
clarinet  or  violin,  and  cello  (op.  38).  Op.  36, 
symphony  No.  2,  arranged  as  a  pianoforte  trio. 
Op.  61,  violin  concerto,  arranged  as  pianoforte 
concerto.  The  above  are  all  that  are  certainly 
by  Beethoven.  Op.  31,  No.  i,  Pianoforte  So- 
nata— G,  arranged  as  a  string  quartett,  is  allowed 
by  Nottebohm  to  be  probably  by  the  composer. 
So  also  were  Op.  8,  Notturno  for  String  Trio 
arranged  for  Pianoforte  and  Tenor  (op.  42),  and 
Op.  25,  Serenade  for  Flute,  Violin,  and  Tenor, 
arranged  for  Pianoforte  and  Flute  (op.  41),  were 
looked  over  and  revised  by  him. 

4.  Schubert.    Arrangement  for  four  hands  of 
overture  in  C  major  'in  the  Italian  style'  (op. 
170),  overture  in  D  major,  and  overture  to  I 
'Rosamunde';   and  for  two  hands  of  the  ac-  | 
companiments  to  the  Romance  and  three  choruses  j 
in  the  same  work.    The  song  *Der  Leidende'  : 
(Lief  50,  No.  2),  in  B  minor,  is  an  arrangement  ' 
for  voice  and  piano  of  the  second  trio  (in  Bb 
minor)  of  the  second  Entracte  of  '  Rosamunde.'  ! 

5.  Mendelssohn.  For  four  hands:  the  Octett  | 
(op.  20);  the  'Midsummer's  Night's  Dream'  j 
overture  and  other  music  ;  the  'Hebrides'  over-  j 
ture ;  the  ovei-ture  for  military  band  (op.  24) ;  j, 
the  andante  and  variations  in  Bb  (op.  83  a), 
originally  written  for  two  hands.  For  two 
hands :  the  accompaniments  to  the  Hochzeit  (' 

I 


ARRANGEMENT. 


ARTARIA. 


95 


des  Camacho,  and  to  the  95th  Psalm  (op.  46). 
He  also  arranged  the  scherzo  from  tlie  string 
octett  (op.  20)  for  full  orchestra  to  replace  the 
minuet  and  trio  of  his  symphony  in  C  minor 
on  the  occasion  of  its  performance  by  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  as  noticed  above. 

6.  Schumann.  For  four  hands :  Overture, 
scherzo,  and  finale  ;  Symphony  No.  2  (C  major)  ; 
Overture  to  *  Hermann  und  Dorothea.'  Madame 
Schumann  has  arranged  the  quintett  (op.  44)  for 
four  hands,  and  the  accompaniments  to  the  opera 
of  '  Genoveva'  for  two  hands. 

7.  Brahms  has  arranged  Nos.  I,  3,  and  6 
of  his  *  Ungarische  Tiinze,'  originally  published 
as  piano  pieces  for  four  hands,  for  full  orchestra. 
He  has  also  arranged  his  piano  string  quintett 
{op.  34)  as  a  'Sonata'  for  four  hands  on  two 
pianos,  and  his  two  Orchestral  Serenades  for 
Piano,  h,  quatre  mains.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

ARRIAGA,  Juan  Crisostomo  d',  bom  at 
Bilbao  1 80S,  a  violinist  and  composer  of  great 
]n'oniise.  When  a  mere  child,  without  having 
learnt  even  the  elements  of  harmony,  he  wrote 
a  Spanish  opera,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  was 
sent  to  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris  to  study  the 
violin  under  Baillot  and  harmony  under  Fetis. 
In  two  years  he  became  a  learned  contrapuntist, 
and  wrote  an  '  Et  vitam  venturi '  in  eight  parts, 
which  Cherubini  is  said  to  have  pronounced  a 
masterpiece.  (Fetis.)  On  his  premature  death, 
of  decline,  at  Marseilles  in  1826,  this  gifted 
artist  left  three  quatuors  for  the  violin  (Paris, 
1824)  —  compositions  deserving  to  be  better 
known — an  overture,  a  symphony,  and  many 
other  unpublished  works.  [M.  C.  C] 

ARRIGONI,  Carlo,  a  lutenist,  born  at 
Florence  at  the  beginning  of  last  century, 
whose  only  claim  to  notice  is  his  possible  anta- 
gonism to  Handel.  He  is  said  by  Fetis  and 
Schoelcher  to  have  been  engaged,  with  Porpora, 
as  composer  to  the  theatre  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  which 
was  started  as  an  opposition  to  Handel  in  1734, 
and  to  have  produced  there  in  that  year  an  opera 
called  *  Fernando'  without  success ;  but  it  is 
impossible  to  discover  on  what  this  is  grounded. 
That  Arrigoni  was  in  London  at  or  about  that 
date  is  possible,  and  even  probable,  since  a  volume 
of  his  'Cantate  da  Camera'  was  published  there 
in  1732;  and  in  Arbuthnot's  satire  'Harmony 
in  an  Uproar,'  the  'King  of  Aoragon'  is  men- 
tioned amongst  Handel's  opponents,  a  name  which 
Bumey  ('  Commemoration' )  explains  to  mean 
Arrigoni.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  impression 
he  made  must  have  been  very  small,  and  his 
opera  becomes  more  than  doubtful,  for  the  names 
neither  of  Arrigoni  nor  Fernando  are  found  in 
the  histories  of  Bumey  or  Hawkins,  in  the  MS. 
Register  of  Colman,  in  tlie  newspapers  of  the 
period,  nor  in  any  other  sources  to  which  the 
writer  has  had  access.  It  is  in  accordance  with 
this  that  Arrigoni  is  mentioned  by  Chrysander 
in  connection  with  Arbuthnot's  satire  only 
('Hiindel,' ii.  343). 

In  1738,  taking  a  leaf  out  of  his  great 
antagonist's  book,   he   produced  an  oratorio 


called  'Esther,'  at  Vienna,  after  which  he 
appears  to  have  retired  to  Tuscany,  and  to 
have  died  there  about  1743.  [G.] 

ARSIS  AND  THESIS.  Terms  used  both  in 
music  and  in  prosody.  They  are  derived  from 
the  Greek.  Arsis  is  from  the  verb  aipou  {tollo, 
I  lift  or  raise),  and  marks  the  elevation  of  the 
voice  in  singing,  or  the  hand  in  beating  time. 
The  depression  which  follows  it  is  called  Qiais 
{depositio  or  remissio). 

When  applied  to  beating  time,  arsis  indicates 
the  strong  beat,  and  thesis  the  weak :  for  the 
ancients  beat  time  in  exactly  the  reverse  way  to 
ours,  lifting  the  hand  for  the  strong  beat  and 
letting  it  fall  for  the  weak,  whereas  we  make 
the  down  beat  for  the  strong  accents,  and  raise 
our  hand  for  the  others. 

When  applied  to  the  voice,  a  subject,  counter- 
point, or  fugue,  are  said  to  be  '  per  thesin,'  when 
the  notes  ascend  from  grave  to  acute ;  *  per 
arsin'  when  they  descend  from  acute  to  grave, 
for  here  again  the  ancient  application  of  the 
ideas  of  height  or  depth  to  music  was  apparencly 
the  reverse  of  our  own. 

A  fugue  'per  arsin  et  thesin'  is  the  same 
thing  as  a  fugue  'by  inversion,'  that  is  to  say, 
it  is  a  fugue  in  which  the  answer  to  the  subject 
is  made  by  contrary  motion.  (See  Fugue, 
Canon,  Inversion,  and  Subject).  The  terms 
arsis  and  thesis  may  be  regarded  as  virtually 
obsolete,  and  are  practically  useless  in  these 
da^^s.  [F.  A.  G.  0.] 

ARTARIA.  A  well-known  music-publishing 
firm  in  Vienna,  the  founders  of  which  were 
Cesare,  Domenico,  and  Giovanni  Artaria,  three 
brothers  from  Blevio  on  the  Lake  of  Como,  who 
settled  in  Vienna  about  the  end  of  the  year 
1750.  In  1770  the  privilege  of  the  Empress 
was  granted  to  Carlo,  the  son  of  Cesare,  and  his 
cousins,  to  establish  an  art  business  in  Vienna. 
To  the  sale  of  engravings,  maps,  and  foreign 
music,  was  added  in  1776  a  music  printing  press, 
the  first  in  Vienna,  from  which  two  years  later 
issued  the  first  publications  of  the  firm  of  Artaria 
and  Co.  At  the  same  time  appeared  the  first  of 
their  catalogues  of  music,  since  continued  fi-om 
time  to  time.  From  the  year  1 780  a  succession 
of  works  by  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and 
other  composers,  were  published  by  the  firm, 
which  is  in  full  activity  at  the  present  day.  A 
branch  house  was  founded  at  INIayence  in  1 793 
by  the  brothers  of  Pasquale  Artaria ;  this  w^as 
afterwards  extended  to  Mannheim,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  bookselling  house  of  Fontaine, 
under  the  name  of  Domenico  Artaria.  In  1 793 
the  Vienna  firm  united  with  Cappi  and  Mollo, 
who  how^ever  shortly  afterwards  dissolved  the 
association,  and  started  houses  of  their  own, 
Cappi  again  subsequently  joining  with  Tobias 
Haslinger,  and  Mollo  with  Diabelli.  In  1S02 
the  business  came  into  the  hands  of  Domenico, 
a  son-in-law  of  Carlo.  Under  his  management 
the  business  reached  its  climax,  and  the  house 
was  the  resort  of  all  the  artists  of  the  city.  His 
valuable  collection  of  autographs  by  Mozart, 


96 


AKTAEIA. 


ASANTSCHEWSKY. 


Haydn,  Beethoven,  and  other  famous  composers, 
was  known  far  and  wide,  though  in  course  of 
time  in  great  measure  dispersed.  Domenico  died 
on  July  5,  1842,  and  the  business  has  been  car- 
ried on  since  under  the  old  name  by  his  son 
August.  Haydn  was  for  many  years  in  most 
intimate  relations  with  Artaria  and  Co,  What 
they  published  for  Beethoven  may  be  seen  in  the 
fullest  detail  in  Nottebohm's  catalogue  of  the 
works  of  the  great  composer.  [C.  F.  P.] 

AETAXERXES,  an  opera  in  three  acts 
composed  by  Dr.  Ame,  the  words  translated 
from  Metastasio's  *  Artaserse,'  probably  by  Arne 
himself.  Produced  at  Govent  Garden  Theatre 
Feb.  2,  1762,  and  long  a  favourite  piece  on  the 
London  boards. 

ARTEAGA.  Stefaxo,  a  learned  Jesuit,  born 
about  1750  at  Madrid.  On  the  suppression  of 
the  order  he  went  to  Italy  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Padua.  He  afterwards 
resided  at  Bologna,  and  there  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Padre  Martini,  at  whose  instance 
he  investigated  the  rise  and  progress  of  the 
Italian  stage.  His  work,  entitled  '  Rivoluzioni 
del  teatro  musicale  Italiano,  dalla  suo  origine 
fine  al  presente,'  (two  vols.,  1783)  is  of  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  music.  A  second 
edition,  in  three  vols.,  appeared  at  Venice  in 
1785.  He  also  left  behind  him  a  MS.  treatise 
on  the  rh}i;hm  of  the  ancients,  of  which  however 
all  traces  have  disappeared.  [F.  G.] 

ART  OF  FUGUE,  THE  (Die  Kunst  der 
Fage),  a  work  of  Sebastian.  Bach's,  in  which 
the  art  of  fugue  and  counterpoint  is  taught, 
not  by  rules  but  in  examples.  It  was  written 
in  1 749,  the  last  year  of  his  life,  and  is  therefore 
the  last  legacy  of  his  immense  genius  and  ex- 
perience. The  work  consists  of  sixteen  fugues — 
or  in  Bach's  language  'counterpoints' — and  four 
canons,  for  one  pianoforte,  and  two  fugues  for 
two  pianofortes,  all  on  one  theme 


in  every  variety  of  treatment ;  and  closes  with 
a  fugue  on  three  new  subjects,  in  the  same  key 
as  before,  the  third  being  the  name  of  Bach 
(according  to  the  German  notation)  : — 


This  fugue  leaves  off  on  a  chord  of  A,  and  is 
otherwise  obviously  unfinished,  interrupted,  ac- 
cording to  Forkel,  by  the  failure  of  Bach's  eyes, 
and  never  resumed.  On  the  other  hand  the 
writing  of  the  autograph  (Berlin  Library),  though 
small  and  cramp,  is  very  clear,  and  not  like  the 
writing  of  a  half-blind  man.  We  learn  on  the 
same  authority  that  it  was  the  master's  intention 
to  wind  up  his  work  with  a  fugue  on  four  sub- 
jects, to  be  reversed  in  all  the  four  parts ;  of  this 
however  no  trace  exists.  The  Art  of  Fugue  was 
partly  engraved  (on  coj)per)  before  Bach's  death. 


and  was  published  by  Marpurg  in  1752  at  four 
thalers,  with  the  addition  at  the  end  of  a  Chorale, 
'  Wenn  wir  in  hochsten  Nothen  sind,'  in  four 
parts  in  florid  counterpoint,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  dictated  by  the  master  to  his  son-in-law 
Altnikol  very  shortly  before  his  departure,  and  is 
thus  his  '  Nunc  dimittis.'  This  chorale,  which 
has  no  apparent  connection  with  the  preceding 
portion,  is  in  G  major ;  it  is  omitted  in  the  edi- 
tions of  Nageli  and  Peters,  but  will  be  found 
in  Becker's  '  J.  S.  Bach's  vierstimmige  Kirchen- 
gesange'  (Leipzig,  1843). 

Thirty  copies  only  of  the  work  were  printed 
by  Marpurg,  and  the  plates,  sixty  in  number, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Emanuel  Bach,  who  on 
Sept.  14,  1766,  in  a  highly  characteristic  ad- 
vertisement, offered  them  for  sale  at  any  reason- 
able price.  What  became  ef  them  is  not  known. 
There  are  two  modem  editions — that  of  Nageli 
of  Ziirich  (1803^  published  at  the  instigation 
of  C.  M.  von  Weber,  a  splendid  oblong  folio, 
with  the  fugues  engraved  both  in  score  and  in 
compressed  arrangement ;  and  that  of  Peters 
(1839),  edited  by  Czemy.  Neither  of  these  has 
the  Chorale ;  but  the  latter  of  the  two  contains 
the  'Thema  regium'  and  the  'Ricerca'  from  the 
'  Musikalisches  Opfer.'  An  excellent  analysis 
of  the  work  is  Hauptmann's  '  Erlauterungen,' 
etc.,  originally  prefixed  to  Czemy's  edition,  but 
to  be  had  separately  (Peters,  1 841).  [G.] 

ARTUSI,  Giovanni  Maria,  bom  at  Bologna 
in  the  second  half  of  the  i6th  century,  was  a 
canon  of  San  Salvatore,  Venice,  a  learned 
musician,  and  a  conservative  of  the  staunchest 
order,  whose  life  was  devoted  to  combatting  the 
innovations  of  the  then  'm'jsic  of  the  future,' 
His  'Arte  del  contrapunto  ridotto  in  tavole' 
was  published  in  1586  and  '89  (translated  into 
German  by  Frost),  but  his  principal  works  are 
controversial,  '  Delle  imperfezioni  delle  musica 
moderna,'  1600  and  1603,  directed  against 
Monteverde's  use  of  unprepared  sevenths  and 
ninths ;  '  Difesa  ragionata  della  sentenze  date 
di  Ghisilino  Dankerts';  'Impresa  del  Zarlino,' 
1604;  *  Considerazione  Musicali,'  1607.  Artusi 
was  active  also  as  a  composer;  he  published 
'Canzonette'  for  four  voices,  and  a  'Cantate 
Domino'  of  his  will  be  found  in  the  Vincenti 
collection  dedicated  to  Schieti.  [F.  G,] 

ARWIDSSON,  Adolf  Iwar,  born  in  179 1  at 
Padajoki  in  Finland  ;  professor  of  history  at  the 
university  of  Abo  from  1817  to  1821,  when  he 
was  banished  by  the  Russian  govemment  for  a 
political  article.  He  retired  to  Stockholm,  and 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  royal  libra^J^  He 
edited  a  most  interesting  collection  of  Swedish 
national  songs,  '  Svenska  Fornsiinger,'  in  3  vols. 
(Stockholm,  1834,  1837,  and  1842),  wliicb  forms 
a  continuation  of  the  '  Svenska  Folkvisor '  of 
Geijer  and  Afzelius.  [M.  C.  C] 

ASANTSCHEWSKY,  Michel  Von,  born 
1839  at  Moscow,  since  1863  director  of  the  Con- 
servatoire de  Musique  at  St.  Petersburg,  one  of 
the  most  cultivated  of  living  Russian  musicians, 
is  remarkable  for  the  deUcate  finish  of  diction 


ASAXTSCHEWSKY. 


ASHE. 


97 


and  form  wluch  characterises  his  oonqxMxtaoas, 
as  well  as  for  the  extenidTe  range  of  Ms  know- 
ledge in  musical  matters  generalfy.  He  ooon- 
pleted  his  educarion  in  comiterpoint  and  oompo- 
sition  under  Hauptmann  and  Richter  at  Leipsic 
between  the  years  1861  and  1864,  and  Hred 
daring  some  years  sobseqnentfy,  alternately  at 
Paris  and  at  St.  Petersborg.  He  has  acquired 
a  reputation  among  book-coUectors  as  the  pos- 
sessor of  one  of  the  finest  private  libraries  of 
works  upon  music  in  Eorope.  Ammig  his  printed 
compositions  the  following  should  be  noted :  op. 
2,  Sonata  in  B  minor  for  pianoforte  and  violon- 
cello ;  op.  10,  Trio  in  F  sharp  minor  for  piano 
and  strings;  op.  12,  Fest-Polonaiae  for  two 
pianofortes ;  Pasaatempo  for  piano  d  quatrt 
mains .  [E.  D.] 

ASCANTO  IN'  ALBA.  A  'theatrical  sere- 
nade' in  two  acts  (overture  and  twenty-four 
numbers),  composed  by  Mozart  at  Milan,  Sept. 
1 771,  for  the  betrothal  of  the  Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand and  Princess  Maria  of  Modena.  Firai 
performance,  Oct.  17,  1771  (Kochel,  Xo.  iii). 

ASCEXDrS'G  SCALE.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of 
the  minor  scale  adopted  in  modem  music,  that 
its  form  is  frequently  varied  by  accidental  chro- 
matic alterations,  to  satisfy  what  are  assumed  to 
be  the  requirements  of  the  ear ;  and  as  these 
alterations  most  commonly  take  place  in  ascend- 
ing passages,  it  is  usual,  in  elementary  works,  to 
give  different  forms  of  the  minor  scale,  for  aa- 
ceUfling  and  descending. 

For  example,  the  normal  form  of  the  scale  of 
A  minor  is 


mmatiira],  andthishasledtothediazpeningoftlie 
sixth  also,  thus — 

No.  3. 


and  in  descending,  as  here  shown,  the  progressions 
seem  natural  and  proper. 

But  if  the  motion  take  place  in  the  reverse 
direction,  thus — 

Xo.  I. 


it  is  said  that  the  succession  of  the  upper  notes 
in  approaching  the  key  note  A,  do  not  give  the 
idea  which  ought  to  correspond  to  our  modem 
tonality.  It  is  argued  that  the  penultimate  note, 
or  seventh,  being  the  leading  or  sensible  note  of 
the  key,  ought  to  be  only  a  semitone  disiiant 
fix>m  it,  as  is  customary  in  all  well-defined  keys  ; 
and  that,  in  fact,  unless  this  is  done,  the  tonality 
is  not  properly  determined.  This  reason  has  led 
to  the  accidental  sharpening  of  the  seventh  in 
ascending,  thus — 

No.  2. 


But  here  there  is  another  thing  objected  to ; 
namely,  the  wide  interval  of  three  semitones 
fan  augmented  second)  between  the  sixth  and  the 
seventh,  F  \  and  G  J,  which  it  is  said  is  abrupt  and 


i 


to  make  the  progression  moro  smootb  and  regular. 
This  is  the  succession  of  notes  usually  giveai  as 
the  ascending  minor  seaU. 

The  first  alteration — namely,  the  sharpeaiing 
the  leading  note — is  no  doubt  required  if  the  per- 
fect modem  tonality  is  to  be  preaearwed,  for  no 
doubt  an  aaoending  passage,  thus — 


would  give  rather  the  impreMion  of  the  key  of  C 
or  of  F  than  that  of  A. 

But  the  necessity  for  sharpening  the  sijih  is 
by  no  means  so  obvious ;  it  may  no  doubt 
be  smoother,  but  the  interval  of  the  augmented 
second  is  one  so  familiar  in  modem  music,  as  to 
form  no  imperative  reason  for  the  change.  Hence 
this  rule  is  frequently  disregarded,  and  the  form 
marked  Xo.  2  is  very  conmionly  used,  both  for 
a^cendin^r  and  descending. 

We  may  instance  the  fine  unison  passage  in  the 
last  movement  of  Schumann's  Symphony,  No.  i : — 


where  not  only  does  the  pecaliar  rhythm  give 
a  most  striking  original  effect  to  the  common 
succession  of  notes,  but  the  strong  attention  drawn 
to  the  objectionable  augmented  interval,  shows 
how  effectively  genius  may  set  at  nought  common- 
place ideas  as  to  musicail  propriety.  [W.  P.] 

ASCHEE,  Joseph,  was  bom  in  London,  1831, 
and  died  there  1869.  A  fashionable  pianist,  and 
composer  of  drawing-room  pieces.  He  was 
taught  by  iloscheles,  and  followed  his  master  to 
the  Conservatorium  at  Leipzig-.  His  successful 
career  began  in  Paris,  where  he  was  nominated 
court  pianist  to  the  Empress  Eugenie,  an  honour 
which  appears  to  convey  considerable  business 
advantage  in  the  fashionable  world,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly a  coveted  title. 

His  compositions  amount  to  above  a  hundred 
salon  pieces  —  mazurkas,  gallops,  nocturnes, 
etudes,  transcriptions,  etc. — well  written  and 
effective,  of  moderate  difficulty,  and  rarely  if 
ever  without  a  certain  elegant  grace  and  finish. 
Among  the  best  are  'La  perle  du  Xord'  and 
'  Dozia,'  both  mazurkas,  and  '  Les  gouttes  d'eau,' 
an  etude.  Ascher  believed  in  himself,  and  in  his 
earlier  compositions  at  least,  offered  his  best ; 
but  the  dissipated  habits  he  gradually  fell  into 
ruined  both  his  health  and  his  taste.        [E.  D.] 

ASHE,  A>T)REW,  was  bom  at  Lisbum  in 
Ireland,  alx)Ut  the  year  1759.  Before  he  had 
completed  his  ninth  year  he  was  sent  to  England 
to  an  academy  near  Woolwich,  where  he  remained 


98 


ASHE. 


ASHLEY. 


more  than  tliree  years,  when  his  father,  having 

experienced  a  reverse  of  fortune,  was  compelled 
to  recall  him  to  Ireland.  Luckily  for  him,  as  he 
stood  weeping  with  the  letter  in  his  hand,  Count 
Bentinck,  a  colonel  in  the  army,  who  was  riding 
by,  learning  the  cause  of  his  grief,  wrote  to  his 
father  offering  to  take  the  boy  under  his  protection. 
Ashe  accompanied  his  patron  to  Minorca,  where, 
the  love  for  music  which  he  had  already  shown 
at  school  continuing,  he  received  instruction  on 
the  violin.  He  next  went  with  the  Count  through 
Spain,  Portugal,  France,  and  Germany,  and  lastly 
to  Holland,  where  such  an  education  as  would 
qualify  him  to  become  his  benefactor's  confidential 
agent  in  the  management  of  his  estates,  was 
provided  for  him.  But  Ashe's  mind  was  too 
strongly  attracted  towards  music  to  suffer  him 
to  attend  to  anything  else,  and  the  Count  per- 
ceiving it  permitted  him  to  follow  the  bent  of  his 
inclination.  He  acquired  a  general  knowledge 
of  several  wind  -  instruments,  but  evinced  the 
most  decided  predilection  for  the  flute,  the  study 
of  which  he  pursued  so  assiduously  that  in  the 
couse  of  a  few  years  he  became  the  admiration 
of  Holland.  Quitting  the  roof  of  Count  Bentinck 
he  engaged  himself  as  chamber  musician  at 
Brussels,  first  to  Lord  Torrington,  and  next  to 
Lord  Dillon.  About  1778  he  obtained  the  post 
of  principal  flute  at  the  opera-house  of  Brussels. 
About  1782  he  returned  to  Ireland,  where  he 
was  engaged  at  the  concerts  given  at  the  Rotunda, 
Dublin.  In  1 791  Salomon  engaged  him  for  the 
concerts  given  by  him  in  Hanover  Square,  at 
which  Haydn  was  to  produce  his  grand  symphonies, 
and  he  made  his  appearance  at  the  second  concert, 
on  February  24,  1792,  when  he  played  a  concerto 
of  his  own  composition  with  decided  success.  He 
soon  became  engaged  at  most  of  the  leading 
concerts,  and  on  the  resignation  of  Monzani  was 
appointed  principal  flute  at  the  Italian  opera. 
In  1799  he  married  Miss  Comer,  a  pupil  of 
Eauzzini,  who,  as  Mrs.  Ashe,  was  for  many  years 
the  principal  singer  at  the  Bath  concerts,  the 
direction  of  which  after  the  death  of  Eauzzini 
in  1 8 10,  was  confided  to  Ashe.  After  conduct- 
ing these  concerts  with  considerable  ability  for 
twelve  years.  Ashe  relinquished  the  direction 
in  1822,  having  during  the  last  four  years  of 
his  management  been  a  considerable  loser  by 
them.  Mrs.  Ashe  first  appeared  at  the  Concert 
of  Ancient  Music  in  1807  and  also  sung  in  the 
oratorios.  Two  of  Ashe's  daughters,  one  a  harpist 
and  the  other  a  pianist,  performed  in  London 
in  1821,  [W.  H.  H.] 

ASHLEY,  John,  a  performer  on  the  bassoon 
at  the  end  of  the  last  century.  In  1784  he  was 
assistant  conductor,  under  Joah  Bates,  at  the 
conunemoration  of  Handel  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey, where  his  name  also  appears  as  playing  the 
double  bassoon,  employed  to  streng-then  the  bass 
of  the  choruses.  In  1795  he  undertook  the  di- 
rection of  the  Lent  '  oratorios '  at  Covent  Garden. 
These  performances,  which  took  place  on  the 
Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in  Lent,  were  originated 
by  Handel,  under  whose  direction,  and  after- 
wards that  of  Smith  and  Arnold,  they  were  cor- 


rectly designated — that  is,  they  consisted  of  an 
entire  oratorio  or  musical  drama.  Under  Ash- 
ley's management  this  character  was  lost,  and 
the  performances  (with  few  exceptions)  were 
made  up  of  selections,  including  every  class  of 
music,  sacred  and  secular,  'in  most  admired 
disorder.'  It  was  at  these  oratorios  that  Braham 
obtained  celebrity  by  his  fine  rendering  of 
sacred  music.  For  many  years  Ashley  and 
his  four  sons  visited  different  parts  of  England, 
giving  what  they  called  'Grand  Musical  Festivals,' 
The  father  and  sons  performed  themselves,  and 
with  some  popular  singer,  and  a  little  provincial 
help,  they  contrived  to  interest  the  public,  and 
to  fill  their  own  pockets.  On  the  death  of  Dr. 
Boyce,  Ashley  bought  the  plates  of  his  '  Cathe- 
dral Music,'  and  the  second  edition  (1788)  bears 
his  name  as  the  publisher.  He  died  in  1805. 

Ashley,  General,  his  eldest  son,  was  a  pupil 
of  Giardini  and  Barthelemon,  and  a  fair  performer 
on  the  violin,  of  which  instrument  he  was  con- 
sidered an  excellent  judge.  He  was  scarcely 
known  out  of  his  father's  orchestra.  He  died  in 
1818.  Ashley,  Charles  Jane,  bom  in  1773, 
was  a  performer  of  considerable  excellence  on  the 
vdoloncello.  In  conjunction  with  his  brother,  'the 
General'  (as  he  was  always  called),  he  carried 
on  the  oratorios  after  his  father's  death.  He 
had  great  reputation  as  an  accompanyist,  and 
was  considered  second  only  to  Lindley.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Glee  Club  in  1793, 
an  original  member  of  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
and  for  some  years  Secretary  to  the  Eoyal  Society 
of  Musicians.  Nearly  twenty  years  of  his  life 
were  passed  in  the  rules  of  the  King's  Bench 
Prison.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  career  (when 
nearly  70),  he  became  the  proprietor  of  the  Tivoli 
Gardens,  Margate,  the  anxieties  of  which  under- 
taking hastened  his  death,  which  occurred  on 
Aug.  20,  1843.  Another  of  Ashley's  sons,  John 
James,  born  1 7  7 1 ,  was  a  pupil  of  Johann  Schroeter, 
and  a  good  organ  and  pianoforte  player.  He  is 
remembered  as  an  excellent  singing-master,  num- 
bering among  his  pupils  Mrs.  Vaughan,  Mrs. 
Salmon,  Master  Elliot  (afterwards  the  glee  com- 
poser), Charles  Smith,  &c.   He  died  Jan  5, 1815. 

Ashley,  Eichard,  was  a  viola  performer,  con- 
nected with  the  principal  orchestras  in  London 
and  the  provinces.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
career.  He  was  born  in  1775,  and  died  in 
1837.  [E.F.E,] 

ASHLEY,  John,  known  as  '  Ashley  of  Bath,' 
was,  for  upwards  of  half  a  century,  a  performer 
on  the  bassoon,  and  a  vocalist  in  his  native  city. 
He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  writer  and 
composer  of  a  large  number  of  songs  and  ballads 
(between  the  years  1780  and  1830),  many  of 
which  acquired  considerable  popularity.  He  is 
also  deserving  of  notice  as  the  author  of  two 
ingenious  pamphlets  in  answer  to  Mr.  Eichard 
Clark's  work  on  the  origin  of  our  National 
Anthem  : — '  Eeminiscences  and  Observations  re- 
specting the  Origin  of  God  save  the  King,'  1827 ; 
'A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  W.  L.  Bowles,  supple- 
mentary to  the  Observations,  etc'  1828,  both 
pubHshed  at  Bath.  [E.  F.  E.] 


ASHWELL. 


ASTORGA. 


99 


ASHWELL,  Thomas,  a  cathedral  musician 
in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  who  adhered 
to  the  Eomish  faith,  and  some  of  whose  motets 
still  remain  amongst  the  MSS.  in  the  Music 
School  at  Oxford.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ASIOLI,  Bonifacio,  bom  at  Correggio, 
April  30,  1 769 ;  began  to  study  at  five  years 
of  age.  Before  eight  he  had  written  several 
masses,  and  a  concerto  for  pianoforte.  At  ten 
he  went  to  study  at  Parma  under  Morigi.  After 
a  journey  to  Venice,  where  he  enjoyed  his  first 
public  success,  he  was  made  maestro  di  capeUa 
at  his  native  town.  By  eighteen  he  had  com- 
posed five  masses,  twenty-four  pieces  for  the 
church  and  the  theatre,  and  a  number  of 
instrumental  pieces.  In  1787  he  changed  his 
residence  to  Turin,  where  he  remained  nine 
years,  composing  five  cantatas  and  instrumental 
music.  In  1796  he  accompanied  the  Duchess 
Gherardini  to  Venice,  and  remained  there  till 
1799,  when  he  removed  to  Milan,  and  in  1810 
to  Paris.  There  he  continued  in  the  service  of 
the  empress  Marie  Louise  tiU  July  181 3.  On 
the  fall  of  the  empire  Asioli  returned  to  Cor- 
reggio, and  died  there  May  26,  1 832.  Besides  his 
compositions  he  published  a  '  Trattato  d'armonia 
e  d'accompagnaniento  ; '  a  book  of  dialogues  on 
the  same ;  '  Osservazdoni  sul  temperamento,  etc.  ; 
and  '  Disinganno '  on  the  same.  His  principal 
work  is  '  II  Maestro  di  composizione.'  All  these 
works  are  written  with  accuracy  and  a  clear  and 
brilliant  style.  Asioli's  biography  was  written 
by  Coli,  a  priest  of  Correggio,  under  the  title 
of  'Vita  di  B.  Asioli/  etc.  (IMilan :  Eicordi, 
1834).  [F.G.] 
ASOLA,  or  ASULA,  Giovanni  Matteo,  born 
at  Verona  in  the  Litter  half  of  the  1 6th  century  ; 
priest  and  composer  of  church  music  andmadrigals. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  use  figured  basses. 
In  1592  he  joined  other  composers  in  dedicating 
a  collection  of  Psalms  to  Palestrina, 

ASPULL,  George,  born  in  18 14,  at  a  very 
early  age  manifested  an  extraordinary  capacity 
as  a  pianoforte  player.  At  eight  years  of  age, 
notwithstanding  that  the  smallness  of  his  hands 
was  such  that  he  could  not  reach  an  octave,  so  as 
to  press  down  the  two  keys  simultaneously  with- 
out great  difficulty,  and  then  only  with  the  right 
hand,  he  had  attained  such  proficiency  as  to  be 
able  to  perform  the  most  difficult  compositions  of 
Kalkbrenner,  Moscheles,  Hummel,  and  Czemy, 
besides  the  concertos  of  Handel,  and  the  fugues 
of  Bach  and  Scarlatti,  in  a  manner  almost  ap- 
proaching the  excellence  of  the  best  professors. 
He  also  sang  with  considerable  taste.  As  he 
grew  older,  his  improvement  was  such  as  to  lead 
to  the  expectation  that  he  would  eventually  take 
a  place  amongst  the  most  distinguished  pianists. 
These  hopes  were,  however,  disappointed,  by  his 
death  from  a  pulmonary  disease,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  He  died  Aug.  20,  1832,  at  Leam- 
ington, and  was  buried  two  days  afterwards  at 
Nottingham,  Aspull  left  several  manuscript 
compositions  for  the  pianoforte,  which  were  sub- 
sequently published,  with  his  portrait  prefixed, 


under  the  title  of  '  George  Aspull' s  posthumous 
Works  for  the  Pianoforte.'  [W.  H,  H,] 

ASSAI  (Ital.),  'Very';  e.g.  'Allegro  assai,' 
very  fast ;  'Animate  assai,'  with  great  animation; 
'  Maestoso  assai,'  with  much  majesty,  etc. 

ASS:MAYER,  Ignaz,  bom  at  Salzburg,  Feb. 
II,  1790  :  in  1808  organist  of  St.  Peter's  in  that 
city,  where  he  wrote  his  oratorio  '  Die  Siindfluth' 
(the  Deluge),  and  his  cantata  '  Worte  der  Weihe.' 
In  1 81 5  he  removed  to  Vienna ;  in  1824  became 
organist  to  the  Scotch  church  ;  in  1825  Imperial 
organist ;  in  1838  vice,  and  in  1846  chief,  Kapell- 
meister  to  the  court.  He  died  Aug,  31,  1862. 
His  principal  oratorios — 'Das  Geliibde'  (the 
Vow) ;  '  Saul  und  David,'  and  '  Said's  Tod ' — 
were  firequently  performed  by  the  '  Tonkiinstler- 
Societat,'  of  which  Assmayer  was  conductor  for 
fifteen  yeai-s.  Besides  these  larger  works  he 
composed  fifteen  masses,  two  requiems,  a  Te 
Deum,  and  various  smaller  church  pieces,  as  well 
as  nearly  sixty  secular  compositions.  These  last 
are  all  published.  His  music  is  correct  and  fluent, 
but  wanting  in  invention  and  force.      [C,  F.  P.] 

ASTON,  Hugh,  was  an  organist  and  church 
composer  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  A  *  Te 
Deum'  for  five  voices  and  a  motet  for  six  voices 
composed  by  him  are  preserved  in  the  Music 
School  at  Oxford.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ASTORGA,  Emanuele  Baron  d',  bom  at 
Palermo  in  168 1  (Fetis  pretends  to  give  the  day  of 
his  birth).  He  began  the  serious  business  of  life 
by  witnessing  the  execution  of  his  father,  the 
Marchese  Capece  da  Roffrano,  who  was  captain 
of  a  mercenary  troop,  and  perished  on  the  scaf- 
fold along  with  several  Sicilian  nobles  after  an 
unsuccessful  emeute  against  the  power  of  Spain. 
In  the  agony  of  this  terrible  occasion  his  mother 
actually  died,  and  the  child  hunself  fainted  away. 
After  a  time  the  orphan  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  Princess  Ursini,  maid  of  honour  to  the  wife 
of  Philip  V,  who  placed  him  in  the  convent  of 
Astorga  in  Spain.  In  this  asylum  it  was  that 
he  completed  the  musical  education  which  there 
is  reason  to  believe  he  had  commenced  under 
Francesco  Scarlatti  at  Palermo.  He  quitted  it 
after  a  few  years,  and  on  his  entrance  into  the 
world  obtained,  through  the  influence  of  his  pa- 
troness, the  title  of  Baron  d'  Astorga.  In  1704 
he  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  the  court 
of  Parma.  There  he  soon  became  a  favourite  for 
his  music's  sake  and  for  his  personal  gifts,  for  he 
was  a  handsome  man,  composed  with  ease  and 
ability,  and  sang  with  extraordinary  finish  and 
feeling  his  own  graceful  and  original  melodies. 
It  is  not  otherwise  than  consonant  with  a  charac- 
ter of  which  we  have  only  slight  though  sug- 
gestive glimpses,  to  hear  that  on  the  termination 
of  his  mission  he  still  lingered  at  the  court  of 
Parma,  forgetful  of  his  Spanish  ties,  and  fettered 
by  a  secret  love  aftair  with  his  pupil  Elisabetta 
Farnese,  the  niece  of  the  reigning  duke.  Nor  is 
it  surprising  that  his  entertainer  should  soon 
have  found  means  to  transfer  so  dangerous  an 
ornament  of  his  palace  to  some  distant  capital. 
Accordingly  we  find  Astorga  dismissed,  early  iu 

H2 


100 


ASTOEGA. 


ATTERBURY. 


1705,  with  a  letter  of  recommendation  to  Leo- 
pold I  at  Vienna.  The  emperor  yielded  at  once 
to  the  fascinations  of  his  visitor,  and  would  have 
attached  him  to  his  person  had  not  his  own 
death  too'  rapidly  interrupted  his  intentions. 
Astorga  remained  in  or  returned  to  Vienna 
during  the  reigns  of  Joseph  I  and  Charles  VI, 
and  for  many  years  led  a  romantic  life  of  travel 
and  adventure,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited 
and  revisited  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  and  Italy, 
reconciling  himself  on  his  way  to  the  neglected 
protectress  of  his  boyhood.  In  171 2  he  was  in 
Vienna,  and  acted  as  godfather  to  the  daughter 
of  his  friend  Caldaka,  whose  register  (May  9) 
may  still  be  seen  at  S.  Stephen's.  In  1720  he 
reappeared  there  for  a  short  time,  and  thence  he 
finally  retired  to  Bohemia,  where  he  died,  Au- 
gust 21,  1736,  not  however,  as  usually  stated, 
in  a  monastery,  but  in  the  Schloss  Raudnitz, 
which  had  been  given  up  to  him  by  its  owner,  the 
prince  of  Lobkowitz,  and  the  archives  of  which 
contain  evidence  of  the  fact.  This  circumstance 
has  only  very  recently  been  brought  to  light. 

Among  Astorga's  compositions  are  his  re- 
nowned 'Stabat  Mater,'  for  4  voices  and  or- 
chestra, probably  composed  for  the  'Society  of 
Antient  Musick '  of  London,  and  executed  at 
Oxford  in  1713,  MS.  copies  of  the  score  of  w-hich 
are  to  be  found  in  the  British  INIuseum  and  the 
imperial  libraries  of  Berlin  and  Vienna ;  and  a 
pastoral  opera  'Dafni'  (not  'Dafne'),  composed 
and  performed  at  Barcelona  in  June  1709,  and 
probably  last  heard  at  Breslau  in  1726,  and  to 
be  found  in  the  Hofbibliothek  at  Vienna  in  the 
Kiesewetter  collection.  A  requiem  is  also  men- 
tioned as  possibly  lying  in  the  castle  where  he 
ended  his  days.  His  name  is  also  known  by  his 
beautiful  cantatas,  of  which  a  great  number  are 
extant.  The  Abbe  Santini  had  no  less  than  98 
of  these,  54  for  soprano  and  44  for  contralto,  with 
accompaniment  for  figured  bass  on  the  harpsi- 
chord, besides  ten  composed  as  duets  for  the 
same  two  voices.  Of  the  Stabat  Mater  Haupt- 
mann  (no  indulgent  critic)  writes  ('Briefe,'  ii. 
51),  'It  is  a  lovely  thing,  ...  a  much  more  im- 
portant work  than  Pergolesi's,  and  contains  a 
trio,  a  duet,  and  an  air,  which  are  real  master- 
pieces, wanting  in  nothing ;  neither  old  nor  new, 
but  music  for  all  times,  such  as  is  too  seldom  to 
be  met  with.'  The  work  is  published  (with 
pianoforte  accompaniment)  in  the  Peters  Collec- 
tion, and  has  been  recently  re-instrumented  by 
Franz  and  issued  by  Leuckhart.  [C.  F.  P.] 

A  TEMPO  (Ital.).  'In  time.'  When  the 
time  of  a  piece  has  been  changed,  either  tempo- 
rarily by  an  ad  libitum,  a  piacere,  etc.,  or  for 
a  longer  period  by  a  j)iu  lento,  piu  allegro,  or 
some  similar  term,  the  indication  a  temjjo  shows 
that  the  rate  of  speed  is  again  to  be  that  of  the 
commencement  of  the  movement. 

ATH  ALIA.  The  third  of  Handel's  oratorios ; 
composed  next  after  '  Deborah.'  Words  by  Hum- 
phreys. The  score  was  completed  on  June  7, 
1733.  First  performed  at  Oxford  July  10,  1733. 
Revived  by  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  June  20, 
1845. 


ATHALIE.  Mendelssohn  composed  overture, 
march,  and  six  vocal  pieces  (Op.  74)  to  Racine's 
drama.  In  the  spring  of  1 843  the  choruses  alone 
(female  voices),  with  pianoforte.  In  May  or  June 
1844,  the  overture  and  march.  Early  in  1845 
choruses  re-written  and  scored  for  orchestra. 
First  performed  at  Berlin,  Dec.  I,  1845  >  Eng- 
land, Windsor  Castle,  Jan.  i,  1847  ;  Philhar- 
monic, March  12,  1849. 

ATTACCA,  i.e.  'begin'  (Ital.),  when  placed 
at  the  end  of  a  movement — as  the  Scherzo  of 
Beethoven's  C  minor  Symphony,  or  all  the  three 
first  movements  of  Mendelssohn's  Scotch  ditto — 
signifies  that  no  pause  is  to  be  made,  but  that  the 
next  movement  is  to  be  attacked  at  once. 

ATTACK.  A  technical  expression  for  de- 
cision and  spirit  in  beginning  a  phrase  or 
passage.  An  orchestra  or  performer  is  said  to  be 
'wanting  in  attack'  when  there  is  no  firmness 
and  precision  in  their  style  of  taking  up  the 
points  of  the  music.  This  applies  especially  to 
quick  temjjo.  It  is  equivalent  to  the  coup  cCarchet, 
once  so  much  exaggerated  in  the  Paris  or- 
chestras, and  of  which  Mozart  makes  such  game 
(Letter,  J  une  12,  I J  78). 

The  chef  d'attaque  in  France  is  a  sort  of  sub- 
conductor  who  marks  the  moment  of  entry  for 
the  chorus. 

ATTAIGNANT,  or  ATTAINGNANT, 
Pierre,  a  music  printer  of  Paris  in  the  i6th 
century,  said  to  have  been  the  first  in  France 
to  adopt  moveable  types  ('caracteres  mobiles') 
for  music.  The  engraver  of  his  types  was  Pierre 
Hautin.  Between  the  years  1527  and  1536  he 
printed  nineteen  books  containing  motetts  of 
various  masters,  French  and  foreign.  Many 
of  these  composers  would  be  entirely  unknown 
but  for  their  presence  in  these  volumes.  Among 
them  we  may  cite  Grosse,  N.  Gombert,  Claudin, 
Hesdin,  Consilium,  Certon,  Rousee,  Mouton, 
Hottinet,  Momable,  Le  Roy,  Manchicourt,  Le 
Heurteur,  Vermont,  Richefort,  Lasson,  L'heritier, 
Lebrun,  Wyllart,  Feuin,  L'enfant,  Montu,  Verde- 
lot,  G.  Louvet,  Devitis,  Jacquet,  Delafage, 
Longueval,  Gascogne,  Briant,  and  Passereau. 
The  collection  is  thus  historically  most  im- 
portant, and  it  is  also  of  extreme  rarity, 
Attaignant  was  still  printing  in  1543,  which 
date  appears  on  a  '  Livre  de  danceries  *  by 
Consilium.  He  was  however  dead  in  1556, 
since  some  compositions  of  Gervais'  printed  at 
his  press  in  that  year  are  said  to  be  edited  by 
his  widow.  L^-  Gr.] 

ATTERBURY,  Luffm  an,  one  of  the  musicians 
in  ordinary  to  George  III,  and  the  composer  of 
numerous  catches  and  glees.  Between  1778  and 
1780  he  obtained  from  the  Catch  Club  prizes  for 
tliree  glees  and  two  catches.  He  also  composed 
an  oratorio  called  'Goliah,'  which  was  performed 
for  the  first  time  at  the  HajTnarket  Theatre  on 
Wednesday,  May  5,  1773.  ^eing  announced  as 
•  for  that  night  only.'  It  was  again  performed  in 
West  Wycombe  church  on  August  13,  1775,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  singular  ceremony  of  depositing 


ATTERBURY. 


AT3BER. 


101 


the  heart  of  Paul  Whitehead,  the  politician  and 
versifier,  inclosed  in  a  marble  urn,  as  directed  by 
his  will,  in  the  mausoleum  there  of  his  patron, 
Lord  Le  Despencer.  About  1790  Atterbury 
published  '  A  Collection  of  Twelve  Glees,  Rounds,' 
etc.  Eleven  glees  and  nineteen  catches  by  him 
are  included  in  Warren's  collections.  His  glee, 
'Come,  let  us  all  a -Maying  go,' still  retains  its 
popularity.  He  died  in  Marsham  Street,  West- 
minster, June  II,  1796.  He  is  said  to  have 
combined  with  the  profession  of  music  the  trade 
of  a  builder.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ATTEY,  John",  a  composer  of  part-songs, 
who  flourished  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  17th 
century.  He  appears  to  have  been  patronised 
by  the  Earl  and  Countess  of  Bridgewater,  to 
whom  he  dedicates  his  '  First  Booke  of  Ayres  of 
Fovure  Parts,  w-iih  Tablet ure  for  the  Lute,'  in 
1622.  On  the  title-page  of  this  work  he  calls 
himself '  Gentleman  and  Practitioner  of  Musicke.' 
It  contains  fourteen  songs  in  four  parts,  which 
may  be  sung  as  part-songs  or  as  solos  by  a 
soprano  voice,  accompanied  by  the  lute,  or  the 
lute  and  bas3-\"iol.  As  no  second  collection  ap- 
peared, it  is  probable  that  the  composer  did  not 
meet  with  sufficient  encouragement  in  all  cases. 
The  madrigalian  period  was  rapidly  declining. 
He  died  at  Ross  about  1640.  [E.F.R.] 

ATTWOOD,  Thomas,  the  son  of  a  trumpeter, 
viola-player,  and  coal -merchant,  was  born  in  1 767. 
At  nine  years  of  age  he  became  a  chorister  in  the 
Chapel  Royal,  where  he  had  for  his  masters  suc- 
cessively Dr.  Nares  and  Dr.  AjTton,  and  where 
he  remained  about  five  years.  In  his  sixteenth 
year,  performing  in  a  concert  at  Buckingham 
House,  he  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  (afterwards  George  IV),  who  sent  him 
to  Italy  to  study.  In  1783  he  went  to  Naples, 
where  he  remained  for  two  years  under  the 
tuition  of  FOippo  Cinque  and  Gaetano  Latilla. 
From  Naples  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  studied 
under  Mozart — who  expressed  a  highly  favour- 
able opinion  of  his  talent  (Kelly's  Reminiscences, 
i.  225) — until  February,  17S7,  when  he  returned 
to  England.  He  became  organist  of  St.  George 
the  Martyr,  Queen  Square,  and  a  member  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales's  chamber  band.  He  was  ap- 
pointed musical  instructor  to  the  Duchess  of 
York  in  1791,  and  to  the  Princess  of  Wales  in 
1 795.  In  the  latter  year,  on  the  decease  of  John 
Jones,  organist  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Attwood 
beciune  his  successor ;  and  in  June,  1796,  on  the 
death  of  Dr.  Dupuis,  he  was  appointed  Composer 
to  the  Chapel  Royal.  In  182 1  he  was  nominated 
organist  of  George  I  V's  private  chapel  at  Brighton. 
Attwood  was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  on  its  establishment  in  1 8 1 3, 
and  for  some  years  occasionally  conducted  its 
concerts.  In  1 836,  on  the  decease  of  John  Stafford 
Smith,  he  succeeded  him  as  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  Attwood  died  at  his  residence  in  CTieyne 
Walk,  Chelsea,  on  March  28,  1S38.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  under  the  organ. 
In  the  early  part  of  his  Kfe  Attwood  was  much 
engaged  in  dramatic  composition,  in  which  he 
was  very  successful. 


The  pieces  set  by  him  were — The  Prisoner, 
1792;  The  Mariners,  1793;  Caernarvon  Castle, 
1793;  The  Adopted  Child,  1795;  The  Poor 
Sailor,  1795  ;  The  Smugglers,  1796  ;  The  Mouth 
of  the  Nile,  1 798  ;  The  Devil  of  a  Lover,  1 798  ; 
A  Day  at  Rome,  1798;  The  Castle  of  Sorrento, 
1 799 ;  The  Red  Cross  Knights,  1 799  ;  The  Old 
CJothesman,  1 799  ;  The  Magic  Oak,  1 799  ;  True 
Friends,  1800  ;  The  Dominion  of  Fancy,  1800  ; 
The  Escapes,  or.  The  Water  Carrier  (partly 
selected  from  Cherubini's  *Les  Deux  Joumees,' 
and  partly  original),  1801  ;  II  Bondocani,  1801; 
St.  David's  Day,  1801  ;  and.  The  Curfew,  1807. 
He  also  contributed  two  songs  to  *Guy  Man- 
nering,'  181 6. 

Later  in  life  Attwood  devoted  his  attention 
more  to  cathedral  music.  A  volume  of  his 
church  compositions,  containing  four  services, 
eight  anthems,  and  nine  chants,  was  published 
about  fifteen  years  after  his  death,  under  the 
editorship  of  his  godson.  Dr.  Thomas  Attwood 
Walmisley.  Besides  these  compositions  Attwood 
produced  two  anthems  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniments ;  one,  '  I  was  glad  '  (a  remarkably  fine 
composition),  for  the  coronation  of  George  IV, 
and  the  other,  '  0  Lord,  grant  the  King  a  long 
life,'  for  that  of  William  IV;  and  he  had  com- 
menced a  third,  intended  for  the  coronation  of 
Queen  Victoria,  when  his  career  was  closed  by 
death.  He  also,  following  the  example  of  Mat- 
thew Lock,  composed  a  '  KjTie  eleison,'  with 
different  music  for  each  repetition  of  the  words. 
Attwood  produced  many  sonatas  and  lessons  for 
the  pianoforte,  and  numerous  songs  and  glees. 
Of  his  songs,  *  The  Soldier's  Dream'  long  main- 
tained its  popularity ;  and  of  his  glees,  '  In  peace 
Love  tunes  the  shepherd's  reed,'  and  '  To  all  that 
breathe  the  air  of  Heaven,'  are  still  well  known 
to  all  admirers  of  that  species  of  music.  Att- 
wood" s  compositions  are  distinguished  by  purity 
and  taste  as  well  as  by  force  and  expression. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  Attwood,  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Mozart,  was  one  of  the  first 
among  English  musicians  to  recognise  the  genius 
of  the  young  Mendelssohn.  A  friendship  sprang 
up  between  the  two  composers  which  was  only 
broken  by  the  death  of  the  elder.  Thus  the 
talented  Englishman  appears  as  a  connecting 
link  between  the  two  gifted  Germans.  Several 
of  Mendelssohn's  published  letters  were  written 
from  Attwood's  villa  at  Norwood,  his  three 
Preludes  and  Fugues  for  the  organ  are  dedicated 
to  him,  and  the  autograph  of  a  Kjo-ie  eleison  in 
A  minor  is  inscribed  '  For  Mr.  Attwood  ;  Berlin, 
24  March,  1833.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

AUBADE.  A  French  term  (from  auhe,  the 
dawn),  answering  to  nocturne  or  serenade.  It 
was  originally  applied  to  music  performed  in  the 
morning,  and  apparently  to  concerted  music 
(Littre)  ;  but  is  now  almost  confined  to  music  for 
the  piano,  and  an  Aubade  has  no  distinct  form 
or  character  of  its  own.  Stephen  Heller  and 
Schulhoff  have  written  pieces  bearing  this  title. 

AUBER,  Daniel-Fbancois-Esprit,  was  bom 
January  29,  17S4  (according  to  Fetis,  17S2),  at 
Caen,  where  his  parents  were  on  a  visit.  The 


102 


AUBER. 


AUBEE. 


family,  although  of  Norman  origin,  had  been 
settled  in  Paris  for  two  generations,  and  that  me- 
tropolis was  always  considered  as  his  home  by  our 
composer.  In  his  riper  years  he  hardly  ever  left 
it  for  a  single  day,  and  not  even  the  dangers  of 
the  Prussian  siege  could  induce  the  then  more 
than  octogenarian  to  desert  his  beloved  city.  Al- 
though destined  by  his  father  for  a  commercial 
career,  young  Auber  began  to  evince  his  talent  for 
music  at  a  very  early  period.  At  the  age  of  eleven 
he  wrote  a  number  of  ballads  and  'Romances,' 
much  en  vogue  amongst  the  elegant  ladies  of 
the  Directoire  ;  one  of  them  called  '  Bonjour '  is 
said  to  have  been  very  popular  at  the  time.  A 
few  years  later  we  find  Auber  in  London,  nomi- 
nally as  commercial  clerk,  but  in  reality  more 
than  ever  devoted  to  his  art.  Here  also  his  vocal 
compositions  are  said  to  have  met  with 
great  success  in  fashionable  drawing-rooms  ;  his 
personal  timidity  however — a  feature  of  his 
character  which  remained  to  him  during  his 
whole  life — prevented  the  young  artist  from 
reaping  the  full  benefit  of  his  precocious  gifts. 
In  consequence  of  the  breach  of  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens  (1804)  Auber  had  to  leave  England, 
and  on  his  return  to  Paris  we  hear  nothing  more 
of  his  commercial  pursuits.  Music  had  now 
engrossed  all  his  thoughts  and  faculties.  His 
deMut  as  an  instrumental  composer  was  ac- 
companied by  somewhat  peculiar  circumstances. 
Auber  had  become  acquainted  with  Lamarre,  a 
violoncello-player  of  considerable  reputation  ;  and 
to  suit  the  peculiar  style  of  his  friend,  our  com- 
poser wrote  several  concertos  for  his  instrument, 
which  originally  appeared  under  Lamarre's  name, 
but  the  real  authorship  of  which  soon  transpired. 
The  reputation  thus  acquired  Auber  increased 
by  a  violin -concerto  written  for  and  first  played 
by  Mazas  at  the  Conservatoire  with  signal 
success ;  it  has  since  been  introduced  here  by 
M,  Sainton.  His  first  attempt  at  dramatic  com- 
position was  of  a  very  modest  kind.  It  consisted 
in  the  re  setting  of  an  old  opera-libretto  called 
'Julie'  for  a  society  of  amateurs  (in  181 1  or  12). 
The  orchestra  was  composed  of  two  violins,  two 
violas,  violoncello,  and  double-bass.  The  re- 
ception of  the  piece  was  favourable.  Cherubini, 
the  ruler  of  the  operatic  stage  at  that  time,  was 
amongst  the  audience,  and  recognising  at  once 
the  powerful  though  untrained  genius  of  the 
young  composer,  he  offered  to  superintend  his 
further  studies.  To  the  instruction  of  this 
great  composer  Auber  owed  his  mastery  over  the 
technical  difficulties  of  his  art.  As  his  next 
work,  we  mention  a  mass  written  for  the  private 
chapel  of  the  Prince  de  Chimay,  from  which  the 
beautiful  a  capclla  prayer  in  'Masaniello'  is 
taken.  His  first  opera  publicly  performed  was  'Le 
Sejour  militaire,'  and  was  played  in  18 13  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau.  Its  reception  was  anything 
but  favourable,  and  so  discouraged  was  the 
youthful  composer  by  this  unexpected  failure  that 
for  six  years  he  refrained  from  repeating  the 
attempt.  His  second  opera,  *Le  Testament,  ou 
les  Billets-doux,'  brought  out  at  the  Opera 
Comique  in  1819,  proved  again  unsuccessful,  but 


Auber  was  now  too  certain  of  his  vocation  to  be 
silenced  by  a  momentary  disappointment.  He 
immediately  set  to  work  again,  and  his  next 
opera,  'La  Bergere  chatelaine,'  first  performed 
in  the  following  year,  to  a  great  extent  realised 
his  bold  expectations  of  ultimate  success.  The 
climax  and  duration  of  this  success  were,  to  a 
great  extent,  founded  on  Auber's  friendship  and 
artistic  alliance  with  Scribe,  one  of  the  most 
fertile  playwrights  and  the  most  skilful  librettist 
of  modern  times.  To  this  union,  which  lasted 
unbroken  till  Scribe's  death,  a  great  number  of 
both  comic  and  serious  operas  owe  their  existence, 
not  all  equal  in  value  and  beauty,  but  all  evincing 
in  various  degrees  the  inexhaustible  productive 
power  of  their  joint  authors.  Our  space  will  not 
allow  us  to  insert  a  complete  list  of  Auber's 
numerous  dramatic  productions ;  we  must  limit 
ourselves  to  mentioning  those  amongst  his  works 
which  by  their  intrinsic  value  or  external  grace  of 
execution  have  excited  the  particular  admira- 
tion of  contemporary  audiences,  or  on  which 
their  author's  claim  to  immortality  sepms  chiefly 
to  rest.  We  name  'Leicester,'  1822  (being  the 
first  of  Auber's  operas  with  a  libretto  by  Scribe) ; 
'Le  Ma9on,'  1825  (Auber's  chef-d'ceuvre  in 
comic  opera) ;  *La  Muette  de  Portici'  (Masani- 
ello)  1828;  'Era  Diavolo,'  1830;  'Lestocq,' 
1835;  *Le  Cheval  de  Bronze,  1835;  'L'Am- 
bassadrice,'  1836;  *Le  Domino  noir,'  1837; 
'Les  Diamans  de  la  couronne,'  1841  ;  'Carlo 
Broschi,'  1842  ;  'Haydee,'  1847;  'L'Enfant  pro- 
digue,'  1850;  '  Zerline,'  1851  (written  for 
Madame  Alboni) ;  'Manon  Lescaut,'  1856; 
'La  fiancee  du  Roi  des  Garbes,'  1867;  'Le 
premier  jour  de  bonheur,'  1868;  and  'Le  R6ve 
d' amour,'  first  performed  in  December  1869  at 
the  Opera  Comique. 

Auber's  position  in  the  history  of  his  art  may 
be  defined  as  that  of  the  last  great  representative 
of  opera  comique,  a  phase  of  dramatic  music  in 
which  more  than  in  any  other  the  peculiarities 
of  the  French  character  have  found  their  full 
expression.  In  such  works  as  'Le  Ma9on'  or 
'Les  Diamans  de  la  couronne,'  Auber  has 
rendered  the  chevaleresque  grace,  the  verve, 
and  amorous  sweetness  of  French  feeling  in  a 
manner  both  charming  and  essentially  national. 
It  is  here  that  he  proves  himself  to  be  the 
legitimate  follower  of  Boieldieu  and  the  more 
than  equal  of  Herold  and  Adam.  With  these 
masters  Auber  shares  the  charm  of  melody 
founded  on  the  simple  grace  of  the  popular 
chanson,  the  piquancy  of  rhythm  and  the  care 
bestowed  upon  the  distinct  enunciation  of  the 
words  characteristic  of  the  French  school.  Like 
them  also  he  is  unable  or  perhaps  unwilling  to 
divest  his  music  of  the  peculiarities  of  his  own 
national  type.  We  have  on  purpose  cited  the 
'  Diamans  de  la  couronne '  o,s  evincing  the  charm 
of  French  feeling,  although  the  scene  of  that 
opera  is  laid  in  Portugal.  Like  George  Brown 
and  the  'tribu  d'Avenel'  in  Boieldieu's  'Dame 
Jilanche,'  Auber's  Portuguese  are  in  reality 
Frenchmen  in  disguise ;  a  disguise  put  on  more 
for  the  sake  of  pretty  show  than  of  actual 


AUBER. 


AUER. 


108 


deception.  We  here  recognise  again  that 
amalgamating  force  of  French  culture  to  which 
all  civilised  nations  have  to  some  extent  sub- 
mitted. But  so  great  is  the  charm  of  the  natural 
grace  and  true  gaiete  de  cceiir  with  which 
Auber  endows  his  creations  that  somehow  we 
forget  the  incongruity  of  the  mongrel  type.  In 
comparing  Auber's  individual  merits  with  those 
of  other  masters  of  his  school,  of  Boieldieu  for 
instance,  we  should  say  that  he  surpasses  them 
all  in  brilliancy  of  orchestral  effects.  He  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  decidedly  inferior  to  the 
last-mentioned  composer  as  regards  the  structure 
of  his  concerted  pieces.  Auber  here  seems  to 
lack  that  firm  grasp  which  enables  the  musician, 
by  a  distinct  grouping  of  individual  components, 
to  blend  into  a  harmonious  whole  what  seems 
most  contradictory,  yet  without  losing  hold  of 
the  single  parts  of  the  organism.  His  ensembles 
are  therefore  frequently  slight  in  construction  ; 
his  style  indeed  may  be  designated  as  essentially 
homophonous  ;  but  he  is  (perhaps  for  the  same 
reason)  a  master  in  the  art  of  delineating  a 
character  by  touches  of  subtlest  refinement. 

Amongst  his  serious  operas  it  is  particularly  one 
work  which  perhaps  more  than  any  other  has  con- 
tributed to  its  author's  European  reputation,  but 
which  at  the  same  time  difiers  so  entirely  from 
Auber's  usual  style,  that  without  the  most 
indubitable  proofs  one  would  hardly  believe  it 
to  be  written  by  the  gracefid  and  melodious  but 
anything  but  passionately  grand  composer  of 
'  Le  Dieu  et  la  Bayadere  'or  '  Le  Cheval  de 
Bronze.'  We  are  speaking  of  *La  Muette  de 
Portici,'  in  this  country  conun only  caUed,  after  its 
chief  hero,  *  Masaniello.'  In  it  the  most  violent 
passions  of  excited  popular  fury  have  their  fullest 
sway  ;  in  it  the  heroic  feelings  of  self-surrendering 
love  and  devotion  are  expressed  in  a  manner 
both  grand  and  original ;  in  it  even  the  traditional 
forms  of  the  opera  seem  to  expand  with  the 
impetuous  feeling  embodied  in  them.  Auber's  style 
in  MasanieUo  is  indeed  as  different  as  can  be 
miagined  from  his  usual  elegant  but  somewhat 
frigid  mode  of  utterance,  founded  on  Boieldieu 
with  a  strong  admixture  of  Rossini.  Wagner, 
who  undoubtedly  is  a  good  judge  in  the  matter, 
and  certainly  free  from  undue  partiality  in  the 
French  master's  favour,  acknowledges  in  this 
opera  *  the  bold  effects  in  the  instrumentation, 
particularly  in  the  treatment  of  the  strings,  the 
drastic  grouping  of  the  choral  masses  which  here 
for  the  first  time  take  an  important  part  in  the 
action,  no  less  than  original  harmonies  and  happy 
strokes  of  dramatic  characterisation.'  Various 
conjectures  have  been  propounded  to  account  for 
this  singular  and  never- again-attained  flight  of 
inspiration.  It  has  been  said  for  instance  that 
the  most  stirring  melodies  of  the  opera  are  of 
popular  Neapolitan  origin,  but  this  has  been 
contradicted  emphatically  by  the  composer  himself. 
The  solution  of  the  enigma  seems  to  us  to  lie  in 
the  thoroughly  revolutionised  feeling  of  the  time 
(1828),  wliich  two  years  afterwards  was  to  explode 
the  established  governments  of  France  and  other 
countries.    This  opera  was  indeed  destined  to 


become  historically  connected  with  the  popular 
movement  of  that  eventful  period.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  riots  in  Brussels  began  after  a 
performance  of  the  'Muette  de  Portici'  (August 
25,  1830),  which  drove  the  Dutch  out  of  the 
country,  and  thus  in  a  manner  acted  the  part  of 
'  Lilliburlero.'  There  is  a  sad  significance  in  the 
fact  that  the  death  (May  13,  1871)  of  the  author 
of  this  revolutionary  inspiration  was  surrounded 
and  indeed  partly  caused  by  the  terrors  of  the 
Paris  commune. 

About  Auber's  life  little  remains  to  be  added. 
He  received  marks  of  highest  distinction  from  his 
own  and  foreign  sovereigns.  Louis  Philippe  made 
him  Director  of  the  Conservatoire,  and  Napoleon 
III  added  the  dignity  of  Imperial  Maitre-de- 
Chapelle.  He  however  never  acted  as  conductor, 
perhaps  owing  to  the  timidity  already  alluded  to. 
Indeed  he  never  was  present  at  the  performance 
of  his  own  works.  When  questioned  about  this 
extraordinary  circumstance,  he  is  said  to  have 
returned  the  characteristic  answer,  '  Si  j'assistais 
h,  un  de  mes  ouvrages,  je  n'ecrirais  de  ma  vie  une 
note  de  musique.'  His  habits  were  gentle  and 
benevolent,  slightly  tinged  with  epicureanism. 
He  was  a  thorough  Pai'isian,  and  the  honmots 
related  of  him  are  legion.  [F.  H.] 

AUBERT,  Jacques  ('le  vieux'),  an  eminent 
French  violinist  and  composer,  bom  towards  the 
end  of  the  1 7th  century.  He  was  violinist  in  the 
royal  band,  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera,  and  the 
Concerts  Spirituels.  In  1 748  he  was  nominated 
leader  of  the  band  and  director  of  the  Due  de 
Bourbon's  private  music.  He  died  at  Belleville 
near  Paris  in  1753. 

The  catalogue  of  his  published  compositions 
contains  five  books  of  violin  sonatas  with  a  bass  ; 
twelve  suites  en  trio  ;  two  books  of  concertos  for 
four  violins,  cello  and  bass ;  many  airs  and 
minuets  for  two  violins  and  bass ;  an  opera  and 
a  ballet.  All  these  works  are  of  good,  correct 
workmanship,  and  some  movements  of  the  sonatas 
are  certainly  not  devoid  of  earnest  musical 
feeling  and  character. 

His  son  Louis,  born  in  1720,  was  also  violinist 
at  the  Opera  and  the  Concert  Spirituel,  and 
published  a  number  of  violin  compositions  and 
some  ballets,  which  however  are  very  inferior 
to  his  father's  works.  He  retired  from  public 
activity  in  17  71.  [P.  D.] 

AUBERT,  Pierre  Francois  Olivier,  vio- 
loncellist, bom  at  Amiens  in  1763,  for  twenty- 
five  years  member  of  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera 
Comique  at  Paris.  His  chief  merit  is  having 
published  two  good  instruction  books  for  the 
violoncello  at  a  time  when  a  work  of  that  kind 
was  much  needed.  He  wrote  also  string  quar- 
tets, sonatas  and  duets  for  violoncello,  and  a 
pamphlet  entitled  'Histoire  abrege'e  de  la  musique 
ancienne  et  moderne.'  [T.  P.  H.] 

AUER,  Leopold,  bom  May  28,  1S45,  at 
Veszprem  in  Hungary,  an  eminent  ^^olin-playe^, 
was  a  pupil  of  Dont  at  the  Vienna  Conser\\atorio 
and  afterwards  of  Joachim.  From  1 863  to  1 865 
he  was  leader  of  the  orchestra  at  Diisseldorf, 


104 


AUER. 


AUGMENTED  INTEEVAL. 


from  1866  to  1867  at  Hamburg,  and  since  1868 
he  has  lived  at  St.  Petersburg  as  solo-violinist  to 
the  court,  though  frequently  visiting  London. 

Auer  has  all  the  qualities  of  a  great  violinist — 
lullness  of  tone,  perfect  mastery  over  all  techni- 
cal difficulties,  and  genuine  musical  feeling.  His 
success  in  the  principal  touras  of  the  continent,  as 
well  as  in  London,  has  been  very  great.    [P.  D.] 

AUGARTEN.  The  well-known  public  garden 
on  the  Au,  or  meadow,  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Donau- Canal,  in  the  Leopoldstadt  suburb  of 
Vienna,  interesting  to  the  musician  from  its  having 
been,  like  our  own  Vauxhall  and  Eanelagh,  the 
place  of  performance — often  first  performance — 
of  many  a  masterpiece.  It  was  dedicated  to  the 
public  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  and  was  opened 
on  April  30,  1775.  At  first  it  appears  to  have 
been  merely  a  wood  ;  then  a  garden  — '  the 
Tuileries  garden  of  Vienna' — but  after  a  time 
a  concert -room  was  built,  and  in  1782  summer 
morning  concerts  were  started  by  Martin,  a 
well-known  entrepreneur  of  the  day,  in  associa- 
tion with  Mozart,  then  at  the  height  of  his 
genius.  Mozart  mentions  the  project  in  a  letter 
(May  18,  1782)  to  his  father,  and  the  first  series 
of  the  concerts  opened  on  the  26th  of  May,  under 
brilliant  patronage,  attracted  partly  by  the  novelty 
of  music  so  nearly  in  the  open  air,  by  the  beauty 
of  the  spot,  and  by  the  excellence  of  the  music 
announced.  The  enterprise  changed  hands  re- 
peatedly, until,  about  the  year  1800,  the  concerts 
were  directed  by  Schuppanzigh,  the  violin -player, 
of  Beethoven  notoriety.  They  did  not  however 
maintain  their  high  character  or  their  popularity, 
but  had  to  suffer  the  inevitable  fate  of  all  similar 
institutions  which  aim  over  the  heads  of  those 
whom  they  wish  to  attract.  In  181 3  they  were 
in  the  hands  of  the  'Hof-Traiteur'  and  Wranitzky 
the  musician.  By  1830  performers  of  eminence 
had  ceased  to  appear,  then  the  performances  in 
the  Augarten  dwindled  to  one  on  the  ist  May,  a 
great  annual  festival  with  the  Viennese  ;  and  at 
length  they  ceased  altogether  in  favour  of  other 
spots  more  fashionable  or  less  remote,  and  the 
garden  reverted  to  its  original  use  as  a  mere  place 
for  walking  and  lounging.  But  its  musical  glories 
cannot  be  forgotten.  Here  Mozart  was  to  be  seen 
and  heard  in  at  least  one  series  of  concerts,  at 
each  of  which  some  great  symphony  or  concerto 
was  doubtless  heard  for  the  first  time  ;  and  here 
Beethoven  produced  one  (if  not  more)  of  his 
masterpieces — the  Kreutzer  sonata,  which  was 
played  there  (May  1803)  by  Bridgetower  and 
himself,  the  two  first  movements  being  read  from 
autograph  and  copy  dashed  down  only  just  before 
the  commencement  of  the  concert.  Besides  this, 
his  first  five  symphonies,  his  overtures,  and  three 
first  pianoforte  concertos  were  stock  pieces  in  the 
programmes  of  the  Augarten.  The  concerts  took 
place  on  Thursday  mornings,  at  the  curiously 
early  hour  of  half-past  seven,  and  even  seven. 
Mayseder,  Czemy,  Stein,  Clement,  Linke,  Mos- 
cheles,  and  many  other  great  artists  were  heard 
there.  (The  above  information  is  obtained  from 
Hanslick's  'Concertwesen  in  Wien,'  and  Eies's 
'Noti25en.')  [G.] 


AUGMENTATION.  This  term  is  used  to 
express  the  appearance  of  the  subject  of  a  fugue 
in  notes  of  double  the  original  value,  e.g. 
crotchets  for  quavers,  minims  for  crotchets,  etc., 
and  is  thus  the  opposite  to  Diminution.  Or  it  is 
a  kind  of  imitation,  or  canon,  where  the  same 
thing  takes  place.  Dr.  Benjamin  Cooke's  cele- 
brated canon  by  double  augmentation  (engraved 
on  his  tombstone)  begins  as  follows,  and  is  per- 
haps the  best  instance  on  record. 


We  subjoin  by  way  of  example  one  of  a  simpler 
kind  by  Cherub ini. 

1^1  I 


I 


When  introduced  into  the  development  of  a 
fugue,  augmentation  often  produces  a  great 
eflPect.  As  examples  we  may  cite  the  latter 
part  of  Handel's  chorus  '0  first  created  beam' 
in  '  Samson ' ;  the  concluding  chorus  of  Dr. 
Hayes'  anthem  'Great  is  the  Lord';  Dr.  Croft's 
fine  chorus  'Cry  aloud  and  shout';  Leo's  *Tu 
es  Sacerdos'  in  F,  in  his  'Dixit  Dominus'  in  A' ; 
and  several  of  J.  Sebastian  Bach's  fugues  in  his 
'  Wohltemperirte  Clavier.'  The  old  Italian 
church  composers  were  very  fond  of  introducing 
augmentation,  especially  towards  the  end  of  a 
choral  fugue,  and  in  the  bass.  They  would  call 
it  '  La  fuga  aggravata  nel  Basso.'  Fine  examples 
are  found  in  '  Amens '  by  Leo,  Bonno,  and  Cafaro, 
in  NoveUo's  FitzwiUiam  music.       [F.  A.  G.  0.] 

AUGMENTED  INTEEVAL.  An  interval 
which  is  extended  by  the  addition  of  a  semitone 
to  its  normal  dimension.  The  following  examples 
show  the  augmentations  of  intervals  commonly 
used : — 


Perfect  Augmented  fourth, 
fourth.        .  or  tritone. 


Perfect  Aupmented 
fifth.  fifth. 


Maior  Augmented,  or  extreme 
sixth.  sharp  sixth. 


[W.  p.] 


AUSWAHL. 


AVERY. 


105 


AUSWAHL  VORZUGLICHER  MUSIK- 
WERKE,  a  collection  of  ancient  and  modem 
music  in  strict  style,  published  with  the  counte- 
nance of  the  'Konigliche  Akademie  derKiinste' 
of  Berlin  in  1840  (8vo.  Trautwein).  It  con- 
tains : — 


1.  Fugue, '  Tu  Rex.'  Graun. 

2.  Do. '  Meine  Zunge.'  Fasch. 

3.  Do.from4tett,Finin.  J.Haydn. 

4.  Do. '  Halleluja."  Handel. 

5.  Do. 'Di  ralimeuta."  Naumann. 

6.  Do.  for  Org.,  G  minor.  Fr.Bach. 

7.  Fugue,  "Auf,  dass  wir."  C.  P.  E. 

Bach. 

8.  Do.'Lobet  selnenNamen."  Fesca. 

9.  Do.forPiauo, Bb.  Kirnberger. 
la  Canon,  Kyrie.  Fux. 

U.  Fig.  Choral,  Ich  lasse.    J.  S. 
[J.  C.J  Bach. 

12.  Fugue  for  Piano  in  F.  Clementi. 

13.  Do.  Gott  ist  ofifeubaret.  Keiser. 

14.  Kyrie.  Lotti. 

15.  Fugue  for  Piano,  D  m.  Marpurg. 

16.  Do.  2  Choirs,  '  Durch  deuselbi- 

gen.'  J.  C.  Bach. 

17.  Christe.  Graun. 

18.  Fugue  for  Piano,  A  min.  Tele- 

mann. 

19.  Do. '  Christe.'  Hasse. 

20.  Do.  '  Quam  olim,"  M.  Haydn. 

21.  Do.  for  Piano  in  C.  Mozart. 

22.  Motet,'Wasbetriibst.'H.Schiitz. 

23.  Fig.Choral.'EwigerLob.'Zelter. 

24.  Fugue  for  Org.  in  C.  Pachelbel. 

25.  Kyrie.  F.  Schneider. 

26.  Fugue,  '  Lasst  uns.'  Spohr. 

27.  Do.  for  4tett  in  C.  Kelz. 

28.  Motet  (a  6)  '  Tu  es  Petrus.'  Pa- 

lestrina, 

29.  Canon, 'Sanctus' and 'Hosanna.' 

Horsley. 

30.  Fugue  for  Organ,  in  Bb.  Paster- 

witz. 

31.  Benedictus,  etc.  Salieri. 

32.  Fugue,    'Tu    ad  dexteram.' 

Buugenhagen. 


33.  Do.  for  Org.,  B  b.  Albrechts- 

berger. 

34.  Motet, 'HilfHerr.'  Homilius. 

35.  Fugue,  'Time  imponeut."  Jo- 

melli. 

36.  Do.  for  4tett,  A  min.  Gassmann. 

37.  Do.  '  Mai  non  turbarsi."  Mar- 

cello. 

38.  'Ave  Maria.'  Klein. 

39.  Fugue,  for  4tett  in  C.  Henning. 

40.  Do. 'Timentibus.'  Vierliiig. 

41.  Do.  '  Et  in  saecula.*  Caldara. 

42.  Do.  for  Organ  (4  subj.).  Fres- 

cobaldi. 

43.  '  Eja  mater.'  Astorga. 

44.  Fughetta, 'CumSanctc'  Eeiss- 

iger. 

45.  Introd.  and  Fugue  for  Org.  M. 

G.  Fischer. 

46.  Motet,  '  0  d'  immenso.'    J.  A. 

Perti. 

47.  Fugue, 'Halleluja.'  G.Harrer. 

48.  Do.  for  Piano,  in  F.  N.LeBegue. 

Some  copies  have  an  Appendix : 
Aria, '  Ingemesco.'  Durante. 
Do.  Agnus.  J.  S.  Bach. 
Duet,  '  Occhi  perche.'  Steffani. 
'  Salve  Kegina.'  Pergolesi. 
'  O  my  Irene '  (Theodora).  Handel. 
Chorus  and  Air  (Israeliten).  C.  P. 
E.  Bach. 

Duet  and  Chorus  (Morgengesang) 

Eeichardt. 
Solo  and  Chorus  (Do.)  Do. 
Aria,  '  Pieta  Signore.'  Hasse. 
Scena  (Davidde  pen.).  Xaumann. 
Trio, '  Dominus.  Leo. 
'  Gratias '  and  'Deus  Pater.'  F.  Feo. 


AUTHENTIC.  Such  of  the  ecclesiastical 
modes  are  called  authentic  as  have  their  sounds 
comprised  within  an  octave  from  the  final. 
They  are  as  foUow,  in  order  of  the  Gregorian 
system : — 


No. 

Mode. 

Compass. 

Final. 

Dominant. 

1 

Dorian 

DtoD 

D 

A 

3 

Phrygian 

E  toE 

E 

C 

5 

Lydian 

F  to  F 

F 

C 

7 

Mixolydian 

GtoG 

G 

D 

9 

.ilolian 

A  to  A 

A 

E 

11 

Ionian  or  lastian 

CtoC 

C 

G 

A  mode,  or  tone,  or  scale,  must  be  made  up  of 
the  union  of  a  perfect  fifth  (diapente)  and  a 
perfect  fourth  (diatessaron).  In  the  authentic 
modes  the  fifth  is  below,  and  the  fourth  above. 
Thus  in  mode  i  from  D  to  A  is  a  perfect  fifth, 
and  from  A  to  the  upper  D,  or  final,  a  perfect 
fourth.  In  mode  9,  from  A  to  E  is  a  perfect 
fifth,  and  from  E  to  the  upper  A,  or  final,  a 
perfect  fourth,  and  so  on. 

In  all  these  the  fifths  and  fourths  are  perfect ; 
but  no  scale  or  mode  could  be  made  upon  B  in 
conformity  with  this  theory,  for  from  B  to  F  is  an 
imperfect  fifth  and  fi-om  F  to  the  upper  B  is  a 
tritone  or  pluperfect  fourth,  both  which  intervals 
are  forbidden  in  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  melody. 
This  may  serve  also  to  explain  the  irregularity  of 
the  dominant  of  the  third  mode.  In  all  the  other 
authentic  modes  the  fifth  note  of  the  scale  is  the 
dominant ;  but  in  the  third  mode,  the  fifth  being 


B,  and  consequently  bearing  forbidden  relations 
with  F  the  fourth  below  it  and  F  the  fifth  above 
it,  B  was  not  used,  but  C  the  sixth  was  sub- 
stituted for  it  as  the  dominant.  It  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  melodic  and  not  harmonic  con- 
siderations lay  at  the  foundation  of  all  these 
rules,  and  that  the  'dominant'  then  meant  the 
prevailing  or  predominant  sound  in  the  melody  of 
the  tone  or  scale.  The  prefix  hyper  (or  over)  is 
often  added  to  the  name  of  any  authentic  mode 
in  the  sense  of  upper,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
corresponding  plagal  mode,  to  which  the  word 
hypo  (under  or  lower)  was  prefixed.  Thus  while 
the  authentic  Dorian  or  hyperdorian  scale  ran 
from  D  to  D,  its  plagal,  the  hypodorian,  began 
on  the  A  below  and  ran  to  its  octave,  the 
dominant  of  the  authentic  scale.  'Ein  feste 
Burg'  and  *  Eisenach'  are  examples  of '  authentic' 
melodies,  and  the  Old  looth  and  Hanover  of 
'plagal'  ones.    [Gregorian  Tones.] 

The  meaning  of  the  term  *  authentic '  is 
variously  stated.  It  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
verb  avOevreoj,  to  rule,  to  assume  authority  over, 
as  if  the  authentic  modes  ruled  and  had  the 
superiority  over  their  respective  plagal  modes. 
They  are  also  called  authentic  as  being  the  true 
modes  promulgated  by  the  authority  of  St. 
Ambrose;  or  as  authentically  derived  from  the 
ancient  Greek  system ;  or  as  being  formed  (as 
above  stated)  of  the  perfect  diapente  (or  fifth)  in 
the  lower,  and  of  the  perfect  diatessaron  (or  fourth) 
in  the  upper  part  of  their  scales,  which  is  the 
harmonic  division,  and  more  musically  authorita- 
tive than  the  arithmetical  division  which  has 
the  fourth  below  and  the  fifth  above.        [T.  H.] 

AUXCOUSTEAUX,  Arthur  d',  born  in 
Picardy  at  Beauvais  (Magnin)  or  St,  Quentin 
(Gomart).  His  family  coat  of  arms  contains 
a  pun  on  his  name ;  it  is  '  Azur  a  trois 
cousteaux,  d' argent  garnis  d'or.'  He  was  a 
singer  in  the  church  of  Noyon,  of  which  fact 
there  is  a  record  in  the  library  of  Amiens. 
Then  he  became  'Maistre  de  la  Sainte  Chapelle' 
at  Paris,  and,  as  appears  from  the  preface  to 
a  psalter  of  Godeau's  published  by  Pierre  le 
petit,  '  haut  centre '  in  the  chapel  of  Louis  XIII. 
He  died  in  1656,  the  year  of  publication  of  the 
psalter  just  mentioned.  He  left  many  masses 
and  chansons,  all  printed  by  Ballard  of  Paris. 
His  style  is  remarkably  in  advance  of  his 
contemporaries,  and  Fetis  believes  him  to  have 
studied  the  Italian  masters.  [F.  G.] 

AVERY,  John.  A  celebrated  orgau-builder, 
who  built  a  number  of  instruments,  ranging 
between  1775  and  1808.  Nothing  whatever  is 
known  of  his  life  :  he  died  in  1 808,  while  engaged 
in  finishing  the  organ  of  Carlisle  Cathedral.  The 
organs  he  is  recorded  to  have  built,  are — St. 
Stephen's,  Coleman-street,  1775  ;  Croydon  Church, 
Surrey,  1794  (destroyed  by  fire  in  1866) ;  Win- 
chester Cathedral,  1799;  Christ  Church,  Bath, 
1 800  ;  St.  Margaret's  Church,  Westminster,  1804; 
King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  1804  (some 
of  the  earlier  work  of  Dallam's  organ  was,  no 
doubt,  incorporated  in  this  instrument,  but  the 
case  is  the  original  one,  erected  by  Chapman 


106  AVEEY. 

and  Hartop  In  1606) ;  Sevenoaks  Ghurch,  Kent, 
1798  ;  Carlisle  Cathedral,  1808.         [E.  F.  R.] 

AVISON,  Chakles,  bom  at  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  in  1 710.  When  a  young  man  he  visited 
Italy  for  the  purpose  of  study,  and  after  his  re- 
turn to  England,  became  a  pupil  of  Geminiani. 
On  July  12,  1736,  he  was  appointed  organist  of 
the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  in  his  native  town. 
In  addition  to  his  musical  attainments,  he  was  a 
scholar,  and  a  man  of  some  literary  acquirement. 
In  1752  he  published  the  work  by  which  he  is 
best  known,  *  An  Essay  on  Musical  Expression.' 
It  contains  some  judicious  reflections  on  the  art, 
but  the  division  of  the  modern  authors  into  classes 
is  rather  fanciful  than  just.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  this  work  we  find  the  highest  encomiums 
on  Marcello  and  Geminiani,  frequently  to  the 
disparagement  of  Handel.  In  the  following 
year  it  was  answered  anonymously  by  Dr.  W. 
Hayes,  the  Oxford  professor,  in  a  pamphlet  en- 
titled *  Remarks  on  Mr.  Avison's  Essay  on  Mu- 
sical Expression.'  Hayes  points  out  many  errors 
against  the  rules  of  composition  in  the  works  of 
Avison  ;  and  infers  from  thence  that  his  sldll  in 
the  science  was  not  very  profound.  He  then 
proceeds  to  examine  the  book  itself,  and  seldom 
fails  to  establish  his  point,  and  prove  his  adver- 
sary in  the  wTong.  Before  the  conclusion  of  the 
same  year,  Avison  re -published  his  Essay,  with 
a  reply  to  these  Remarks,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  the  learned  Dr.  Jortin,  who  added 
*A  Letter  to  the  Author,  concerning  the  Music  of 
the  Ancients.'  In  1757  Avison  joined  John 
Garth,  organist  of  Durham,  in  editing  an  edition 
of  Marcello's  Psalms,  adapted  to  English  words. 
He  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  a  Life  of  Mar- 
cello,  and  some  introductory  remarks. 

As  a  composer,  Avison  is  known,  if  at  all,  by 
his  concertos.  Of  these  he  published  five  sets 
for  a  full  band  of  stringed  instruments,  some 
quartets  and  trios,  and  two  sets  of  sonatas  for  the 
harpsichord  and  two  violins — a  species  of  composi- 
tion little  known  in  England  until  his  time.  The 
once  favourite  air,  '  Sound  the  loud  timbrel,'  is 
found  in  one  of  the  concertos.  Geminiani  held 
his  pupil  in  high  esteem,  and  in  1 760  paid  him 
a  visit  at  Newcastle.  He  died  in  1770,  and 
was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  St.  Andrew 
there.  He  was  succeeded  as  organist  of  St. 
Nicholas  by  his  son  and  grandson.  The  former 
died  in  1793  ;  the  latter  in  181 6.  (Hawkins, 
Hist.  ;  Kippis,  Biog.  Brit. ;  Brand,  Newcastle, 
etc.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

AVOGLIO,  SiGXORA,  was  one  of  those  who 
accompanied  Handel  in  his  visit  to  Ireland,  at 
the  end  of  1741.  In  the  newspapers  of  the  time 
she  is  called  'an  excellent  singer,'  and  she  had 
the  honour  of  sharing  with  Mrs.  Gibber  the 
soprano  music  of  the  Messiah  at  its  first  and 
succeeding  performances  in  Dublin.  Handel, 
in  a  letter  to  Jennens,  Dec.  29,  1741,  says, — 
*Sig™  Avolio,  which  I  brought  with  me  from 
London,  pleases  extraordinary.'  She  sang  again 
in  'The  Messiah,'  when  given  in  London,  alter 
Handel's  return  from  Dublin,  dividing  the  so- 
prano part  with  Mrs.  Olive.    Before  this  time, 


AYRTON. 

she  had  sung  with  success  in  the  '  Allegro,  Pen- 
seroso,  and  Moderate';  and  she  appeared  subse- 
quently in  'Semele'  and  in  'Samson,'  1743.  In 
this  last  she  sang  the  famous  'Let  the  bright 
Seraphim'  at  the  first  performance  of  the  oratorio, 
Feb.  18.  [J.  M.] 

AVVERTIMENTO  AI  GELOSI,  UN,  an 
Italian  opera  by  Balfe — his  second — produced  at 
Pavia  in  1830  or  31,  chiefly  worth  notice  because 
of  the  fact  that  in  it  Ronconi  made  his  second 
public  appearance. 

AYLWARD,  Theodore,  Mus.  Doc,  was  bom 
in  or  about  1730.  Of  his  early  career  but  little 
information  can  be  gleaned.  We  find  him  in  1 755 
composing  for  the  church,  and  in  1759  for  the 
theatre.  In  1769  the  Catch  Club  awarded  him 
the  prize  medal  for  his  serious  glee,  '  A  cruel 
fate,'  a  surprising  decision,  as  one  of  the  com- 
peting compositions  was  Ame's  fine  glee,  '  Come 
shepherds  we'll  follow  the  hearse.'  On  June  5, 
1 771,  Aylward  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music 
in  Gresham  College.  In  1 784  he  was  nominated 
one  of  the  assistant  directors  of  the  Commemo- 
ration of  Handel.  In  1788  he  succeeded  William 
Webb  as  organist  and  master  of  the  choristers 
of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  On  Nov.  19, 
i79i,hetook  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music 
at  Oxford,  and  two  days  afterwards  proceeded  to 
that  of  Doctor.  He  died  Feb.  27,  180 1,  aged  70. 
Dr.  Aylward  published  '  Six  Lessons  for  the 
Organ,  Op.  i ' ;  '  Elegies  and  Glees,  Op.  2  '  ; 
'  Six  Songs  in  Harlequin's  Invasion,  Cymbeline, 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  etc.  ;  and  '  Eight 
Canzonets  for  two  soprano  voices.'  Two  glees 
and  a  catch  by  him  are  included  in  Warren's 
collections.  His  church  music,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  two  chants,  remains  in  manuscript. 
Dr.  Aylward  is  said  (on  the  authority  of  Bowles, 
the  poet)  to  have  been  a  good  scholar,  and  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  literary  attainments.  Hay- 
ley,  the  poet,  inscribed  some  lines  to  his  memory. 
Dr.  Aylward's  great  -  great  -  nephew,  Theodore 
Aylward,  is  now  (1876)  the  organist  of  Llandaff 
Cathedral.  [W.  H.  H.] 

AYRTON,  Edmund,  Mus.  Doc.,  was  bom  at 
Ripon,  in  1 734,  and  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  there.  His  father,  a  magistrate  of  the 
borough,  intended  him  for  the  Church,  but  his 
strong  predilection  for  music  induced  his  father 
to  let  him  study  for  that  profession.  He  was 
accordingly  placed  under  Dr.  Nares,  organist  of 
York  Minster,  and  made  such  rapid  progress, 
that  at  an  early  age  he  was  elected  organist, 
auditor,  and  rector-chori  of  the  collegiate  church 
of  Southwell,  where  he  remained  many  years. 
In  1764  he  was  appointed  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal.  He  was  shortly  afterwards 
installed  as  a  vicar-choral  of  St.  Paul's,  and 
afterwards  became  one  of  the  lay-clerks  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  In  1 780  he  was  promoted 
by  Bishop  Lowth  to  the  office  of  Master  of 
the  children  of  His  Majesty's  chapels,  on  the 
resignation  of  Dr.  Nares.  In  1784  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  created  him  Doctor  in 
Music,  some  time  after  which  he  was  admitted 


AYRTON. 


B. 


107 


ad  mndem  by  the  University  of  Oxford.  The 
anthem  by  which  he  obtained  his  degree,  '  Begin 
unto  my  God  with  timbrels,'  was  performed  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  July  28,  1784,  the  day  of 
general  thanksgiving  for  the  termination  of  the 
American  revolutionary  war,  and  was  afterwards 
published  in  score.  In  1 805  he  relinquished  the 
mastership  of  the  children  of  the  chapel,  having 
been  allowed  during  many  years  to  execute  the 
duties  of  his  other  offices  by  deputy.  He  died 
in  1 80S,  and  his  remains  were  deposited  in  the 
cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Dr.  Ayrton's 
contributions  to  the  Church  consist  of  two 
complete  morning  and  evening  services,  and 
several  anthems.  {Mus.  Periodicals  ;  JBiog.  Diet. 
U.  K.  S.)  [E.  F.  E.] 

A  YRTON,  William,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  in  London  in  1777.  He  was  educated 
both  as  a  scholar  and  musician,  and  was  thus 
qualified  to  write  upon  the  art.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Dr.  S.  Arnold,  which  introduced  him 
into  musical  society,  and  he  became  a  fashionable 
teacher.  Upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Aylward,  in 
1801,  h3  was  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Gresham 
Professor  of  Music,  but  was  unsuccessful,  on 
account  of  his  youth.  In  the  pahny  days  of  the 
'Morning  Chronicle'  Mr.  Ayrton  was  its  hono- 
rary musical  and  literary  critic  from  181 3  to  26  ; 
and  he  wrote  the  reviews  of  the  Ancient  Concerts 
and  Philharmonic  Society  in  the  'Examiner' 
from  1837  to  185 1,  also  gratuitously.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  Koyal  and  Antiquarian  Societies, 
and  an  original  member  of  the  Athenaeum  Club. 
He  was  one  of  the  promoters  and  members  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  at  its  foundation  in  181 3, 
and  subsequently  a  director.  More  than  once  he 
held  the  important  post  of  musical  director  of  the 


King's  Theatre,  and  in  that  capacity  had  the 
merit  of  first  introducing  Mozart's  '  Don  Gio- 
vanni'  to  an  English  audience  in  181 7,  and 
afterwards  others  of  Mozart's  operas.  According 
to  a  writer  of  the  period  he  twice,  if  not  oftener, 
regenerated  that  theatre,  when  its  credit  was 
weakened  by  repeated  failures.  In  1823  he 
commenced,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Clowes 
the  printer,  the  publication  of  the  '  Harmoni- 
con,'  a  monthly  musical  periodical,  which  was 
continued  for  eleven  years.  Independently  of 
the  valuable  essays,  biography,  and  criticism  in 
this  work,  it  contains  a  choice  selection  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music.  The  writing  of  this 
journal  and  its  criticisms  upon  the  art  were 
much  in  advance  of  anything  that  had  previously 
appeared  in  England.  Tlus  was  followed  in 
1834  by  the  'Musical  Library,'  a  collection  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  music,  consisting  of  songs, 
duets,  glees,  and  madrigals,  and  a  selection  of 
pianoforte  pieces  and  adaptations  for  that  in- 
strument, and  extending  to  eight  volumes.  A 
supplement  containing  biographical  and  critical 
notices,  theatrical  news,  etc.,  was  issued  monthly, 
making  three  extra  volumes.  He  wrote  the 
musical  articles  for  the  'Penny  Cyclopaedia' ;  the 
chapters  on  music  in  Knight's  '  Pictorial  History 
of  England';  and  the  musical  explanations  for 
the  'Pictorial  Shakespeare.'  His  latest  work 
was  a  well-chosen  collection  of  '  Sacred  Minstrel- 
sy,' published  by  J.  W.  Parker,  in  two  vols.  He 
died  in  1858.  {Imp.  Diet,  of  Biog.  ;  Private 
sources.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

AZOR  AND  ZEMIRA,  or  The  Magic 
Rose,  in  three  acts ;  the  English  version  of 
Spohr's  opera  Zemike  uxd  Azor,  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  April  5th,  1831. 


B. 


BThe  name  of  the  seventh  degree  of  the 
natural  scale  of  C.  In  French  and  Italian 
it  is  called  Si,  and  in  German  H  {Ha), 
the  name  B  being  given  to  our  Bb.    The  reason 
of  this  anomalous  arrangement  is  explained  in 
the  article  Accidentals. 

B  is  an  important  note  in  the  history  of  the 
musical  scale,  since  its  addition  to  the  hexachord 
of  Guido,  which  contained  only  six  notes,  trans- 
formed the  hexachord  at  once  into  the  modern 
scale  of  seven  sounds,  and  obviated  the  necessity 
for  the  so-called  mutations  or  changes  of  name 
which  were  required  whenever  the  melody  passed 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  six  notes  forming  a 
hexachord  (see  that  word).  The  date  of  the 
first  recognition  of  a  seventh  sound  in  addition 
to  the  six  already  belonging  to  the  hexachord  is 
uncertain,  but  Burmeister,  writing  in  1599, 
speaks  of  the  additional  note  as  7iota  adventitia, 
from  which  it  would  appear  that  it  had  not  then 
come  into  general  use. 

At  the  time  when  the  necessity  for  the  intro- 
duction of  accidentals  began  to  be  felt,  B  was 


the  first  note  which  was  subjected  to  alteration,  by 
being  sung  a  semitone  lower,  and  as  it  was  con- 
sidered that  this  change  had  the  effect  of  making 
the  melody  softer  and  less  harsh,  the  altered  B 
(Bb)  was  called  B  molle,  while  the  original  B  re- 
ceived the  name  of  B  durum.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  modem  German  designa- 
tions B  dur  and  B  moll  (which  answer  to  our 
B  flat  major  and  B  flat  minor)  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  older  Latin  names,  as  the  melody 
which  contained  the  B  molle,  and  was  on  that 
account  called  cant  us  mollis,  was  identical  with 
the  modern  key  of  F  major. 

It  is  on  account  of  B  having  been  the  first 
note  to  which  a  flat  was  applied  that  the  name 
of  the  flat  in  German  is  B  (also  written  Be),  and 
that  scales  having  flat  signatures  are  called  B- 
Tonarten. 

Bb  is  the  key  in  which  one  of  the  clarinets  in 
use  in  the  orchestra  is  set,  and  in  which  horns, 
trumpets,  and  certain  brass  instruments  belong- 
ing to  military  bands  can  be  made  to  play  by 
arrangement  of  their  crooks. 


108 


B. 


BACH. 


The  letter  B.  or  col  B.  in  a  score  is  an  abbre- 
^riation  of  Basso,  or  col  Basso,  (See  also  Acci- 
dentals, Alphabet.)  [F.  T.] 

BABAN,  Gracian,  a  Spanish  composer,  musi- 
cal director  in  the  cathedral  of  Valencia  from 
1650  to  1665.  His  masses  and  motets,  written 
for  several  choirs,  are  preserved  at  Valencia. 
A  Psalm  of  his  is  given  by  Eslava. 

BABBINI,  Matteo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
tenor,  was  bom  at  Bologna,  1754.  He  was 
intended  for  the  practice  of  medicine ;  but,,  on 
the  death  of  his  parents,  took  refuge  with  an 
aunt,  the  wife  of  a  musician  named  Cortoni,  The 
latter  instructed  him,  and  cultivated  his  voice, 
making  him  a  good  musician  and  first-rate  singer. 
His  debut  was  so  brilliant  that  he  was  at  once 
engaged  for  the  opera  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
After  staying  a  year  at  Berlin,  he  went  to  Russia, 
into  the  service  of  Catherine  II.  In  1 785,  he  sang 
with  success  at  Vienna  ;  and  in  the  next  season  in 
London,  with  Mara,  when  he  took,  though  a 
tenor,  the  first  man's  part,  there  being  no  male 
soprano  available.  As  far  as  method  and  know- 
ledge went,  he  was  a  very  fine  singer,  but  he  did 
not  please  the  English  cognoscenti ;  his  voice  was 
produced  with  effort,  and  was  not  strong  enough 
to  have  much  effect.  He  sang  again,  however, 
the  next  year  (1787),  and  returning  to  Italy  in 
1789,  appeared  in  Cimarosa's  'Orazi,'  and  was 
afterwards  engaged  at  Turin,  In  1792,  the  King 
of  Prussia  recalled  him  to  Berlin,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  opera  of  'Dario.' 
During  the  next  ten  years  he  sang  at  the  prin- 
cipal Theatres  of  Italy,  and  appeared  in  1802,  at 
Bologna,  though  then  50  years  old,  in  the '  Manlj ' 
of  Niccolini,  and  Mayer's  'Misteri  Eleusini.' 
He  now  retired  from  the  stage  and  settled  in  his 
native  town,  where  he  lived  generally  esteemed 
and  honoured  for  the  noble  use  he  made  of  his 
riches;  and  died  Sept.  21,  18 16.  His  friend, 
Doctor  Pietro  Brighenti,  published  '  Elogio  di 
Matteo  Babbini,'  Bologna,  1822.  [J.  M,] 

BACCUSI,  Ippolito,  an  Italian  monk  and 
musical  composer  of  the  1 6th  century.  The  dates 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  we  find 
him  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  cathedral  of 
Verona  in  1590.  Scipione  Cerreto  gives  an 
indication  of  his  exact  epoch  by  saying  that  he 
had  composed  works  previously  to  1550.  This 
statement  Fetis  disbelieves,  but  he  does  not  say 
why.  Baccusi  was  one  of  the  first  composers  who 
introduced  into  his  accompaniments  to  church 
music  instrumental  parts  in  unison  with  the 
voice,  in  order  to  support  the  singers.  The 
works  in  which  he  applied  this  system  are 
printed  ;  the  first  is  intituled  '  Hippolyti  Baccusi, 
Eccl,  Cath.  Veronae  musicae  magistri,  missce  tres, 
tum  viva  voce  turn  omni  instrumentorum  genere 
cantatu  accommodatissimse,  cum  octo  vocibus, 
Anadino,  Venice,  1596.'  The  other  is  a  volume 
containing  the  psalms  used  at  vespers,  with  two 
Magnificats.  It  has  a  frontispiece  occupied  by 
an  analogous  inscription  of  even  greater  length 
and,  if  possible,  of  even  less  elegant  latinity. 
The  rest  of  his  compositions  consist  principally 


of  masses,  madrigals,  mottetti,  and  psalms,  and 
were  published  for  the  most  part  during  his 
lifetime  by  Venetians  such  as  Gardano  Vincenti 
and  Rampazetti.  Isolated  pieces  of  his  are  found 
in  several  miscellaneous  publications  of  the  period. 
Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  that 
contributed  by  him  to  the  volume  dedicated  by 
fourteen  different  Italian  composers  to  their  great 
contemporary,  Palestrina.  [E.  H.  P.] 

B  A  CH.  Though  the  name  of  Bach  is  famUiar  to 
all  lovers  of  music,  it  is  not  generally  known  that  it 
was  borne  by  a  very  numerous  family  of  musicians 
who  occupied  not  merely  honourable  but  promi- 
nent places  in  the  history  of  their  art  through  a 
period  of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  In  this  family 
musical  talent  was  as  it  were  bequeathed,  and 
it  seems  almost  like  a  law  of  nature  that  the 
scattered  rays  of  the  gift  should  after  a  hundred 
years  finally  concentrate  in  the  genius  of  Johann 
Sebastian,  whose  originality,  depth,  and  force, 
exhibit  a  climax  such  as  only  a  few  great  spirits 
of  any  time  or  country  have  attained.  But  from 
this  climax  the  artistic  power  of  the  race  began 
to  diminish,  and  with  the  second  generation  after 
its  great  representative  was  entirely  extinguished. 
The  history  of  the  Bach  family  is  not  only  a 
guide  towards  a  just  appreciation  of  the  great- 
ness of  Sebastian,  but  it  has  an  independent 
interest  of  its  own  through  the  eminence  of  some 
of  its  individual  members.  Bom  and  bred  in  the 
Thiiringen,  the  heart  of  Germany,  the  family  for 
the  most  part  remained  there  throughout  two 
centuries ;  the  sons  of  Sebastian  being  the  first 
to  spread  to  more  distant  parts.  This  stationary 
condition  naturally  produced  a  strong  family 
feeling.  According  to  tradition  meetings  of  all 
the  members  took  place  for  the  pm"pose  of  social 
intercourse  and  musical  recreation,  and  it  seems 
that  the  brothers  often  married  sisters.  The 
Bachs  always  learned  from  one  another,  for  they 
rarely  had  means  for  seeking  their  education 
elsewhere  ;  thus  the  artistic  sense  and  capacity 
of  the  family  was,  as  we  have  said,  hereditarj", 
and  by  its  undisturbed  activity  during  a  whole 
century  became  an  important  element  in  the 
development  of  Johann  Sebastian.  To  this  family 
unity  also  we  may  ascribe  the  moral  excellence 
and  cultivation  of  the  Bachs. 

Fully  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  these 
qualities  in  the  development  of  the  race,  we  must 
consider  that  these  predecessors  of  Johann 
Sebastian  Hved  in  the  miserable  time  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  in  the  midst  of  the 
moral  indifferentism  and  collapse  of  intellectual 
power  which  distinguished  that  unhappy  period. 
Yet  the  house  of  Bach  exhibits  an  almost  uniform 
example  of  moral  worth  together  with  a  constant 
endeavour  after  the  highest  ideals  —  qualities 
which  are  all  the  greater  because  under  the 
circumstances  of  the  time  they  could  hardly 
meet  with  recognition  or  encouragement. 

In  course  of  time  the  towns  of  Arnstadt,  Erfurt, 
and  Eisenach  became  the  centres  of  the  family  ; 
there  we  find  its  most  important  representatives, 
and  an  uninterrupted  sequence  through  several 
generations  filling  the  same  ofl&ce ;  so  that,  for 


BACH. 


BACH. 


109 


instance,  in  Erfurt  the  town  musicians  were 
kuown  SkS  '  the  Bachs,'  even  though  there  had 
c-ased  to  be  any  Bach  among  them.  Another 
■>f  of  the  strong  family  feeling  (and  a  valuable 
;rce  of  information")  is  the  genealogy  of  the 
iiach  family,  begim  by  the  great  Sebastian  him- 
self, but  chiefly  composed  by  his  son  Carl  Philip 
Emanuel.  It  contains  fifty-three  male  members 
of  the  family,  and  gives  the  origin  and  dates  of 
birth  and  death  of  each,  and  the  most  important 
events  in  their  lives.    This  genealogical  table 


soon  became  circulated  amongst  the  family, 
copy  of  it  in  Emanuel's  handwriting 


and 

IS  to 

be  found  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  For  an 
accoimt  of  the  Bach-literature  see  the  article  on 
JoHAXX  Sebastian. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  chief  members 
of  this  remarkable  family,  and  contains  all  those 
whose  lives  are  touched  on  below.  The  same 
numeral  is  affixed  to  each  in  both  genealogy  and 
biography. 


1.  Hans  Bach, 
at  Wechmar  about  136L 


4.  Johannes,  Erfurt, 
1604-73. 


2.  Veit  Bach,  1 1619. 
Hans  B.  'd.^pielmann,'  +  1626. 


6.  Joh.  Christoph  :  Erfnrt  and  Arnstadt, 
1613-1661. 


13.  Joh. 
Christian, 
Eisenach, 
l&iO-1732. 


12.  Joh. 
Aesiclios, 

Erfurt, 
1^1717. 


7.  Georg 
Christoph, 
Schic^infurt, 
1642-1697. 


8.  Joh. 
Christoph. 


9.  Joh. 
Ambrosius, 
Eisenach, 
1^45-95. 


15.  Job. 

Bemhard, 
Eisenach, 
1676-1749. 

18.  Joh.  Jmst, 
Eisenach, 
1722-1777. 


14.  Joh. 
Christoph. 
Erfurt, 
16-5-1717. 


10.  Joh. 
Christoph, 
OhrdrufF, 
1671-1721. 


11.  Joh. 
Sebastian, 
16S5-1750. 


Heinrich,  Arnstadt, 
1615-1692. 

I  

19.  Joh. 
Michael, 
Erfurt, 
164;*-94. 
I 

20.  Maria 
Barbara, 
16S4-1720. 


16.  Joh. 
Christoph, 
Eisenach, 
1645-1703. 

17.  Joh. 
2s*icolau3, 

Jena, 
1669-1753. 


23.  "Vnih. 
Friedemann. 
1710-S4. 


.  C.  Phil. 
Emanuel, 
1714-SS. 


22.  Joh.  Christoph 
Friedrich, 
1732-1795. 

24.  WOhelm,  Berlin, 
1756-1S46. 


Joh.  Christian 
1735-S2. 


The  earliest  notices  go  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  centviry,  and  mention  four  distinct 
-anches,  of  which  the  last  only  is  of  general 

:erest,  because  it  is  that  from  which  Johann 
-  oastian  is  descended.  This,  the  actual  musical 
branch,  lived  in  Wechmar,  a  small  place  near 
Gotha.  Hans  Bach  [i],  the  eldest  of  the 
^  chs,  is  mentioned  as  a  Gemeinde-Vormund- 
ift-^glied  there  in  i  6 1 .   Then  comes  Text  [ 2 ] , 

-sibly  the  son  of  the  former,  bom  between 

;.-o  and  60,  and  generally  considered  the  pro- 
^.nitor  of  the  race.     He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  baker,  and  to  have  moved  into  Hungary  with 
many  other   Evangelicals  for  protection  from 
persecution.    But  under  the  Emperor  Rudolf  EE 
the  Catholic  reaction  gave  the  Jesuits  the  upper 
hand,  and  this  caused  Veit  to  return  home  and 
settle  at  Wechmar  as  a  baker  and  miller.  The 
genealogy  states  that  he  loved   and  practised  ' 
music;  his  chief  delight  was  in  a  ' C}-thringen' 
(probably  a  dther),  upon  which  he  used  to  play  I 
while  his  mill  was  at  work.    He  died  in  1619.  1 
But  the  real  musical  ancestor  of  the  family  was  , 
Hans  [3],  the  son  of  Veit,  bom  somewhere  ' 
about  1580,  and  mentioned  as  'the  player' — that  I 
is  to  say,  a  professional  musician.    He  was  also  j 
a  carpet-weaver,  and  is  said  to  have  been  of 
a  cheerful  temperament,  full  of  wit  and  fun.  ; 
These  characteristics  are  alluded  to  in  a  portrait  | 
formerly  in  the  possession  of  Emanuel,  in  which 
he  was  represented  as  playing  the  violin  with  a 


bell  on  his  shoulder,  while  below  is  a  shield  with 
a  fool's  cap.  His  profession  took  him  all  over 
the  Thiiringen,  and  he  was  well  known  and 
beloved  everywhere.  He  died  1626.  in  the  year 
of  the  first  great  plague.  Of  Hans's  many 
children  three  sons  deser\-e  mention  : — 

JoHAXXES  Bach  [4]?  bom  1604,  apprenticed 
at  Suhl  to  the  '  Stadt-pfeifer,'  became  organist  at 
Schweinfurt,  and  perhaps  also  temporarily  at 
Suhl.  After  an  unsettled  life  amidst  the  turmoil 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  he  settled  at  Erfurt  in 
1635  as  director  of  the  '  Raths-Musikanten,'  and 
in  1647  became  organist  in  the  church  there, 
thus  representing  both  sacred  and  secular  music. 
He  was  the  forefather  of  the  Bachs  of  Erfurt, 
and  died  there  in  1673.  His  sons  were  Johann 
Christian  and  Johann  .^gidius.  (See  below, 
Xos.  12  and  13.) 

Heinrich  [5"',  bom  1615.  As  a  boy  showed 
a  remarkable  taste  for  organ-playing ;  to  satisfy 
which  be  would  go  off  on  Sundays  to  some 
neighbouring  town  to  hear  the  organ,  there  being 
none  at  Wechmar.  He  received  his  musical 
education  from  his  father  and  his  elder  brother 
Johann,  probably  during  h"s  residence  at  Schwein- 
furt and  Suhl.  and  followed  his  father  to  Erfurt. 
In  1 641  he  became  organist  at  Arnstadt,  where 
he  died  in  1692,  having  filled  his  post  for  more 
than  half  a  century.  '  With  him  begins  the  line 
of  Arnstadt  Bachs.  Besides  his  father's  great 
musical  gifts  he  inherited  his  cheerful  disposition. 


110 


BACH. 


BACH. 


which,  coupled  with  great  piety  and  goodness, 
enabled  him  to  overcome  the  disastrous  effects  of 
the  war,  and  so  to  educate  his  children,  all  of 
them  more  or  less  gifted,  as  to  enable  them  to  fill 
honourable  places  in  the  history  of  music.  For 
the  life  of  Heinrich  we  have  complete  material 
in  his  funeral  sermon  by  Gottfried  Olearius  (Am- 
stadt,  1692).  In  his  sons,  JoHANN  Christoph 
and  JoHANN  Michael  (see  those  names,  Nos.  16 
and  19)  the  artistic  importance  of  the  elder 
Bachs  before  Johann  Sebastian  reaches  its  cli- 
max. In  Hitter's  '  Orgelfreund,'  vol.  vi.  No.  14, 
there  is  an  organ  piece  on  the  chorale  '  Christ 
lag  in  Todesbanden,'  which  is  ascribed  to  Hein- 
rich Bach ;  of  his  other  compositions  nothing  is 
known. 

Christoph  [6],  the  second  son,  bom  1613,  we 
mention  last  because  he  is  the  grandfather  of 
Johann  Sebastian.  After  a  temporary  post  at 
the  court  of  Weimar,  and  a  stay  at  Prettin  in 
Saxony,  he  settled  at  Erfurt  in  1642,  as  member 
of  the  '  Raths-Musik ' ;  moved  from  thence  to 
Arnstadt  1653-4,  and  died  there  in  1 661  as 
*Stadt-Musikus'  and  •  Hof-Musikus'  to  the 
Count  of  Schwarzburg.  Unlike  his  brother  Hein- 
rich he  occupied  himself  exclusively  with  the 
town  music — the  '  Kunst-Pfeiferthum.'  Further 
details  of  his  life  are  wanting.  His  sons 
were — 

Georg  Christoph  [7],  bom  1642  at  Erfurt, 
first  school  -  teacher,  then  cantor  at  Themar 
near  Meiningen,  1668  ;  twenty  years  afterwards 
removed  to  Schweinfurt  in  the  same  capacity, 
and  died  there.  None  of  his  compositions  are 
known  to  exist. 

Johann  Christoph  [8],  and  his  twin  brother 
Johann  Ambrosius  [9],  born  1645  at  Erfurt, 
were  so  much  alike  in  appearance  and  char- 
acter that  they  were  regarded  as  curiosities. 
After  the  early  death  of  the  father,  who  taught 
them  the  violin,  and  after  they  had  completed 
their  years  of  study  and  travel,  Johann  Christoph 
came  to  Arnstadt  as  Hof-Musikus  to  the  Count 
of  Schwarzbursf.  Disputes  with  the  Stadt- 
Musikus  caused  the  dismissal  of  all  the  court 
musicians,  including  Christoph,  but  he  was  after- 
wards restored  to  his  post.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  church  music,  which  had  been  much 
neglected,  helped  his  old  uncle  Heinrich  in  his 
official  work  with  the  utmost  disinterestedness, 
and  died  1693.  With  his  sons  the  musical 
activity  of  this  branch  of  the  family  ceased. 
Ambrosius  was  more  important.  He  remained 
with  his  brother  till  1667,  when  he  entered  the 
association  of  the  Erfurt  '  Raths-Musikanten.' 
We  have  already  mentioned  that  he  was  a 
violinist,  but  his  importance  in  the  history  of 
music  is  due  to  the  fact  of  his  being  the  father 
of  Johann  Sebastian.  He  left  Erfurt  after  a  few 
years,  and  in  1671  settled  at  Eisenach,  where  he 
died  in  1695.  Of  his  numerous  children  we  need 
only  mention  the  two  S(ins  : — 

Johann  Christoph  [10],  bom  1761.  After 
receiving  instruction  from  the  celebrated  organ- 
player  Pachelbel  in  Erfurt,  he  became  organist 
at  Ohrdruff,  and  died  in  1721.    Further  details 


about  him  will  be  found  in  the  biography  of  his 
younger  brother,  the  great  Johaim  Sebastian. 
(See  the  article  on  him.) 

Having  thus  sketched  the  general  course  of 
the  family,  we  will  take  its  various  members 
in  alphabetical  order,  reserving  Johann  Sebastian 
for  the  crown  of  all. 

Johann  -^gidids  [12],  younger  son  of  the 
old  Johannes  of  Erfurt,  born  1645,  was  a  member 
of  the  society  directed  by  his  father,  became 
organist  in  St.  Michael's  Church,  and  in  1682 
succeeded  his  brother  Johann  Christian  [13], 
as  'Raths-Musik  director.'  He  died  at  Erfurt 
in  1717-  Of  his  numerous  children  only  two 
sons  survived  him — Johann  Christoph  [14], 
born  1685,  who  succeeded  to  the  post  of  his 
father — and 

Johann  Bernhard  [15],  bora  1676,  He  was 
organist  first  at  the  Kaufmann's  Church  in  Er- 
furt, then  at  Magdeburg,  and  finally  at  Eisenach, 
where,  in  1703,  he  succeeded  the  older  and  more 
famous  J OHANN  Christoph  [16].  These  appoint- 
ments, especially  the  last,  give  a  favourable  idea 
of  his  ability  as  an  organist  and  composer.  Of 
his  compositions  there  still  exist  preludes  on 
chorales,  as  well  as  pieces  for  klavier  and  suites 
for  orchestra  (or  '  overtures  after  the  maimer  of 
Telemann,'  as  they  were  called).  Tlie  former 
were  in  the  collections  of  Walther,  the  lexico- 
grapher, which  are  partly  preserved  in  the  Berlin 
library,  and  the  latter  amongst  the  remains  of 
Sebastian,  copied  by  himself.  Johann  Bernhard 
died  in  1 749. 

Another  Johann  Bernhard,  son  of  Se- 
bastian's brother  Christoph  [10],  was  bom  in 
1700,  succeeded  his  father  as  organist  at  Ohr- 
druff, and  died  in  1742. 

Johann  Christian  [13],  eldest  son  of  Johann 
of  Erfurt,  born  1640,  was  at  first  a  member  of 
his  father's  musical  society ;  then  removed  to 
Eisenach,  his  younger  brother  ^gidius  taking 
his  place.  Christian  was  the  first  of  the  family 
to  go  to  Eisenach,  but  in  1668  we  find  him 
again  at  Erfurt ;  he  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
direction  of  the  musical  society,  and  died  in 
1682.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  brother 
^gidius.  One  son,  Johann  Christoph  (1673- 
1727)  is  mentioned  as  org:inist  at  Gehren  (near 
Arnstadt),  where  he  succeeded  the  famous 
Michael  (see  that  name,  p.  iii).  He  had 
studied  theology,  but  was  of  a  quarrelsome 
haughty  disposition,  and  had  many  conflicts  with 
his  superiors. 

Johann  Christoph  [16],  the  most  famous 
of  this  oft-recurring  name,  and  also  the  most 
famous  of  the  older  generations,  was  the  son  of 
the  old  Heinrich  [5],  of  Arnstadt,  and  was 
born  in  1643.  He  was  a  highly  gifted  musician, 
and  through  his  own  merits  alone,  independent 
of  his  illustrious  nephew,  occupies  a  very  pro- 
minent place  in  musical  history.  His  life  was  ex- 
tremely simjde.  He  was  educated  by  his  father, 
and  at  twenty-three  became  organist  to  the 
churches  at  Eisenach.  Later  he  also  became 
court-organist  there,  and  died  in  1703.  Of  his 
four  sons  we  may  mention  Johann  Nicolaus 


BACH. 


BACH. 


Ill 


[17],  1669-1753.  (See  his  name,  p.  112.)  Chris- 

topli's  moral  excellence,  his  constant  stri\dng 
afcer  the  highest  ideals,  his  industry,  and  his  tech- 
nical proficiency,  give  him  the  most  prominent 
place  amongst  the  elder  branch  of  the  family. 
He  was  not  only,  as  the  old  authorities  tell  us,  one 
of  the  finest  oraan-players  and  greatest  contra- 
puntists of  his  day,  but  he  was  altogether  one  of 
the  most  important  artists  and  composers  of  the 
whole  17th  century.  He  was  regarded  with 
undisputed  consideration  by  the  family,  and 
both  Johann  Sebastian  and  his  son  Emanuel 
had  the  greatest  respect  for  him.  In  spite  of 
this,  his  importance  during  his  life-time  was  not 
more  widely  recognised,  and  after  his  death  he 
was  but  too  soon  forgotten ;  but  this  may  be 
explained  by  the  overpowering  fame  of  his  great 
ne[)hew,  by  the  quiet,  reserved,  simple  nature 
of  the  man,  who  lived  only  for  his  art  and  his 
family,  and  lastly  by  the  nature  of  his  compo- 
sitions. His  few  remaining  works  prove  him 
to  have  been  of  a  thoroughly  independent  and 
oiiginal  nature,  which,  though  affected  by  the 
infiuences  of  the  time,  was  so  in  its  own  in- 
dividual way.  Ha\-ing  no  sympathy  with  the 
prevalent  Italian  style,  he  endeavoured  to  carry 
on  the  art  in  his  own  way,  and  therefore  to 
a  certain  degree  stood  aloof  from  his  contem- 
poraries. The  leading  feature  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  17th  century  is  the  rise  of  in- 
strumental music, —  the  struggle  of  the  modem 
scales  with  the  old  ecclesiastical  modes,  the 
development  of  homophony  with  its  melodious 
1  character,  and  its  richness  of  harmony,  in  contra- 
!  distinction  to  the  old  strict  poly^phony.  These 
chief  points  in  the  general  tendency  of  the  time 
I  are  not  wanting  in  Johann  Christoph.  His 
'  cultivated  sense  of  form  enabled  him  to  give  his 
compositions  that  firm  and  compact  structure 
'  which  was  a  result  of  the  new  principles,  while 
his  natural  musical  feeling  supplied  due  ex- 
j  pression.  His  most  important  compositions  are 
his  vocal  works,  especially  his  motets  ;  the  few 
i  that  exist  only  increase  our  regret  at  the  loss  of 
I  further  proofs  of  his  great  ability.  One  of  his 
I  best  works  was  a  kind  of  oratorio,  for  double 
I  chorus  and  orchestra,  called  '  The  Combat  of 
Michael  and  the  Devil'  (Rev.  xii.  7-12)  ;  Johann 
I  Sebastian  valued  it  very  highly,  and  had  it 
;  performed  at  Leipsic,  as  did  Emanuel  after  him 
at  Hamburg.  Eight  of  his  motets  are  given  in 
the  'Musica  Sacra'  (of  the  Berlin  'Domchor') 
by  Neidhart  and  Hertzberg ;  and  others  in  a 
collection  by  Naue  ('  Neun  Motette  .  .  von 
Johann  Christoph  und  Johann  Michael  Bach,' 
Leipzig,  Hofineister).  The  best-known  of  them 
is  '  Ich  lasse  dicli  nicht,'  familiar  in  England 
under  the  title  of  *  I  wrestle  and  pray,'  for  a 
long  time  attributed  to  Johann  Sebastian  himself, 
and  in  fact  so  published  by  Schicht  in  his  six 
motets.  His  few  remaining  instrumental  works — 
arrangements  of  chorales,  and  variations  for 
klavier — are  less  important,  owing  perhaps  to 
the  absence  of  Italian  influence,  and  were  soon 
forgotten.  Gerber  was  in  possession  of  a  MS. 
volume  of  organ  music  originally  belonging  to 


the  Bach  family,  containing  eight  pieces  by 
Johann  Christoph ;  this  invaluable  book  comprised 
works  by  all  the  celebrated  organ-masters  from 
1680  to  1720,  but  has  unfortunately  been  lost 
through  the  carelessness  of  Gerber's  legatees. 

Johann  Ernst  [18],  the  son  of  Johann 
Bernhard,  of  Eisenach,  born  1722-77,  studied 
law  at  the  Leipsic  University,  and  established 
himself  as  a  lawyer  at  Eisenach.  He  was  also 
so  clever  a  musician  as  to  be  of  great  use  to  his 
father  in  his  profession.  He  was  at  first  appointed 
his  assistant  in  1748,  and  afterwards  succeeded 
him  ;  he  also  became  Capellmeister  at  the  court 
of  Weimar,  but  kept  up  his  house  at  Eisenach. 
Some  of  his  vocal  pieces  are  preserved,  and 
show  that  he  was  superior  to  his  time  as  a  com- 
poser of  sacred  music,  which  was  then  rapidly 
declining.  One  or  two  of  his  compositions  for 
klavier  are  to  be  found  in  Bauer's  *  Alte  Meister,' 
series  2,  bk.  3. 

Johann  Michael  [19],  younger  son  of  old 
Heinrich,  and  brother  of  Johann  Christoph  of 
Eisenach,  born  in  1648.  He,  like  his  brother,  was 
educated  by  his  father,  whom  he  afterwards 
supported  and  helped  in  his  professional  duties. 
In  1673  he  was  appointed  organist  at  Gehren 
near  Arustadt,  where  he  died  in  1694,  in  the 
prime  of  life.  He  had  six  children,  a  boy  who 
died  early,  and  five  daughters,  the  j'oungest  of 
whom,  Maria  Barbara  [20],  became  the  first  wife 
of  Johann  Sebastian,  and  died  1720.  Johann 
IMichael  had  the  same  nature  and  character  as 
his  brother,  the  same  simple  pious  mind  and 
constant  lofty  aims.  In  depth  of  intention, 
flow  of  ideas,  he  vied  with  his  brother,  but  the 
latter  surpassed  him  in  feeling  for  form.  His 
invention  is  remarkable,  but  form  is  always  his 
difiicnlty ;  in  him  we  feel  the  want  of  certainty 
so  characteristic  of  that  time,  which  resulted 
from  the  constant  seeking  afcer  new  forms ;  and 
the  defect  is  equally  evident  in  his  stiff  counter- 
point. We  may  however  assume  that  with  his 
great  gifts  Michael  would  have  developed  more 
in  this  direction  but  for  his  early  death.  The 
decline  of  the  polj'phonic  style  is  especially  felt 
in  his  motets,  because  he  failed  to  build  uj 
his  movements  in  the  definite  forms  demanded 
by  the  new  homophonic  style.  In  instrumental 
music  he  seems  to  have  been  more  important, 
perhaps  because  he  was  more  accessible  to  the 
influence  of  Italy  than  his  brother.  Walther 
says  that  he  wrote  '  stark e,'  that  is  to  say  '  re- 
markable '  sonatas,  and  his  pieces  were  certainly 
longer  esteemed  than  those  of  Johann  Chi'istoph. 
In  the  organ-book  already  mentioned  there  were 
no  less  than  seventy- two  fugued  and  figured 
chorale-preludes  of  his,  showing  how  much  those 
of  his  compositions  were  then  valued.  Of  his 
vocal  works,  motets,  arias,  and  church  pieces 
with  instrumental  accompaniments,  forerunners 
of  Johann  Sebastian's  cantatas,  some  are  still 
preserved,  and  give  a  highly  favourable  opinion 
of  Michael's  capacities.  In  the  depth  and  force 
of  his  expression  his  relationship  with  Sebastian 
is  clearly  felt.  (See  the  above-mentioned  col- 
lections of  Naue  and  Neidhardt).  .Michael 


112 


BACH. 


BACH. 


Bach  also  employed  himself  in  making  instru- 
ments. 

There  is  a  younger  Johann  Michael,  bom  in 
1754  or  1755,  whose  connection  with  the  family 
is  not  quite  clear ;  he  was  perhaps  descended 
from  the  branch  which  settled  at  Schweinfurt. 
He  became  Cantor  at  Tonna,  and  also  travelled 
to  Holland,  England,  and  even  to  America.  On 
returning  to  Germany  he  studied  at  Gottingen, 
and  then  established  himself  as  a  lawyer  at 
Giistrow,  in  Mecklenburg.  In  1 780  he  published 
a  book  or  pamphlet  called  *  Kurze  und  systema- 
tische  Anleitung  zum  Generalbass,'  etc. 

JoHAXN  jSTicolaus  [17],  a  son  of  the  cele- 
brated Johann  Christoph,  bom  1669,  became 
organist  of  the  town  and  university  church  at 
Jena,  and  died  there  1753.  For  a  long  time  he 
was  in  the  position  of  senior  to  the  whole  family  ; 
but  none  of  his  sons  lived,  and  thus  his  branch 
died  out  with  him.  He  was  known  as  a  composer 
of  'suites,'  and  a  mass  by  him  in  his  own  hand- 
writing exists,  giving  a  favourable  impression  of 
his  talents  in  vocal  composition.  There  is  also  a 
comic  operetta  by  him  called  *  Der  Jenaische 
Wein-  und  Bier-Eufer'  (The  wine  and  beer  crier 
of  Jena),  a  scene  from  Jena  college  life.  He 
acquired  great  reputation  in  the  manufacture  of 
instriunents.  Incited,  and  perhaps  even  directed, 
by  his  uncle  Johann  Michael,  he  made  many 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  pianos,  but 
his  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  towards  estab- 
lishing equal  temperament  in  the  tuning  of  organs 
and  pianos,  an  idea  which  at  that  time  met  with 
universal  opposition. 

Johann  Chkistian  [21],  known  as  the  Milanese 
or  English  Bach,  eleventh  son  of  Johann  Se- 
bastian, and  youngest  of  those  who  survived 
their  father,  was  born  at  Leipsic  in  1735.  Next 
to  his  brother  Emanuel  he  is  probably  the  best 
known  amongst  the  sons  of  Sebastian,  and  the 
only  one  who  broke  through  family  traditions 
by  travelling  and  adopting  modern  fashions 
in  composition.  His  talent  was  certainly  very 
remarkable,  but  his  character  and  tempera- 
ment forced  him  into  directions  very  different 
from  those  of  his  ancient  and  honourable 
family.  He  was  only  fourteen  when  his  father 
died,  and  he  then  went  to  live  with  his  brother 
Emanuel  in  Berlin,  where  he  studied  pianoforte- 
playing  and  composition.  A  certain  gaiety  of 
disposition,  possibly  increased  by  his  acquaintance 
with  Italian  singers,  led  him  to  Milan,  where 
in  1754  he  became  organist  of  the  cathedral. 
He  wrote  a  great  deal  of  vocal  music  in  the 
pleasant  and  somewhat  superficial  manner  of  the 
Neapolitans  then  in  vogue,  which  was  in  great 
favour  wi  th  singers  and  amateurs .  Inclination  and 
talent  made  him  turn  to  opera,  and  as  he  wished 
to  devote  himself  to  it  entirely,  but  considered  it 
hardly  consistent  with  his  position  as  cathedral 
organist,  he  left  Milan  in  1759,  after  mariying 
the  Italian  prima  donna  Caecilia  Grassi,  and 
accepted  an  appointment  as  Director  of  Concerts 
in  London,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in 
178:^.  He  was  clever,  intelligent,  and  genial, 
but  in  spite  of  his  easy  circumstances  he  died 


much  in  debt.  The  elegance  and  brilliancy  of 
his  pianoforte  compositions  made  him  the  favourite 
of  all  amateur  pianoforte-players,  and  did  much 
towards  the  general  diffusion  of  the  taste  for 
pianoforte-playing.  But  his  greatest  triumphs 
were  won  by  his  operas  ;  the  first  was  '  Orione, 
ossia  Diana  vendicata,'  1763,  and  this  was 
followed  by  many  others.  Some  of  his  sacred 
works,  however,  seem  more  important,  such  as 
Masses,  Psalms,  and  a  Te  Deum,  where  we  find 
such  echoes  of  the  hereditary  musical  spirit  of  the 
family  as  prove  that  Christian  was  still  a  member 
of  the  race.  Burney  kept  up  an  intimate  in- 
tercourse with  him  for  many  years,  and  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  him  in  lus  'History  of  Music,' 
vol.  iv. 

Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  [22],  called 
the  Biickeburg  Bach,  ninth  son  of  Sebastian, 
bom  at  Leipsic  in  1732.  He  at  first  studied 
jurispmdence  at  Leipsic,  but  tme  to  family 
tradition  soon  forsook  the  law,  and  under  the 
direction  of  his  father  and  elder  brother  became 
a  thorough  musician.  He  finally  entered  the 
service  of  Count  Schaumburg  as  Capellmeister 
at  Biickeburg,  where  he  remained  till  his  death 
in  1795,  leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of 
an  upright,  modest,  amiable  man.  As  a  composer 
he  was  industrious  in  all  branches,  especially  in 
oratorios  and  passion  music,  and  occasionally  in 
opera.  Though  not  attaining  the  eminence  of 
his  brothers,  his  compositions  do  no  discredit  to 
the  family.  In  style  he  approaches  nearest  to 
his  brother  Emanuel.  He  left  one  son,  Wilhelm 
Friedrich.    (See  that  name.) 

Wilhelm  Friedemann  [23],  called  the  Halle 
Bach,  eldest  of  Johann  Sebastian's  sons,  bora 
at  Weimar  in  1 710.  In  the  opinion  of  all  his 
acquaintances  he  was  not  only  the  most  gifted 
of  the  brothers,  but  altogether  an  unusually  able 
man,  a  genius  on  whom  the  father  built  great 
hopes,  and  to  whom  the  brothers  looked  for 
replacing  him.  Unhappily  he  entirely  departed 
from  the  respectable  and  honourable  ways  of  the 
Bachs.  An  obstinate  character  and  utter  moral 
recklessness  prevented  him  from  attaining  the 
eminence  which  his  youth  seemed  to  promise, 
and  his  life  exhibits  the  melancholy  spectacle  of 
a  ruined  genius.  He  was  educated  chiefly  by 
his  father,  who  fully  appreciated  his  remark- 
able  abilities,  and  devoted  special  care  to  it ; 
he  also  received  instruction  on  the  violin  from 
Graun.  He  attended  the  *  Thomas  Schule,' 
and  afterwards  the  university  at  Leipsic,  and 
distinguished  himself  greatly  in  mathematics. 
In  1733  he  became  organist  at  the  church  of 
St.  Sophia  at  Dresden,  and  in  1747  music- 
director  and  organist  of  St.  Mary's  at  Halle. 
He  held  this  office  till  1767,  when  he  was 
obliged  to  give  it  up,  his  way  of  hfe  becoming 
more  and  more  disorderly  and  dissolute,  and 
making  him  careless  and  irregular  in  his  duties. 
He  then  Hved  without  regidar  occupation  at 
Brunswick  and  Gottingen,  and  also  at  Berlin, 
where  Forkel,  his  father's  biographer,  looked 
after  him  with  the  greatest  devotion  ;  he 
occasionally  gave  concerts  on  the  piano  or  organ, 


BACH. 


BACH. 


113 


or  wandered  about  with  travelling  musicians, 
but  always  sinking  deeper  and  deeper.  Quite 
at  the  last  he  received  an  appointment  as  Capell- 
meister  at  Hessen-Darmstadt,  but  he  never  took 
the  post,  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1784  in  a  state 
of  great  degradation  and  want.  He  was  the 
greatest  organ-player  of  his  time,  a  thorough 
master  of  the  theory  of  music,  in  which  his 
remarkable  mathematical  knowledge  was  of  great 
service  to  him,  a  master  of  fugue,  and  a  famous 
improviser.  Very  few  of  his  compositions  have 
been  published ;  he  only  wrote  them  down  when 
necessity  forced  him  to.  This  shows  with  what 
facility  he  could  compose,  but  also  how  indifferent 
a  matter  it  was  to  him.  The  royal  library  at 
Berlin  possesses  a  good  many  of  his  writings, 
and  some  have  been  printed  in  the  different 
collections  of  old  pianoforte  music.  Two  noble 
fantasias  were  introduced  by  Madame  Arabella 
Goddard  at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts,  and 
have  been  published  in  London. 

WiLHELM  Friedrich  Erxst  [24],  son  of 
the  Biickeburg  Bach,  and  the  last  grandson 
of  Sebastian.  Bom  at  Biickeburg  in  1759, 
he  was  educated  under  his  father's  care  until 
able  to  perform  in  public ;  he  then  accepted  an 
invitation  from  his  uncle  Christian  in  London. 
There  he  remained  some  years,  much  sought 
after  and  respected  as  a  pianoforte  teacher. 
On  his  uncle's  death  he  returned  to  Germany 
and  settled  at  Minden.  On  the  accession  of 
King  Frederic  William  II  of  Prussia  he  wrote 
a  '  Huldigungs  cantata,'  and  was  rewarded  by 
being  called  to  Berlin  in  1790  as  'cembalist' 
to  the  Queen,  with  the  title  of  Capellmeister. 
This  post  he  retained  under  Queen  Louise,  wife 
of  Frederic  William  III,  and  after  her  death 
retired  into  private  life.  He  was  the  teacher 
of  the  royal  children,  as  he  had  been  of  Frederic 
William  III  and  his  brothers.  He  lived  in  com- 
plete retirement  till  1845.  As  the  sole  and  last 
representative  of  the  family,  he  assisted,  with  his 
wife  and  two  daughters,  at  the  inauguration  of 
the  monument  erected  to  the  memory  of  Johann 
^  liastian  in  front  of  the  'Thomas  Schule'  at 

ipsic  in  1843  through  the  efforts  and  instigation 
t  Mendelssohn.  With  him  the  descendants  of 
Johann  Sebastian  Bach  became  extinct.  He 
was  a  good  pianoforte  and  violin  player,  but 
his  modesty  prevented  him  from  often  appearing, 
and  although  he  wrote  much,  in  many  styles, 
very  little  of  his  music  is  published. 

Cakl  Philipp  Emanuel  [25],  third  son  of 
Sebastian,  often  styled  the  Berlin  or  Hamburg 
Bach,  born  at  Weimar  March  14,  1714.  His 
general  precocity,  quickness,  and  openness  to  im- 
pressions, induced  his  father  to  bring  him  up 
to  the  study  of  philosophy.  With  this  view  he 
went  to  the  Thomas  School  and  afterwards  to 
the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Frankfort- on  the- 
Oder,  where  he  entered  on  the  study  of  law. 
But  the  thorough  grounding  in  music  which,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  he  had  received  from  his 
father,  and  the  natural  influences  of  so  musical 
a  house,  had  \drtually  decided  his  future.  When 
he  entered  at  Frankfort  he  was  already  not  only 


a  fine  player  but  a  thorough  musician.  While 
there  he  conducted  a  singing  society,  which  gave 
him  opportunities  of  composing,  and  at  length 
he  finally  relinquished  law  for  music,  in  1737 
went  to  Berlin,  and  in  1746  obtained  the  ap- 
pointment of  Kammer-musiker  and  cembalist  at 
the  Court,  with  the  special  duty  of  accompany- 
ing Frederic  the  Great's  flute  solos  at  the  private 
concerts.  The  Seven  Years  War  (1757)  how- 
ever put  an  end  to  this  pleasant  position.  Bach 
migrated  to  Hamburg  and  took  the  direction  of 
the  music  in  one  of  the  churches  there.  In  1767 
he  succeeded  Telemann,  and  this  post  he  held  till 
his  death,  Sept.  or  Dec.  14,  1788.  As  composer, 
director,  teacher,  and  critic,  his  influence  was  very 
great,  and  he  was  beloved  and  respected  both  by 
his  brother  professionals  and  by  the  whole  town. 
His  goodness,  pleasant  manners,  literary  culture, 
and  great  activity  in  music,  all  combined  to  place 
him  at  the  head  of  his  father's  sons  and  scholars. 
But  when  we  remember  that  for  a  Bach  his 
musical  gifts  were  by  no  means  extraordinary — 
far  below  those  of  Friedemann,  for  example — it 
is  plain  that  he  stands  so  high  because  he  is 
recognised  historically  as  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable figures  in  the  transition  period  between 
J.  S.  Bach  and  Haydn.  In  such  periods  a  man 
is  eminent  and  influential  more  from  his  general 
cultivation  than  from  proficiency  in  any  special 
branch.  At  the  particular  time  at  which  E. 
Bach  lived  there  were  no  great  men.  The 
gigantic  days  of  Handel  and  Bach  were  exchanged 
for  a  time  of  peruke  and  powder,  when  the 
highest  ideal  was  neatness,  smoothness,  and 
elegance.  Depth,  force,  originality,  were  gone, 
and  'taste'  was  the  most  important  word  in 
all  things.  But  taste  has  to  do  with  externals, 
and  therefore  lays  an  undue  stress  on  outward 
form  in  art,  and  this  was  the  direction  taken 
by  the  musical  works  which  acted  as  important 
precursors  of  the  so-called  classical  period.  No- 
where does  the  tendency  to  formal  construction 
show  itself  so  strongly  as  in  the  works  of 
Emanuel  Bach,  and  he  is  therefore  to  be  regarded 
as  the  immediate  precursor  of  Haydn.  No  doubt 
he  is  affected  and  restricted  by  the  tendencies 
of  the  time,  but  he  had  the  power  of  bringing 
them  together  and  throwing  them  into  artistic 
form,  and  therefore  his  works  are  of  greater  im- 
portance than  those  of  any  of  his  contemporaries. 
To  form  a  right  judgment  of  him  as  a  composer 
he  must  be  regarded  apart  from  his  father,  and 
solely  from  the  point  of  view  of  his  own  time ; 
and  when  so  judged  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that 
he  surpassed  most  of  his  contemporaries,  and  is 
of  paramount  importance  as  a  connecting  link 
between  the  periods  of  Handel  and  Bach  on  the 
one  hand  and  Haydn  and  Mozart  on  the  other. 
His  music  is  wanting  in  depth  and  earnestness, 
but  it  is  always  cheerful,  highly  finished,  often 
full  of  intelligence  and  charm  ;  and  in  regard  to 
form,  where  his  relation  to  Haydn — a  man  far 
more  gifted  than  himself — is  most  evident,  we 
find  him  in  possession  of  all  those  germs  which 
in  Haydn's  hands  sprang  into  such  luxuriant 
growth — the  homophonic  thematic  movement, 


114 


BACH. 


BACH. 


the  cyclical  sonata-form,  and  new  treatment  of 
the  orchestra. 

His  compositions  in  all  departments  are  ex- 
traordinarily numerous  ;  a  complete  list  of  them 
will  be  found  in  Gerber.  Historically  his  in- 
strumental compositions  are  the  most  valuable, 
because  the  development  of  the  larger  forms  of 
instrumental  music  is  the  great  characteristic 
of  modern  times.  His  vocal  music,  chiefly  for 
the  church,  is  for  the  most  part  flat  and  mo- 
notonous, a  quality  perhaps  partly  due  to  the 
dry  and  unenthusiastic  rationalism  of  that  day. 
Most  important  of  all  are  his  numerous  com- 
positions for  the  clavier — 210  Solo  pieces  ;  52  Con- 
certos with  orchestral  accompaniments  ;  Sonatas, 
Trios,  etc. — in  which  he  has  exhibited  and  de- 
veloped  his  father's  principles  of  technique.  Many 
of  these  pieces  have  been  republished  in  the 
various  collections  of  ancient  music ;  and  his 
principal  work  'Sonaten,  nebst  Rondos  und 
freien  Phantasien,  fiir  Kenner  und  Liebhaber' 
(6  parts,  1779-87),  was  republished  a  few  years 
since  by  Baumgart.  Of  his  orchestral  works, 
18  in  number,  several  have  been  recently  re- 
issued by  Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel,  and  have  excited 
so  much  interest  as  to  procure  them  a  place,  in 
the  programmes  of  Orchestral  Concerts.  Bach's 
vocal  works  comprise — 2  Oratorios, '  Die  Israeliten 
in  der  Wiiste '  and  '  Die  Auferstehung  und  Him- 
melfahrt  Jesu';  a  celebrated  'Heilig'  (Sanctus) 
for  2  Choirs  ;  *  Melodien '  to  Gellert's  sacred 
songs  ;  22  Passions  ;  sacred  Cantatas  ;  Singspiele  ; 
secular  songs,  etc.,  etc.  That  he  was  not  with- 
out ability  in  literature  is  shown  by  his  great 
work '  Versuch  uber  die  wahre  Art  das  Clavier  zu 
spielen*  (2  parts,  1780)  with  examples  and  18 
specimen  pieces.  This  book  deserves  notice  as 
the  first  methodical  treatise  on  clavier-playing; 
but  it  is  more  important  still  as  containing  the 
foundation  of  those  principles  which  were  first 
laid  down  by  the  great  John  Sebastian,  and  were 
afterwards  developed  by  Qlementi,  Cramer,  Field, 
and  Hummel,  into  the  pianoforte-playing  of  the 
present  day.  Bach  lays  special  stress  on  refine- 
ment and  taste  in  execution,  in  connection  with 
which  he  gives  detailed  rules  for  the  execution 
of  the  ornaments  or  'Manieren'  then  considered 
so  indispensable,  and  in  this  respect,  as  the  most 
complete  and  authentic  authority,  his  work  will 
always  possess  considerable  value.  It  has  recently 
been  re-edited  (1857)  by  ScheUing.         [A.  M.] 

BACH,  JoHANN  Sebastian — 'to  whom,'  in 
Schumann's  words,  'music  owes  almost  as  great  a 
debt  as  a  religion  owes  to  its  founder' — youngest 
son  of  Ambrosius  Bach,  was  bom  at  Eisenach 
March  21,  1685.  His  life,  like  that  of  most  of 
his  family,  was  simple  and  uneventful.  His 
father  began  by  teaching  him  the  violin,  and  the 
old-established  family  traditions  and  the  musical 
importance  of  Eisenach,  where  the  famous  Jo- 
hann  Christoph  was  still  actively  at  work,  no 
doubt  assisted  his  early  development.  In  his 
tenth  year  the  parents  both  died,  and  Sebastian 
was  left  an  orphan.  He  then  went  to  live  with 
his  elder  brother,  Johann  Christoph,  at  that  time 
organist  at  Ohrdrufi",  and  under  his  direction 


began  the  clavier,  at  the  same  time  carrying  on 
his  education  at  the  OhrdrufF  'Lyceum.'  The 
remarkable  genius  of  the  boy  began  at  once  to 
show  itself.  ]Ee  could  soon  play  all  his  lessons  by 
heart,  and  aspired  to  more  advanced  music.  This 
impulse  his  brother  it  seems  did  not  encourage. 
We  are  told  that  he  possessed  a  MS.  volume  con- 
taining pieces  by  Frohberger,  Pachelbel,  Kerl, 
Buxtehude,  and  other  celebrated  composers  of  the 
day.  This  book  became  an  object  of  longing  to 
the  young  Sebastian,  but  was  strictly  withheld 
from  him  by  his  brother.  Determined  neverthe- 
less to  gain  possession  of  the  volume,  the  boy 
managed  with  his  little  hands  to  get  it  through 
the  latticed  door  of  the  cupboard  in  which  it  was 
kept,  and  at  night  secretly  copied  the  whole  of  it 
by  moonlight,  a  work  which  occupied  him  six 
months.  Wlien  the  stem  brother  as  last  dis- 
covered the  trick,  he  was  cruel  enough  to  take 
away  from  the  boy  his  hardly-earned  work. 

At  the  age  of  fifteen  (i  700)  Johann  Sebastian 
entered  the  *  Michaelis'  school  at  Liineburg ; 
his  beautiful  soprano  voice  at  once  procured 
him  a  place  among  the  '  Mettenschiiler,'  who 
took  part  in  the  church  music,  and  in  return 
had  their  schooling  free.  Though  this  gave  him 
an  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  vocal 
music,  instrumental  music,  especially  organ  and 
pianoforte  playing,  was  always  his  chief  study. 
Bohm,  the  organist  of  St.  John's  at  Liineburg, 
no  doubt  had  an  inspiring  eSect  upon  him,  but 
the  vicinity  of  Hamburg  offered  a  stiU  greater 
attraction  in  the  person  of  the  famous  old  Dutch 
organist  Reinken.  In  his  holidays  Bach  made 
many  expeditions  to  Hamburg  on  foot  to  hear 
this  great  player.  Another  powerful  incentive  to 
his  development  was  the  ducal  'Hof-kapeUe'  at 
Celle,  which,  being  in  a  great  measure  composed 
of  Frenchmen,  chiefly  occupied  itself  with  French 
instrumental  music,  and  thus  Bach  had  many 
opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  a 
branch  of  chamber  and  concert  music,  at  that 
time  of  great  importance.  After  remaining 
three  years  at  Liineburg  he  became  for  a  time 
'Hofmusikus'  Weimar  in  the  band  of  Prince 
Johann  Ernst,  brother  of  the  reigning  duke, 
and  in  1703  was  made  organist  at  Amstadt  in 
the  'new  church.'  Here  he  laboured  with 
restless  eagerness  and  energy  at  his  own  de- 
velopment in  both  technique  and  theory,  and 
very  possibly  neglected  the  training  of  the  church 
choir.  In  1705  he  obtained  a  month's  leave  to 
visit  Liibeck  in  order  to  make  acquaintance  with 
the  organist  Buxtehude  and  hear  his  famous 
evening  performances  on  the  organ  during  Ad- 
vent. He  seems  to  have  considered  his  stay 
there  of  so  much  importance  that  he  prolonged 
it  for  three  months.  This  liberty,  and  his  habit 
in  accompanying  the  services  of  indulging  his 
fancy  to  the  disturbance  of  the  congregation, 
drew  upon  him  the  disapprobation  of  the  church 
authorities,  but  without  interfering  with  his  po- 
sition as  organist — a  fact  which  proves  that  the 
performances  of  the  young  genius  were  already 
appreciated.  It  seems  that  his  reputation  as  an 
organist  was  even  then  so  great  that  he  had 


BACH. 


BACH. 


115 


received  applications  from  various  quarters.  In 
1707  he  went  to  Miihlhausen  in  the  Thiiringen, 
and  in  the  following  year  to  Weimar  as  court- 
organist.  From  this  time  we  may  consider  his 
studies  to  have  been  completed ;  at  Weimar  his 
fame  as  the  first  organist  of  his  time  reached  its 
climax,  and  there  also  his  chief  organ  composi- 
tions were  written,  —  productions  unsurpassed 
and  unsurpassable.  In  1714,  when  twenty -nine 
years  of  age,  Bach  was  appointed  '  Hof-Conceii;- 
nieister,'  and  his  sphere  of  activity  became 
considerably  enlarged.  An  interesting  event 
took  place  at  this  time.  Bach  used  to  make 
yearly  tours  for  the  purpose  of  giving  perform- 
ances on  the  organ  and  clavier.  On  his  arrival 
at  Dresden  in  the  autumn  of  171 7  he  found 
there  a  French  player  of  great  reputation  named 
Marchand,  whose  performances  completely  carried 
away  his  hearers,  though  he  had  made  many 
enemies  by  his  arrogance  and  intolerance  of 
competition.  Bach  was  induced  to  send  a  written 
challenge  to  the  Frenchman  for  a  regular  musical 
contest,  offering  to  solve  any  problem  which 
his  opponent  should  set  him,  of  course  on 
condition  of  being  allowed  to  reciprocate.  Mar- 
chand agreed,  in  his  pi-ide  picturing  to  himself 
a  glowing  victory;  time  and  place  were  fixed 
upon,  and  a  numerous  and  brilliant  audience 
assembled.  Bach  made  his  appearance — but  no 
Marchand :  he  had  taken  himself  off  that  very 
morning  ;  having  probably  found  an  opportunity 
of  hearing  his  opponent,  and  no  longer  feeling 
the  courage  to  measure  his  strength  with  him. 

On  his  return  from  Dresden  in  1 7 1 7  Bach  was 
appointed  Kapellmeister  at  Cothen  by  Prince 
Leopold  of  Anhalt- Cothen.  This  young  prince,  a 
great  lover  of  music,  esteemed  Bach  so  higlily  that 
he  could  not  bear  to  be  separated  from  him,  and 
even  made  him  accompany  him  on  his  journeys. 
Bach's  duties  consisted  merely  in  directing  the 
Prince's  chamber-music,  as  he  had  nothing  to 
do  with  the  church  music  or  organ  -  playing. 
Accordingly  this  period  of  his  life  proved  ex- 
traordinarily fertile  in  the  production  of  instru- 
mental music.  A  journey  to  Hamburg  in  1721 
brought  him  again  in  contact  with  the  aged 
Keinken ;  on  this  occasion  he  was  a  candidate 
for  the  post  of  organist  at  the  '  Jacobi  Elirche,' 
where  he  was  attracted  by  the  splendid  organ. 
In  spite  of  his  great  fame,  and  notwithstanding 
his  having  again  excited  the  most  unmixed 
admiration  by  his  organ-playing  in  Hamburg, 
he  failed  to  obtain  the  post ;  an  unknown  and 
insignificant  young  man  being  preferred  to  him, — 
possibly  because  he  offered  to  pay  4000  marks 
for  the  office.  At  length,  in  1723,  Bach  was 
appointed  cantor  at  the  Thomas- Schule  in  Leipsic, 
and  organist  and  director  of  the  music  in  the 
two  chief  churches.  Cothen  was  no  field  for  a 
man  of  his  genius,  and  the  Duke's  love  of  music 
had  considerably  cooled  since  his  second  marriage. 
He  therefore  quitted  the  place  for  his  new  post, 
though  retaining  sufficient  interest  in  it  to  write 
a  funeral  ode  (Trauer-Ode)  on  the  death  of  the 
Duchess  in  1727.  His  position  at  Leipsic  he 
retained  till  the  end  of  his  life ;  there  he  wrote 


for  the  services  of  the  church  his  great  Passions 
and  Cantatas,  and  his  High  mass  in  B  minor 
(1733),  which  exhibit  the  power  of  his  unique 
genius  in  its  full  glory.  In  1736  he  received  the 
honorary  appointments  of  Hof-Componist  to  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Kapellmeister  to  the 
Duke  of  Weissenfels.  In  1747,  when  already 
somewhat  advanced  in  age,  he  received  an  in- 
vitation to  Berlin  to  the  court  of  Frederic  the 
Great,  where  his  son  Emanuel  held  the  post  of 
cembalist,  a  fact  which  made  the  king  desirous 
of  hearing  and  seeing  the  great  master  himself. 
Bach  accepted  the  invitation,  was  received  with 
the  utmost  respect  and  kindness  by  the  king  (April 
7, 1 747)^, had  to  try  all  the  Silbermann  pianofortes 
and  organs  at  Potsdam,  and  excited  the  greatest 
wonder  by  his  improvisation  on  given  and  self- 
chosen  themes.  On  his  return  to  Leipsic  he 
worked  out  the  theme  which  the  king  had  given 
him,  and  dedicated  it  to  him  under  the  title 
of  *  Musikalisches  Opfer.'  He  now  began  to 
suffer  from  his  eyes,  and  subsequently  became 
quite  blind.  This  was  possibly  caused  by 
excessive  straining  of  his  sight,  not  only  with 
the  enormous  number  of  his  own  compositions, 
but  also  with  copying  quantities  of  separate 
parts,  and  works  by  other  composers,  as  materials 
for  his  own  studies  :  besides  this  he  himself  en- 
graved more  than  one  of  his  own  pieces  on 
copper.  On  July  28,  1750,  his  life  was  brought 
to  an  end  by  a  fit  of  apoplexy. 

Bach  was  twice  married  (Oct.  17,  1707,  and 
Dec.  3,  1721)  ;  by  his  first  wife,  Maria  Barbara, 
the  daughter  of  Michael  Bach  of  Gehren,  he  had 
seven  children.  She  died  at  Cothen  in  1720, 
during  her  husband's  absence  at  Karlsbad  with 
the  Prince.  Three  only  of  her  children  survived 
their  father — an  unmarried  daughter  and  two 
sons,  Wilhelm  Friedemann  and  Philip  Emanuel. 
His  second  wife,  Anna  Magdalena  Wiilkens, 
youngest  daughter  of  the  Weissenfels  Hof-Trom- 
peter,  had  a  musical  nature  and  a  fine  voice,  and 
showed  a  true  appreciation  for  her  husband.  She 
helped  to  encourage  a  strong  artistic  and  musical 
feeling  in  his  house,  and  besides  attracting  foreign 
artists,  exerted  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  sons, 
who  were  one  and  all  musically  gifted.  This 
marriage  produced  thirteen  more  children,  nine 
sons,  of  whom  only  two  survived  the  father,  Jo- 
hann  Christoph  Friedrich  and  Johann  Christian. 

In  Johann  Sebastian  centres  the  progressive 
development  of  the  race  of  Bach,  which  had  been 
advancing  for  years ;  in  all  the  circumstances  of 
life  he  proved  himself  to  be  at  once  the  greatest 
and  the  most  typical  representative  of  the  family. 
He  stood,  too,  on  the  top  step  of  the  ladder : 
with  him  the  vital  forces  of  the  race  exhausted 
themselves;  and  further  power  of  development 
stopped  short. 

All  the  family  traits  and  qualities  of  the  Bachs 
to  which  we  drew  attention  in  the  introduction 
to  this  article,  and  which  were  handed  on  by 
natural  disposition  as  well  as  education  and 
tradition,  stand  out  in  Johann  Sebastian  with 

>  I  owe  this  date  to  Mr.  Carlyle,  though  he  has  omitted  all  mention 
of  the  occurrence  in  his  Life  of  I  rederick.  [G.] 

I  2 


116 


BACH. 


BACH. 


full  decision  and  typical  clearness: — a  deeply 
religious  sentiment  which,  though  in  many  points 
closely  approaching  to  the  pietism  then  de- 
veloping itself,  yet  adhered  with  a  certain  naive 
severity  to  the  traditional,  orthodox,  family 
views ;  a  truly  wonderful  moral  force,  which, 
without  any  show,  embraced  the  problem  of  life 
in  its  deepest  sense ;  and  a  touching  patriarchal 
spirit,  which  was  satisfied  with  humble  cir- 
cumstances, rejoiced  in  the  blessing  of  an 
unusually  numerous  family,  and  regarded  the 
family  life  as  the  chief  raison  d'etre.  With  and 
above  all  this  there  was  an  artistic  striving, 
founded  exclusively  on  ideal  views,  and  directed 
with  complete  self-forgetfulness  to  ideal  aims 
alone.  His  art  and  his  family, — those  were  the 
two  poles  around  which  Bach's  life  moved  ;  out- 
wardly, simple,  modest,  insignificant ;  inwardly, 
great,  rich,  and  luxurious  in  growth  and  pro- 
duction. His  activity  was  extraordinary  and 
unceasing.  Besides  his  official  duties  and  his 
actual  labour  as  a  composer,  which  in  themselves 
alone  are  astonishing,  he  made  copies  for  himself 
of  other  composers'  works,  including  those  of  the 
Bach  family ;  he  sometimes  engraved  on  copper, 
and  even  occupied  himself  with  the  manufacture 
of  instruments.  He  invented  an  instrument 
between  the  violoncello  and  viola,  which  he 
called  viola  pomposa,  and  devised  a  piano  with 
catgut  strings  which  he  called  lauten-clavicym- 
balum.  At  the  same  time  he  was  a  model 
paterfamilias,  made  the  musical  education  of 
his  sons  his  especial  and  peculiar  care,  wrote 
educational  works  for  his  pupils  like  the  *Kla- 
vierbiichlein '  for  his  son  Friedemann,  and  the 
famous  'Kunst  der  Fuge,'  and  also  trained  a 
great  number  of  pupils  who  afterwards  them- 
selves became  famous,  such  as  Johann  Caspar 
Vogler,  Agricola,  Altnikol,  afterwards  his  son- 
in-law,  Marpurg,  Kirnberger,  and  Ludwig 
Krebs.  Bach's  development  points  to  a  steady 
and  indefatigable  pursuit  of  a  definite  and  fixed 
aim,  guided  by  his  genius  alone.  He  had  a 
clear  insight  into  his  artistic  mission  ;  developed 
himself  out  of  himself  with  a  perfect  unity  of 
purpose,  holding  aloof  from  external  influences 
in  the  field  of  art,  but  rather  drawing  them  to 
himself  and  so  appropriating  them  through  the 
power  of  his  genius  as  to  mould  them  into  a 
complete  whole.  If  in  a  measure  he  ran  counter 
to  the  continual  encroachments  of  Italian  opera, 
this  may  be  attributed  less  to  his  artistic  than  to 
his  moral  and  religious  views. 

Bach's  importance  for  the  history  of  music 
lies  in  the  fact  that,  starting  with  instrumental 
music,  and  adhering  to  the  spirit  of  it,  he 
developed  all  forms  and  species  of  composition 
in  an  entirely  new  and  independent  manner. 
The  old  vocal  style,  which  was  founded  ex- 
clusively on  polyphony,  was  exhausted.  Bach 
created  an  entirely  new  vocal  style  based  on 
instrumental  principles,  carried  it  to  the  summit 
of  perfection,  and  there  left  it. 

Bach's  masterly  counterpoint  is  generally 
Bpoken  of  as  the  special  mark  of  his  genius  ; 
and  unapproachable  as  he  is  in  this  branch,  his 


real  power  lies  less  in  the  almost  inconceivable 
facility  and  dexterity  with  which  he  manages 
the  complicated  network  of  parts,  than  in  that 
formal  conformation  of  the  movements  which 
resulted  from  this  manner  of  writing ;  in  this 
he  exhibits  a  consistency,  fertility,  and  feeling 
for  organic  completeness  which  are  truly  in- 
imitable. His  melody,  his  harmony,  and  his 
periods  all  seem  to  be  of  one  mould :  an  in- 
destructible spirit  of  severe  logic  and  un- 
alterable conformity  to  law  pervades  the  whole 
as  well  as  the  parts.  These  formal  principles 
are  governed,  pervaded,  and  animated  from  first 
to  last  by  the  idea  of  the  musical  composition ; 
so  that  the  materials,  though  in  themselves 
void  of  expression,  become  imbued  with  an 
inexhaustible  depth  of  meaning,  and  produce 
infinite  varieties  of  form.  This  wonderful  unity 
of  idea  and  formal  construction  gives  the  stamp 
of  the  true  work  of  art  to  Bach's  compositions, 
and  explains  the  magical  attraction  which  they 
exert  on  those  who  make  them  their  earnest 
study.  Besides  these  less  obvious  qualities, 
Bach's  importance  in  the  history  of  music  shows 
itself  in  the  immediate  influence  he  exerted  in 
various  ways  towards  its  greater  development. 
He  first  settled  the  long  dispute  between  the 
old  church  modes  and  the  modem  harmonic 
system ;  in  his  chorales  he  often  makes  use  of 
the  former,  but  the  harmonic  principle  is  pre- 
dominant in  his  works,  just  as  it  still  lies  at 
the  root  of  modern  music.  Connected  with  this 
was  the  '  equal  temperament '  which  Bach  re- 
quired for  instruments  with  fixed  intonation. 
He  put  this  in  practice  by  always  tuning  his 
pianos  himself,  and  moreover  embodied  his 
artistic  creed  in  relation  to  it  in  his  famous 
*  Wohltemperirte  Klavier,'  a  collection  of  pre- 
ludes and  fugues  in  all  keys.  Bach's  influence 
on  the  technical  part  of  piano-playing  must  not 
be  forgotten.  The  fingering  which  was  then 
customary,  which  hardly  made  any  use  of  the 
thumb,  and  very  seldom  of  the  little  finger,  was 
inadequate  for  the  performance  of  his  works. 
But  he  stood  entirely  upon  his  own  gronad,  and 
formed  for  himself  a  new  system  of  fingering, 
the  main  principle  of  which  was  the  equal  use 
and  development  of  all  the  fingers,  thus  lapng 
the  foundation  of  the  modern  school;  on  the 
other  hand  he  laid  down  many  rules  which, 
though  no  longer  binding,  to  a  certain  degree 
reconciled  the  old  and  the  new  schools,  and 
gave  the  whole  system  a  thoroughly  personal 
stamp,  making  it  appear,  like  everything  else  of 
Bach's,  unique. 

Bach  wrote  unceasingly  in  every  form  and 
branch,  and  the  quantity  of  his  works  is  enormous. 
A  tolerably  complete  catalogue  (by  Emanuel  Bach 
and  A  gricola)  is  given  in  Mitzler's  '  Musikalisches 
Bibliothek'  (1754),  of  which  the  following  is  a 
summary : — 

I.  Vocal  WorJcs.  Five  sets  of  Sacred  Cantatas 
(Kirchen-Cantaten)  for  every  Sunday  and  Holy- 
day  in  the  year,  besides  many  single  ones,  such  as 
'Gottes  Zeit  ist  die  beste  Zeit';  and  others  for 
special  occasions,  such  as  the  *Trauer-ode'  on 


BACH. 


BACH. 


117 


the  death  of  the  Electress  of  Saxony ;  5  Pas- 
sions ;  the  Christmas  Oratorio  (in  5  parts) ;  the 
Grand  Mass  in  B  minor,  and  4  smaller  do. ; 
Motetts ;  2  Magnificats,  5  Sanctus,  as  also  many 
Secular  Cantatas,  including  two  comic  ones,  a 
'Bauern-Cantate'  and  a  '  Coffee-Cantate.' 

2.  Instrumental  Works.  A  vast  number  of 
piano  pieces  of  all  kinds — Inventions,  in  2  and  3 
parts;  Suites  (6  small,  called  'French  Suites,' 
and  6  large  'English  Suites');  Preludes  and 
Fugues,  amongst  them  the  '  Wohltemperirte 
Klavier'  in  two  parts,  48  Preludes  and  Fugues 
in  all  keys;  the  'Kunst  der  Fuge';  Sonatas  for 
piano  with  one  or  more  instruments,  amongst 
them  the  famous  6  Sonatas  for  Piano  and  Yiolin  ; 
Solo-sonatas  for  Violin  and  for  Violoncello  ;  Solos, 
Trios,  etc.,  for  different  instruments  in  various 
combinations ;  Concertos  for  i  to  4  pianos ;  Do. 
for  \'iolin  and  other  instruments  with  orchestra ; 
Overtiires  and  Suites  for  orchestra;  lastly  an 
endless  quantity  of  organ  compositions — Fan- 
tasias, Toccatas,  Preludes,  Fugues  and  arrange- 
ments of  Chorales.  Of  this  almost  inexha<ustible 
mass  a  few  only  were  printed  during  Bach's  life- 
time. These  were — the  '  Klavier -Uebung,'  or 
Clavier  practice,  a  collection  of  pieces  for  piano 
and  organ,  in  4  parts  (1731-42)  ;  the  Musikal- 
isches  Opfer,'  dedicated  to  Frederic  the  Great, 
and  a  few  organ  arrangements  of  chorales ;  and 
shortly  after  his  death  the  'Art  of  Fugue'  (i  752), 
engraved  by  Bach  himself,  and  a  collection  of 
Chorales  selected  by  Emanuel  Bach  from  his 
father's  Cantatas,  and  published  in  two  volumes 
(1765-69).  These  were  afterwards  reprinted  in 
a  more  complete  foi-m  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  and 
in  1843  a  4th  edition  in  score,  specially  arranged, 
was  published  in  Leipsic  by  C.  F.  Becker.^  The 
great  mass  of  Bach's  MSS.  however  lay  untouched 
and  unknown  for  many  years ;  the  vocal  "works 
seem  to  have  been  more  especially  ignored.  The 
time  immediately  following  Bach  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  depth  and  individuality  of  his  genius. 
True,  his  pupQs  and  sons  revered  him  as  a  con- 
summate and  inimitable  contrapuntist  and  a 
j  masterly  composer,  and  with  true  instinct  set 
I  themselves  to  collect  and  copy  all  his  existing 
I  works  for  piano  and  organ  which  they  could 
procure.  But  with  their  generation  all  real  in- 
terest in  this  mighty  genius  vanished,  and  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  within  forty  years  after 
Bach's  death,  his  fame,  though  still  unapproach- 
able, had  become  a  mere  historic  tradition. 
How  quickly  and  how  generally  this  was  the 
case  is  eWdent  from  the  fact  that  the  works  of 
his  son  Emanuel  were  esteemed  at  least  as  highly 
as  his  own,  ^  and  that  even  a  man  like  Adam 
Hiller,  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  influential 
musicians  of  Bach's  school,  and  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors as  Cantor  at  St.  Thomas',  Leipsic,  in  his 
'Lebensbeschreibung  beriihmter  Musikgelehrten 
nnd  Tonkiinstler '  (Leipsic,  1 784)  chiefly  admires 
his  counterpoint  and  part-writing,  and  finds  his 
melodies  'peculiar'  {sonderhar). 

'  This  edition  contains  the  Chorale  which  closes  the  original  edition 
I       of  the  '  Art  of  Fugue.' 

'  See,  for  example,  Bumey's  *  Present  State,"  etc  IL 


It  was  the  revolution  produced  by  the  com- 
posers of  the  classical  period  succeeding  that  just 
mentioned  which  first  paved  the  way  back  to  the 
understanding  of  Bach;  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
and  beginning  of  the  19th  centuries  the  music 
publishers  began  to  recoUect  the  existence  of 
these  forgotten  works.  The  '  "Wohltemperirte 
Klavier'  was  published  by  Kollmann  in  London 
in  1799,  ^'^^  soon  followed  by  the  firms  of 
Xageli  at  Ziirich,  Simrock  at  Bonn,  Kiihnel 
(now  Peters)  and  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  in  Leipsic, 
with  a  number  of  piano  and  organ  works.  The 
six^  unaccompanied  motets,  for  5  and  8  voices, 
edited  by  Schicht,  were  published  by  Breitkopf 
&  Hartel  as  early  as  1802.  In  1809  the  per- 
formances of  Bach's  Fugues  and  Trios  by  Samuel 
Wesley  and  Benjamin  Jacob  on  the  organ  of 
Surrey  Chapel,  London,  (one  of  the  very  few 
pedal  organs  at  that  time  in  England,)  caused  an 
extraordinary  sensation,  which  was  followed  up 
by  the  publication  of  the  48  Preludes  and  Fugues 
(Birchall,  1809)  and  the  6  organ  trios,  all  by 
WesJey  and  Horn.  But  it  was  Mendelssohn  who 
gave  the  permanent  impetus  to  the  growing 
worship  of  Bach  in  Europe  by  the  performance  * 
of  the  Matthew  Passion  in  Berlin,  March  12, 
1829,  exactly  one  hundred  years  after  its  produc- 
tion. A  powerful  excitement  seized  the  musical 
world  ;  people  began  to  feel  that  an  infinite 
depth  and  fulness  of  originality  imited  with  a 
consummate  power  of  formal  construction  was 
lying  hidden  in  these  neglected  works.  Per- 
formances of  the  Passion  and  of  other  vocal 
music  of  Bach  took  place  in  Berlin  and  else- 
where— e.  g.  in  Breslau  by  the  '  Sing-akademie,' 
under  ^losevius — the  editions  increased  in  num- 
ber and  began  to  include  the  vocal  works.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  that  of  Peters  (dating 
from  1837),  'Gesammt  Ausgabe  der  instrument- 
alen  Werke  Bach's,'  edited  by  Czemy,  Griepenkerl 
and  Boitsch,  with  whom  Hauptmann,  Da\ad, 
Dehn,  etc.,  were  afterwards  associated.  This  edi- 
tion is  still  in  progress,  and  includes  13  volumes 
of  pianoforte  works,  13  for  pianoforte  with  ac- 
companiment, 18  for  other  instruments,  9  for 
organ;  and  an  excellent  thematic  catalogue  by 
A.  Dorffel  (1866),  specially  referring  to  this  edi- 
tion. The  same  firm  has  begim  an  edition  -  of 
the  vocal  works,  and  besides  full  and  compressed 
scores  of  the  Matthew  and  John  Passions,  the 
Christmas  oratorio,  the  B  minor  Mass,  and  4 
smaller  ditto,  the  6  Motets,  the  Magnificat  and 
4  Sanctus,  has  published  10  Cantatas  with  piano 
accompaniment — aU  at  the  well-kno"wn  low  prices 
of  this  firm.  Mention  should  be  made  of  4  Kirch- 
engesange,  published  in  score  with  pianoforte 
arrangement  by  J.  P.  Schmidt  (Trautwein)  ;  of 
'  Ein'  feste  Burg,'  and  the  1 1 7th  Psahn,  and  '  Lob, 
Ehre,  Weisheit'  (8  voc),  issued  by  Breitkopfs, 
and  of  two  comic  Cantatas,  edited  by  Dehn  and 
published  by  Crantz — all  harbingers  of  the  edi- 
tion of  the  Bach-GeseUschaft. 

Mendelssohn  was  not  content  with  the  revival 

»  The  3rd  of  these,  *  Ich  lasse  dich  nicht,*  ib  now  known  to  be  by 
J.  Christoph  Bach. 
«  See  Dement's  '  Eecollections,"  p.  3S,  etc,  etc 


118 


BACH. 


BAG  H-GESELLSCHAFT. 


of  the  Passion  music;  through  his  efforts^  a 
monument  was  erected,  in  1842,  which  perpetu- 
ates the  features  of  the  great  master  in  front  of 
the  '  Thomas  schule,'  over  which  he  presided,  and 
under  the  very  windows  of  his  study.  Nor  was 
the  result  of  Mendelssohn's  enthusiasm  to  stop 
here.  In  1850,  the  centenary  of  Bach's  death, 
the  '  Bach-Gesellschaft '  was  founded  at  Leipsic 
for  the  publication  of  his  entire  works.  This 
gave  a  real  and  powerful  impulse  to  the  worship 
of  Each ;  the  discovery  of  the  unsuspected  trea- 
sures which  were  revealed  even  by  the  first 
annual  volume  led  to  the  foundation  of  'Bach 
Societies'  all  over  Germany,  which  devote  them- 
selves to  the  performance  of  his  works,  especially 
the  vocal  works,  and  have  thereby  awakened  such 
an  enduring  interest  that  now  the  Cantatas,  Pas- 
sions, and  Masses  of  Bach  rank  with  Handel's 
oratorios  in  the  standing  repertoires  of  all  great 
German  choral  societies,  and  are  regarded  as 
tests  for  their  powers  of  execution.  No  doubt 
the  first  impulse  to  these  societies  was  given  by 
the  original  Bach  Society  mentioned  above.  [See 
Bach-Gesellschaft.] 

Besides  all  these  efforts  for  diffusing  the  know- 
ledge of  Bach's  works,  we  must  mention  the 
labours  of  Eobert  Franz,  the  famous  song-WTiter 
at  Halle.  In  the  performance  of  Bach's  great 
vocal  works  with  instrumental  accompaniment, 
the  organ  forms  an  essential  part,  being  necessary 
for  caiTying  out  Bach's  obligate  accom.paniments. 
At  concerts,  where  Bach  is  most  frequently  to 
be  heard  now,  an  organ  not  being  always  attain- 
able, Franz  devoted  himself  to  replacing  the 
organ  part  by  arranging  it  for  the  orchestral 
instruments  now  in  use.  His  thorough  under- 
standing of  Bach's  manner  of  WTiting,  the  musical 
affinity  of  his  own  nature,  make  him  pre-emi- 
nently fitted  for  this  work.  A  number  of  his 
arrangements,  some  in  full  score,  some  arranged 
for  piano,  have  been  published  by  C.  F.  Leuckart 
at  Leipsic, 

Amongst  the  literature  relating  to  Bach  we 
must  fiist  mention  a  biography  written  by  his 
son  Emanuel  and  his  pupil  Agricola.  It  ap- 
peared in  the  '  Musikalische  Bibliothek'  of 
Mitzler  in  1754,  and  is  especially  important 
because  it  contains  a  catalogue  of  Bach's  works 
which  may  be  considered  authentic  ;  it  includes 
both  the  then  published  works  and  all  the 
MS.  works  which  could  be  discovered,  and  is 
the  chief  source  of  all  investigations  after  lost 
MSS.  The  first  detailed  biograj^hy  of  Bach 
was  written  by  Professor  Forkel  of  Gottingen, 

*  Ueber  Bach's  Leben,  Kunst  und  Kuntswerke,' 
2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1802  ;  afterwards,  in  1850, 
there  appeared,  amongst  others,  Hilgenfeldt's 

*  J.  S.  Bach's  Leben,  Wirken,  und  Werke,'  4to. ; 
in  1865  'J.  S.  Bach,'  by  C.  H.  Bitter  (2  vols. 
8vo.,  Berlin),  and  in  1873  the  ist  vol.  of  Spitta's 
exhaustive  and  valuable  '  J.  S.  Bach.'  The 
English  reader  will  find  a  useful  manual  in 
Miss  Kay  Shuttleworth's  unpretending  *  Life.' 

>  See  his  Letters,  Nov.  3^  39;  Aug.  10.  40;  Dec.  11,  42;  and  a  paper 
by  Scluimann  entitled  'Mendelssohn's  Crfel-Concert,'  in  his  'Gesanj- 
melto  Schrilten '  (iU.  256). 


There  are  also  biographical  notices  in  Gerber, 
Fetis,  and  the  other  biographical  dictionaries ; 
and  monographs  by  Mosevius  on  the  '  Matthew 
Passion'  (Trautwein,  1845)  and  on  the  sacred 
cantatas  and  chorales  (Id.  1852).  In  von  Win- 
terfeld's  well-known  work,  '  Der  evangelische 
Kirchen  Gesang,'  there  is  frequent  reference  to 
Bach.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  Haupt- 
mann's  * Erlauterungen '  of  the  'Art  of  Fugue' 
(Peters),  and  of  the  admirable  Prefaces  to  the 
various  annual  volumes  of  the  Bach-Gesellschaft. 

In  England  the  study  of  Bach  has  kept  pace 
with  that  in  Germany,  though  with  smaller 
strides.  The  performances  and  editions  of  Wes- 
ley have  been  already  mentioned.  In  1844  or 
45  Messrs.  Coventry  and  Hollier  published  14 
of  the  grand  organ  preludes  and  fugues  and 
two  toccatas.  These  appear  to  have  been  edited 
by  Mendelssohn.  ^  They  are  printed  in  3  staves, 
and  a  separate  copy  of  the  pedal  part  '  arranged 
by  Signer  Dragonetti'  (probably  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Moscheles),  was  pulDlished  for  the 
Cello  or  Double  Bass.  About  the  same  time  Dr. 
Gauntlett  edited  some  Choruses  for  the  organ. 
Ini854  the  Bach  Society  of  London  was  formed, 
the  results  of  which  are  given  under  that  head. 
On  April  6, 1871,  took  place  the  first  performance 
of  the  Passion  in  Westminster  Abbey,  which  has 
now  become  an  annual  institution,  and  has  spread 
to  St.  Paul's  and  other  churches.  [A.  M.] 

BACH-GESELLSCHAFT.  A  German  society 
formed  for  publishing  a  complete  critical  edition 
of  the  works  of  JoHN^  Sebastian  Bach,  in  an- 
nual instalments,  as  a  memorial  of  the  centenary 
of  his  death — July  28,  1850.  The  idea  originated 
with  Schumann,  Hauptmann,  Otto  Jahn,  C.  F. 
Becker,  and  the  firm  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel ;  was 
cordially  endorsed  by  Spohr,  Liszt,  and  all  the 
other  great  musicians  of  the  day  (how  enthusi- 
astically would  Mendelssohn  have  taken  a  lead, 
had  he  been  spared  but  tliree  years  longer  !),  and 
the  prospectus  was  issued  to  the  public  on  the  an- 
niversary itself.  The  response  was  so  hearty  and 
immediate,  both  from  musicians  and  amateurs, 
at  home  and  abroad,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  the 
feasibility  of  the  proposal ;  the  society  was 
therefore  definitely  established.  Its  affairs  were 
administered  by  a  committee  (Hauptmann, 
Becker,  Jahn,  Moscheles,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel), 
whose  headquarters  were  at  Leipsic ;  the  annual 
subscription  was  fixed  at  5  thalers,  or  15s.,  and 
the  publications  are  issued  to  subscribers  only, 
so  as  to  prevent  anything  like  speculation.  The 
first  volume  appeared  in  December  1851,  and 
contained  a  preface  and  list  of  subscribers,  em- 
bracing crowned  heads,  nobility,  public  libraries, 
conservatoires  and  other  institutions,  and  private 
individuals.  The  total  number  of  copies  sub- 
scribed for  was  403,  which  had  increased  at  the 
last  issue  (XXII — for  1S72)  to  519,  the  English 
contingent  having  risen  at  the  same  date  from 
23  to  56 — or  from  5*7  per  cent  to  io*8  per  cent 
of  the  whole. 

2  See  his  letter  printed  In  the  Appendix  toPolko's  'Reminiscences' 
(Longmans,  1SU9).  Some  of  the  pieces  are  headed  '  arranged  by  Men- 
dolsiohu.' 


BACH-GESELLSCHAFT. 


BACH-GESELLSCHAFT.  119 


The  principles  laid  down  for  editing  the 
volumes  are  stated  in  the  preface  to  vol.  i. 
a,s  follows : — The  original  MS.  to  be  consulted 
wherever  possible ;  and  also,  as  of  extreme  im- 
portance, the  separate  parts,  which  are  often 
either  in  Bach's  own  writing  or  revised  and 
corrected  by  him,  exhibiting  notes  and  marks 
of  great  consequence,  both  as  corrections  and 
as  evidence  of  his  practical  care  for  the 
performance  of  his  music,  often  making  the 
separate  parts  more  valuable  than  the  score 
itself.  Where  such  originals  are  not  obtainable, 
recourse  to  be  had  to  the  oldest  copies,  especially 
those  by  Bach's  own  scholars  ;  or,  in  default  of 
these,  the  earliest  printed  editions,  particularly 
when  issued  during  his  lifetime.  No  conjectural 
readings  to  be  admitted. 

The  discovery  of  the  original  MSS.  is  beset 
with  difficulties.  Bach's  MSS.,  except  a  few 
which  w^ere  in  the  hands  of  Kirnbei'ger  and 
Kittel,  came  first  into  the  possession  of  his  sons, 
Friedemann  and  Emanuel.  Those  entrusted  to 
Friedemann  were  lost,  mislaid,  or  sold.  Eman- 
uel, on  the  contrary,  took  the  greatest  care  of 
his,  and  left  a  catalogue  which  has  proved  of 
material  value  to  investigators.  A  portion  of 
his  collection  was  acquired  by  Nageli  the  pub- 
lisher, of  Ziirich,  but  the  principal  part  is  now 
in  the  Berlin  Imperial  Library,  and  in  that  of 
the  Joachimsthaler  Gymnasium  in  the  same  city, 
which  latter  contains  also  the  MSS.  formerly 
belonging  to  Kirnberger  and  his  pupil  the 
Princess  Anna  Amalia.  The  library  of  the 
Thomas-School  at  Leipsic  once  contained  a  large 
number  of  cantatas,  both  in  score  and  parts ; 
but  they  were  neglected  by  Cantor  Miiller 
( I  So  I -9),  nnd  on  his  death  aU  but  a  very  small 
portion  had  vanished.  Thus,  although  the  bulk 
of  the  existing  autographs  is  now  to  be  found  in 
Berlin,  a  considerable  number  remain  widely 
scattered  in  private  collections,  access  to  which 
for  such  purposes  as  those  of  the  Bach-Gesell- 
schaft  is  naturally  attended  with  much  trouble. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  editors,  by  the 
means  just  indicated,  to  obtain  a  text  which 
should  express  the  composer's  intentions  as 
nearly  as  possible.  Each  volume  contains  a  pre- 
face, setting  forth  the  sources  drawn  upon  for  the 
contents  of  the  volume,  and  the  critical  method 
employed  in  dealing  with  them,  with  a  host  of 
interesting  particulars  on  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  the  MSS.,  on  Bach's  method  of  writing, 
on  his  eflforts  to  find  the  most  perfect  expression 
for  his  ideas  (as  shown  by  the  incessant  varia- 
tions in  his  numerous  copies  of  the  same  work), 
on  the  practical  execution  of  Bach's  music,  etc., 
so  that  these  prefaces  may  really  be  said  to 
contain  the  sum  of  the  present  knowledge  on 
the  subject  of  Bach  and  his  music  in  general. 
The  1st  and  2nd  years'  volumes  were  edited  by 
Hauptmann,  the  3rd  by  Becker,  the  4th  and  6th 
by  lUetz,  the  14th  by  Kroll,  and  the  rest  by 
W.  Kust,  who  has  shown  himself  to  the  world 
in  these  prefaces  the  accurate  indefatigable  in- 
vestigator which  his  friends  have  long  known 
him  to  be.    The  following  complete  list  of  the 


yearly  issues  to  the  date  of  this  article  (1876) 
may  not  be  unwelcome  to  our  readers  : — 


1851.  First  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  1. 

1.  Wie  schiiii  leuchtet. 

2.  Ach  Gott,  vom  Himmel 

3.  Ach  Gott,  wie  manciies. 

4.  Christ  lag  in  Todesbanden. 

5.  Wo  soli  ich  fliehen  hin. 

6.  Bleib'  bei  uns. 

7.  Christ  unser  Herr. 

8.  Liebster    Gott,   wann  werd' 

ich  sterbeu? 

9.  Es  ist  das  Heil. 

10.  Meine  Seel'  erhebt. 

1852.  Second  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  2. 

11.  Lobet  Gott. 

12.  Weinen,  Klagen. 

13.  Muine  Seufzer, 

14.  War'  Gott  nicht  mit  uns. 

15.  I)enn  du  wirst  meine  Seele. 

16.  llerr  Gott  dich  loben  wir. 

17.  Wer  Dank  opfert. 

18.  Gleich  wie  der  Kegen. 

19.  Es  erhub  sich  ein  Streit. 

20.  0  Ewigkeit,  du  Donnerwort. 

1853.  Third  Year. 
Clavier  Works.  Vol.  1. 

15  Inventions  and  15  Symphonies. 
Klavieriibung: 

Ft.  1.  6  Partitas. 

Pt.  2.  A  Concerto  and  a  Partita. 

I't.  3.  Choral-Preludes  and  4duets. 

Pt.  4.  Air,  with  30  Variations. 
Toccata  in  Flf  minor. 
Toccata  in  C  minor. 
Fugue  in  A  minor. 

1854.  Fourth  Year. 
Passion  3Jusic  from  St.  Matthew. 

1S55.  Fifth  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  3. 

21.  Ich  hatte  viel  Bekiimmerniss. 

22.  Jesus  nahm  zu  sich. 

23.  Du  wahrer  Gott. 

24.  Ein  ungefarbt  Gemiithe. 

25.  Es  ist  nichts  Gesuudes. 
20.  Ach  wie  fluchtig. 

27.  Wer  weiss,  wie  uahe  mir. 

28.  Gottlob  !  nun  geht. 

29.  Wir  danken  dir,  Gott. 

30.  Freue  dich,  erlciste  Schaar. 

Christmas  Oratorio.  In  4  sections. 

1856.  Sixth  Year. 
Mass  in  B  minor. 

1857.  Seventh  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.4. 

31.  Der  Himmel  lacht. 

32.  Liebster  Jesu. 

33.  Allein  zu  dir.  Herr. 

34.  O  ewiges  Feuer. 
3.\  Geist  uud  Seele. 

30.  Schwingt  freudig  each. 

37.  Wer  da  glaubet. 

38.  Aus  tiefer  Noth. 

39.  Brich  dem  Hungrigen. 

40.  Dazu  ist  erschienen. 

1858.  Eighth  Year. 
Four  Masses :  in  F,  A,  G  minor, 

and  G. 

1859.  Ninth  Year. 
Chamber  Music.  Vol.  1. 

3  Sonatas  for  Clavier  and  Flute. 
Suite  for  Clavier  and  Violin. 
6  Sonatas  for  ditto,  ditto. 
3  ditto  for  Clavier  and  Viola  di 
gamba. 

Sonata  for  Flute,Violin,  and  figured 
Lass. 

Ditto  for  2  Violins  and  ditto. 

1860.  Tenth  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.   Vol.  5. 

41.  Jesu,  nun  sei  gepreiset. 

42.  Am  Abend  aber  desselbigen. 

43.  Gott  fahret  auf. 

44.  Sie  werden  euch. 
4.1.  Es  ist  dir  gesagt. 

45.  Schauet  doch  und  sehet. 

47.  Wer  sich  selbst  erhiihet. 

48.  Ich  elender  Mensch. 

49.  Ich  geu*  und  suche. 

50.  Nun  ist  das  HeiL 


1861.  Eleventh  Year. 
Magnificat  in  D. 

Four  Sanctus*,  in  C,  D,  D  minor, 
and  G.   

Chamber  Music.  Vocal. 
Phoebus  and  Pan. 
Weichet  nur,  betriibte  Schatten. 
Amore  traditore. 
Contentment. 
Aeolus. 

1862.  Twelfth  Year. 
Passion  Music  from  St.  John. 

Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  6. 

51.  Jauchzet  Gott. 

52.  Falsche  Welt. 

53.  Schlagedoch. 

&4.  Widerstehe  doch. 
55.  Ich  armer  Mensch. 
50.  Ich  will  den  Kreuzstab. 

57.  Selig  ist  der  Mann. 

58.  Ach  Gott,  wie  manches.  (2nd 

version.) 

59.  Wer  mich  liebet. 

90.  0  Ewigkeit.  {2nd  version.) 

1863.  Tliirteenth  Year. 
Betrothal  Cantatas. 

Dem  Gerechten  muss  das  Licht. 
Der  Herr  denket  an  uns. 
Gott  ist  unsere  Zuversicht. 
Three  Chorales. 

Clavier  Works.  Vol.2. 
The  French  Suites. 
The  English  Suites. 

Funeral  Ode  on  the  Duchess  of 
Saxony. 

1864.  Fourteenth  Year. 
Clavier  Works.  Vol.3. 

The  well-tempered  Clavier,  com- 
plete with  Appendix. 

1865.  Fifteenth  Year. 
Organ  Works : 

6  Sonatas. 

18  Preludes  and  Fugues. 
3  Toccatas. 
Passacaglia. 

1866.  Sixteenth  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  7. 

61.  Nun  komm,  der  Heiden. 

62.  Ibid.  (2nd  version.) 

63.  Christen,  atzet  diesen  Tag. 

64.  Sehet,  welch'  eiue  Liebe. 

65.  Sie  werden  aus  Saba. 

66.  Erfreut  euch,  ihr  Herzen. 

67.  Halt'  im  Gedachtniss. 

68.  Also  hat  Gott  die  Welt. 

69.  Lobe  den  Herm. 

70.  Wachet,  betet,  seid  bereit. 

1867.  Seventeenth  Year. 
Chamber  Music.  Vol.  2. 

Concertos  for  Clavier  and  Orches- 
tra: D  minor;  E;  D;  A;  F 
minor  ;  F ;  G  minor. 
Concerto  for  Clavier,  Flute,  and 
Violin,  with  Orchestra. 

1868.  Eighteenth  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  8. 

71.  Gott  istmeinKonig. 

72.  AUes  nur  nach  Gottes  Willen. 

73.  Herr,  wie  du  willst. 

74.  Wer  mich  liebet,  2nd  version. 

75.  Die  Elenden  sollen  essen. 

76.  Die  Himmel  erzahlen. 

77.  Du  sollst  Gott. 

78.  Jesu,  der  du  meine  Seele. 

79.  Gott  der  Herr  ist  Sonn'. 
).  Ein'  feste  Burg. 

18G9.  Nineteenth  Year. 
Chamber  Music.  Vol.  3. 
Concertos  for  various  instru- 
ments, with  Orchestra. 

1870.  Twentieth  Year. 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  9. 

81.  Jesus  schlaft. 

82.  Ich  habe  genug. 

83.  Erfreute  ZeiU 


120  BACH-GESELLSCHAFT. 


BACHELOR  OF  MUSIC. 


84.  Ich  bin  verguiigt, 

85.  Ich  bin  ein  guter  Hirt. 

86.  Wahrlich,  ich  sage  euch. 

87.  Bisher  habt  ihr  nichts. 

88.  Siehe,  ich  will  viel  Fischer. 

89.  Was  soil  ich  aus  dir  machen. 

90.  Es  reifet  euch. 


SDr 


I  for  various  festivities. 


1871.  Twenty-first  Year. 
Chamber  Music  Vols.  4  and  5. 
2  Concertos  for  Violin  and  Or- 
chestra. 
1  ditto  for  2  ditto  and  ditto. 
1  Symphony  movement  for  Violin. 


S  Concertos  for  2  Claviers  and  Or- 
chestra.   

Easter  Oratorio. 

18^72.  Twenty-second  Year. 

(Issued  m  1£76.) 
Church  Cantatas.  Vol.  10. 

91.  Gelobet  seist  riu. 

92.  Ich  hab'  in  Gottes. 

93.  Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott, 

94.  Was  frag'  ich. 

95.  Christus  der  ist  mein  Leben. 

96.  Herr  Christ,  der  ein'  ge. 

97.  In  alien  meinen  Thaten. 
9S.  Was  Gott  thut,  das. 

99.  Ditto.  (2nd  version.) 

100.  Ditto.  (3rd  version.) 

[A.  M.] 

BACH  SOCIETY,  THE.  This  society  was 
instituted  in  London  in  1849,  and  its  primary 
objects  are  stated  in  the  prospectus  to  be  — 
(i)  the  collection  of  the  musical  compositions 
of  J.  S.  Bach,  either  printed  or  in  MS.,  and 
of  aU  works  relating  to  him,  his  family,  or 
his  music;  and  (2)  the  furtherance  and  promo- 
tion of  a  general  acquaintance  with  his  music 
by  its  public  performance.  The  original  com- 
mittee of  management  consisted  of  the  late  Sir 
W.  S.  Bennett  (chairman),  Messrs.  E.  Barnett, 
G.  Cooper,  F.  E.  Cox,  J.  H.  B.  Dando,  W.  Dor- 
reU,  W.  H.  Holmes,  E.  J.  Hopkins,  C.  E.  Horsley, 
John  Hullah,  H.  J.  Lincoln,  O.  May,  and  H. 
Smart,  with  Sir  G.  Smart  and  Mr.  Cipriani  Pot- 
ter as  auditors,  and  Dr.  Charles  Steggall  as  hon. 
secretary.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  society  the 
first  performance  in  England  of  the  '  Passion  ac- 
cording to  St.  Matthew '  (Grosse  Passions-INIusik) 
took  place  at  the  Hanover  Square  Eooms  on 
April  6,  1854,  I^r.  Bennett  conducting.  The 
principal  vocalists  were  Mme.  Ferrari,  Misses 
B.  Street;  Dolby,  Dianelli,  and  Freeman,  and 
Messrs.  Allen,  Walworth,  W.  Bolton,  and  Signer 
Ferrari.  Mr.  W.  Thomas  was  principal  violin, 
Mr.  Grattan  Cooke  first  oboe,  and  Mr.  E,  J. 
Hopkins  was  at  the  organ,  the  new  instrument 
by  Gray  and  Davison  being  used  on  this  occasion 
for  the  first  time.  The  English  version  of  the 
words  was  by  Miss  Helen  F.  H.  Johnston,  A 
second  performance  was  given  at  St,  Martin's 
Hall  on  March  23,  1858,  Dr,  Bennett  again  con- 
ducting. The  audience  on  this  occasion  included 
the  late  Prince  Consort.  On  June  21,  1859,  the 
Society  gave  a  performance  of  miscellaneous 
works  by  Bach,  including  the  Concerto  in  C 
minor  for  two  pianofortes,  the  Chaconne  for  vio- 
lin (by  Herr  Joachim),  and  the  Solo  Fugue  for 
pianoforte  in  D.  The  concert  of  i860,  on  July 
24,  included  the  first  eleven  movements  from  the 
Mass  in  B  minor.  Three  years  later,  on  June 
13,  1 86 1,  the  Society  gave  the  first  performance 
in  England  of  'The  Christmas  Oratorio'  (Weih- 
nachts-Oratorium)  also  under  Sir  W.  S.  Beimett's 
direction.  The  Society  was  dissolved  on  March 
21,  1870,  when  the  library  was  handed  over  to 
the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Music.  [C.  M.] 

BACHE,  Francis  Edward,  bom  at  Birming- 
ham Sept.  14,  1833  ;  died  there  Aug,  24,  1858,  in 
his  twenty-fifth  year.  As  a  child  he  showed  very 
great  fondness  and  aptitude  for  music,  studied 
the  violin  with  Alfred  Mellon  (then  conductor  of 
the  BinniDgham  theatre),  and  in  1846  was  allowed 


to  play  in  the  festival  orchestra  when  Mendels- 
sohn conducted  *  Elijah.' 

In  the  autuum  of  1849  he  left  school  at 
Birmingham  to  study  under  Sterndale  Bennett 
in  London,  His  first  overture  was  performed  at 
the  Adelphi  Theatre  in  Nov,  1850,  and  about  a 
year  later  his  '  Three  Impromptus'  (his  first  piano 
piece)  came  out.  He  remained  studying  with 
Bennett,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  time 
writing  for  Addison,  HoRier,  and  Lucas,  from 
1849  to  53,  In  Oct,  53  he  went  to  Leipsic, 
studied  with  Hauptmann  and  Plaidy,  and  took 
occasional  organ  lessons  from  Schneider  at  Dres- 
den. He  returned  to  London  (after  a  short  visit 
to  the  opera,  'William  Tell,'  etc,  at  Paris)  early 
in  1855.  At  the  end  of  55  he  was  driven  by 
severe  illness  to  Algiers,  but  returned  to  Leipsic 
for  the  summer  and  autumn  of  56  ;  then  went  to 
Eome  for  the  winter,  calling  on  old  Czerny  in 
Vienna,  who  was  much  pleased  with  him,  and 
wrote  to  that  effect  to  Kistner,  He  reached 
England  very  iU  in  June  57,  passed  that  winter 
in  Torquay,  and  returned  to  Birmingham,  which 
he  never  again  left,  in  April  58. 

Bache's  published  compositions  are  numerous, 
and  include  four  mazurkas,  op,  13;  five  charac- 
teristic pieces,  op.  15  ;  Souvenirs  d'  Italic,  op.  19, 
for  piano  solo ;  andante  and  rondo  polonaise,  for 
piano  and  orchestra;  trio  for  piano  and  strings, 
op.  25  ;  romance  for  piano  and  violin  ;  six  songs, 
op.  1 6  ;  barcarola  Yeneziana.  Also  a  concerto  in 
E  for  piano  and  orchestra,  and  two  operas,  '  Eii- 
bezahl '  and  '  Which  is  Which,'  all  unpublished. 
With  all  their  merit,  however,  none  of  these  can 
be  accepted  by  those  who  knew  him  as  adequate 
specimens  of  his  ability,  which  was  unquestion- 
ably very  great.  His  youth,  his  impressionable 
enthusiastic  character,  and  continual  ill-health 
must  aU.  be  considered  in  forming  a  judgment  of 
one  who,  had  he  lived,  would  in  all  probability 
have  proved  a  lasting  ornament  to  the  English 
school.  [G.] 
BACHELOE  OF  MUSIC.  'Bachelor,'  a 
word  whose  derivation  has  been  much  disputed, 
is  the  title  of  the  inferior  degree  conferred  in 
various  faculties  by  the  Universities  of  this 
country.  In  Music,  as  in  Divinity  and  Medi- 
cine, the  degrees  given  are  those  of  Bachelor 
and  Doctor.  There  is  no  degree  of  Master,  as  in 
*  Arts,'  The  letters  M,D,  and  M.B.  being  ap- 
propriated to  degrees  in  Medicine,  the  abbrevia- 
tions Mus,  D.  and  Mus,  B.  are  employed  to 
distinguish  those  in  Music.  The  degree  of 
Bachelor  must,  in  the  ordinary  course,  precede 
that  of  Doctor;  it  is  permitted,  however,  in 
cases  of  great  merit,  and  especially  where  the 
candidate  has  obtained  a  high  reputation  in  the 
art  before  offering  himself  for  the  degi-ee,  to  pass 
at  once  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  without 
having  previously  taken  that  of  Bachelor. 

'Music'  was  one  of  the  so-called  seven  arts 
taught  in  the  monastic  schools  which  arose  in 
Western  Europe  under  Charlemagne  and  his  suc- 
cessors. The  Universities,  an  expansion  of  these 
schools,  inherited  their  curriculum ;  and  during 
the  Middle  Ages  the  *Ars  Musica'  was  studied, 


BACHELOR  OF  JMUSIC. 


BACK. 


121 


like  certain  other  branches  of  knowledge,  in  the 
books  of  Boethius,  a  Roman  author  of  the  6th 
centur}-,  whose  writings  famished  the  Dark  Ages 
with  some  poor  shreds  of  the  science  of  the 
ancient  w-orld.  The  study  of  Boethius  was  a 
pedantic  repetition  of  mathematical  forms  and 
proportions,  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  scho- 
lasticism, and  calculated  to  retard  rather  than 
advance  the  progress  of  the  art.  Although  it 
M-as  a  common  thing  for  the  scholar  in  the 
^Middle  Ages  to  play  upon  an  instrument  or 
two  (see  e.g.  Chaucer's  Clerk  of  Oxenford  in 
the  'Prologue'),  it  is  probable  that  no  practi- 
cal acquaintance  with  music  was  originally  re- 
quired for  a  degree,  but  that  the  scholar  had 
only  to  read  in  public  a  certain  number  of 
'  exercises '  or  discourses  upon  Boethius,  a  cere- 
mony which  held  the  place  of  examination  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  We  cannot,  however,  speak  with 
certainty;  for  the  earliest  mention  of  graduates 
in  music,  viz.  Thomas  Seynt  Just  and  Henry 
Habyngton  at  Cambridge,  dates  no  further  back 
than  1463.  Forty  years  later  a  more  or  less 
elaborate  composition  appears  to  be  regularly  de- 
manded of  candidates  for  a  degree.  In  1506 
Richard  Ede  was  desired  to  compose  'a  Mass 
with  an  Antiphona,'  to  be  solemnly  sung  before 
the  University  of  Oxford  on  the  day  of  his  ad- 
mission to  the  degree  of  Bachelor;  and  in  15 18 
John  Chard  e  was  desired  '  to  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  Proctors'  a  mass  and  antiphona  which 
he  had  already  composed,  and  to  compose  another 
mass  of  five  parts  on  '  Kyrie  rex  splendens.' 
The  statutes  given  to  the  University  of  Oxford 
by  Laud  in  1636  enact  that  every  candidate  for 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  shall  compose  a 
piece  for  five  voices  with  instrumental  accom- 
paniments, and  have  it  publicly  performed  in  the 
'  Music  School' ;  and  though  the  words  in  which 
the  degree  was  conferred  still  contained  a  per- 
mission '  to  lecture  in  every  book  of  Boethius,'  it 
would  seem  that  music  was  more  seriously  and 
successfully  cultivated  at  Oxford  during  the  1 7th 
century  than  it  has  been  before  or  since.  The 
torpor  into  which  the  English  Universities  fell 
during  the  iSth  century  affected  the  value  of 
their  musical  diplomas.  Compositions  were  in- 
deed still  required  of  candidates  for  degrees ; 
but  the  absence  of  a  bona  fide  examination 
rendered  the  degree  of  little  value  as  a  test  of 
personal  merit.  The  reforming  spirit  of  our  own 
day  has  however  extended  itself  in  this  direction, 
and  the  following  rules,  depending  in  part  upon 
the  statutes  of  the  Universities,  in  part  upon 
regulations  drawm  up  by  the  present  professors 
in  pursuance  of  the  statutes,  are  now  in  force  as 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music. 

At  Oxford  the  candidate  must  (i)  pass  a  pre- 
liminary examination  (partly  in  writing,  partly 
viva  voce)  in  Harmony  and  Counterpoint  in  not 
more  than  four  parts.  He  has  then  (2)  to  pre- 
sent to  the  Professor  of  Music  a  vocal  composition 
containing  pure  five-part  harmony  and  good  fugal 
counterpoint,  with  accompaniment  for  at  least  a 
quintett  stringed  band,  of  such  length  as  to 
occupy  from  twenty  to  forty  minutes  if  it  were 


performed,  no  public  performance  however 
being  required.  (3)  A  secoud  examination 
follows  after  the  interval  of  half  a  year,  em- 
bracing Harmony,  Counterpoint  in  five  parts, 
Canon,  Imitation,  Fugue,  Form  in  Composition, 
Musical  History,  and  a  critical  knowledge  of 
the  full  scores  of  certain  standard  compositions. 
If  the  candidate  is  not  already  a  member  of  the 
University,  he  must  become  so  before  entering 
the  fii'st  examination  ;  but  he  is  not  required 
to  have  resided  or  kept  terms.  The  fees  amount 
in  all  to  about  £18. 

The  Cambridi^-e  regulations  are  nearly  to  the 
same  efiect.  There  is,  however,  only  one  ex- 
amination; and,  in  addition  to  the  subjects  given 
above,  a  knowledge  of  the  quality,  pitch,  and 
compass  of  various  instruments  is  required.  The 
rules  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  state  that  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  in  that  college  is 
intended  to  show  'that  a  sound  practical  know- 
ledge of  music  has  been  attained,  sufficient  to 
manage  and  conduct  a  choir,  or  to  officiate  in 
cathedral  or  church  service.'  The  number  of 
persons  annually  taking  the  degree  of  Mus.  Bac. 
at  Oxford  has  increased  considerably  during  the 
last  ten  years;  in  1866  the  niunber  was  three, 
in  1874  eleven.  There  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  a  similar  increase  at  Cambridge.  The  de- 
gree of  Mus.  Bac.  does  not  exist  in  foreign 
Universities.  [C.  A.  F.] 

BACHOFEN,  Johaxn  Caspae,  born  at 
Zurich,  1692,  in  1718  singing-master  in  the 
Latin  school,  and  cantor  of  one  of  the  Zurich 
churches.  Succeeded  Albertin  as  director  of 
the  'Chorherm-gesellschaft'  Association;  died 
at  Zurich,  1755.  His  h}Tnn3  were  very  popular 
all  over  Switzerland,  and  his  works  give  abundant 
evidence  of  his  diligence  and  the  wide  range  of 
his  talent,  (i)  *  Musicalisches  Halleluja  oder 
schone  und  geistreiche  Gesange,'  etc.  (no  date), 
containing  600  melodies  for  two  and  three  voices, 
with  organ  and  figured  bass.  Eight  editions 
down  to  1767.  (2)  'Psalmen  Davids  .  .  .  sammt 
Fiist  und  Kirch engesangen,'  etc.,  8vo.,  1759 
(second  edition).  (3)  'Vermehrte  Zusatz  von 
Morgen,  Abend  ....  Gesangen,'  1738.  (4) 
T\yelve  monthly  numbers  containing  sacred  airs 
arranged  in  concert-style  (concert-weise)  for  two 
and  three  voices;  1755  (4th  ed.).  (5)  Brookes' 
'  Irdisches  Vergniigen  in  Gott,'  set  to  music ; 
1740  (1000  pages).  (6)  '  Musicalische  Erget- 
zungen';  1755.  (7)  '  Der  fiir  die  Siinden  der 
Welt,'  etc.  (Brookes'  'Passion'),  1759.  (8)  'Mu- 
sic. Notenbiichlein/  an  instruction-book  in  music 
and  singing.  [F.  G.] 

BACK.  The  back  of  the  instruments  belong- 
ing to  the  violin-tribe  appears  to  have  two  dis- 
tinct functions.  It  has  on  the  one  hand  to 
participate  in  the  vibrations  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  instrument,  and  on  the  other  to  act  as 
a  sounding-board  to  throw  back  the  waves  of 
sound.  This  is  why  the  back  is  usually  made 
of  hard  wood  (sycamore,  or  harewood),  which, 
although  not  as  easily  set  into  vibration  as  deal, 
the  usual  material  for  the  belly,  is  better  adapted 


122 


BACK. 


BAGATELLE. 


to  the  fulfilment  of  the  above  functions.  Now 
and  then  we  meet  with  a  violoncello  by  one  of 
the  old  makers  with  a  back  of  pine  or  lime-wood. 
But  the  tone  of  such  an  instrument,  however 
good  in  quality,  is  invariably  wanting  in  power 
and  intensity. 

The  backs  of  violins,  tenors,  and  violoncellos 
are  shaped  after  one  and  the  same  model :  most 
elevated  and  thickest  in  the  centre  ;  somewhat 
thinner  and  slanting  towards  the  edges.  They 
are  made  either  of  one  piece,  or  of  two,  joined 
lengthwise  in  the  middle.  The  back  of  the 
double-bass  has  retained  that  of  the  older  viol- 
di-gamba  tribe  :  it  is  flat,  and  at  the  top  slants 
towards  the  neck.  Close  to  the  edges  the  back 
is  inlaid  with  a  single  or  double  line  of  purfling, 
which  is  merely  intended  to  improve  the  outward 
appearance  of  the  instrument.  [P.  D.] 

BADIALI,  Cesaee,  a  very  distinguished 
basso  cantante ;  made  his  first  appearance  at 
Trieste,  1827.  After  achieving  a  brilliant  success 
at  every  one  of  the  chief  theatres  of  Italy,  and 
especially  at  Milan,  where  he  sang  in  1830, 
1 83 1,  and  1832,  he  was  engaged  for  the  opera 
of  Madrid,  then  at  Lisbon,  and  did  not  return  to 
Italy  till  1838.  On  his  reappearance  at  Milan,  he 
was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm ;  and  continued 
to  sing  there,  and  at  Vienna  and  Turin,  until 
1842,  when  he  was  appointed  principal  chamber- 
singer  to  the  Emperor.  He  sang  afterwards  at 
Eome,  Venice,  Trieste,  Turin,  and  other  towns 
of  less  importance.  In  1845  he  was  at  Leghorn. 
The  Accademia  di  S.  Cecilia  of  Eome  received 
him  as  a  member  of  its  body.  In  1859  he  made 
his  first  nppearance  in  London,  when  he  made 
the  quaint  remark,  'What  a  pity  I  did  not 
think  of  this  city  fifty  years  ago !'  He 
retained  at  that  time,  and  for  some  years  longer, 
a  voice  of  remarkable  beauty,  an  excellent 
method,  and  great  power  of  executing  rapid 
passages.  He  was  one  of  the  few  who  have 
ever  sung  the  music  of  Assur  in  Rossini's 
*  Semiramide '  as  it  was  written :  in  that  part 
he  was  extremely  good,  and  not  less  so  in  that 
of  the  Conte  Eobinson  in  the  '  Matrimonio 
Segreto.'  A  singular  feat  is  ascribed  to  him. 
It  is  said  that,  when  supping  with  fiiends,  he 
would  drink  a  glass  of  claret,  and,  while  in 
the  act  of  swallowing  it,  sing  a  scale ;  and  if 
the  first  time  his  execution  was  not  quite  perfect, 
he  would  repeat  the  performance  with  a  full 
glass,  a  loud  voice,  and  without  missing  a  note 
or  a  drop. 

He  was  a  good  musician,  and  left  a  few  songs 
of  his  own  composition.  For  the  last  ten  years 
of  his  life  he  resided  and  sang  in  Paris,  He  died 
17  Nov.  1S65  at  Imola,  where  he  was  born.  [J.M.] 

BARMANN.  The  name  of  a  remarkable 
family  of  musicians,  (i)  Heinricii  Joseph, 
one  of  the  finest  of  clarinet  players — 'a  truly 
great  artist  and  glorious  man'  as  Weber  calls 
him — born  at  Potsdam  Feb.  1 7, 1 784,  and  educated 
at  the  oboe  school  there,  where  his  ability  pro- 
cured him  the  patronage  of  Prince  Louis  Ferdi- 
nand of  Prussia.    The  peace  of  Tilsit  (1807) 


released  him  from  a  French  prison,  and  he  then 
obtained  a  place  in  the  court  band  at  Munich. 
He  next  undertook  a  tour  through  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  England,  and  Russia,  which  es- 
tablished his  name  and  fame  far  and  wide.  His 
special  claim  on  our  interest  arises  from  his 
intimate  connection  with  C.  M.  von  Weber, 
who  arrived  in  Munich  in  181 1,  and  wrote 
various  concert-pieces  for  Barmann,  which  re- 
main acknowledged  masterpieces  for  the  clarinet. 
Meyerbeer  also  became  closely  acquainted  with 
him  during  the  congress  at  Vienna  in  181 3. 
Not  less  interesting  and  creditable  was  his 
intimacy  with  Mendelssohn,  who  was  evidently 
on  the  most  brotherly  footing  with  him  and  his 
family,  and  wrote  for  him  the  two  duets  for 
clarinet  and  basset-horn  published  as  Op.  113. 
He  died  at  Munich  June  11,  1847,  leaving 
compositions  behind  him  which  are  highly  es- 
teemed for  their  technical  value.  (2)  His 
brother  Karl,  born  at  Potsdam  1782  and  died 
1842  ;  a  renowned  bassoon  player,  and  belonged 
to  the  roj^al  band  at  Berlin.  More  important 
was  (3)  Kael,  the  son  of  Heinrich,  and  the 
true  scholar  and  successor  of  his  father.  He 
was  born  at  Munich  1820,  and  during  a 
lengthened  tour  in  1838  was  introduced  by  his 
father  to  the  musical  world  as  a  virtuoso  of  the 
first  order.  After  this  he  at  once  took  the  place 
of  first  clarinet  in  the  Munich  court  band,  with 
which  he  had  indeed  been  accustomed  to  play 
since  the  age  of  fourteen.  His  compositions  for 
the  clarinet  are  greatly  esteemed,  especially  his 
'Clarinet  School'  (Andre,  Offenbach)  in  two 
parts,  the  second  of  which  contains  twenty  grand 
studies  ;  also  a  supplement  thereto,  *  Materialien 
zur  weiteren  technischen  Ausbildung,' — a  col- 
lection of  difficult  passages  from  his  own  works. 
(4)  His  son,  Karl  j  nn.,  a  fine  pianoforte  player, 
is  teacher  at  this  time  (1875)  music 
school  at  Munich. 

Weber's  friendship  for  the  Barmanns  has 
been  already  mentioned.  Two  of  his  letters  to 
them  will  be  found  in  '  Letters  of  Distinguished 
Musicians'  (pp.  351,  381).  The  same  collection 
contains  no  less  than  thirteen  letters  from 
Mendelssohn  to  Heinrich,  and  one  to  Carl — 
letters  delightful  not  only  for  their  fun  and 
cleverness,  but  for  the  close  intimacy  which 
they  show  to  have  existed  between  the  two, 
and  the  very  great  esteem  which  Mendelssohn — 
a  man  who  did  not  easily  make  friends — evidently 
felt  for  the  great  artist  he  addresses.  Other 
references  to  Barmann  will  be  found  in  Men- 
delssohn's '  Reisebriefe.'  [A.  M.] 

BAGATELLE  (Fr.  'a  trifle').  A  short  piece 
of  pianoforte  music  in  a  light  style.  The  name 
was  probably  first  used  by  Beethoven  in  his 
'Seven  Bagatelles,'  op.  33,  who  subsequently 
also  wrote  three  other  sets,  two  of  which  are 
published  as  ops.  119  and  126  ;  the  third  is  still 
in  manuscript  (^Thayer,  'Chron.  Verz.'  No.  287). 
As  bearing  upon  the  title,  it  is  worth  while  to 
mention  that  Beethoven's  manuscript  of  his  op. 
119  has  the  German  inscription  *  Kleinigkeiten,' 
instead  of  the  French  equivalent.  The  form  of  the 


BAGATELLE. 


BAGPIPE. 


123 


^a:'atelle  is  entirely  at  tlie  discretion  of  the  o:>m- 

-er,  the  only  restriction  being  that  it  must  be 
rt  and  not  too  serious  in  its  character.  [E.  P.] 

BAGGE,  Selmar,  musician  and  critic,  bom 
Coburg  June  30,  1S23,  son  of  the  Rector  of 
the  Gymnasium  there.  His  musical  studies 
began  early,  and  in  1S37  he  entered  the  Con- 
servatorium  at  Prague  under  D.  Weber.  Later 
still  he  was  a  pupil  of  Sechter  at  Vienna,  where 
in  1851  he  became  professor  of  composition  at 
the  Conservatorium,  and  in  1S53  organist  of 
one  of  the  churches.  In  1855  he  resigned  his 
professorship  and  took  to  writing  in  the  *Mo- 
natsschrift  fiir  Theater  und  Musik,'  but  he  soon 
turned  it  into  the  '  Deutsche  Musikzeitung,'  of 
which  periodical  he  was  founder  and  editor.  In 
1S63  he  transferred  himself  to  Leipsic  as  editor 
of  the  'Deutschen  Allgemeine  Musikzeitung,' 
but  this  he  relinquished  in  1S6S  for  the  director- 
ship of  the  music  school  at  Basle.  Bagge  is  a 
strong  conservative  and  an  able  writer.  Beetho- 
ven and  Schumann  are  his  models  in  art,  and 
he  has  no  mercy  on  those  who  differ  from  him, 
especially  on  the  Xew  German  school.  His 
music  is  correct  and  fluent,  but  poor  in  invention 
and  meL_->dy.  [G.] 

BAGXOLESI,  AxNA.  An  Italian  contralto, 
who  sang  in  London,  1732,  in  Handel's  operas. 
She  made  her  first  appearance,  Jan.  15,  in  '  Ezio,' 
and  sang  subsequently  in  '  Sosarme,'  in  a  revival 
of  'FlaWo,'  and  in  '  Acis  and  Galatea  '  at  its  first 
public  performance,  June  10,  and  the  succeeding 
occasions  in  that  year.  She  also  appeared  in  a 
reprise  of  Ariosti's  '  Cajo  Marzio  Coriolano.'  Xo- 
thing  is  now  known  of  her  after-career.     [J.  M.] 

BAGPIPE  (Fr.  Cornemuse;  Ital.  Cornamusa  ; 
Germ.  Sacl-pfeije).  An  instrument,  in  one  or 
other  of  its  forms,  of  very  great  antiquity.  By 
the  Greeks  it  was  named  doKavXos  or  avfxcpdii'cia  ; 
by  the  Romans  Tihi<i  utricularis.  Mersennus 
calls  it  Stirdeline,  and  Bonani  Pica  or  Ciaramella. 
In  Lower  Brittany  it  is  termed  Bignou,  from  a 
Breton  word  hiryao — 'se  renfler  beaucoup.'  It 
has  been  named  Musette  (possibly  after  Colin 
;Muset,  an  officer  of  Thibaut  de  Champagne, 
king  of  XavarreX  Corruptions  of  these  names, 
such  as  Samponia  or  Samphoneja,  and  Zampugna, 
are  also  common. 

It  appears  on  a  coin  of  Xero,  who,  according 
to  Suetonius,  was  himself  a  performer  upon  it. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Procopius  as  the  instrimient 
of  war  of  the  Roman  in&ntry.  In  the  crozier 
given  by  William  of  Wykehara  to  Xew  College, 
Oxford,  in  1403,  there  is  the  figure  of  an  angel 
playing  it.  Chaucer's  miller  performed  on  it — 
'  A  bagpipe  well  couth  he  blowe  and  sowne.' 

Shakespeare  often  alludes  to  it.  He  sreaks 
of  'the  drone  of  a  Lincolnshire  bagpipe,'  of 
the  antipathy  some  people  have  to  its  sound, 
and  of  some  who  laugh  like  parrots  at  a  bagpiper. 
At  the  close  of  the  15th  century  the  bagpipe 
seems  to  have  come  into  general  favour  in 
Scotland. 

L  ntil  recently  music  for  the  bagpipe  was  not 
vmtten  according  to  the  usual  system  of  notation, 


but  was  taught  by  a  language  of  its  own,  the 
notes  having  each  names,  such  as  hodroho, 
hananin,  hiechin,  hachin,  etc.  A  collection  of 
piobaireachd  (pibrochs)  in  this  form  was  pub- 
lished by  Capt.  Xiel  Macleod  at  Edinburgh  in 
1S2S. 

In  Louis  Xl\  '3  time  the  bagpipe  formed  one 
of  the  instruments  included  in  the  band  of  the 
'Grande  Ecurie/  and  was  played  at  court 
concerts. 

Its  essential  characteristics  have  always  been, 
first,  a  combination  of  fixed  notes  or  *'  drones,'  with 
a  melody  or  'chaunter' ;  secondly,  the  presence  of 
a  wind-chest  or  bag.  From  these  peculiarities, 
the  Greek,  and  from  the  second  of  them  the 
Latin  names  clearly  come.  Although  it  has  no 
doubt  been  re  invented  in  various  times  and 
places,  it  seems  to  be  connected  with  the  Keltic 
race,  whether  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  or  Brittany. 

The  wind  has  been  variously  supplied,  either 
from  the  breath  of  the  player,  or  from  a  small 
pair  of  bellows  placed  under  one  arm,  the  sac  or 
bag  being  imder  the  other.  In  the  Latter  form  it 
contains  all  the  essentials  of  the  organ.  It  is 
somewhat  remarkable  that  the  use  of  the  lungs 
themselves  as  the  wind-chest  to  reed  instruments 
should  have  been  adopted  later  and  less  uni- 
versally. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  four  principal 
forms  of  the  instrument  used  in  this  country — two 
Scotch  (Highland  and  Lowland),  the  Irish,  and 
the  Xorthumbrian.  The  Scotch  Highland  pipe 
is  blown  fi'om  the  chest,  the  others  from  bellows. 
The  Irish  bagpipe  is  perhaps  the  most  powerful 
and  elaborate  instrument,  keys  producing  the 
third  and  fifth  to  the  note  of  the  chaunter  having 
been  added  to  the  drones.  The  Xorthumbrian 
is  small  and  sweeter  in  tone ;  but  the  Scotch  pipe 
is  probably  the  oldest  and  certainly  the  most 
characteristic  form  :  it  will  therefore  be  considered 
first,  and  at  the  greatesi;  length. 

In  this  instrument  a  valved  tube  leads  from 
the  mouth  to  a  leather  air-tight  bag,  which  has 
four  other  orifices  ;  three  large  enough  to  contain 
the  base  of  three  fixed  long  tubes  termed  drones, 
and  another  smaller,  to  which  is  fitted  the 
cha'onter.  The  former  are  thrown  on  the  shoulder ; 
the  latter  is  held  in  the  hands.  All  four  pipes 
are  fitted  with  reeds,  but  of  difierent  kinds.  The 
drone  reeds  are  made  by  splitting  a  round  length 
of  'cane'  or  reed  backwards  towards  a  joint  or 
knot  from  a  cross  cut  near  the  open  end  ;  they  thus 
somewhat  resemble  the  reed  in  organ  pipes,  the 
loose  flap  of  cane  replacing  the  tongue,  the  tmcut 
part  the  tube  or  reed  proper.  These  are  then  set 
downwards  in  a  chamber  at  the  base  of  the 
drone,  so  that  the  current  of  air  issuing  from  the 
bag  tends  to  close  the  fissure  in  the  cane  caused 
by  the  springing  outwards  of  the  cut  flap,  thus 
setting  it  in  vibration.  The  drone  reeds  are 
only  intended  to  produce  a  single  note,  which 
can  be  tuned  by  a  slider  on  the  pipe  itself, 
var\-ing  the  length  of  the  consonating  air-column. 

The  chaunter  reed  is  different  in  form,  being 
made  of  two  approximated  edges  of  cane  tied 
together,  and  is  thus  essentially  a  double  reed, 


124 


BAGPIPE. 


BAGPIPE. 


like  that  of  the  oboe  or  bassoon,  while  the  drone 
reed  roughly  represents  the  single  beating  reed 
of  the  organ  or  clarinet.  The  drone  reed  is 
an  exact  reproduction  of  the  *  squeaker '  which 
children  in  the  fields  fashion  out  of  joints  of 
tall  grass,  probably  the  oldest  form  of  the  reed 
in  existence. 

The  drone  tubes  are  in  length  proportional  to 
their  note,  the  longest  being  about  three  feet 
high.  The  chaunter  is  a  conical  wooden  tube, 
about  fourteen  inches  long,  pierced  wath  eight 
sounding  holes,  seven  in  front  for  the  fingers,  and 
one  at  the  top  behind  for  the  thumb  of  the  right 
hand.  Two  additional  holes  bored  across  the 
tube  below  the  lowest  of  these  merely  regulate 
the  pitch,  and  are  never  stopped. 

The  compass  is  only  of  nine  notes,  from  G  to 

A  inclusive  /u    J    ■  .   They  do  not  form  any 

diatonic  scale  whatever,  nor  indeed  are  they 
accurately  tuned  to  one  another.  The  nearest 
approximation  to  their  position  can  be  obtained 
by  taking  the  two  common  chords  of  G  and  A 
superposed,  and  adding  one  extra  note  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  F,  or  FJ.  In  the  former 
common  chord,  which  is  iolerably  true,  we  have 
G,  B,  D,  G,  upwards,  and  in  the  latter  A,  C  $, 
E,  A,  which  is  far  less  accurate.  G  to  A  is 
not  however  a  whole  tone,  only  about  f  of  one. 
C#,  unlike  that  of  the  tempered  scale,  which  is 
nearly  a  conmia  sharp,  is  here  as  much  flat. 
The  B  and  D  accord  with  the  low  G,  and  not 
with  the  low  A.  It  appears  to  the  Avriter  better 
thus  to  describe  the  real  sounds  produced  than 
to  indulge  in  speculation  as  to  Lydian  and  Phry- 
gian modes. 

In  the  tuning  of  the  drones  there  seems  to  be 
difference  of  practice.  Glen's  '  Tutor  for  the  Great 
Highland  Bagpipe '  states  that  the  drones  are  all 
tuned  to  A ;  the  two  smaller  in  unison  with 
the  lower  A  of  the  chaunter,  the  largest  to 
the  octave  below ;  whereas  from  other  works 
it  appears  that  the  sequence  G,  D,  G,  as 
well  as  D,  A,  D,  are  both  admissible.  But  the 
Northmnbrian  or  border  pipe,  a  far  more  accurate 
instrument  according  to  modern  musical  notions 
than  the  Scotch,  provides  for  a  possible  change  of 
key  by  the  addition  of  a  fourth  supplementary 
drone ;  probably  the  three  notes  G,  D,  and  A, 
might  be  tolerated,  in  alternate  pairs,  according 
to  the  predominant  key  of  G  or  A  in  the  melody. 
There  is  good  ground,  however,  for  believing  that 
any  attempt  to  accommodate  the  bagpipe  to  modern 
scale-notation  would  only  result  in  a  total  loss 
of  its  archaic,  semi-barbarous,  and  stimulating 
character. 

Some  confirmation  of  the  view  here  taken  as  to 
the  scale  of  the  bagpipe  may  be  derived  from  an 
examination  of  the  music  ■\\Titten  for  it.  It  is 
known  to  all  musicians  that  a  fairly  passable 
imitation  of  Scotch  and  Irish  tunes  may  be 
obtained  by  playing  exclusively  on  the  'black 
keys.'  This  amounts  simply  to  omission  of  semi- 
tones ;  and  in  semitones  lies  the  special  character 
of  a  scale,  whether  major  or  minor.    The  minor 


efi'ect  may  indeed  be  obtained ;  and  is  usually 
remarkable  in  all  tunes  of  the  Keltic  family,  but 
it  is  done  by  chord  rather  than  by  scale.  None 
of  the  oldest  and  most  characteristic  Scotch 
melodies  contain  scales ;  all  proceed  more  or  less 
by  leaps,  especially  that  of  a  sixth,  with  abundant 
use  of  heterogeneous  passing  notes.  If  the  airs 
of  the  pibrochs  be  read  with  a  view  to  map  out 
the  resting  or  sustained  notes  in  the  melody, 
it  wiU  be  found,  in  the  most  characteristic  and 
original  tunes,  that  the  scale  is  A,  B,  D,  E,  F  J 
and  high  A.  This  is  equivalent  to  the  black- 
key  scale,  beginning  on  Db.  '  Mackrimmon  s 
lament'  is  a  good  example.  The  minor  effect 
named  above  is  gained  through  the  major  sixth, 
with  the  help  of  the  drone  notes ;  a  fact  which, 
though  rather  startling,  is  easily  demonstrable. 

This  use  of  ornamental  notes  has  in  course  of 
time  developed  into  a  new  and  prominent 
chai-acter  in  bagpipe  music.  Such  a  development 
is  only  natural  in  an  instrument  possessing  no 
real  diatonic  scale,  and  therefore  rel;y-ing  for 
tolerance  of  jarring  intervals  on  perjjetual  sus- 
pension, or  on  constant  discord  and  resolution ; 
with  a  '  drone  bass '  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term.  The  ornamental  notes  thus  introduced  are 
termed  'warblers,'  very  appropriately,  after  the 
birds,  who,  until  trained  and  civilised,  sometimes 
by  the  splitting  of  their  tongues,  entirely  disregard 
the  diatonic  scale,  whether  natural  or  tempered. 
First-rate  pipers  succeed  in  introducing  a  '  warbler' 
of  eleven  notes  between  the  last  up-beat  and  the 
first  down-beat  of  a  bar.  Warblers  of  seven 
notes  are  common,  and  of  five  usual. 

The  Irish  bagpipe  differs  from  the  Scotch  in 
being  played  by  means  of  bellows,  in  having  a 
softer  reed  and  longer  tubes,  with  a  chaunter 
giving  ten  or  even  twelve  notes.  The  scale  is 
said  to  be  more  accurate  than  the  Scotch.  The 
Northumbrian,  of  which  a  beautiful  specimen 
has  been  lent  to  the  writer  by  Mr.  Charles  S. 
Keene,  is  a  much  smaller  and  feebler  instrument. 
The  ivory  chaunter  has,  besides  the  seven  holes 
in  front,  and  one  behind,  five  silver  keys  producing 
additional  notes.  It  is  moreover  stopped  at  the 
bottom,  so  that  when  all  holes  are  closed  no 
sound  issues.  The  long  wail  with  which  a  Scotch 
pipe  begins  and  ends  is  thus  obviated.  Each 
hole  is  opened  singly  by  the  finger,  the  others 
remaining  closed,  contrary  to  the  practice  of 
other  reeds.  The  gamut  of  the  Northumbrian  or 
Border  pipes  is  given  as  fifteen  notes,  including 
two  chromatic  intervals,  C  and  C5,  D  and  Dff. 
The  drones  can  be  tuned  to  G,  D,  G,  or  to 
D,  A,  D,  as  above  stated. 

Considering  the  small  compass  of  the  bagpipe, 
the  music  written  for  it  appears  singularly 
abundant.  *  Tutors'  for  the  instrument  have  been 
published  by  Donald  MacDonald  and  Angus 
Mackay.  Glen's  collection  of  music  for  the  great 
Highland  bagpipe  contains  instructions  for  the 
management  of  the  reeds,  etc.,  with  213  tunes. 
UUeam  Ross,  the  present  Queen's  Piper,  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  pipe  music  in  1869  consist- 
ing of  243  marches,  piobaireachds,  or  pibrochs, 
strathspeys,  and  reels,  selected  from  a  thousand 


EAGPIPE. 


BAILLOT. 


125 


airs,  amassed  during  thirty  years  from  old  pipers 
and  other  local  sources.  The  chief  collection  of 
Northumbrian  music  is  known  as  Peacock's ;  a 
book  which  is  now  so  scarce  as  to  be  almost 
unprocurable. 

Many  composers  have  imitated  the  tone  of  the 
bagpipe  by  the  orchestra  ;  the  most  familiar  cases 
occur  in  the  'Dame  Blanche'  of  Boieldieu  and 
the  '  Dinorah'  of  Meyerbeer.  [W.  H.  S.] 

BAI,  ToiiMASO,  was  bom  at  Crevalcuore,  near 
Bologna,  towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
and  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  tenor  singers 
in  the  chapel  of  the  Vatican.  In  1713  he  was 
made  maestro  of  that  basilica,  according  to  an 
extract  from  the  chapel  books  cited  by  Baini, 
because  he  was  the  oldest  and  most  accomplished 
member  of  the  choir.  ^  He  died  in  the  year 
following  this  recognition  of  his  excellence.  His 
fame  rests  on  a  single  achievement.  His  *  Mise- 
rere,' written  at  the  request  of  his  choir,  is  the 
only  one  (if  we  except  that  by  Baini)  out  of  a 
long  series  by  composers  known  and  unknown, 
including  Naldini,  Felice  Anerio,  Tartini,  and 
Alessandro  Scarlatti,  which  has  been  thought 
worthy  to  take  permanent  rank  with  those  of 
Allegri  and  Palestrina.  Other  works  by  Bai 
exist,  but  they  are  in  manuscript.  They  consist 
of  a  mass,  twelve  motetti  for  four,  five,  and 
eight  voices,  and  a  *De  Profundis'  for  eight 
voices.  They  are  aU  enumerated  in  the  cata- 
logue of  the  collection  made  by  the  Abbe 
Santini.  [E.  H.  P.] 

BAILDON",  Joseph,  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  and  lay-vicar  of  Westminster 
Abbey  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  In 
1763  he  obtained  one  of  the  first  prizes  given 
by  the  Catch  Club  for  a  catch,  and  in  1766  was 
awarded  a  prize  for  his  fine  glee,  'When  gay 
Bacchus  fills  my  breast.'  In  1763  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  the  chxirches  of  St.  Luke, 
Old  Street,  and  AU  Saints,  Fulham.  Ten  catches 
and  four  glees  by  him  are  contained  in  Warren's 
collections,  and  others  are  in  print.  Baildon 
published  a  collection  of  songs  in  two  books 
entitled  'The  Laurel,'  and  'Four  Favourite 
Songs  sung  by  Mr.  Beard  a*  Ranelagh  Gar- 
dens.' He  died  May  7,  1774.  L"^^-  H-  H-] 

BAILLOT,  PiEKRE  Marie  Francois  de 
Sales,  takes  a  prominent  place  among  the  great 
French  violin-players.  He  was  born  Oct.  i, 
1 771,  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  where  his  father  kept 
a  school.  He  shewed  very  early  remarkable  mu- 
sical talent,  and  got  his  first  instruction  on  the 
violin  from  an  Italian  named  Polidori.  In  1780 
Sainte  -  Marie,  a  French  violinist,  became  his 
teacher,  and  by  his  severe  taste  and  methodical 
instruction  gave  him  the  first  training  in  those 
artistic  qualities  by  which  Baillot's  playing  was 
afterwards  so  much  distinguished.  When  ten 
years  of  age,  he  heard  Viotti  play  one  of  his 
concertos.  His  performance  filled  the  boy  with 
intense  admiration,  and,  although  for  twenty 
years  he  had  no  second  opportunity  of  hearing 
him,  he  often  related  later  in  life,  how  from  that 

^  '  Come  i]  piu  antico  e  virtuoso  della  CappeUa.' 


day  Viotti  remained  for  him  the  model  of  a  violin- 
player,  and  his  style  the  ideal  to  be  realised  in 
his  own  studies.  After  the  loss  of  his  father  in 
1783  a  Mons.  de  Bouchepom,  a  high  government 
official,  sent  him,  with  his  own  children,  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  placed  under  the  tuition  of  the 
violin-player  Pollani,  a  pupil  of  Nardini.  Al- 
though his  progress  was  rapid  and  soon  enabled 
him  to  play  successfully  in  pubUc,  we  find  him 
during  the  next  five  years  living  with  his  bene- 
factor alternately  at  Pau,  Bayonne,  and  other 
places  in  the  south  of  France,  acting  as  his 
private  secretary'-,  and  devoting  but  little  time 
to  his  violin.  In  1791  he  came  to  Paris,  de- 
termined to  rely  for  the  future  on  his  musical 
talent.  Viotti  procured  him  a  place  in  the 
opera-band,  but  Baillot  very  soon  resigned  it,  in 
order  to  accept  an  appointment  in  the  Ministfere 
des  Finances,  which  he  kept  for  some  years, 
devoting  merely  his  leisure  hours  to  music  and 
violin-playing.  After  having  been  obliged  to  join 
the  army  for  twenty  months  he  returned,  in 
1795,  to  Paris,  and,  as  Fetis  relates,  became 
accidentally  acquainted  with  the  violin-compo- 
sitions of  Corelli,  Tartini,  Geminiani,  Locatelli, 
Bach  (?)  and  Handel.  The  study  of  the  works 
of  these  great  masters  filled  him  with  fresh 
enthusiasm,  and  he  once  more  determined  to 
take  up  music  as  his  profession.  He  soon 
made  his  appearance  in  public  with  a  concerto  of 
Viotti,  and  with  such  success,  that  his  reputation 
was  at  once  established,  and  a  professorship  of 
violin-playing  was  given  him  at  the  newly-opened 
Conservatoire.  In  1802  he  entered  Napoleon's 
private  band,  and  afterwards  travelled  for  three 
years  in  Russia  (1805-1808)  together  with  the 
violonceUo-player  Lamare,  earning  both  fame  and 
money.  In  18 14  he  started  concerts  for  chamber- 
music  in  Paris,  which  met  with  great  success,  and 
acquired  him  the  reputation  of  an  unrivalled 
quartett-player.  In  1815  and  18 16  he  travelled 
in  Holland,  Belgium,  and  England,  where  he 
performed  at  the  Philharmonic  concert  of  Feb. 
26,  1 8 16,  and  afterwards  became  an  ordinary 
member  of  the  Society.  From  1821  to  1831  he 
was  leader  of  the  band  at  the  Grand  Opera  ;  from 
1825  he  filled  the  same  place  in  the  Royal  Band; 
in  1833  he  made  a  final  tour  through  Switzerland 
and  part  of  Italy.  He  died  Sept.  15,  1842, 
working  to  the  end  with  unremitting  freshness. 
He  was  the  last  representative  of  the  great 
classical  Paris  school  of  violin-playing.  After 
him  the  influence  of  Paganini's  style  became 
paramount  in  France,  and  Baillot's  true  disciples 
and  followers  in  spirit  were,  and  are,  only  to  be 
found  among  the  violinists  of  the  modern  Ger- 
man school.  His  playing  was  distinguished  by  a 
noble  powerful  tone,  great  neatness  of  execution, 
and  a  pure,  elevated,  truly  musical  style.  An 
excellent  solo-player,  he  was  unrivalled  at  Paris 
as  interpreter  of  the  best  classical  chamber-music. 
Mendelssohn  and  Hiller  both  speak  in  the  high- 
est terms  of  praise  of  Baillot  as  a  quartett- 
player.  An  interesting  account  of  some  of  his 
personal  traits  will  be  found  in  a  letter  of  the 
former,  published  in  '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn' 


126 


BAILLOT. 


BALFE. 


(1872).  Although  his  compositions  are  almost 
entirely  forgotten,  his  'Art  du  Violon'  still  main- 
tains its  place  as  a  standard  work. 

He  also  took  a  prominent  part  with  Rode  and 
Kreutzer  in  compiling  and  editing  the  '  M^thode 
de  Violon  adoptee  par  le  Conservatoire,'  and  a 
similar  work  for  the  violoncello.  His  obituary 
notices  of  Grdtry  (Paris,  181 4)  and  Niotti  (1825), 
and  other  occasional  writings,  shew  remarkable 
critical  power  and  great  elegance  of  style. 

His  published  musical  compositions  are: — 15 
trios  for  2  violins  and  bass ;  6  duos  for  2  violins ; 
1 2  etudes  for  \dolin  ;  9  concertos ;  symphonic 
concertante  for  2  violins,  with  orchestra  ;  30  airs 
varies ;  3  string  quartetts ;  i  sonata  for  piano 
and  violin  ;  24  preludes  in  all  keys,  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  pieces  for  the  violin.  [P.  D.] 

BAKER,  George,  Mus.  Doc,  was  bom  at 
Exeter  in  1773.  Taught  by  his  aunt,  he  was 
able  at  seven  years  of  age  to  play  upon  the 
harpsichord,  and  about  the  same  time  was  placed 
under  the  tuition  of  Hugh  Bond  and  William 
Jackson,  then  organist  of  Exeter  cathedral.  He 
also  received  lessons  on  the  violin  from  Ward. 
In  1 790  he  quitted  Exeter  for  London,  where  he 
was  received  into  the  family  of  the  Earl  of 
Uxbridge,  who  placed  him  under  William  Cramer 
and  Dussek  for  instruction  on  the  violin  and 
pianoforte.  He  was  organist  at  Stafford  1795, 
Derby  18 10,  and  Rugeley  1824.  He  took  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  at  Oxford  about  1801. 
He  died  Feb.  19,  1847.  Dr.  Baker's  compositions 
comprise  anthems,  glees,  organ  voluntaries, 
pianoforte  sonatas,  and  other  pieces,  the  music 
to  an  unfortunate  musical  entertainment  called 
*The  Caffres,'  produced  for  a  benefit  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  June  2,  1802,  and  at  once 
condemned,  and  numerous  songs,  many  of  them 
composed  for  Incledon,  his  former  fellow- pupil 
imder  Jackson.  [W.  H.  H.] 

EALBI,  LuiGi,  bom  at  Venice  towards  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century,  a  Cordelier  monk, 
pupil  of  Costanzo  Porta,  director  of  the  music  in 
the  church  of  S.  Antonio  at  Padua,  and  afterwards 
in  the  convent  of  his  order  at  Venice  (1606). 
He  composed  masses,  motetts,  and  madrigals 
(Venice,  1576-1606),  and  died  in  1608.  One 
seven-part  and  five  eight-part  motets  by  him  are 
printed  in  Bodenschatz's  'Florilegium  Por- 
tense,'  Pt.  2.  [M.  C.  C] 

BALDASSARRI,  Benedetto,  an  eminent 
Italian  singer,  who  sang  the  tenor  part  of  Timante 
in  Handel's  opera  '  Floridante,'  at  its  first  and  suc- 
ceeding performances  in  1721.  He  appeared  also 
in  Buononcini's  'Crispo,'  and  other  pieces,  in  the 
next  year.  He  had  already  sung  in  *  Numitor ' 
by  Porta,  and  other  operas,  with  Durastanti  and 
her  companions  of  the  old  troupe.  [J.  M.] 

BALDENECKER,  Nicolaus,  member  of  an 
extensive  family  of  musicians,  born  at  Mayence 
1782,  first  violin  at  the  Frankfort  theatre  from 
1803  to  51,  and  joint-founder  with  Schelble  of  the 
amateur  concerts  which  resulted  in  the  famous 
*Cacilien-Verein'  of  that  city. 


BALDI,  a  counter-tenor  singer,  who  sang  in 
London  in  operas  of  Handel,  Buononcini,  and 
others,  from  1725  to  28.  In  the  first  year  he  sang 
in  'Elisa' and  Leonardo  Vinci's  'Elpidia,' replacing 
Pacini  in  the  latter,  who  previously  sang  in  it. 
In  1726  he  appeared  in  Handel's  '  Alessandro,' 

*  Ottone,'  and  -'Scipione';  in  1727  in  'Admeto' 
and  'Riccardo,'  as  well  as  in  Buononcini's  *Asti- 
anatte';  and  in  1728  he  sang  in  'Tolomeo,' 

*  Siroe,'  and  *  Radamisto,' — all  by  Handel.  He 
seems  to  have  been  an  excellent  and  useful 
artist,  only  eclipsed  by  the  great  Senesino,  who 
monopolised  the  leading  parts.  [J.  M.j 

BALELLI,  an  Italian  basso  engaged  at  the 
opera  in  London  towards  the  end  of  the  i8tli 
century.  In  1787  he  sang  in  'Giulio  Cesare 
in  Egitto,'  a  pasticcio,  the  music  selected  by 
Arnold  from  various  works  of  Handel's ;  and 
in  the  *  Re  Teodoro,'  a  comic  opera  of  Paisiello. 
In  1788  he  appeared  in  Sarti's  'Giulio  Sabino' ; 
and  the  next  year  in  Cherubini's  'Ifigenia,' 
and  in  operas  both  comic  and  serious  by 
Tarchi.  [J.  M.] 

BALFE,  Michael  William,  was  bom  at 
Dublin,  May  15,  1808.  When  he  was  four  years 
old  his  family  resided  at  Wexford,  and  it  was 
here,  in  the  eager  pleasure  he  took  in  listening 
to  a  military  band,  that  Balfe  gav*^  the  first  sign 
of  his  musical  aptitude.  At  five  years  of  age 
he  took  his  first  lesson  on  the  violin,  and  at 
seven  was  able  to  score  a  polacca  composed 
by  himself  for  a  band.  His  father  now  sought 
better  instruction  for  him,  and  placed  hirr  under 
O'Rourke  (afterwards  known  in  London  as 
Rooke),  who  brought  him  out  as  a  violinist  in 
May  181 6.  At  ten  years  old  he  composed  a 
ballad,  afterwards  sung  by  Madame  Vestris 
in  the  comedy  of  'Paul  Pry,'  under  the  title 
of  'The  Lover's  Mistake,'  and  which  even  now 
is  remarkable  for  the  freshness  of  its  melody, 
the  gift  in  which  he-  afterwards  proved  so 
eminent.  When  he  was  sixteen  his  father 
died,  and  left  him  to  his  own  resources ;  he 
accordingly  came  to  London,  and  gained  con- 
siderable credit  by  his  performance  of  violin  solos 
at  the  so-called  oratorios.  He  was  then  engaged 
in  the  orchestra  at  Drury  Lane,  and  when  T. 
Cooke,  the  director,  had  to  appear  on  the  stage 
(which  was  sometimes  the  case  in  the  important 
musical  pieces),  he  led  the  band.  At  this  period 
he  took  lessons  in  composition  from  C.  F.  Horn, 
organist  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and 
father  of  the  popular  song-writer.  In  1825  he 
met  with  a  patron,  the  Count  Mazzara,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Italy.  At  Rome  he  was  located  ♦ 
in  the  house  of  his  patron,  and  studied  counter- 
point under  Frederici,  afterwards  head  of  the 
Conservatorio  at  Milan.  He  next  went  to 
Milan,  and  studied  singing  under  Filippo  Galli. 
Here  he  made  his  first  public  essay  as  a  dramatic 
composer  by  writing  the  music  to  a  ballad 
entitled  *La  Perouse,'  the  melody  and  instru- 
mentation in  which  created  a  favourable  sensa- 
tion. He  was  now  in  his  20th  year.  Visiting 
Paris,  he  was  introduced  to  Rossini,  then  director 


BALFE. 


BALFE. 


127 


of  the  Italian  Opera ;  the  maestro  \va3  not  slow 
perceive  his  talent,  and  offered  him  an  en- 
.  ement  as  principal  baritone,  on  condition  that 
:«hould  take  a  com^e  of  preparatory  lessons  from 
rdogni.    He  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
se  of  1S28  in  'Figaro,'  vrith  decided  success. 
:  the  close  of  his  Paris  engagement  he  returned 
Italy,  and  was  welcomed  by  a  new  patron, 
e  Count  Sampieri  of  Bologna.    In  the  carnival 
ison  of  18:19-30  he  was  principal  barytone  at 
Piilermo,  and  here  produced  his  first  complete 
<:'pera  'I  Eivali  di  se  stessi.'  written  in  the  short 
;\ce  of  twenty  days.    This  was  followed  in 
r'id  succession  by  *  Un  Awertimento  ai  gelosi,' 
•duced  at  Pa  via,   and   'Enrico  Quarto'  at 
Lilan,  where  he  was  engaged  to  sing  with  Mali- 
l  an  at  the  Scala.    At  Bergamo  he  met  M'lle. 
llosen,  a  German  singer,  whom  he  married.  He 
ntinued  to  sing  on  the  stage  in  Italy  until  the 
ring  of  1S35,  when  he  came  to  London,  and 
Ij'eared  at  several  public  and  private  concerts. 
Balfe's  career  as  a  writer  of  English  operas 
commenced  from  this  year,  when  he  produced  the 
'  Siege  of  RocheUe'  at  Drury  Lane  v Oct.  29),  with 
distingxiished  success.    It  was  played  for  more 
than  three  months  without  intermission,  and  com- 
pletely established  the  composer's  fame.    '  The 
Maid  of  Artois'  came  out  in  the  following  spring, 
its  success  heightened  by  the  exquisite  singing 
of  Malibran.    'The  Light  of  other  days'  in  this 
opera,  says  one  of  his  biographers,  'is  perhaps 
the  most  popular  song  in  England  that  our  days 
have  known.'    In  the  autumn  of  this  year  Balfe 
appeared  as  a  singer  at  Drury  Lane.    In  i S3 7 
he  brought  out  his  *'  Catherine  Grey '  and  '  J  oan 
of  Arc' — himself  singing  the  part  of  Theodore  ; 
and  in  the  following  year  (July  19,  38), '  Falstaff' 
was  produced  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  the  first 
Italian  opera  written  for  that  establishment  by 
n  English  composer  since  Ame  s  '  01}"mpiade.' 
vo  months  previously  'Diadeste'  was  given  at 
rury  Lane.     In  1S39  he  was  much  on  the 
ards,  playing  Farinelli  in  Bamett's  opera  of 
..At  name  at  Drury  Lane,  and  in  an  English  ; 
version  of  Eicci's  '  Scaramuccia '  at  the  Lyceum. 
In  1S40  he  entered  the  field  as  manager  of  the 
Lyceum  ^_the  English  opera-hou.se\  and  pro- 
duced his  '  Keolanthe'  for  the  opening  night, 
with  Madame  Balfe  in  the  principal  character ; 
hut  with  all  its  merited  success  the  opera  did 
not  save  the  enterprise  from  an  untoward  close.  | 

Balfe  now  migrated  to  Paris,  where  his  genius 
was  recognised,  and  MM.  Scribe  and  St.  Georsre 
furnished  him  with  the  dramatic  poems  which 
inspired  him  with  the  charming  music  of  'Le  ' 
Puits  d' Amour'  (performed  in  London  under  , 
the  title  of  'Geraldine'\  anl  'Les  Quatre  fils 
d'Aymon'    (known    here    as   'The  Castle  of  | 
Aymon'),  bgth  given  at  the  Optra  Conuque. 
"WTiile  thus  maintaining  h's  position  before  the 
most  fastidious  audience  of  Europe.  Balfe  returned 
en  passant  to  England,  and  produced  the  most  , 
successful  of  all  his  works,  '  The  Bohemian  Girl '  ' 
(Xov.  27, 1S43).    This  opera  has  been  translated  , 
into  almost  every  European  language,  and  is  as 
great  a  favourite  on  the  other  aide  of  the  I 


Atlantic  as  on  this.    In  1844  he  brought  out 
'  The  Daughter  of  St.  Mark,'  and  in  the  foilo^ving 
year  'The  Enchantress' — both  at  Drury  Lane. 
In  1S45  he  wrote  '  L'Etoile  de  Seville'  for  the 
Academic   Eoyale,  in  the  course  of  the  re- 
hearsals of  which  he  was  called  t-3  London  to 
'  arrange  his  engagement  as  conductor  of  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  ;  which  office  he  filled  to  the 
j  closing  of  that  establishment  in  1S52.  'The 
j  Bondman '  came  out  at  Drury  Lane  in  the  winter 
j  of  I S46,  Balfe  having  arrived  from  Vienna  specially 
j  for  the  rehearsals.    In  Dec.  1847  he  brought  out 
'  The  Maid  of  Honour.' — the  subject  of  which  is 
the  same  as  Flotow's  '  Martha,' — at  Drury  Lane. 
I  In  1S49  he  went  to  Berlin  to  reproduce  some 
j  of  his  operas,  when  the  king  offered  him  the 
,  decoration  of  the  Prussian  Eagle,  which  as  a 
British  subject  he  was  unable  to  accept.  Between 
this  year  and  1S52,  when  the  'Sicilian  Bride' 
!  was  given  at  Drury  Lane,  and  a  few  weeks  later, 
i  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,   '  The   Devil's  in  it,' 
1  Balfe  had  undertaken  to  conduct  a  series  of 
Xational  Concerts  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre : 
j  the  plan  of  these  performances  was  devised  with 
a  view  to  the  furtherance  of  the  highest  pur- 
poses of  art,  and  several  important  works  were 
produced  in  the  course  of  the  enterprise,  which 
did  not.  however,  meet  with  success. 

At  the  cl.3se  of  1 85  2  Balfe  visited  St.  Peters- 
burg with  letters  of  introduction  from  the  Prince 
of  Prussia,  now  Emperor  of  Germany,  where 
he  was  received  with  all  kinds  of  distinction. 
Besides  pjpular  demonstrations  and  imperial 
favour  he  realised  more  money  in  less  time 
than  at  any  other  period.  The  expedition  to 
Trieste,  where  his  next  work  'Pittore  e  Duca,' 
was  given  during  the  Carnival,  with  such  success 
as  the  failure  of  his  prima  donna  could  permit, 
brings  us  to  1856,  when,  after  an  absence  of  four 
years,  he  returned  to  England. 

In  the  year  after  his  return  Balfe  brought 
out  his  daughter  Tictoire  (afterwards  married  to 
Sir  John  Crampton,  and  subseq^uently  to  the 
Duke  de  Frias\  as  a  singer  at  the  Italian  opera 
at  the  Lyceum ;  and  his  next  work.  '  The  Eose 
of  Castile,'  was  produced  by  the  English  company 
also  at  this  theatre  on  Oct.  29,  1857.  This  was 
succeeded,  in  1S58,  by  '  La  Ztngara.'  the  Italian 
version  of  'The  Bohemian  Girl,'  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  and  by  '  SataneUa'  at  the  Lyceum. 
'  SataneUa '  had  a  long  run,  and  one  of  the  songs, 
'  The  power  of  Love,'  became  very  popular.  His 
next  operas  were  '  Bianca,'  1S60  ;  '  The  Puritan  s 
Daughter,'  1S61  :  '  The  Armourer  of  Xantes'  and 
'Blanche  de  Xevers*  in  Feb.  and  Xov,  1S63. 

In  December  1S69  the  French  version  of  his 
'Bohemian  Girl'  was  produced  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique  of  Paris  under  the  title  of  'La  Bohe- 
mienne,'  for  which  the  composer  wrote  several 
additional  pieces,  besides  recasting  and  extending 
the  work  into  five  acts.  The  success  attending 
this  revival  procured  him  the  twofold  honour  of 
being  made  Chevalier  de  la  Legion  d'Honneur  by 
the  Emperor  of  the  French,  and  Commander  of 
the  Order  of  Carlos  III  by  the  Eegent  of  Spain. 
In  1S64  Balfe  retired  into  the  country,  became 


128 


BALFE. 


BALLAD. 


the  proprietor  of  a  small  landed  property  in 
Hertfordshire,  called  Eowney  Abbey,  and  turned 
gentleman  farmer.  Here  he  amused  himself 
with  agriculture  and  music,  making  occasional 
visits  to  Paris.  He  had  several  severe  attacks 
of  bronchitis,  and  suffered  much  from  the  loss 
of  a  favourite  daughter,  which  much  weakened 
his  constitution.  In  September  1870  he  caught 
a  violent  cold,  which  caused  a  return  of  his  old 
complaint,  and  on  October  20  he  expired. 

*I1  Talismano,'  the  Italian  version  of  Balfe's 
last  opera,  *  The  Knight  of  the  Leopard,'  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane,  on  June  11,  1874  ;  and 
on  September  25  in  the  same  year  a  statue  to 
his  memor)-,  by  a  Belgian  artist,  M.  Mallempre, 
was  placed  in  the  vestibule  of  Drury  Lane,  the 
scene  of  so  many  of  his  triumphs. 

Balfe's  miscellaneous  pieces  are  numerous, 
including  the  operetta  of  '  The  Sleeping  Queen,' 
performed  at  the  Gallery  of  Illustration  ;  three 
cantatas — '  Mazeppa,'  performed  in  London  ;  and 
two  others  composed  at  Paris  and  Bologna. 
Many  of  his  ballads  are  not  likely  to  be  soon 
forgotten.  His  characteristics  as  a  composer 
are  summed  up  by  a  brother  artist  (Professor 
Macfarren)  in  the  following  words: — 'Balfe 
possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  qualifications  that 
make  a  natural  musician,  of  quickness  of  ear, 
readiness  of  memory,  executive  facility,  almost 
unlimited  and  ceaseless  fluency  of  invention, 
with  a  felicitous  power  of  producing  striking 
melodies.  His  great  experience  added  to  these 
has  given  him  the  complete  command  of  orchestral 
resources,  and  a  remarkable  rapidity  of  pro- 
duction. Against  these  great  advantages  is 
balanced  the  want  of  conscientiousness,  which 
makes  him  contented  with  the  first  idea  that 
presents  itself,  regardless  of  dramatic  truth, 
and  considerate  of  momentary  effect  rather  than 
artistic  excellence  ;  and  this  it  is  that,  with  all 
his  well-merited  success  with  the  million,  will 
for  ever  prevent  his  works  from  ranking  among 
the  classics  of  the  art.  On  the  other  hand  it 
must  be  owned  that  the  volatility  and  spontaneous 
character  of  his  music  would  evaporate  through 
elaboration,  either  ideal  or  technical ;  and  that 
the  element  which  makes  it  evanescent  is  that 
which  also  makes  it  popular.'  {Imp.  Diet,  of 
TJniv.Biog.;  Kenney's  iUemoir,  1875).  [E.  F.  E.] 

BALING,  see  Fabri. 

BALL,  William,  an  English  litterateur,  who 
died  in  London  on  May  14,  1869,  aged  85,  and 
deserves  a  place  in  a  Dictionary  of  Music  for 
having  adapted  to  English  words  the  librettos  of 
various  great  musical  compositions — Masses  of 
Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven  (No.  i),  Mozart's 
'  Requiem,'  Rossini's  '  Stabat  Mater,'  to  entirely 
fresh  words,  and  especially  Mendelssohn's  'St. 
Paul.' 

BALLABILE  (Ital.,  from  laHare,  to  dance). 
A  piece  of  music  adapted  for  dancing.  The  term 
can  be  applied  to  any  piece  of  dance  music. 
Meyerbeer  frequently  uses  it  in  his  operas,  e.g. 
in  '  Robert  le  Liable,'  where  the  three  dances  in 
the  scene  of  the  resurrection  of  the  nuns  in  the 


third  act  are  entitled  in  the  score  '  1°.  2*°.  and  30. 
ballabile.'  He  also  applies  the  term  to  the  dance 
music  of  the  ball-room  scene  at  the  commence- 
of  the  fifth  act  of  the  'Huguenots.'  More 
recently  Dr.  Hans  von  Biilow  has  given  the  title 
of  'Ballabili'  to  the  dance-numbers  of  his 
'Carnevale  di  Milano,'  these  dances  being  re- 
spectively a  polacca,  a  waltz,  a  polka,  a  quadrille, 
a  mazurka,  a  tarantella,  and  a  galop.       [E.  P.] 

BALLAD,  from  the  Italian  hallata,^  a  dance, 
and  that  again  from  ballare,  to  dance.  The 
form  and  application  of  the  word  have  varied 
continually  from  age  to  age.  In  Italy  a  Balletta 
originally  signified  a  song  intended  to  be  sung  in 
dance  measure,  accompanied  by  or  intermixed 
with  dancing ;  *  in  the  Crusca  dictionary,'  says 
Burney,  'it  is  defined  as  Canzone,  che  si  canta 
ballando' — a  song  sung  while  dancing.  The  old 
English  ballads  are  pieces  of  narrative  verse  in 
stanzas,  occasionally  followed  by  an  envoi  or 
moral.  Such  are  'Chevy  Chase,'  'Adam  Bell, 
Clym  of  the  Clough  and  William  of  Cloudeslee,' 
'  The  Babes  in  the  Wood' ;  and,  to  come  to  more 
modem  times,  such  are  'Hozier's  Ghost'  (Wal- 
pole's  favourite),  Goldsmith's  '  Edwin  and  An- 
gelina, '  and  Coleridge's  '  Dark  Ladle.'  But  the 
term  has  been  used  for  almost  every  kind  of 
verse — historical,  narrative,  satirical,  political,  re- 
ligious, sentimental,  etc.  It  is  diflacult  to  dis- 
cover the  earliest  use  of  the  word.  Many  refer- 
ences which  have  been  made  to  old  authors 
reputed  to  have  employed  it  are  not  to  the 
point,  as  it  will  be  found  in  such  cases  that  the 
original  word  in  the  old  Latin  chronicles  is 
some  form  of  the  noun  '  cantilena.' 

In  a  MS.  of  the  Cotton  collection,  said  to  be 
as  ancient  as  the  year  1326,  mention  is  made  of 
ballads  and  roundelays  (Hawkins,  Hist,  of  Mu- 
sic). John  Shirley,  who  lived  about  1440,  made 
a  collection  of  compositions  by  Chaucer,  Lydgate, 
and  others,  and  one  of  the  volumes,  now  in  the 
Ashmolean  collection,  is  entitled  '  A  Boke  cleped 
the  abstracte  brevyaire,  compyled  of  diverse 
halades,  roundels,  . . .  collected  by  John  Shirley.' 
In  the  devices  used  at  the  coronation  of  Henry 
VI  (Dec.  17,  1 431)  the  king  was  portrayed  in 
three  several  ways,  each  'with  a  ballad'  (Sharon 
Turner).  Coverdale's  Bible,  printed  in  1535, 
contains  the  word  as  the  title  of  the  Song  of 
Solomon  — '  Salomon's  Balettes  called  Cantica 
Canticorum.' 

Ballad  making  was  a  fashionable  amusement 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII,  who  was  himself 
renowned  for  '  setting  of  songes  and  makyng  of 
ballettes.'  A  composition  attributed  to  him,  and 
called  '  The  KjTiges  Ballade '  (Add.  MSS.  Brit. 
Mus,  5665),  became  very  popular.  It  was  men- 
tioned in  '  The  Complainte  of  Scotland,'  published 
in  1548,  and  also  made  the  subject  of  a  sermon 
preached  in  the  presence  of  Edward  VI  by  Bishop 
Latimer,  who  enlarged  on  the  advantages  of 
'Passetyme  with  good  company e.'  Amongst 
Henry's  effects  after  his  decease,  mention  is 
made  of  '  songes  and  ballades.'    In  Queen  Eliza- 

1  Sallata  =  a  dancing  piece,  as  Siwnata,  a  iounding  piece,  and 
Cantata,  a  singing  piece. 


BALLAD. 


BALLARD. 


129 


beth's  reign  ballads  and  ballad  singers  came  into 
I    disrepute,  and  were  made  the  subject  of  repres- 
sive legislation.    'Musicians  held  ballads  in  con- 
I    tempt,  and  great  poets  rarely  wrote  in  ballad 
I  metre.' 

Morley,  in  his  'Plaine  and  easie  introduction 
to  Practical!  Musicke,'  1597,  says,  after  speaking 
of  Vilanelle,  'there  is  another  kind  more  light 
I  than  this  which  they  tearm  Ballete  or  daunces, 
and  are  songs  which  being  sung  to  a  dittie  may 
likewise  be  danced,  these  and  other  light  kinds 
of  musicke  are  by  a  general  name  called  aires.^ 
Such  were  the  songs  to  which  Bonny  Boots,  a 
well-known  singer  and  dancer  of  Elizabeth's 
court,  both  '  tooted  it'  and  'footed  it.'  In  1636 
Butler  published  'The  Principles  of  Musicke,' 
and  in  that  work  spoke  of  '  the  infinite  multitude 
of  Ballads  set  to  sundry  pleasant  and  delight- 
ful tunes  by  cunning  and  witty  composers,  with 
country  dances  fitted  unto  them.'  After  this  the 
title  became  common. 

The  name  has  been  applied  to  a  pastoral  song, 
*Sumer  is  icumen  in,'  preserved  in  the  Harleian 
MSS.,  which  dates  from  the  13th  century,  and 
furnishes  the  earliest  example  knovm  (though  it  is 
obvious  that  so  finished  a  composition  cannot 
have  been  the  first)  of  part  music.  The  music 
is  in  triple  measure,  and  a  sort  of  dance 
rhythm,  but  the  song  can  in  no  sense  be  called 
» a  ballad.  [See  Sumer  is  icumen  in.]  The 
music  of  many  real  old  ballads  has  however  sur- 
vived, for  which  the  reader  may  be  referred  to 
Mr.  W,  Chappell's  well-known  work.  'Chevy 
Chase'  appears  to  have  been  sung  to  three  dif- 
ferent melodies.  One  of  these,  '  The  hunt  is  up,' 
was  a  favourite  popular  air,  of  which  we  give 
the  notes — • 


This  old  tune  was  otherwise  employed.  In  1537 
information  was  sent  to  the  Council  against  John 
Hogon,  who,  'with  a  crowd  or  a  fyddyll,'  sang  a 
song  with  a  political  point  to  the  tune  '  The  hunt 
is  up.'  'If  a  man,'  says  Fletcher  of  Saltoun, 
'  were  permitted  to  make  all  the  ballads,  he  need 
not  care  who  should  make  the  laws  of  a  nation.' 
'Lilliburlero'  (beloved  of  my  uncle  Toby),  is  a 
striking  proof  of  the  truth  of  Saltoun's  remark, 
since  it  helped  to  turn  James  II  out  of  Ireland. 
The  tune  and  the  history  of  the  sono*  will  be 
found  under  Lilliburlero.  'Marlbrouk,'  the 
'Marseillaise,'  and  the  '  Wacht  am  Rhein,'  are 
other  instances  of  ballads  which  have  had  great 
political  influence. 

Ballads  have  sunk  from  their  ancient  high 
estate.  Writing  in  1802  Dr.  Eurney  said,  'A 
ballad  is  a  mean  and  trifling  song  such  as  is  gen- 
erally sung  in  the  streets.  In  the  new  French 
Encyclopedic  we  are  told  that  we  English  dance 
and  sing  our  ballads  at  the  same  time.  We  have 
often  heard  ballads  sung  and  seen  country  dances 
danced;  but  never  at  the  same  time,  if  there 

(c.) 


was  a  fiddle  to  be  had.  The  movement  of  our 
country  dances  is  too  rapid  for  the  utterance  of 
words.  The  English  ballad  has  long  been  de- 
tached from  dancing,  and,  since  the  old  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  been  confined  to  a  lower  order 
of  song.'  Notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  Dr. 
Burney  the  fact  remains  incontrovertible  that  the 
majority  of  our  old  ballad  tunes  are  dance  tunes, 
and  owe  their  preservation  and  identification  to 
that  circumstance  alone — the  words  of  old  bal- 
lads being  generally  found  without  the  music 
but  with  the  name  of  the  tune  attached,  the 
latter  have  thus  been  traced  in  various  collec- 
tions of  old  dance  music.  The  quotation  already 
made  from  Butler  shews  that  the  use  of  vocal 
ballads  as  dance  tunes  implied  in  the  name  had 
survived  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  One 
instance  of  the  use  of  the  word  where  dancing 
can  by  no  possibility  be  connected  with  it  is  in 
the  title  to  Goethe's  '  Erste  Walpurgisnacht,' 
which  is  called  a  Ballad  both  by  him  and  by 
Mendelssohn,  who  set  it  to  music.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Schiller's  noble  poems  'Der 
Taucher,'  '  Ritter  Togenburg,'  and  others,  so 
finely  composed  by  Schubert,  though  these  are 
more  truly  '  ballads '  than  Goethe's  '  Walpurgis- 
nacht.' So  again  Mignon's  song  'Kennst  du 
das  Land,'  though  called  a  '  Lied '  in  Wilhelm 
Meister,  is  placed  by  Goethe  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  'Ballad en'  in  the  collected  edition  of  his 
poetry.  In  fact  both  in  poetry  and  music  the 
term  is  used  with  the  greatest  freedom  and  with 
no  exact  definition. 

At  the  present  time  a  ballad  in  music  is  gen- 
erally understood  to  be  a  sentimental  or  romantic 
composition  of  a  simple  and  unpretentious  cha- 
racter, having  two  or  more  verses  of  poetry,  but 
with  the  melody  or  tune  complete  in  the  first, 
and  repeated  for  each  succeeding  verse.  '  Ballad 
concerts'  are  ostensibly  for  the  performance  of 
such  pieces,  but  the  programmes  often  contain 
songs  of  all  kinds,  and  the  name  is  as  in- 
accurate as  was  'Ballad  opera'  when  applied 
to  such  pieces  as  *  The  Beggar's  Opera,'  which 
were  made  up  of  well-known  airs  with  fresh 
words.    [English  Opera.]  [W.  H.  C] 

BALLADE,  a  name  adopted  by  Chopin  for 
four  pieces  of  pianoforte  music  (op.  23,  38,  47,  52) 
which,  however  brilliant  or  beautiful,  have  no 
peculiar  form  or  character  of  their  own,  beyond 
being  written  in  triple  time,  and  to  which  the 
name  seems  to  be  no  more  specially  applicable 
than  that  of  'Sonnet'  is  to  the  pieces  which 
Liszt  and  others  have  written  under  that  name. 
Brahms  has  also  published  four '  Balladen'  (op.  10) 
and  Liszt  two. 

BALLARD,  a  family  of  printers,  who  for 
nearly  200  years  virtually  enjoyed  the  monopoly 
of  printing  music  in  France.  Their  types  were 
made  by  Guillaume  le  Be  in  1540,  and  remained 
in  use  as  late  as  1750.  The  first  patent  was 
granted  to  Robert  Ballard  by  Henri  II  in  1552, 
and  he  and  his  son-in-law  Adrien  Leroy  printed 
many  tablatures  for  the  lute  and  other  music. 
They  were  followed  by  Pierre,  and  he  again  by 


130 


BALLAKD. 


BALLET. 


his  son  Robert,  under  whom  the  house  rose 
to  its  greatest  height  both  in  privileges  and 
position.  He  was  succeeded  by  Christophe, 
T.  B.  Christophe,  and  Christophe  Jean  Fran9ois, 
who  died  in  1765.  His  son  held  the  patent  until 
it  was  abolished  during  the  Revolution.  One  of 
the  earliest  specimens  of  their  art  of  printing 
is  'The  Psalms  of  Marot,'  1562.  LuUy's  operas 
were  printed  by  the  Ballards — first  about  1 700, 
from  moveable  types,  and  afterwards  from  en- 
graved copper  plates.  [F.  G.] 

BALLERINA  (Ital.),  a  female  ballet-dancer. 

BALLET.  The  ballet  is  a  more  modem  en- 
tertainment even  than  the  opera,  with  which  it 
has  long  been  intimately  connected.  The  name 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Italian 
hallata,  the  parent  of  our  own  *  ballad ' ;  and 
the  earliest  ballets  (Ballets  de  Cour),  which 
corresponded  closely  enough  to  our  English 
masques,  were  entertainments  not  of  dancing 
only,  but  also  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music. 
M.  Castil  Blaze,  in  an  interesting  monograph  ('La 
Dance,'  etc. ;  Paris,  Paulin),  traces  back  the 
ballet  from  France  to  Italy,  from  Italy  to  Greece, 
and  through  the  Greek  stage  to  festivals  in 
honour  of  Bacchus.  But  the  ballet  as  signifying 
an  entertainment  exclusively  in  dancing  dates 
from  the  foundation  of  the  Acad^mie  Royale  de 
Musique,  or  soon  afterwards.  In  167 1,  the  year 
in  which  Cambert's  'Pomone,'  the  first  French 
opera  heard  by  the  Parisian  pubhc,  was  produced, 
'Psyche,'  a  so-called  tragedie-ballet  by  Moliere 
and  Comeille  was  brought  out.  Ballets  however 
in  the  mixed  style  were  known  much  earlier ;  and 
the  famous  '  Ballet  comique  de  la  Royne,'  the 
'mounting'  of  which  is  said  to  have  cost  three- 
and-a-half  millions  oi  francs,  was  first  performed 
at  the  marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Joyeuse  in  1581. 
[Baltazarini.]  The  work  in  question  consisted 
of  songs,  dances,  and  spoken  dialogue,  and  seems 
to  have  differed  in  no  important  respect  from  the 
masques  of  an  earlier  period.  Another  celebrated 
ballet  which  by  its  historical  significance  is  better 
worthy  of  remembrance  than  the '  Ballet  comique 
de  la  Royne, '  was  one  represented  on  the  occasion 
of  Louis  XIV's  marriage  with  Marie  Therfese,  and 
entitled  *  II  n'y  a  plus  de  Pyrdn^es.'  In  illus- 
tration of  this  supposed  political  fact  half  the 
dancers  were  dressed  in  the  French  and  half  in 
the  Spanish  costume,  while  a  Spanisli  nymph  and 
a  French  nymph  joined  in  a  vocal  duet.  Other 
ballets  of  historical  renown  were  the  'Hercule 
amoureux,'  at  which  more  than  700  persons  were 
on  the  stage,  and  the  'Triomphe  de  1' Amour'  in 
1 68 1.  Louis  XIV  took  such  a  delight  in  ballets 
that  he  frequently  appeared  as  a  ballet-dancer,  or 
rather  as  a  figurant,  himself.  For  the  most  part 
his  majesty  contented  himself  with  marching 
about  the  stage  in  preposterous  costumes,  and 
reciting  verses  in  celebration  of  his  own  great- 
ness. Occasionally,  however,  he  both  sang  and 
danced  in  the  court  ballets.  When  in  1669  the 
'Great  Monarch'  assumed,  ostensibly  for  the  last 
time,  the  part  of  the  Sun  in  the  ballet  of  '  Flora,' 
it  was  thought  that  His  Majesty's  theatrical 


career  had  really  come  to  an  end.  He  felt, 
however,  as  so  many  great  performers  have  since 
done  under  similar  circumstances,  that  he  had 
retired  too  soon  ;  and  the  year  afterwards  he  ap- 
peared again  in  '  Les  Amants  magnifiques,'  com- 
posed by  the  king  himself,  in  collaboration  with 
Molifere.  In  this  work  Louis  executed  a  solo  on 
the  guitar — an  instrument  which  he  had  studied 
under  Francesco  Corbetta,  who  afterwards  went 
to  England  and  obtained  great  success  at  the 
court  of  Charles  11.  It  is  indeed  recorded  of  him 
that  in  connection  with  *Les  Amants  mag- 
nifiques,' he  played  the  part  of  author,  ballet- 
master,  dancer,  mimic,  singer,  and  instrumental 
performer.  As  Louis  XIV  did  not  think  it  be- 
neath his  dignity  to  act  at  court  entertainments,  he 
had  no  objection  to  his  courtiers  showing  them- 
selves publicly  on  the  stage.  In  the  royal  letters 
patent  granted  to  the  Abbe  Perrin,  the  first  di- 
rector  of  the  French  Opera,  or  '  Acad^mie  Royale 
de  Musique '  as  from  the  beginning  it  was  called, 
free  permission  was  given  to  '  all  gentlemen  and 
ladies  wishing  to  sing  in  the  said  pieces  and 
representations  of  our  royal  academy  without 
being  considered  for  that  reason  to  derogate  from 
their  titles  of  nobility,  or  from  their  privileges, 
rights,  and  immunities.'  The  right  to  sing  seems 
to  have  been  interpreted  as  including  the  right 
to  dance ;  and  several  ladies  and  gentlemen  of 
good  birth  profited  by  the  king's  liberality  to 
appear  in  the  ballets  represented  at  the  Academie 
Royale.  The  music  of  Louis  XIV's  ballets  was 
for  the  most  part  written  by  Lulli,  who  also 
composed  the  songs  and  symphonies  for  the 
dance-interludes  of  Moli^re's  comedies.  The  dra- 
matic ballet  or  ballet  d'action  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  the  Duchesse  du  Maine,  cele- 
brated for  her  evening  entertainments  at  Sceaux, 
which  the  nobles  of  Louis  XIV's  court  found  so 
exhilarating  after  the  formal  festivities  of  Ver- 
sailles. With  a  passion  for  theatrical  representa- 
tion the  Duchess  combined  a  taste  for  literature  ; 
and  she  formed  the  project  of  realising  on  the 
stage  of  her  o^vn  theatre  her  idea  of  the  panto- 
mimes of  antiquity,  as  she  found  them  described 
in  the  pages  of  her  favourite  authors.  She  went 
to  work  precisely  as  the  arranger  of  a  ballet  would 
do  in  the  present  day.  Thus  taking  the  fourth 
act  of  'Les  Horaces'  as  her  libretto  (to  use  the 
modern  term),  she  had  it  set  to  music  for  orchestra 
alone,  and  to  the  orchestral  strains  caused  the 
parts  of  Horace  and  of  Camille  to  be  performed  in 
dumb  show  by  two  celebrated  dancers  who  had 
never  attempted  pantomime  before.  Balon  and 
Mademoiselle  Prevost,  the  artists  in  question, 
entered  with  so  much  feeling  into  the  characters 
assigned  to  them,  that  they  drew  tears  from  the 
spectators. 

Moure t,  the  musical  director  of  the  Duchess's 
'Nuits  de  Sceaux,'  composed  several  ballets,  on 
the  principle  of  her  ballet  of  *  Les  Horaces,'  for  the 
Academie  Royale.  During  the  early  days  of  the 
French  opera,  and  until  nearly  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  dancers 
in  any  great  number,  and  almost  impossible  to 
find  female  dancers.    The  company  of  vocalists 


BALLET. 


BALLET. 


131 


was  recruited  from  the  cathedral  choirs,  but  for 
the  ballet  there  were  only  the  dancing  masters 
of  the  capital  and  their  pupils  of  the  male  sex  to 
select  from.  There  were  no  dancing  mistresses, 
and  ladies  would  not  under  any  circumstances 
liave  consented  to  dance  in  public.  On  this 
point,  however,  the  fashion  was  destined  soon  to 
change.  Nymphs,  dryads,  and  shepherdesses 
were  for  a  time  represented  by  boys,  who  equally 
with  the  fauns  and  satyrs  wore  masks.  But  at 
last  ladies  of  the  highest  position,  with  Madame 
la  Dauphine  and  the  Princesse  de  Conti  amongst 
them,  appeared  by  express  desire  of  the  king  in 
the  ballets  at  Versailles ;  and  about  the  same 
time  several  ladies  of  title  taking  advantage  of 
the  royal  permission,  joined  the  opera  in  the 
character  of  ballet-dancers.  The  first  professional 
ballerina  of  note  at  the  Academic  was  Mile.  La- 
fontaine,  who  with  three  other  danseuses  and 
a  befitting  number  of  male  dancers,  formed  the 
entire  ballet  company.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
relate  the  stories,  more  or  less  scandalous,  told  of 
various  ballet  dancers  —  of  the  Demoiselles  de 
Camargo,  of  Mile.  Pelissier  (who,  expelled  from 
Paris,  visited  London,  where  she  was  warmly 
received  in  1734) ;  of  MUe.  Petit,  dismissed  from 
the  opera  for  misconduct,  and  defended  in  a 
pamphlet  by  the  Abbe  de  la  Marre ;  of  Mile. 
Maze,  who,  ruined  by  Law's  financial  scheme, 
dressed  herself  in  her  most  brilliant  costume, 
and  drowned  herself  publicly  at  noon ;  or  of 
Mile.  Subligny,  who  came  to  England  vnth. 
letters  of  introduction  from  the  Abbe  Dubois  to 
Locke,  The  eminent  metaphysician,  who  had 
hitherto  paid  more  attention  to  the  operations  of 
the  human  mind  than  to  the  art  of  dancing,  did 
honour  to  the  abbe's  recommendation,  and  (as 
Fontenelle  declared  in  a  letter  on  the  subject) 
'constituted  himself  her  man  of  business.'  We 
now,  however,  come  to  a  ballerina,  ^MUe.  Salle, 
who  besides  being  distinguished  in  her  own  par- 
ticular art,  introduced  a  general  theatrical  reform. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century — as  indeed 
at  a  much  later  period — all  sorts  of  anachronisms 
and  errors  of  taste  were  committed  in  connection 
with  costume.  Assyrian,  Greek,  and  Boman 
warriors  appeared  and  danced  pas  seids  in  the 
ballets  of  the  Academic  Boyale,  wearing  laced 
timics  and  powdered  wigs  with  pigtails  a  yard 
long.  The  wigs  were  surmounted  by  helmets, 
and  the  manly  breasts  of  the  much-bei'ibboned 
warriors  were  encased  in  a  cuirass.  Mile.  SaUe 
proposed  that  each  character  should  wear  the 
costume  of  his  country  and  period  ;  and  though 
this  startling  innovation  was  not  accepted  gene- 
rally in  the  drama  until  nearly  a  century  later. 
Mile.  Sall^  succeeded  in  causing  the  principles 
she  advocated  to  be  observed  at  the  opera — at 
least  during  her  own  time,  and  so  far  as  regarded 
the  ballet.  Mile.  Salle's  reform  was  not  main- 
tained even  at  the  Academic ;  for  about  half  a 
century  later  Galatea,  in  Jean  Jacques  Bousseau's 
*  Bygmalion,'  wore  *  a  damask  dress  made  in  the 
Polish  style  over  a  basket  hoop,  and  on  her  head 
an  enormous  pouf  surmounted  by  three  ostrich 
feathers.'    It  has  been  said  that  Mile,  de  Sub- 


ligny brought  to  London  letters  from  the  Abbe 
Dubois  to  Locke.  MUe.  Salle  arrived  with  an 
introduction  from  Fontenelle  to  Montesquieu, 
who  was  then  Ambassador  at  the  court  of  St. 
James's.  This  artist  was,  indeed,  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  literary  society  of  her  time.  She 
enjoyed  the  acquaintance  not  only  of  Fontenelle, 
Montesquieu,  and  our  own  Locke,  but  also  of 
Voltafre,  who  wrote  a  poem  in  her  honour.  In 
London  Mile.  Salle  produced  a  'Pygmalion'  of 
her  own,  which,  at  least  as  regards  the  costumes, 
was  very  superior  to  the  'Pygmalion'  of  Bousseau 
brought  out  some  forty  or  fifty  years  afterwards. 
In  representing  the  statue  about  to  be  animated, 
she  carried  out  her  new  principle  by  wearing  not 
a  Polish  dress  but  simple  drapery,  imitated  as 
closely  as  possible  from  the  statues  of  antiquity. 
A  full  and  interesting  account  of  Mile.  Salle's  per- 
formance, written  by  a  correspondent  in  London, 
possibly  Montesquieu  himself,  was  published  on 
March  15,  1734,  in  the  'Mercure  de  France.' 
'  She  ventured  to  appear,'  says  the  correspondent, 
'without  skirt,  without  a  dress,  in  her  natural 
hair,  and  with  no  ornament  on  her  head.  She  wore 
nothing  in  addition  to  her  bodice  and  under 
petticoat  but  a  simple  robe  of  muslin  arranged 
in  drapery  after  the  model  of  a  Greek  statue. 
You  cannot  doubt,  sir,'  he  adds,  '  the  prodigious 
success  this  ingenious  ballet  so  weU  executed 
obtained.  At  the  request  of  the  king,  the  queen, 
the  royal  family,  and  all  the  court,  it  will  be 
performed  on  the  occasion  of  Mile.  Salle's  benefit, 
for  which  all  the  boxes  and  places  in  the  theatre 
and  amphitheatre  have  been  taken  for  a  month 
past.' 

Madeleine  Guimard,  a  celebrated  danseuse  at 
the  French  opera  during  the  Gluck  and  Piccinni 
period,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  correspond- 
ence of  Grimm  and  of  Diderot.  Houdon,  the 
sculptor,  moulded  her  foot.  Fragonard,  the 
painter,  decorated  her  rooms,  until  presuming  to 
faU  in  love  with  her  it  was  found  necessary  to 
replace  him  by  Louis  David — afterwards  so  famous 
as  a  historical  painter  in  the  classical  style ; 
Marie  Antoinette  consulted  her  on  the  subject  of 
dress,  and  when  by  an  accident  on  the'  stage  she 
broke  her  arm,  prayers  were  said  at  Notre  Dame 
for  Mile.  Guimard's  injured  limb.  Marmontel, 
referring  to  her  numerous  acts  of  charity,  ad- 
dressed to  her  a  flattering  epistle  in  verse  ;  and  a 
popular  divine  made  her  munificence  the  subject 
of  a  sermon.  The  chronicles  of  the  time  laid 
stress  on  Guimard's  excessive  thinness,  and  she 
was  familiarly  known  as  the  *  Spider,'  while  a  wit 
of  the  period  called  her  la  squelette  des  Graces. 
The  French  Bevolution  drove  numerous  French 
artists  out  of  the  country,  many  of  whom  visited 
London.  'Amongst  them,'  says  Lord  Mount- 
Edgecumbe  in  his  Memoirs,  'came  the  famous 
MUe.  Guimard,  then  near  sixty  years  old,  but 
stiU  full  of  grace  and  gentility ;  and  she  had  never 
possessed  more.' 

Gaetan  Yestris,  the  founder  of  the  Vestris 
family,  was  as  remarkable  for  his  prolonged 
youthfulness  as  Mile.  Guimard  herself — who, 
however,  instead  of  being  '  near  sixty,'  was  not 
K  2 


132 


BALLET. 


BALLETS. 


more  than  forty-six  when  she  arrived  in  London). 
Gaetan  Vestris  made  his  debut  at  the  French 
opera  in  1748;  and  M.  Castile  Blaze,  in  his 
'  Histoire  de  1' Academic  Royale  de  Musique,' 
tells  us  that  he  saw  him  fifty -two  years  afterwards, 
when  he  danced  as  well  as  ever,  executing  the 
steps  of  the  minuet  *avec  autant  de  grace  que 
de  noblesse.'  The  family  of  Vestris — originally 
Vestri — came  from  Florence.  Gaetan  had  three 
brothers,  all  dancers  ;  his  son  Auguste  was  not 
less  famous  than  himself  ('Auguste  had  Gaetan 
Vestris  for  his  father,'  the  old  man  would  say — 
*an  advantage  which  nature  refused  me');  Au- 
guste's  nephew  was  Charles  Vestris,  and  Au- 
guste's  favourite  pupil  was  Perrot,  who  married 
Carlotta  Grisi,  and  who  by  his  expressive  pan- 
tomime more  even  than  by  his  very  graceful 
dancing,  enjoyed  in  London  an  amount  of  success 
which  male  dancers  in  this  country  have  but  rarely 
obtained.  Innumerable  anecdotes  are  told  of  the 
vanity  and  self-importance  of  Gaetan  Vestris,  the 
head  of  this  family  of  artists.  On  one  occasion 
when  his  son  was  in  disgrace  for  having  refused, 
on  some  point  of  theatrical  honour,  to  dance  in 
the  divertissement  of  Gluck's  'Armide,'  and  was 
consequently  sent  to  Fort-l'Eveque,  the  old  man 
exclaimed  to  him  in  presence  of  an  admiring 
throng:  'Go,  Augustus;  go  to  prison!  Take 
my  carriage,  and  ask  for  the  room  of  my  friend 
the  King  of  Poland.'  Another  time  he  reproved 
Augustus  for  not  having  performed  his  duty  by 
dancing  before  the  King  of  Sweden,  'when  the 
Queen  of  France  had  performed  hers  by  asking 
him  to  do  so.'  The  old  gentleman  added  that 
he  would  have  '  no  misunderstanding  between 
the  houses  of  Vestris  and  of  Bourbon,  which  had 
hitherto  always  lived  on  the  best  terms.'  The 
ballet  never  possessed  in  London  anything  like 
the  importance  which  belonged  to  it  in  France, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  until 
a  comparatively  recent  time.  For  thirty  years, 
however,  from  1820  to  1 850,  the  ballet  was  an 
attractive  feature  in  the  entertainments  at  the 
King's  (afterwards  Her  Majesty's)  Theatre  ;  and 
in  1 82 1  the  good  offices  of  the  British  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  the  Tuileries  were  employed  in 
aid  of  a  negociation  by  which  a  certain  number 
of  the  principal  dancers  were  to  be  temporarily 
*  ceded '  every  year  by  the  administration  of  the 
Academic  Royale  de  Musique  to  the  manager 
— at  that  time  Mr.  Ebers,  of  our  Italian  Opera. 
Miles.  Noblet  and  Mercandotti  seem  to  have  been 
the  first  danseuses  given,  or  rather  lent,  to  Eng- 
land by  this  species  of  treaty.  Mile.  Taglioni, 
who  appeared  soon  afterwards,  was  received  year 
after  year  with  enthusiasm.  Her  name  was  given 
to  a  stage  coach,  also  to  a  great  coat ;  and — 
more  enduring  honour — Thackeray  has  devoted 
some  lines  of  praise  to  her  in  the  'Newcomes,' 
assuring  the  young  men  of  the  present  genera- 
tion that  they  will  '  never  see  anything  so  grace- 
ful as  Taglioni  in  La  Sylphide.'  Among  the 
celebrated  dancers  contemporary  with  Taglioni 
must  be  mentioned  Fanny  Ellsler  (a  daughter  of 
Haydn's  old  copyist  of  the  same  name)  and 
Cerito,  who  took  the  principal  part  in  the  once 


favourite  ballet  of  *Alma'  (music  by  Costa). 
Fanny  Ellsler  and  Cerito  have  on  rare  occasions 
danced  together  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  the 
minuet  in  '  Don  Giovanni.'  To  about  the  same 
period  as  these  eminent  hallerine  belonged  Carlotta 
Grisi,  perhaps  the  most  charming  of  them  all. 
One  of  her  most  admired  characters  was  that  of 
Esmeralda  in  the  ballet  arranged  by  her  husband, 
the  before-mentioned  Perrot,  on  the  basis  of  Victor 
Hugo's  '  Notre  Dame  de  Paris.'  Pugni,  a  com- 
poser, who  made  ballet  music  his  speciality,  and 
who  was  attached  as  composer  of  ballet  n)usic  to 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  wrote  music  for  Esme- 
ralda full  of  highly  rhythmical  and  not  less 
graceful  melodies.  In  his  passion  for  the  ballet 
Mr.  Lumley  once  applied  to  Heinrich  Heine  for 
a  new  work,  and  the  result  was  that  '  Mephisto- 
phela,'  of  which  the  libretto,  written  out  in  great 
detail,  is  to  be  found  in  Heine's  complete  works. 
The  temptation  of  Faust  by  a  female  Mephisto- 
pheles  is  the  subject  of  this  strange  production, 
which  was  quite  unfitted  for  the  English  stage, 
and  which  Mr.  Lumley,  though  he  duly  paid  for 
it,  never  thought  of  producing.  In  one  of  the 
principal  scenes  of  '  Mephistophela '  the  temptress 
exhibits  to  her  victim  the  most  celebrated  dan- 
seuses of  antiquity,  including  Salome  the  daugh- 
ter of  Herodias.  King  David  too  dances  a  pas 
seul  before  the  ark.  Probably  the  most  perfect 
ballet  ever  produced  was  'Giselle,'  for  which  the 
subject  was  furnished  by  Heine,  the  ncenario  by 
Theophile  Gautier,  and  the  music  by  Adolphe 
Adam.  Adam's  music  to  'Giselle'  is,  as  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe  said  of  Madeleine  Guimard, 
'full  of  grace  and  gentility.'  The  'Giselle  Waltz' 
will  long  be  remembered  :  but  we  must  not  expect 
to  see  another  '  Giselle'  on  the  stage  until  we  have 
another  Carlotta  Grisi ;  and  it  is  not  every  day 
that  a  dancer  appears  for  whom  a  Heine,  a 
Gautier,  and  an  Adam  will  take  the  trouble  to 
invent  a  new  work.  Beethoven's  '  Prometheus ' 
is  perhaps  the  only  ballet  which  has  been  per- 
formed entire  in  the  concert  room,  for  the  sake  of 
the  music  ahme.  The  Airs  de  Ballet  from  Auber's 
'Gustave'  and  Rossini's  'William  Tell'  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  concert  programmes,  and  those 
in  Schubert's  '  Rosamunde '  and  Gounod's  '  Reine 
de  Saba'  have  immortalised  those  operas  after 
their  failure  on  the  stage.  [H.  S.  E.] 

BALLETS,  compositions  of  a  light  character, 
but  somewhat  in  the  madrigal  style,  frequently 
with  a  '  Fa  la'  burden  which  could  be  both  sung 
and  danced  to ;  these  pieces,  says  Morley 
(Introduction),  were  '  commonly  called  Fa  las.' 
Gastoldi  is  generally  supposed  to  have  invented 
or  at  all  events  first  published  ballets.  His  col- 
lection appeared  in  1 597,  and  was  entitled '  Balletti 
a  cinque  voci,  con  H  suore  ver.si  per  cantare, 
suonare  et  ballare.'  The  first  piece  in  the  book  is 
a  musical  '  Introduzione  a  i  Balletto,'  with  direc- 
tions for  the  performers  'Su  cacciam  man  a  gli 
stromenti  nostri,  e  suoniam  et  cantiam  qualche 
Balletti.'  These  must  therefore  have  had  both  > 
instrumental  and  dancing  accompaniments.  In  1 
1595  Morley  published  a  collection  of  'Ba^lete  . 
for  five  voices,'  professedly  in  imitation  of  Ga%.  t 


BALLETS. 


BANCHIERI. 


133 


kolcH,  and  was  followed  three  years  later  by 
Weelkes,  with  'Ballets  and  Madrigals  to  5 
voices.'  '  Balletto'  is  used  by  Bach  for  an  allegro 
in  common  time.  See  Catalogue,  Anh.  i.  Ser.  3. 
Inv.  2  &  6.  [W.  H.  C] 

BALLO  IN  MASCHERA,  IL.  Opera  in 
four  acts,  libretto  by  Somma,  music  by  Verdi. 
Produced  at  Rome  in  1859;  at  Paris,  Theatre 
lirs  Italiens,  Jan.  13,  1861 ;  and  in  London, 
'  \  ceum,  June  15,  61. 

BALTAZARINI  (or  Baltagerini),  an  Ita- 

lU  musician  ;  the  best  violinist  of  his  day. 
He  was  brought  from  Piedmont  in  i.S77_  by 
Marshal  de  Brissac  to  Catherine  de'  Medicis, 

ho  made  him  intendant  of  her  music  and  her 
irst  valet  de  chambre,  and  changed  his  name  to 
M.  de  Beaujoyeulx,  which  he  himself  adopted. 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduce 
die  Italian  dances  into  Paris,  and  thus  to  have 
been  the  founder  of  the  ballet,  and,  through 
the  ballet,  of  the  opera.  He  associated  the  best 
musicians  of  Paris  with  him  in  his  undertaking. 
Thus  in  the  entertainment  of  '  Circe,'  produced 
by  him  at  the  marriage  of  the  Due  de  Joyeuse 
and  Mile,  de  Vaudemont,  on  Sunday  Oct.  15, 
1 5 Si,  known  under  the  title  of  'Ballet  comique 
de  la  royne,'  etc.  (Paris,  1582),  he  states  in  the 
preface  that  the  music  was  by  Beaulieu  and 
Malstre  Salmon.  Several  numbers  from  it  are 
given  by  Burney  (Hist.  iii.  279-283);  and  the 
Ballet  in  all  its  details  and  its  connexion  with 
the  opera  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  work 
'Les  origines  de  I'Opera,  etc.;  par  L.  Cellier' 
(Paris,  i868).i  The  MSS.  of  others  of  Baltzarini's 
ballets  are  in  the  Biblioth^que  Nationale.  [G.] 

BALTZAR,  Thomas,  born  at  Liibeck  about 
1630;  the  finest  violinist  of  his  time,  and  the 
first  really  great  performer  heard  in  England. 
He  came  to  this  country  in  1656,  and  stayed 
for  some  time  with  Sir  Anthony  Cope,  of  Hanwell, 
Oxon.  Evelyn  heard  him  play  March  4,  1656, 
and  has  left  an  account  which  may  be  read  in 
his  Diary  under  that  date.  Anthony  Wood  met 
him  on  July  24,  1658,  and  'did  then  and  there 
to  his  very  great  astonishment,  heare  him  play 
on  the  violin.  He  then  saw  him  run  up  his 
Fingers  to  the  end  of  the  Fingerboard  of  the 
Violin,  and  run  them  back  insensibly,  and  all 
with  alacrity,  and  in  very  good  tune,  which  he 
nor  any  in  England  saw  the  like  before  .  .  . 
Wilson  thereupon,  the  public  Professor,  .  .  .  did, 
after  his  humoursome  way,  stoop  downe  to  Bait- 
zar's  Feet,  to  see  whether  he  had  a  Huff  on  ;  that 
is  to  say,  to  see  whether  he  was  a  Devill  or  not, 
because  he  acted  beyond  the  parts  of  a  man. 
....  Being  much  admired  by  all  lovers  of 
musick,  his  company  was  therefore  desired  ;  and 
company,  especially  musicall  company,  delighting 
in  drinking,  made  him  drink  more  than  ordinary, 
which  brought  him  to  his  grave.'  At  the 
Restoration  Baltzar  was  appointed  leader  of  the 

'  The  air  which  of  late  years  has  been  somewhat  in  rogue  abroad  and 
at  home,  under  the  title  of  Gavotte  de  Louis  XllI,"  is  taken  from  this 
Ballet,  where  the  first  stram  appears  as  •  Le  son  de  la  Clochette  auquel 
Circe  sortit  de  son  jardin"-'  un  son  fort  gaj.'  The  Trio  to  the '  Gavotte  • 
bas  been  added  by  the  modem  arranger. 


King's  celebrated  band  of  twenty-four  violins, 
but  died  soon  after,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  entered 
on  the  Register  as  'Mr.  Thomas  Balsart,  (me  of 
the  violins  in  the  King's  Service  July  27,  1663.' 

Baltzar  did  much  towards  placing  the  violin 
in  England  in  its  present  position,  at  the  head 
of  all  stringed  instruments.  He  appears  from 
Wood's  account  to  have  introduced  the  practice 
of  the  shift,  till  then  unknown,  and  the  use  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  finger-board.  Playford's 
'Division  Violin'  contains  all  that  appear  to 
have  been  printed  of  his  compositions,  but 
Burney  speaks  in  high  terms  of  some  MS.  solos 
in  his  possession  ;  and  a  set  of  sonatas  for  a 
'  lyra  violin,  treble  violin,  and  bass  viol,'  were 
sold  at  the  auction  of  Thomas  Britton  the 
•musical  small-coal  man.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BANCHIERI,  Adkiano,  born  at  Bologna, 
1567,  pupil  of  G^rami  the  organist  of  the 
cathedral  of  Lucca  and  afterwards  of  S.  Marco 
in  Venice.  He  was  first  organist  at  Imola,  of 
S.  Maria  in  Regola ;  then  in  1603  we  find 
him  at  S.  Michele  in  Bosco  near  Bologna. 
Gerber's  statement  that  he  was  chosen  abbot 
of  Bosco  is  unsupported,  and  appears  to  be 
contradicted  by  the  fact  that  on  his  works  he 
is  uniformly  described  as  'Monaco  olivetano.' 
His  first  work,  '  Conclusioni  per  organo,'  appear- 
ed at  Lucca  in  1591  ;  and  Zuchelli  gives  the 
date  of  his  death  as  1634.  He  was  great  in  all 
departments,  theory,  the  church,  and  the  theatre. 
His  most  important  theoretical  work  is  probably 
his  '  L' Organo  suonarii).o'  (Amadius,  Venice, 
1605),  which  was  often  reprinted.  It  contains 
the  first  precise  rules  for  accompanying  from 
a  figured  bass — afterwards  published  separately 
by  Lomazzo  at  Milan.  In  a  later  work, 
'Moderna  practica  musicale'  (Venice,  1613), 
he  treats  of  the  influence  of  the  basso  continuo 
on  the  ornaments  in  singing,  and  the  altera- 
tions necessary  in  consequence  thereof.  At  the 
same  time  he  mentions  the  changes  in  harmony 
and  tonality  which  were  at  that  time  beginning 
to  prevail,  as  incomprehensible.  In  addition  to 
his  many  compositions  for  the  church,  Banchieri 
wrote  what  were  then  called  'intermedi'  for 
comedies.  In  his  '  La  Pazzia  senile,  raggiona- 
menti  vaghi  e  dilettevole,  composti  e  dati  in  luce 
colla  musica  a  tre  voci,'  published  at  Venice  in 
1598  and  reprinted  at  Cologne — itself  a  kind 
of  imitation  of  the  '  Antiparnasso'  of  Orazio 
Vecchi — the  transition  from  the  madrigal  to 
the  new  form  of  the  intermedio  is  very  obvious  ; 
the  work  may  be  almost  called  the  first  comic 
opera.  He  afterwards  composed  a  pendant  to 
it  under  the  name  of  'La  prudenza  giovenile,' 
to  which  he  boldly  affixed  the  title  of  '  Comedia 
in  musica,'  and  which  was  published  at  Milan 
by  Tini  in  1607.  Another  analogous  work  is 
'La  barca  di  Venezia  a  Padua'  (Venice,  1623), 
and  still  more  so  'La  fida  fanciulia,  comedia 
esemplare,  con  musicali  intermedi  apparente  ed 
inapparenti,'  Bologna,  1628  and  1629.  Banchieri 
was  a  poet  as  well  as  a  musician,  and  wrote 
comedies  under  the  name  of  Camillo  Scaligeri 


134 


BANCHIERI. 


BANISTER. 


della  fratta.  Lastly,  in  his  *Cartella  musicale' 
(1614)  we  find  a  project  for  the  foundation  of 
an  academy  of  science  and  art  in  his  monastery 
at  Bologna.  [F.  G.] 

BAND.  A  combination  of  various  instru- 
ments for  the  performance  of  music.  The  old 
English  term  was  'noise.'  The  French^  word 
*  bande '  was  applied  to  the  '  vingt-quatre  violins ' 
of  Louis  XIV.  (Littrd.)  Charles  II  had  his 
'  four-and-twenty  violins,'  and  the  word  doubt- 
less accompanied  the  thing.  It  first  appears  in 
a  MS.  order  (Ld.  Chamberlain's  Warrt.  Bks.  May 
31,  1 66 1)  that  the  King's  band  of  violins  shall 
take  instructions  from  Hudson  and  Mell.  (See 
also  State  Papers,  Domestic,  Ixxvii.  No.  40, 
and  Ixxix.  Aug.  19,  63.)  It  is  not  mentioned 
by  Johnson  (nor  indeed  in  Latham's  Johnson), 
Richardson,  or  Webster.  The  various  kinds 
of  bands  will  be  found  under  their  separate 
heads,  viz.  Harmonie-Music;  Military  Band; 
Orchestra;  King's  Private  Band;  Wind 
Band.  Bandmaster  and  Bandsmen  are  re- 
spectively the  leader  and  members  of  a  Military 
Band. 

B ANDERALI,  Davidde,  born  at  Lodi  1 780, 
died  in  Paris  1849;  ^^^^  appeared  as  a  buffo 
tenor  singer,  which  part  may  be  said  to  have 
been  created  by  him.  He  soon  relinquished  the 
stage,  and  became  professor  of  singing  in  the 
Conservatoire  first  of  Milan,  and  afterwards — 
on  the  recommendation  of  Rossini — in  that  of 
Paris  (1828).  In  both  places  he  trained  singers 
who  became  celebrated.  [M.  C.  C] 

BANDORA,  Ital.  Mandora,  or  Mandola ; 
Neapolitan  dial.  Pandura  ;  ^pan.  Bandolon ; 
Old  Eng.  Pandore,  are  the  Romance  names  of 
varieties  of  the  cither  in  the  countries  desig- 
nated. Like  the  lute  in  size  and  in  the  form 
of  the  pear-shaped  body,  they  are  classed  with  the 
cither  because  they  have  generally  wire  strings 
(tuned  in  pairs)  and  are  played  with  a  plectrum 
of  tortoiseshell  or  quill.  The  mandoline  is  a 
small  and  very  beautiful  instrument  of  the  kind. 
These  instruments,  with  their  names,  were  de- 
rived from  the  East.  In  the  heyday  of  the 
Renaissance  they  became  very  generally  used 
to  accompany  the  voice  and  support  the  recitals 
of  improvisatori,  as  well  as  for  solo  performance. 
Although  navSovpa  appears  in  Greek,  it  was  not 
a  true  Greek  instrument,  but  an  exotic.  Athe- 
naeus  states  that  Pythagoras,  writing  about  the 
Red  Sea,  says  the  Troglodytes  made  the  pan- 
doura  of  daphne,  i.  e.  laurel,  which  grew  near 
the  seashore.  According  to  Mr.  Engel  ('  Musi- 
cal Instruments,'  1874)  the  tambour  or  tam- 
boura  is  their  Eastern  repiesentative.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  these  pear-shaped  instru- 
ments used  in  Turkey  and  Bulgaria.  The  large 
Turkish  tamboura  has  a  circular  body,  the  open 
strings  producing  four  tones  :  it  has  thirty-five 
frets  of  thin  catgut  bound  round  the  neck  and 
disposed  for  the  intervals,  smaller  than  halftones, 
belonging  to  the  Arabic  scale.  The  tamboura  is 
also  found  in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Hindostan. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  no/re,  hieroglyphic  for 


*  good,'  wag  a  tamboura ;  and  the  Assyrians  had 
an  instrument  of  the  kind,  also  played  with  a 
plectrum.  The  idea  of  tension  would  seem  to 
be  inherent  in  the  first  syllable  of  names  of  the 
bandora  or  tamboura  family  of  instruments,  pre-  i 
serving  everywhere  so  remarkable  an  identity. 
(See  Banjo,  Calascione,  Cither,  Lute,  Man- 
doline.) [A.  J.  H.] 
BANISTER,  John,  born  1630,  son  of  one  of  the 
waitts  of  the  parish  of  St,  Giles'- in -the -Fields, 
London.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
musical  education  from  his  father,  and  arrived 
at  great  proficiency  on  the  violin.  He  was 
noticed  by  Charles  II,  who  sent  him  to  France 
for  improvement ;  and  on  his  return  he  was 
appointed  leader  of  the  king's  band.  The  State 
Papers  infonn  us,  '1663,  Mr.  Banister  appointed 
to  be  chief  of  His  Majesty's  violins.'  Pepys,  in  • 
his  Diary,  under  the  date  Feb.  20,  1666-7, 
says  :  — '  They  talk  how  the  King's  violin, 
Banister,  is  mad  that  a  Frenchman  is  come 
to  be  chief  of  some  part  of  the  King's 
musique.'  The  Frenchman  here  alluded  to  was 
the  impudent  pretender  Louis  Grabu.  It  is 
recorded,  we  know  not  irpon  what  authority, 
that  Banister  was  dismissed  the  King's  service 
for  saying,  in  the  hearing  of  His  Majesty,  that 
the  English  performers  on  the  violin  were  superior 
to  those  of  France.  This  musician  is  entitled  to 
especial  notice  as  being  the  first  to  establish  • 
lucrative  concerts  in  London.  These  concerts 
were  made  known  through  the  medium  of  the 
'London  Gazette'  ;  and  on  December  30,  1672, 
there  appeared  the  following  advertisement : — 
'These  are  to  give  notice  that  at  Mr.  John 
Banister's  house,  now  called  the  Musick-school, 
over  against  the  George  Tavern  in  White  Friars, 
this  present  Monday,  will  be  musick  performed 
by  excellent  masters,  beginning  precisely  at  four 
of  the  clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  every  afternoon 
for  the  future,  precisely  at  the  same  hour.'  Many 
similar  notices  may  be  found  in  the  same  paper 
(1673  to  1678),  from  which  it  appears  that 
Banister  carried  on  these  concerts  till  near  the 
period  of  his  decease,  which  occurred  on  the  third 
of  October,  1679.  He  was  buried  in  the  cloisters 
of  Westminster  Abbey.  Banister  wrote  the  music 
to  the  tragedy  of  '  Circe,'  written  by  Dr.  Charles 
Davenant,  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Davenant, 
performed  at  the  Duke  of  York's  Theatre  in 
1676.  Downes  ('Roscius  Anglicanus,'  1703) 
calls  it  an  '  opera,'  and  says  *  All  the  musick  was 
set  by  Mr.  Banister,  and  being  well  performed, 
it  answered  the  expectation  of  the  company.' 
One  of  the  songs  is  printed  in  the  second  book 
of  'Choice  Ayres  and  Songs,'  1676,  and  a  MS. 
copy  of  the  first  act  is  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  Jointly  with 
Pelham  Humfrey  he  wrote  the  music  to  'The 
Tempest,'  performed  in  1676,  some  of  the  songs 
of  which  were  published  in  the  same  year.  He 
contributed  to  Playford's  '  Courtly  Masquing 
Ayres,'  1662;  and  some  lessons  for  'viols  or 
violins  of  his  are  appended  to  a  small  volume 
entitled  '  New  Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1678. 
(Hawkins ;  Notes  to  North's  Memoirs  of  Musich, 


BANISTER. 


BaNTI. 


135 


etc.).  His  son,  John,  was  educated  in  music 
under  his  father,  and  attained  great  excellence 
as  a  performer  on  the  violin.  He  was  one  of 
the  '  musicians'  of  Charles  II,  James  II,  William 
and  Mary  and  Anne ;  and,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  century,  when  Italian  operas  were  first 
introduced  in  English  form  into  this  country, 
he  occupied  the  post  of  principal  violin.  He 
composed  some  music  for  the  theatre,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  Godfrey  Finger,  published  a 
small  collection  of  these  pieces.  He  was  also 
a  contributor  to  Henry  Playford's  'Division 
Violin,'  1685,  the  first  printed  book  for  the 
violin  put  forth  in  this  country.  He  resided 
for  many  years  in  Brownlow  Street,  Drury  Lane, 
where  he  died  in  1 735.  There  is  a  fine  mezzotint 
engraving  of  him  by  Smith.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BANJO  (American).  An  instrument  of  the 
guitar  kind,  played  with  the  fingers,  but  without 
the  aid  of  frets  to  guide  the  stopping  in  tune 
of  the  strings.  The  banjo  has  a  long  neck,  and 
a  body  like  a  drumhead,  of  parchment,  strained 
upon  a  hoop  to  the  required  writhe  or  degree  of 
stiffness  for  resonance.  There  is  no  back  to  it. 
Banjoes  have  five,  six,  seven,  or  nine  catgut 
strings,  the  lowest  in  pitch  being  often  covered 
with  wire.  The  chanterelle  or  melody-string  is 
called  from  its  position  and  use  the  thumbstring, 
and  is  placed  not,  as  in  other  fingerboard  instru- 
ments, highest  in  series,  but  on  the  bass  side 
of  the  lowest-tuned  string,  the  tuning-peg  for 
it  being  inserted  halfway  up  the  neck  instead 
of  in  the  head.  The  length  of  the  thumb- 
string  is  given  as  sixteen  inches  from  the  nut 
to  the  bridge,  and  that  of  the  others  twenty-four 
inches.  The  five-stringed  banjo  is  tuned  either 
the  last  note  being  the 
:,  thumbstring,  or  in  G, 
a  note  lower.  The  six- 
The  seven- 
;•  stringed  in- 
"*        '  troduces  the 

TT 

middle  C  in  the  lowest  octave,  and 
the  nine  has  three  thumb-strings 

but  is  rarely  used.  The  pitch  of  the  banjo,  like 
that  of  the  guitar,  is  an  octave  lower  than 
the  notation.  'Barre'  designates  the  false  nut 
made  by  placing  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand 
across  the  whole  of  the  strings  at  certain  lengths 
from  the  bridge  to  effect  transposition.  [See 
Capo  Tasto.] 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  banjo  the  existence 
of  instruments  of  the  lute  or  guitar  kind  im- 
plies a  certain  grade  of  knowledge  and  culture 
among  the  people  who  know  how  to  stretch 
strings  over  soundboards,  and  to  determine  the 
required  intervals  by  varying  'the  vibrating 
lengths  of  the  strings.  Such  instruments  found 
in  use  by  savage  or  very  uncivilised  peoples 
suggest  their  introduction  through  political  or 
religious  conquest  by  a  superior  race.  The 
Arabs  may  thus,  or  by  trade,  have  bestowed  a 
guitar  instrument  upon  the  negroes  of  Western 
Africa,  and  the  Senegambian  'bania'  be,  as 


Mr.  Carl  Engel  suggests  (*  Musical  Instruments,' 
1874,  p.  151),  the  parent  of  the  American 
negro's  banjo.  Others  derive  the  name  from 
Bandore,  [A.  J.  H.] 

BANTI,  Brigitta  Giorgi,  said  to  have  been 
the  daughter  of  a  Venetian  gondolier,  was  born 
at  Crema,  Lombardy,  1759.  She  began  life  as  a 
*  cantante  di  piazza,'  or  street-singer ;  and  re- 
ceived some  little  instruction  at  the  expense  of 
a  rich  amateur.  At  the  age  of  19  she  set  out 
for  Paris,  to  seek  her  fortune,  supporting  herself 
by  singing  at  inns  and  cafes  by  the  way.  De 
Vismes,  Director  of  the  Academic,  happening  to 
hear  a  splendid  voice  on  the  Boulevard  at  Paris 
one  evening,  stopped  at  the  cafe  where  the  girl 
was  singing,  and  slipping  a  louis  into  her  hand 
desired  her  to  come  to  him  at  the  Opera  the  next 
day.  Here,  upon  hearing  an  air  of  Sacchini 
twice  or  thrice,  she  astonished  the  Director  by 
singing  it  perfectly  from  beginning  to  end.  He 
engaged  her  for  the  Opera,  where  she  made  a 
tKumphant  debut  in  a  song  between  the  second 
and  third  acts  of  *  Iphigenie  en  Aulide.'  While 
singing  in  Paris,  though  she  never  made  the 
slightest  mistake  in  concerted  pieces,  she  some- 
times executed  her  airs  after  a  very  strange 
fashion.  For  instance :  in  the  allegro  of  a  cava- 
tina  she  would,  in  a  fit  of  absence,  recommence 
the  air  from  the  very  beginning,  go  on  with  it  to  the 
turning-point  at  the  end  of  the  second  part,  again 
reconmience,  and  continue  this  proceeding  until 
warned  by  the  conductor  that  she  had  better 
think  of  ending.  In  the  meantime  the  public, 
delighted  with  her  voice,  is  said  to  have  been 
quite  satisfied.  Agujari  having  left  London,  the 
managers  of  the  Pantheon  gave  the  young  singer 
—  still  called  Giorgi  —  an  engagement,  on  con- 
dition that  £100  a  year  should  be  deducted  from 
her  salary  for  the  cultivation  of  her  voice.  Sac- 
chini was  her  first  master,  but  he  soon  gave  her 
up  in  despair.  Piozzi  followed,  with  no  better 
success.  Abel  was  the  last.  She  was  at  this 
time,  without  doubt,  a  very  bad  singer  with  a 
very  beautiful  voice ;  and  of  so  indolent  and 
careless  a  disposition  that  she  never  could  be 
made  to  learn  the  first  rudiments  of  music.  In 
1780  she  left  England,  and  sang  to  enthusiastic 
audiences  at  several  foreign  courts.  Lord  Mount- 
Edgcumbe  heard  her  at  Reggio  in  1785,  where, 
he  says,  her  singing  was  delightful.  In  1799 
she  returned  to  London,  making  her  debut  in 
Bianchi's  *  Semiramide,'  in  which  she  introduced 
an  air  from  Guglielmi's  *  Debora,'  with  violin 
obligato,  originally  played  by  Cramer,  afterwards 
by  Viotti,  Salomon,  and  Weichsell,  the  brother 
of  Mrs.  Billington.  This  song,  though  long  and 
very  fatiguing,  was  always  encored,  and  Banti 
never  failed  to  repeat  it.  Genius  in  her  seemed 
to  supply  the  want  of  science  ;  and  the  most 
correct  ear,  with  the  most  exquisite  taste,  en- 
abled her  to  sing  with  more  effect,  expression, 
and  apparent  knowledge  of  her  art,  than  many  a 
better  singer.  She  never  was  a  good  musician, 
nor  could  sing  at  sight  with  ease  ;  but  having 
once  learnt  a  song,  and  mastered  its  character, 
she  threw  into  it  deeper  pathos  and  truer  feeling 


136 


BANTI. 


BAR. 


than  any  of  her  rivals.  Her  voice  was  of  most 
extensive  compass,  rich  and  even,  and  without 
a  fault  in  its  whole  range, — a  true  voce  di  petto 
throughout.  In  her  youth  it  extended  to  the 
highest  pitch,  and  was  so  agile  that  she  excelled 
most  singers  in  the  bravura  style  ;  but,  losing  a 
few  of  her  upper  notes,  she  modified  her  manner 
by  practising  the  cantabile,  to  which  she  de- 
voted herself,  and  in  which  she  had  no  equal. 
Her  acting  and  recitative  were  excellent.  Her 
most  favourite  pieces  were  the  '  Alceste '  of 
Gluck,  in  which  she  very  greatly  excelled,  three 
of  her  songs  in  it  having  to  be  repeated  every 
night ;  his  '  Ifigenia  in  Tauride ' ;  Paisiello's 
'Elfrida'  and  'Nina';  '  Mitridate,'  by  Naso- 
lini;  '  Alzira,'  '  Merope,'  'Cinna,'  and  others 
com])osed  expressly  for  her  by  Bianchi.  She 
also  acted  in  comic  operas,  and  was  particularly 
successful  in  Paisiello's  '  Serva  Padrona.'  Her 
spirits  never  flagged  ;  nor  did  her  admirers  ever 
grow  weary  of  her.  They  never  wished  for  an- 
other singer ;  but  Mrs,  Billington  had  now  re- 
turned, and  astonished  the  public  with  her 
marvellous  execution.  The  manager  engaged  her 
for  the  next  season,  and  allowed  Banti,  whose 
health  was  now  failing,  to  depart.  Before  the 
close  of  her  last  season  (1802),  however,  an  in- 
teresting performance  took  place.  Banti  pre- 
vailed on  Mrs.  Billington  to  sing  with  her  on  the 
night  of  her  benefit,  leaving  her  the  choice  of 
opera  and  character.  Portogallo's  '  Merope  '  was 
chosen,  Mrs.  Billington  acting  the  part  of  the 
heroine,  and  Banti  that  of  Polifonte,  though 
written  for  a  tenor.  Banti  died  at  Bologna, 
February  18,  1806,  bequeathing  her  larynx  (of 
extraordinary  size)  to  the  town^,  the  municipality 
of  which  caused  it  to  be  preserved  in  spirits.  Her 
husband  was  the  dancer  Zaccaria  Banti,  who 
was  dancing  in  London  as  early  as  1777  in 
Sacchini's  *  Creso.'  She-left  a  daughter,  married 
to  Dr.  Barbieri,  who  raised  to  her  memory  a 
monument  in  the  cemetery  outside  the  walls  of 
Bologna,  which  was  afterwards  repaired  and 
adorned  by  her  husband,  and  from  which  we 
learn  the  places  and  dates  of  her  birth  and  death 
('  Harmonicon,'  viii.).  [J.  M.] 

BAPTISTE,  a  violin-player,  whose  real  name 
was  Baptiste  Anet,  a  pupil  of  Corelli,  and  ap- 
parently one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the  works 
and  style  of  his  great  master  at  Paris,  thereby 
materially  influencing  the  development  of  violin- 
playing  in  France.  When  French  writers  of  the 
period  speak  of  him  as  an  extraordinary  pheno- 
menon, and  as  the  first  of  all  violinists,  we  must 
remember  that  at  that  time  instrumental  music, 
and  especially  the  art  of  violin-playing,  was  still 
in  its  infancy  in  France.  Baptiste  did  not  settle 
in  Paris,  in  spite  of  his  great  success,  owing 
probably  to  the  circumstance  of  Louis  XIV 's 
exclusive  liking  for  old  French  music  and  for 
Lully.  From  Paris  he  went  to  Poland,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  as  conductor  of  the 
private  band  of  a  nobleman.  He  published  three 
sets  of  sonatas  for  the  violin ;  two  suites  de 
pieces  pour  deux  musettes,  op.  2 ;  and  six  duos 
pour  deux  musettes,  op.  3.  [P.  D.] 


BAPTISTIN,  Jean,  a  violoncellist  whose 
real  name  was  Johann  Baptist  Struck ;  of 
German  parentage,  born  at  Florence  about  1690. 
He  came  to  Paris,  and  he  and  Labbe  were  the 
earliest  players  of  the  cello  in  the  orchestra  of  the 
Opera.  He  had  two  pensions  from  the  king, 
fixing  him — the  first  to  France,  and  the  second 
to  Paris.  He  produced  3  operas  and  1 5  ballets, 
and  published  4  books  of  cantatas.  He  died 
1755. 

BAR.  A  vertical  line  drawn  across  the  stave 
to  divide  a  musical  composition  into  portions  of 
equal  duration,  and  to  indicate  the  periodical  re- 
currence of  the  accent.  The  word  bar  is  also 
commonly,  though  incorrectly,  applied  to  the 
portion  contained  between  any  two  such  vertical 
lines,  such  portion  being  termed  a  'measure.' 
In  the  accurately  ancient  'measured  music' 
(musica  mensuralis — that  is,  music  consisting  of 
notes  of  various  and  determined  length,  and  so 
called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  still  older  musica 
choralis  or  plana,  in  which  all  the  notes  were 
of  the  same  length)  there  were  no  bars,  the 
rhythm — which  was  always  triple — being  shown 
by  the  value  of  the  notes.  But  as  this  value 
was  not  constant,  being  affected  by  the  order  in 
which  the  longer  or  shorter  notes  followed  each 
other,  doubtful  cases  occasionally  arose,  for  the 
better  understanding  of  which  a  sign  called 
punctum  divisionis  was  introduced,  written  .  or 
,  which  had  the  effect  of  separating  the 
rhythmic  periods  without  affecting  the  value  of 
the  notes,  and  thus  corresponded  precisely  to 
the  modem  bar,  of  which  it  was  the  earliest 
precursor. 

The  employment  of  the  bar  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  1 6th  century,  and  its  object 
appears  to  have  been  in  the  first  place  to 
facilitate  the  reading  of  compositions  written  in 
score,  by  keeping  the  different  parts  properly 
under  each  other,  rather  than  to  mark  the 
rhythmic  divisions.  One  of  the  earliest  instances 
of  the  use  of  the  bar  is  found  in  Agricola's 
'Musica  Instrumentalis '  (1529),  in  which  the 
examples  are  written  on  a  single  stave  of  ten  lines, 
the  various  parts  being  placed  above  each  other 
on  the  same  stave  (the  usual  arrangement  in 
the  earliest  scores),  with  bars  drawn  across  the 
whole  stave.  Morley  also  in  his  *  Practical 
Musick'  (1597)  makes  a  similar  use  of  bars 
in  all  examples  which  are  given  in  score  ;  but 
the  introduction  of  the  bar  into  the  separate 
voice  parts  used  for  actual  performance  is  of 
much  later  date.  The  works  of  Tallis  (1575), 
Byrd  (1610),  and  Gibbons  (161 2),  were  aU  pub- 
lished without  bars,  while  in  Ravenscroft's 
Psalter  (1621)  the  end  of  each  line  of  the 
verse  is  marked  by  a  single  bar.  This  single 
bar  is  termed  by  Butler  ('Principles  of  Mu- 
sick,' 1636)  an  imperfect  close,  which  he  says 
is  introduced  'at  the  end  of  a  strain,  or  any 
place  in  a  song  where  all  the  parts  meet 
and  close  before  the  end,'  while  the  perfect 
close  (the  end  of  the  whole  composition)  is 
to  be  marked  with  'two  bars  athwart  all  the 
Rules.' 


BAK. 


BAEBAJA. 


137 


Henry  Lawes  appears  to  have  been  the  -first 
English  musician  who  regularly  employed  bars  | 
in  his  compositions.  His  *  Ayres  and  Dialogues^'  | 
published  in  1653,  are  barred  throughout,  though 
the  '  Choice  Psalmes  put  into  Musick  for  Three 
Voices'  by  Henry  and  William  Lawes,  published 
only  five  years  previously,  is  still  ^rithout  bars. 
The  part-\vriting  of  the  'Choice  Psalmes'  is  in 
many  cases  varied  and  even  elaborate,  and  there 
must  have  been  considerable  difficulty  in  per- 
forming them,  or  indeed  any  of  the  compositions 
of  that  date,  without  the  assistance  of  any  signs 
of  rh}'thmic  division,  especialls'  as  they  were  not 
printed  in  score,  but  only  in  separate  parts. 
Their  general  character  may  be  ju<iged  from 
the  following  example,  which  has  been  translated 
into  modem  notation  and  placed  in  score  for 
greater  convenience  of  reading.  It  may  be  ob- 
served that  although  without  bars,  the  '  Choice 
Psalmes'  are  intended  to  be  sung  in  common 
time,  and  that  all  have  the  sign  C  at  the  com- 
mencement ;  some  of  the  '  Ayres  and  Dialogues,' 
on  the  other  hand,  are  in  triple  time,  and  are 
marked  with  the  figtire  3. 


Kot    in  thj  wrath  a  -  gainst  me 


i 


2>ot    in  thy  wrath a-gainst,  a    •    gainst  me 


>'ot    in  thy  wrath  a -gainst 


rise    Uor  in    thy  fu-ry  Lord  chas  -  tise  Thy  ar-rows 


rise    Xor  in    thy  fu-ry        Lord        chas  -  tise 


I»or  in  thy  fu-ry  Lord    chas  -  tise 


Nail       to  the  ground,  Thy 


Thy  ar  -  rows  wound,  Nail 


• — •  •  

to  the  ground, Thy 


Thy  ar  -  rows  wound,  Nail 


to  thj»  ground, 


band  up  •  on    up  •  on     me  lies, 


Thy  hand  up  - 


hand  tip  -  on,  thy  hand  up  •  on    me  liet. 


Thy 


to     the  ground  thy  band  up  •  on     me.         Thy  hand  np 


on     thy  hand    up    -    on          me  lies. 

hand    up    -    on                        me  Hes. 

In  modem  music  the  use  of  bars  is  almost 
universal.  Xevertheless  there  are  some  cases  in 
which  for  a  short  time  the  designe*!  irregularity 
of  the  rh\-thm  requires  that  they  should  be  dis- 
pensed with.  An  example  of  this  is  found  in 
certain  more  or  less  extended  passages  termed 
cadences  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  har- 
monic cadence  or  close),  which  usually  occur 
near  the  end  of  a  composition,  and  serve  the 
purpose  of  affording  variety  and  displaying  the 
powers  of  execution  of  the  performer.  (See 
the  close  of  the  Largo  of  Beethoven's  Concerto  in 
C  minor,  op.  37.)  Also  occasionally  in  passages 
in  the  style  of  fantasia,  which  are  devoid  of  any 
definite  rh}'thni,  examples  of  which  may  be  found 
in  the  Prelude  of  Handel's  first  Suite  in  A,  in 
Emanuel  Bach's  Fantasia  in  C  minor,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Sonata  in  Bflat,  op.  106,  and  in  the  third  move- 
ment of  Mendelssohn's  Sonata,  op.  6. 

But  even  in  this  kind  of  unbarred  music  the 
relative  value  of  the  notes  must  be  approximately 
if  not  absolutely  preserved,  and  on  this  account 
it  is  often  expedient  during  the  study  of  such 
music  to  divide  the  passage  into  imaginary  bars, 
not  always  necessanly  of  the  same  length,  by 
the  help  of  which  its  musical  meaning  becomes 
more  readily  intelligible.  This  has  indeed  been 
done  by  Yon  Biilow  in  re^-^ard  to  the  passage  in 
the  Sonata  above  alluded  to,  and  it  is  so  pub- 
lished in  the  '  Instructive  Edition  of  Beethoven's 
Works'  (Stuttgart,  Cotta,  1S71),  the  result  being 
a  considerable  gain  in  point  of  perspicuity.  Simi- 
lar instances  will  occur  to  every  student  of  piano- 
forte music. 

A  double  bar,  consisting  of  two  parallel  verti- 
cal lines,  is  always  placed  at  the  end  of  a  com- 
position, and  sometimes  at  the  close  of  a  section  or 
strain,  especially  if  the  strain  has  to  be  repeated, 
in  which  case  the  dots  indicating  repetition  are 
placed  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  double  bar, 
according  as  they  may  be  required.  Unlike  the 
single  bar,  the  doable  bar  does  not  indicate  a 
rhythmic  period,  as  it  may  occur  in  the  middle  or 
at  any  part  of  a  measure,  but  merely  signifies  the 
r/tetorical  close  of  a  portion  of  the  composition 
complete  in  itself,  or  of  the  whole  work,    l^"-  T".] 

BAEBAJA,  DoMENico,  bom  1778  at  Milan, 
of  poor  parentage ;  was  successively  waiter  at 
a  coffee  house  on  the  Piazza,  manager  of  an 
English  riding-circus,  lessee  of  the  Cuca^na 
playhouse  at  Naples,  and  director  of  the  San 
Carlo  theatre.  While  at  Xaples  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Count  Gallenberg^  the 
Austrian  ambassador,  followed  him  tj  Alenna 
in  1821,  and  obtained  the  direction  of  both  the 


138 


BARBAJA. 


BARCAROLE. 


'  Karnthner  -  thor '  theatre  and  that  '  auf  der 
Wien,'  which  he  held  till  1828.  He  was  the  first 
to  introduce  a  subscription  into  the  Vienna  the- 
atres. During  his  management  the  company 
embraced  the  best  talent  of  the  day,  including 
Mesdames  Colbran-Rossini,  Sontag,  Esther  Mom- 
belli,  Giuditta  Grisi,  Mainvielle-Fodor,  Feron, 
Canticelli ;  Signori  Donzelli,  Cicimarra,  Bassi, 
Tamburini,  Rubini,  David,  Nozzari,  Lablache, 
Ambrogi,  Benedetti,  and  Botticelli.  The  ballet 
was  sustained  by  Duport,  Salvatore,  and  Taglioni. 
Though  Barbaja  introduced  Rossini  into  Vienna, 
he  by  no  means  neglected  German  opera,  and 
under  his  management  Weber's  'Euryanthe'  was 
produced  Oct.  25,  1825,  He  was  at  the  same 
time  manager  of  the  two  most  celebrated  opera- 
houses  in  Jtaly,  La  Scala  at  Milan,  and  San 
Carlo  at  Naples ;  not  to  mention  some  smaller 
operatic  establishments  also  under  his  direction. 
Bellini's  first  opera,  'Bianca  e  Ferdinando,'  was 
written  for  Barbaja  and  produced  at  Naples. 
His  second  opera,  '  II  Pirata,'  was  also  composed 
for  Barbaja,  and  brought  out  at  Milan.  Several 
of  Donizetti's  works,  and  all  Rossini's  later  works 
for  the  Italian  stage,  were  first  presented  to  the 
public  by  the  famous  impresario,  who  was  destined 
one  day  himself  to  figure  in  an  opera.  Barbaja 
is  at  least  introduced  by  name  in  '  La  Sirene,'  by 
Scribe  and  Auber.  From  his  retirement  till  his 
death,  Oct.  16,  1841,  he  resided  on  his  property 
at  Posilippo.  He  was  very  popular,  and  was 
followed  to  his  grave  by  an  immense  concourse 
of  people.  [C.  F.  P.] 

BARBELLA,  Emanuele,  violinist.  Bom  at 
Naples  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  i8th  century. 
The  following  short  account  of  his  musical 
education  was  written  by  himself  at  the  request 
of  Dr.  Burney,  who  gives  it  in  his  History  (iii. 
570):  —  *  Emanuele  Barbella  had  the  violin 
placed  in  his  hand  when  he  was  only  six  and 
a  half  years  old,  by  his  father  Francesco  Barbella. 
After  his  father's  decease  he  took  lessons  of 
Angelo  Zaga,  till  the  arrival  of  Pasqualino  Bini, 
a  scholar  of  Tartini,  in  Naples,  under  whom  he 
studied  for  a  considerable  time,  and  then  worked 
by  himself.  His  first  instructor  in  counterpoint 
was  Michele  Gabbalone  ;  but  this  master  dying, 
he  studied  composition  under  the  instructions  of 
Leo,  till  the  time  of  his  death.'  He  adds,  *  Non 
per  questo,  Barbella  e  un  vero  asino  che  non  sa 
riiente' — 'Yet,  notwithstanding  these  advantages, 
Barbella  is  a  mere  ass,  who  knows  nothing.'  He 
wrote  six  sonatas  for  violin,  and  six  duos  for 
violin  and  bass,  adhering  closely  to  the  principles 
of  Tartini.  Bumey  gives  an  example  of  his 
composition,  and  says  that  his  tone  and  manner 
were  'marvellously  sweet  and  pleasing,  even 
without  any  other  accompaniment  than  the  drone- 
bass  of  an  open  string.'  He  died  at  Naples  in 
1773.  [E.H.D.] 

BARBER  OF  SEVILLE,  THE.  Operas  of 
this  name,  founded  on  the  celebrated  play  of 
Beaumarchais  (1775),  have  been  often  produced. 
Two  only  can  be  noticed  here:  (i)  that  of 
Paisiello,  first  performed  at  St.  Petersburg  in 


1780,  and  at  Paris  in  1789 — at  the  'Theatre  de 
Monsieur,'  in,  the  Tuileries,  July  12,  and  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau,  July  22  ;  (2)  that  of  Rossini — 
libretto  by  Sterbini — produced  at  Rome,  Dec. 
26,  1 816,  and  at  Paris,  in  the  Salle  Louvois, 
Oct.  26,  1819.  Rossini  hesitated  to  undertake 
the  subject  previously  treated  by  Paisiello,  and 
before  doing  so  obtained  his  permission.  He  is 
said  to  have  completed  the  opera  in  15  days. 
On  its  appearance  in  Paris  an  attempt  was  made 
to  crush  it  by  reviving  Paisiello's  opera,  but  the 
attempt  proved  an  entire  failure ;  Paisiello's  day 
was  gone  for  ever.  [G.] 
BARBERS  OF  BASSORA,  THE.  A  comic 
opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by  Madison  Morton ; 
music  by  John  HuUah.  Produced  at  Covent 
Garden,  Nov.  11,  1837. 

BARBIERI,  a  Spanish  dramatic  composer 
of  the  present  day,  and  chief  promoter  of  an 
association  for  instituting  a  Spanish  national 
opera  in  opposition  to  the  Italian.  '  Jugar  con 
fuego'  (1851),  *La  Hechicera,'  'La  Espada  de 
Bernardo,'  and  *E1  Marques  de  Caravaca,'  are 
the  names  of  some  of  his  operas  which  have  been 
performed  in  Madrid  with  success, 

BARBIREAU,^  Maitre  Jacques,  a  cele- 
brated musician  of  the  15th  century,  choir- 
master and  teacher  of  the  boys  in  the  cathedral 
of  Antwerp  from  1448  till  his  death  in  1491. 
Many  of  the  great  musicians  of  the  15th  and 
1 6th  centuries  were  his  pupils ;  he  maintained 
a  correspondence  with  Rudolph  Agricola,  and 
is  constantly  quoted  by  his  contemporary  Tinctor 
as  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  music  of 
his  time.  Of  his  compositions,  a  mass  for  five 
voices,  'Virgo  parens  Christi,'  another  for  four 
voices,  'Faulx  perverse,'  and  a  Kyrie  for  the 
same,  are  in  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna,  and 
some  songs  for  three  and  four  voices  in  that  of 
Dijon.  Kiese wetter  has  scored  the  Kyrie  from 
the  first-named  mass  and  a  song  for  three  voices, 
'Lome  (I'homme)  banyde  saplaisance.'  [M.C.  C] 

BARCAROLE  (Ital.),  i.  e.  a  '  boat-song.' 
Pieces  of  music  written  in  imitation  or  recollection 
of  the  songs  of  Venetian  harcaroli  as  they  row 
their  gondolas — or  as  they  formerly  did ;  for 
their  songs  at  present  appear  to  have  little  in 
them  either  agreeable  or  characteristic.  Barca- 
roles have  been  often  adopted  by  modern  com- 
posers;  as  by  Herold  in  'Zampa';  by  Auber 
in  'Masaniello'  and  *Fra  Diavolo' ;  by  Doni- 
zetti in  'Marino  Faliero';  by  Schubert,  'Auf 
dem  Wasser  zu  singen'  (Op.  72) ;  by  Chopin 
for  Piano  solo  (Op.  60) ;  and  by  Sterndale  Ben- 
nett for  Piano  and  Orchestra  in  his  4  th  Con- 
certo. Mendelssohn  has  left  several  examples. 
The  first  '  Song  without  words '  that  he  com- 
posed— published  as  Op.  19,  No.  6 — is  the  'Ve- 
netianisches  Gondellied*  in  G  minor,  which 
the  autograph  shows  to  have  been  written  at 
Venice  Oct.  16,  1830.  Others  are  Op.  30,  No.  6; 
Op.  62,  No.  5  ;  and  the  beautiful  song,  Op.  57, 
No.  5,  *  Wenn  durch  die  Piazzetta.'  One  essential 

1  Pronounced  Barbirieau ;  called  also  Barbicola,  Barbyrianus,  and 
Barbingnnt. 


BARBIREAU. 


BARKER. 


139 


characteristic  in  all  these  is  the  alternation  of 
a  strong  and  a  light  beat  in  the  movement  of 
6-8  time— Chopin's  alone  being  in  12-8 — with 
a  triplet  figure  pervading  the  entire  composition, 
the  object  being  perhaps  to  convey  the  idea  of 
rise  and  fall  of  the  boat,  or  the  regular 
'.lotonous  strokes  of  the  oars.  The  autograph 
Bennett's  barcarole  is  actually  marked  '  In 
r  Aving  time.'     The  tempo  of  the  barcaroles 

"ted  above  differs  somewhat,  but  is  mostly 
a  tranquil  kind.    The  'Gondoletta'  entitled 

-d  Biondina,'  harmonised  by  Beethoven,  and 
given  in  his  '  1 2  verschiedene  Yolkslieder'  (Notte- 
bohm's  Catalogue,  p.  176),  though  of  the  same 
character  as  the  boatmen's  songs,  is  by  Pistrucci, 
an  Italian  composer.  [W.  H.  C] 

BARCROFTE,  Thomas,  said  to  have  been 
organist  of  Ely  Cathedral  circ.  1535.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  biography.  A  Te  Deum  and 
Benedictus  (in  F),  and  two  anthems  are  ascribed 
to  him  in  Tudway's  MS.  Collection.  The  former 
are  dated  1532,  a  date  much  too  early  for  an 
English  setting  of  these  hpnns.  It  seems  much 
more  probable  that  the  author  of  these  composi- 
tions was  George  Barcrofte,  A.B.,  vicar-choral  and 
organist  of  Ely  Cathedral  in  1579.  latter 
died  in  1609.  The  service  above  mentioned,  and 
one  of  the  anthems,  'O  Almighty  God,'  were 
printed  by  the  Motett  Society.  1  E.  F.  R,] 

BARDELLA,  Antonio  Valdi,  called  '  II 
Bardello,'  chamber  -  musician  to  the  Duke  of 
Tuscany  at  the  end  of  the  1 6th  and  beginning 
of  the  1 7th  centuries,  and,  according  to  Arteaga, 
inventor  of  the  Theorbo.  Caccini  states  that  he 
was  an  admirable  performer  on  that  instrument. 

BARDI,  Giovanni,  Count  of  Vemio,  a 
Florentine  noble,  lived  in  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century,  an  accomplished  scholar  and  mathe- 
matician, member  of  the  acarlemy  Delia  Crusca, 
and  of  the  Alterati  in  Florence,  maestro  di 
camera  to  Pope  Clement  YIII.  Doni  attributes 
to  him  the  first  idea  of  the  opera,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  first  performances  of  the  kind 
were  held  in  his  house  by  his  celebrated  band 
of  friends,  Vicenzo  Galilei,  Caccini,-  Strozzi, 
Corsi,  Peri,  and  Rinuccini,  and  that  he  himself 
composed  the  words  for  more  than  one  such 
piece,  e.g.  'L'amico  fido,'  and  '  II  combattimento 
d'Apollino  col  serpente.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BARGAGLIA,  Scipione,  a  Neapolitan  com- 
poser and  contrapuntist,  mentioned  by  Cerreto, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  i6th  century. 
According  to  Bumey  the  word  'Concerto'  occurs 
for  the  first  time  in  his  work  '  Trattenimenti 
...  da  suonare'  (Venice,  1587). 

BARGIEL,  WoLDEMAR,  son  of  a  teacher  of 
music  at  Berlin,  and  step -brother  of  Mme.  Clara 
Wieck-Schumann  (his  mother  being  the  divorced 
wife  of  Friedrich  Wieck),  was  bom  at  Berlin, 
Oct.  3,  1828.  He  was  made  to  play  the  piano, 
the  violin,  and  organ  at  home,  and  was  instructed 
ill  counterpoint  by  Dehn.  As  a  youth  of  18,  and 
in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Robert  Schumann,  he  spent  two  years  at  the 
Conservatorium  of  Leipzig,  which  was  then  (1846) 


I  under  Mendelssohn's  supervision  :  and,  before 
leaving  it,  he  attracted  general  attention  by  an 
octet  for  strings,  which  was  performed  at  one 
of  the  public  examinations. 

After  his  return  to  Berlin,  in  1850,  he  com- 
menced work  as  a  teacher,  and  increased  his 
reputation  as  a  composer  by  the  publication  of 
various  OTchestral  and  chamber  works,  as  well  as 
pianoforte  pieces.  In  1859  he  was  called  to  a 
professorship  at  the  Conservatorium  of  Cologne, 
which,  in  1865,  he  exchanged  for  the  post  of 
Capellmeister,  and  director  of  the  schocd  of  music 
at  Rotterdam.  Latterly  (1874),  he  has  found  a 
field  still  more  fit  for  his  powers,  at  the  Konig- 
liche  Hochschule  fitr  Musik,  which  is  now  flourish- 
ing  under  the  leadership  of  Joachim,  at  Berlin. 

As  a  composer,  Bargiel  must  be  ranked  among 
the  foremost  disciples  of  Schumann.  He  makes 
up  for  a  certain  lack  of  freshness  and  spontaneity 
in  his  themes  by  most  carefully  elaborated  treat- 
ment. Besides  his  pianoforte  pieces,  op.  1-5,  and 
his  trios  for  pianoforte  and  strings,  two  overtures 
for  full  orchestra,  'Zu  einem  Trauerspiel,'  and 
'  Medea,'  and  the  23rd  Psalm  for  female  voices 
should  be  particularly  mentioned.  [E.  D.] 

BARITONE,  the  name  usually  applied  to  the 
smaller  bass  saxhorn  in  Bb  or  C.  It  stands  in 
the  same  key  as  the  euphonium,  but  the  bore 
being  on  a  considerably  less  scale,  and  the 
mouthpiece  smaller,  it  gives  higher  notes  and  a 
less  volume  of  tone.  It  is  almost  exclusively 
used  in  reed  and  brass  bands,  to  the  latter  of 
which  it  is  able  to  furnish  a  certain  variety  of 
quality.  [W.  H.  S.] 

BARKER,  Chaeles  Spaceman,  was  bom  at 
Bath  Oct.  10,  1806.  Left  an  orphan  at  five 
years  old,  he  was  brought  up  by  his  godfather, 
who  gave  him  such  an  education  as  would  fit 
him  for  the  medical  profession.  But  Barker, 
accidentally  witnessing  the  operations  of  an 
eminent  London  organ-builder,  who  was  erecting 
an  organ  in  his  neighbourho^^d,  determined  on 
following  that  occupation,  and  placed  himself 
under  the  builder  for  instruction  in  the  art. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  returned  to  Bath  and 
established  himself  as  an  organ-builder  there. 
About  1832  the  newly-built  large  organ  in  York 
Minster  attracted  general  attention,  and  Barker, 
impressed  by  the  immense  labour  occasioned  to 
the  player  by  the  extreme  hardness  of  touch  of 
the  keys,  turned  his  thoughts  towards  devising 
some  means  of  overcoming  the  resistance  offered 
by  the  keys  to  the  fingers.  The  result  was  the 
invention  of  the  pneumatic  lever,  by  which 
ingenious  contrivance  the  pressure  of  the  wind 
which  occasioned  the  resistance  to  the  touch 
was  skilfully  applied  to  lessen  it.  Barker 
offered  his  invention  to  several  English  organ- 
builders,  but  finding  them  indisposed  to  adopt 
it,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  about 
the  time  that  Cavaille-Col  was  building  a  large 
organ  for  the  church  of  St.  Denis.  To  that 
eminent  builder  he  addressed  himself,  and  Ca- 
vaille,  seeing  the  importance  of  the  invention, 
immediately  adopted  it.  Barker  afterwards 
took  the  direction  of  the  business  of  Daublaine 


140 


BARKER. 


BARNETT, 


and  Callinet  (afterwards  Ducroquet,  and  later 
Merklin  and  Schiitz),  and  built  in  1845  a  large 
organ  for  the  church  of  St.  Eustache,  which 
was  unfortunately  destroyed  by  fire  six  months 
after  its  erection.  He  also  repaired  the  fine 
organ  of  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice.  Later  the 
pneumatic  lever  came  gradually  into  use  in 
England.  Barker  is  also  the  inventor  of  the 
electric  action.  He  has  ^^eturned  to  England,  and 
at  present  (1878)  resides  in  London.   [W.  H.  H.] 

BARNARD,  Rev.  John,  a  minor  canon  of 
St.  Paul's  cathedral  in  the  time  of  Charles  I,  was 
the  first  who  published  a  collection  of  cathedral 
music.  His  work  appeared  in  1641  under  the 
title  of  'The  First  Book  of  Selected  Church 
Musick,  consisting  of  Services  and  Anthems, 
such  as  are  now  used  in  the  Cathedrall  and 
Collegiat  Churches  of  this  Kingdome.  Never 
before  printed.  Whereby  such  Bookes  as  were 
heretofore  with  much  difficulty  and  charges, 
transcribed  for  the  use  of  the  Quire,  are  now 
to  the  saving  of  much  Labour  and  expence, 
publisht  for  the  general  good  of  all  such  as  shall 
desire  them  either  for  publick  or  private  exercise. 
Collected  out  of  divers  approved  Authors.'  The 
work  was  printed,  without  bars,  in  a  bold  type, 
with  diamond  headed  notes,  in  ten  separate  parts — 
medius,  first  and  second  contratenors,  tenor  and 
bass  us  for  each  side  of  the  choir.  Decani  and 
Cantoris.  A  part  for  the  organ  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  some  of  the  verse  anthems  in  which 
intermediate  symphonies  occur,  but  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  it  was  ever  printed.  From 
many  causes  —  the  wear  and  tear  resulting  from 
daily  use  in  choirs,  the  destruction  of  service- 
books  during  the  civil  war,  and  others — it 
happened  that  a  century  ago  no  perfect  copy  of 
this  work  was  known  to  exist,  the  least  imperfect 
set  being  in  Hereford  cathedral,  where  eight  of 
the  ten  vocal  parts  (some  of  them  mutilated) 
were  to  be  found,  the  bassus  decani  and  medius 
cantoris  being  wanting.  It  so  remained  until 
January  1862,  when  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 
acquired  by  purchase  a  set  consisting  also  of 
eight  vocal  parts,  including  the  two  wanting  in 
the  Hereford  set,  and  some  also  being  mutilated. 
A  duplicate  of  the  bassus  decani  which  had 
been  with  this  set  was  purchased  by  the  Dean 
and  Chapter  of  Hereford,  and  a  transcript  of  the 
imperfect  medius  cantoris  was  permitted  by  the 
society  to  be  taken  for  them,  so  that  the  Hereford 
set  still  retains  its  pre-eminence.  The  work  does 
not  include  the  compositions  of  any  then  living 
author,  the  compiler  in  his  preface  declaring  his 
intention  of  giving  such  in  a  future  publication. 

Its  contents  are  as  follows  : — 


Tallis,  Ist  Serv.  4  voices,  D  min. 

N.  Strogers,  4  v.  D  min. 

E.  Bevin,  4  and  5  v.  D  min. 

W.  Bird,  4,  5  and  6  v.  1)  min. 

O.  Gibbons,  4  v.  F. 

W.  Mundy,  4,  5  and  6  v.  D  min. 

R.  Parsons,  4,  5,  6  and  7  v.  F. 

T.  Morley,  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5  v.  D  min. 

Br.  Gyles,  1,  2,  3.  4,  5  and  6  v.  C. 

(The  above  are  Mg.  and  Ev. 

Services  complete,  and  are  eacli 

entitled  '1st  Service'.) 
Mr.  Ward,  Mag.  and  N.  D.  1,  2,  3, 

4  and  5  V.  G  min. 


Mr.  Woodson,  Te  Deum,  4  v.  D  min. 
Bird,  2nd  Serv.  with  verses,  Mag. 

and  N.  D.  G  min. 
Bird,  3rd  S.,  Mag.  and  N.  D.  5  v.  C. 
Morley,  2nd  S.,  Mag.  and  N.  D.  5 

V.  G. 

O.  Gibbons,  2nd  S.,  Mg.  and  Ev.  1,  C, 

3,  4  and  5  v.  D  minor 
Tallis,  1st  Preces. 
Do.  1st  Ps.  to  do.  Wherewithal!. 
1)0.  2nd  Ps.,  O  doe  well. 
Do.  3rd  Ps.,  My  soul  cleaveth. 
Bird's  1st  Preces. 
Do.  1st  Vs.  to  do.  0  clap. 


Do.  2nd  Ps.,  Save  me  o  God. 

Do.  2nd  Preces. 
Do.  1st  Ps.  to  do.  When  Israel. 
Do.  2nd  Ps.,  Hear  my  prayer. 
Do.  3rd  Ps.,  Teach  me  o  Lord. 
0.  Gibbons,  1st  Preces. 
Do.  Ps.  to  do.  Thou  openest. 
Tallis,  Responses,  Prayer,  etc. 
Do.  Litany. 

Full  Anlhem:t,  4 parts. 
Tallis,  0  Lord  give  thy  H.  Spirit. 
E.  Hooper,  Teach  me. 
Farrant,  Hide  not  thou. 
Do.   Call  to  remembrance. 
J.  Shepheard,  Haste  Thee. 
Do.   (2nd  pt.)  But  let  all. 
W.  Mundy,  O  Lord  the  maker. 
Do.   0  Lord  the  world's  Saviour. 
O.  Gibbons,  Deliver  us. 
Do.   (2nd  pt.)  Blessed  be. 
O.  Gibbons,  Almighty  &  everlasting. 
Batten,  0  praise  the  Lord. 
Do.   Hide  not  Thou. 
Do.  Lord  we  beseech  Thee. 
Do.  Haste  Thee  o  God. 
Do.  (2nd  pt.)  But  let  all  those. 
Do.  When  the  Lord. 
Dr.  Tye.  I  will  exalt  Thee. 
Do.  (2nd  pt.)  Sing  unto  the  Lord. 
Do.   Dens  misereatur.  [Divided 
into  3  little  anthems.] 
Ftdl  Anthems  of  5  parts. 
Tallis,  With  all  our  hearts. 


Do.  Blessed  be  Thy  name. 

K.  Hooijer,  0  Thou  G.  Almighty. 

Tallis.  I  call  and  cry. 

Mundy,  O  Lord,  I  bow. 

Bird,  Prevent  us. 

E.  Hooper,  Behold  it  is  Christ. 

Robt.  White.  The  Lord  bless  us. 

Tallis,  Wipe  away. 

Bird,  0  God  whom  our  offences. 

Do.  O  Ld.  make  thy  servant  Chai 

Dr.  Tye,  I  lift  my  heart. 

Bird,  O  Lord  turn. 

Do.  (2nd  pt.)  Bow  Thine  ear. 

Dr.  Giles,  O  give  thanks. 

Full  Anlhems  for  6,  7,  8  parts. 
Bird,  Sing  joyfully,  6  v. 
R.  Parsons,  Deliver  me,  6  v. 
O.  Gibbons,  Hosanna.  6  v. 
Do.  Lift  up  your  heads.  6  v. 
Weelkes,  O  Lord  grant,  6  and  7  v. 

A  nthems  with  Verses. 
Bird,  O  Ld.  rebuke  me  not. 
Do.  Hear  my  prayer. 
W.  Mundy,  Ah  helpless  wretch. 
Morley,  Out  of  the  deep. 
0.  Gibbons,  Behold  Thou  hast. 
Batten,  Out  of  the  deep. 
Ward,  1  will  praise. 
Bird,  Thou  God. 
Do.  Christ  rising. 
Do.  (2nd  pt.)  Christ  is  risen. 
Dr.  Bull,  Deliver  me. 
Ward,  Let  God  arise. 


From  the  printed  and  manuscript  parts,  aided 
by  other  old  manuscript  organ  and  voice  parts, 
Mr.  J ohn  Bishop  of  Cheltenham  has  made  a  score 
of  the  work,  which,  it  is  to  be  regretted,  remains 
unpublished.    It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Seven  separate  parts  of  the  MS.  collections 
made  by  Barnard  for  his  work,  comprising  upwards 
of  130  services  and  anthems  besides  those  included 
in  the  published  work,  are  now  in  the  library  of 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BARNETT,  John,  born  at  Bedford  July  i, 
1802.  His  mother  was  a  Hungarian,  and  his 
father  a  Prussian,  whose  name  was  Bernhard 
Beer,  which  was  changed  to  Barnett  Barnett  on 
his  settlement  in  this  country  as  a  jeweller.  In 
his  infancy  John  shewed  a  marked  predilection 
for  music,  and  as  his  childhood  a  Ivanced  proved 
to  have  a  fine  alto  voice.  At  the  age  of  eleven 
he  was  articled  to  S.  J.  Arnold,  proprietor  of 
the  Lyceum,  Arnold  engaging  to  provide  him 
with  musical  instruction  in  return  for  his  ser- 
vices as  a  singer.  The  young  vocalist  accordingly 
appeared '  upon  the  stage  at  the  Lyceum,  and 
continued  a  successful  career  until  the  breaking 
of  his  voice.  During  this  time  he  was  receiving 
instruction  in  music,  first  from  C.  E.  Horn,  and 
afterwards  from  Price,  the  chorus -master  of 
Drury  Lane.  He  wrote,  while  yet  a  boy,  two 
masses  and  many  lighter  pieces,  some  of  which 
were  published.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term 
with  Arnold  he  took  pianoforte  lessons  of  Perez, 
organist  of  the  Spanish  embas.sy,  and  subse- 
quently of  Ferdinand  Ries.  From  the  latter  he 
received  his  first  real  lesson  in  harmony. 

His  first  essay  for  the  stage  was  the  musical 
farce  of  'Before  Breakfast'  (Lyceum,  1825),  the 
success  of  which  induced  him  to  continue  the 
line  he  had  commenced.  Among  the  pieces  he 
subsequently  wrote  may  be  enumerated  'Mon- 
sieur Mallet,' '  Robert  the  Devil,' '  Country  Quar- 
ters,' '  Two  Seconds,'  '  The  Soldier's  Widow,' 
'  The  Picturesque,' '  Married  Lovers,'  'The  Deuce 
is  in  her,'  'Charles  the  Twelfth'  (which  con- 


BARNETT. 


BARNETT. 


Ul 


tained  the  popular  ballad  'Rise  gentle  Moon'), 
and  'The  Carnival  of  Naples,'  the  latter  per- 
formed at  Covent  Garden  in  1830.  Meantime 
he  was  not  unmindful  of  the  higher  branches  of 
his  art,  and  in  1829  published  his  oratorio  of 
'The  Omnipresence  of  the  Deity,'  which  has  never 
been  performed  in  public.  In  31  he  brought 
out  at  Sadler's  Wells  'The  Pet  of  the  Petticoats,' 
subsequently  transplanted  to  the  greater  theatres. 
This  was  his  most  important  dramatic  work  up 
to  this  period.  It  was  deservedly  popular,  and 
contained  dramatic  music  then  new  to  the 
English  stage. 

In  1832  Bamett  was  engaged  by  Madame 
Vestris  as  music-director  of  the  Olympic  Theatre, 
for  which  he  wrote  a  number  of  popular  musical 
pieces — 'The  Paphian  Bower,'  'Olympic  Revels,' 
'  The  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,'  '  Blanche  of  Jer- 
sey,' etc.  Also  for  Drury  Lane  a  lyrical  version 
of  Mrs.  Centlivre's  '  Bold  stroke  for  a  Wife,'  with 
Braham  in  the  principal  character.  Under  the 
title  of  '  Win  her  and  Wear  her'  this  piece  was 
played  for  a  few  nights,  but  failed  to  obtain  the 
success  it  merited,  partly  owing  to  the  inappro- 
priateness  of  the  subject.  The  music  contains 
many  gems  introduced  by  the  composer  into  his 
later  works. 

In  1 834  he  published  his  *  Lyrical  Illustrations 
of  the  Modem  Poets,'  a  collection  of  songs  of 
remarkable  beauty  and  poetic  feeling ;  and 
shortly  afterwards  '  Songs  of  the  Minstrels,' 
and  '  Amusement  for  Leisure  Hours.'  These 
productions,  the  first  especially,  raised  him  in  the 
estimation  of  the  musical  world. 

Barnett's  great  work  'The  Mountain  Sylph' 
was  produced  at  the  Lyceum  in  August  1834 
with  remarkable  success.  It  was  originally  de- 
signed as  a  musical  drama  for  one  of  the  minor 
theatres,  and  afterwards  extended  into  complete 
operatic  form.  It  met  with  some  opposition  on 
the  first  night,  but  soon  became  a  standard 
favourite.  '  Here  then,'  says  Professor  Macfarren, 
'was  the  first  English  opera  constructed  in  the 
acknowledged  form  of  its  age  since  Arne's  time- 
honoured  Artaxerxes ;  and  it  owes  its  import- 
ance as  a  work  of  art,  not  more  to  the  artistic 
mould  in  which  it  is  cast  than  to  the  artistic, 
conscientious,  emulous  feeling  that  pervades  it. 
Its  production  opened  a  new  period  for  music  in 
this  country,  from  which  is  to  be  dated  the 
establishment  of  an  En.;lish  dramatic  school, 
which,  if  not  yet  accomplished,  has  made  many 
notable  advances.'  Barnett  dedicated  the  work 
to  his  old  master,  Arnold,  extoUing  him  as  the 
fosterer  of  the  British  Muse;  but  before  the 
year  was  out  he  changed  his  tone,  complaining 
in  the  public  prints  that  this  same  manager 
had  refused  to  pay  him  for  the  composition  of  a 
new  opera. 

He  now  spent  some  time  in  Paris,  with  the 
purpose  of  producing  there  his  opera  of  'Fair 
Rosamond,'  but  returned,  on  the  invitation  of 
Bunn,  to  bring  out  the  work  at  Drury  Lane. 
It  was  performed  in  February  1837,  with  in- 
different success,  mainly  owing  to  its  ill-con- 
structed libretto.    It  is  full  of  charming  music, 


and,  wedded  to  a  new  poem,  would  command 
attention  from  an  audience  of  the  present  day. 
In  this  year  Barnett  married  the  daughter  of 
Lindley  the  violoncellist,  with  whom  he  went  to 
Frankfort,  with  the  view  of  studying  Vogler's 
system  of  harmony  and  the  principles  of  composi  tion 
under  Snyder  von  Wartensee.  Here  he  wrote  a 
symphony  and  two  quartets,  which  are  still  un- 
published. On  his  return  to  London  in  1838,  he 
produced  his  opera  of  '  Farinelli '  at  Drury  Lane, 
perhaps  his  best  work.  In  this  year,  in  con- 
junction with  Morris  Barnett,  the  actor,  dra- 
matist, and  journalist,  he  opened  the  St.  James's 
Theatre,  with  the  intention  of  founding  an  Eng- 
lish opera  house ;  but  (owing  to  unforeseen  cir- 
cumstances) the  theatre  prematurely  closed  at 
the  end  of  the  first  week. 

At  the  beginning  of  1841  Bamett  established 
himself  as  a  singing  master  at  Cheltenham, 
where  he  remains  (1876)  in  extensive  practice. 
In  the  following  year  he  published  a  pamphlet 
of  sixty  pages,  entitled  '  Systems  and  Singing 
Masters  :  an  analytic  comment  upon  the  Wilhem 
System  as  taught  in  England' — cleverly  and 
caustically  written,  but  unjustly  severe  npon 
Mr.  Hullah. 

Mr,  Bamett  has  at  least  three  operas  which 
have  never  been  performed.  'Kathleen,*  the  li- 
bretto by  Sheridan  Knowles,  is  highly  spoken  of 
by  those  who  have  heard  the  music.  His  single 
songs  are  said  to  number  nearly  four  thousand. 

Barnett's  music  is  highly  dramatic.  His  melo- 
dies are  marked  by  decided  character,  and  his 
skill  in  orchestration  is  great.  It  is  much  to  be 
regretted  that  he  has  withheld  his  later  works 
from  the  public.  {Imp.  Diet,  of  Univ.  Biog. ; 
Private  sources.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BARNETT,  John  Francis,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  son  of  Joseph  Alfred  Barnett,  a 
professor  of  music,  was  born  Oct.  6,  1838.  He 
began  the  study  of  the  pianoforte  when  six  years 
old  under  the  guidance  of  his  mother.  When 
eleven  he  was  placed  under  Dr.  Wylde.  The  boy 
progressed  rapidly  in  his  studies,  and  a  twelve- 
month later  became  a  candidate  for  the  Queen's 
Scholarship  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  This 
he  gained,  and  at  the  expiration  of  two  years,  the 
duration  of  the  scholarship,  he  competed  again, 
and  was  again  successful.  During  the  first  year 
of  his  scholarship  he  was  engaged  and  played 
(from  memory)  Mendelssohn's  Concerto  in  D 
minor  at  the  New  Philharmonic  Society,  under 
the  direction  of  Spohr  (July  4,  1853).  The 
second  scholarship  coming  to  an  end  in  1857, 
he  visited  Germany,  studied  under  Hauptmann 
and  Rietz  at  the  Conservatorium  at  Leipsic, 
and  performed  at  the  Gewandhaus  (Mar.  22, 
i860).  At  the  expiration  of  three  years  he 
returned  to  London  and  played  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic, June  10,  1861.  The  first  compo- 
sition that  brought  the  young  composer  into 
notice  was  a  symphony  in  A  minor,  produced 
at  the  Musical  Society  of  London  (June  15, 
1864).  He  has  since  written  several  quartets 
and  quintets  for  string  instruments,  pianoforte 
trios,  as  well  as  an  'Overture  Syniphonique'  for 


142 


BABNETT. 


BARRE. 


the  Philharmonic  Society  (May  ii,  1868),  a  con- 
certo in  D  minor,  and  other  works.  In  1867,  at 
the  request  of  the  committee  of  the  Birmingham 
Festival,  he  composed  his  cantata  *  The  Ancient 
Mariner,'  on  Coleridge's  poem,  which  was  an 
acknowledged  success.  In  1870  he  received  a 
second  commission  from  the  Birmingham  Festival 
committee  to  write  a  cantata,  and  tliis  time  he 
chose  *  Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  which  was  per- 
formed the  same  year  with  great  success.  Both 
these  works  have  been  given  repeatedly  in 
England  and  the  Colonies.  Mr.  Barnett  next 
wrote  his  overture  to  Shakspeare's  'Winter's 
Tale'  for  the  British  Orchestral  Society,  which 
performed  it  Feb.  6,  1873.  In  the  same  year  he 
produced  his  oratorio  '  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,' 
which  may  be  regarded  as  his  most  important 
work.  In  the  following  year  he  received  a  com- 
mission to  compose  an  instrumental  work  for  the 
Liverpool  Festival,  when  he  chose  for  his  theme 
Scott's  'Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.'  This  was 
produced  on  Oct,  i,  1874.  Besides  the  works 
enumerated,  Mr.  Barnett  has  written  a  number 
of  pianoforte  and  vocal  compositions,  including  a 
*  Tantum  Ergo'  in  eight  parts.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BARON,  Ernst  Theophilus,  a  famous  lute 
player,  born  at  Breslau  Feb.  27,  1696.  His 
first  instruction  was  obtained  from  Kohatt,  a 
Bohemian,  in  1710,  next  in  the  Collegium 
Elizabethanum  at  Breslau  ;  and  he  afterwards 
studied  law  and  philosophy  at  Leipsic.  After 
residing  in  Halle,  Ccithen,  Zeitz,  Saalfeld,  and 
Rudolstadt,  he  appeared  in  Jena  in  1720, 
whence  he  made  an  artistic  tour  to  Cassel, 
Fulda,  Wiirzburg,  Nuremberg,  and  Regensburg, 
meeting  everywhere  with  brilliant  success.  In 
Nuremberg  he  made  some  stay,  and  there  pub- 
lished his  '  Historisch-theoretisch  und  practische 
Untersuchung  des  Instruments  der  Lauten ' 
(J.  F.  Riideger,  1727),  to  which  he  afterwards 
added  an  appendix  in  Marpurg's  '  Historisch- 
kritischen  Beitrage,'  etc.  In  1727  Meusel,  lute- 
nist  at  the  court  of  Gotha,  died,  and  Baron 
obtained  the  post,  which  however  he  quitted 
in  1732,  after  the  death  of  the  duke,  to  join 
the  court  band  at  Eisenach  ;  there  he  remained 
till  1737,  when  he  undertook  a  tour  by  Merse- 
burg  and  Cothen  to  Berlin,  and  was  engaged 
by  King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.  as  theorbist, 
though  he  possessed  no  theorbo,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  obtain  leave  to  procure  one  in  Dresden. 
Weiss,  the  great  theorbist,  was  at  that  time 
living  in  Dresden,  and  from  him,  Hofer,  Kropf- 
gans,  and  Belgratzky,  a  bom  Circassian,  Baron 
soon  learnt  the  instrument.  After  this  he  re- 
mained in  Berlin  till  his  death,  April  20,  1 760 ; 
and  published  there  a  great  number  of  short 
papers  on  his  instrument  and  music  in  general. 
Many  of  his  compositions  for  the  lute  were 
published  by  Breitkopfs.  [F.  G.] 

BARONESS,  THE,  an  artist  of  German  origin, 
as  is  supposed,  who  sang  in  the  operas  abroad 
and  in  London,  and  was  known  by  no  other 
name.  She  sang  the  part  of  Lavinia,  in  the 
opera  of  '  Camilla,'  by  Buononcini  (Drury  Lane, 


1 706),  and  that  of  EuriUa  in  '  Love's  Triumph,'  at 
the  Haymarket,  some  time  afterwards.  She  was 
a  perfect  mistress  of  the  grandest  method  of 
singing,  an  art  which  was  even  then  becoming 
rare,  and  she  shared  that  proud  pre-eminence 
with  but  a  few  such  singers,  as  Cornelio  Galli, 
Tosi,  and  Siface.  She  took  a  great  part,  with 
Sandoni,  in  the  teaching  and  cultivation  of 
Anastasia  Robinson,  so  far  as  that  singer  would 
submit  to  receive  any  instruction  at  all ;  being 
herself,  at  the  same  time,  engaged  at  the  Opera, 
and  'greatly  caressed,'  as  Hawkins  informs  us. 
Her  name  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of 
Hortensia,  the  mistress  of  Stradella,  as  was  done 
by  Humfrey  Wanley,  the  compUer  of  the  Har- 
leian  Catalogue,  relying  on  the  information  of 
his  friend  Berenclow  ;  for  that  unfortunate  lady 
was,  according  to  the  best  accounts,  assassinated 
at  the  same  time  with  her  lover.  [J.  M.] 

BARRE,  Antonio,  was  of  French  extraction, 
but  the  place  and  date  of  his  birth  are  unknown. 
We  find  him  as  a  composer  of  established  repute 
at  Rome  in  1550,  In  1555  he  started  in  that 
capital  a  printing-press,  which  he  afterwards 
removed  to  Milan,  and  from  which  he  published 
a  series  of  six  volumes  containing  pieces  by 
himself  and  other  writers.  The  titles  of  these 
are  as  follows: — (i)  'Primo  Libro  delle  Muse 
a  5  voci,  Madrigali  di  diversi  Autori.'  (2) 
'Primo  Libro  delle  Muse  a  4  voci,  Madrigali 
ariosi  di  Antonio  Barre  ed  altri  diversi  autori.' 
Both  of  these  volumes  were  dated  1555,  and 
were  dedicated,  the  first  to  Onofrio  Virgili,  the 
second  to  the  Princess  Felice  Orsini.  (3)  'Se- 
condo  Libro  delle  Muse  a  quattro  voci,  Madrigali 
ariosi  di  diversi  excellentissimi  Autori,  con  due 
Canzoni  di  Gianetto,  di  nuovo  raccolti  e  dati  in 
luce.  In  Roma  appresso  Antonio  Barre  1558.' 
(4)  'Madrigali  a  quattro  voci  di  Francesco 
Menta  novamente  da  lui  composti  e  dati  in  luce  ; 
in  Roma  per  Antonio  Barre  1560.'  (5)  'II 
Primo  Libro  di  Madrigali  a  quattro  voci  di 
Ollivier  Brassart.  In  Roma  per  Antonio  Barre 
1 564.'  Of  this  last  only  the  alto  part  is  known 
to  exist,  having  been  actually  seen  by  Fdtis. 
(6)  'Liber  Primus  Musarum  cum  quatuor  voci- 
bus,  seu  sacrae  cantiones  quas  vulgo  Mottetta 
appellant.  Milan,  Antonio  Barre,  1588.'  Out 
of  these  six  volumes  even  the  learned  and 
indefatigable  Baini  had  only  thoroughly  satisfied 
himself  as  to  the  existence  of  the  two  first.  The 
last  is  said  to  contain  no  less  than  twenty- nine 
pieces  by  Palestrina,  besides  specimens  of  the 
work  of  Orlando  Lasso,  Rore,  Animuccia,  and 
other  rare  masters.  [E.  H.  P.] 

BARRE,  Leonard,  a  native  of  Limoges,  and 
pupil  of  Willaert,  a  singer  in  the  Papal  Chapel 
in  1537,  and  thus  contemporary  with  Arcadelt. 
He  was  one  of  the  musicians  sent  by  the  Pope 
to  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1545  to  give  advice 
on  church  music.  His  claims  as  a  composer  rest 
on  some  motets  and  madrigals  published  in  a 
collection  at  Venice  in  1 544,  and  on  many  MS, 
compositions  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
Papal  Chapel.  [J.  R.  S.  B,] 


BAEREL  OEGAN. 


BARREL  ORGAN. 


143 


BARREL  ORGAN.  A  musical  instrument, 
of  all  others  the  most  easy  of  manipulation,  as 
it  requires  nothing  beyond  the  regular  rotary 
motion  of  a  handle  to  keep  it  playing.  In  some 
examples  even  this  power  is  applied  mechani- 
cally, either  by  means  of  clock-work,  or  by 
weights.  These  instruments  are  of  the  most 
various  capacities,  from  the  simple  street  organ 
—  the  'barrel  organ'  of  ordinary  parlance — to 
large  and  complicated  machines  representing  the 
full  orchestra.  But  the  principle  of  action  is  the 
same  in  all.  A  wooden  cylinder,  or  harrel,  placed 
horizontally,  and  armed  on  its  outside  circum- 
ference with  brass  staples  or  pins,  slowly  re- 
volves, in  the  direction  from  back  to  front ;  and 
in  doing  so  the  pins  raise  certain  trigger-shaped 
keys,  which  correspond  with  simple  mechanism 
communicating  with  valves  that  on  being  opened 
allow  wind  to  enter  the  required  pipes.  In  this 
way  either  melody  or  harmony  is  produced.  The 
wind  is  produced  by  bellows  which  are  worked 
by  the  same  motion  which  turns  the  barrel, 
llie  most  simple  kind  of  instrument  of  this  na- 
ture is  the  small  'bird  organ,'  used,  as  its  name 
implies,  for  teaching  bulfinches  to  pipe — which 
plays  the  simplest  music  in  melody  only. 

It  is  not  positively  known  when  barrel  organs 
were  first  made,  but  they  are  supposed  to  date 
from  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  centiu-y. 
An  organ-builder  of  the  name  of  Wright,  the 
great-grandfather  of  the  present  firm  of  Robson, 
made  a  barrel  organ  for  Eulham  Church,  which 
alone  would  carry  the  date  a  long  way  back  in 
the  last  century.  Mr.  Flight  of  Exeter  Change, 
the  grandfather  of  the  present  builder  of  that 
name,  was  also  a  celebrated  maker  of  barrel 
organs  in  his  day.  The  finest  and  most  elabo- 
rate specimen  of  a  'Finger  and  Barrel'  organ 
that  was  ever  made,  was  the  Apollonicox,  con- 
structed by  Flight  and  Robson  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
£10,000,  and  first  exhibited  by  them  about  the 
year  18 15.  This  has  been  already  described 
under  its  own  head.  The  firms  of  Flight  and 
Robson,  and  of  Bryceson,  father  of  the  present 
builder  of  that  name,  made  perhaps  the  greatest 
number  of  barrel  organs,  which  kind  of  instru- 
ment was  in  much  demand  some  fifty  years  ago, 
for  churches  and  chapels,  though  now  seldom 
met  with  there.  These  were  set  with  psabn  and 
hymn  tunes,  chants,  and  occasionally  with  volun- 
taries. 

A  church  barrel  organ  had  rarely  a  chromatic 
compass  of  notes,  but  usually  only  a  greater 
or  less  approximation  thereto.  Thus  it  would 
generally  have  either  8,  14,  17,  21,  27,  28,  or  31 
keys.  In  the  case  of  one  having  14  keys,  two 
diatonic  scales,  of  short  range,  would  be  pre- 
sented, namely  G  and  D,  into  which  aU  the  tunes 
'marked'  upon  the  barrel  would  be  transposed, 
and  a  few  pipes  at  somewhat  large  intervals 
apart  would  be  supplied  by  way  of  bass,  such  as 
D  and  G.  In  or^ans  with  more  keys,  the  G| 
would  be  inserted,  allowing  the  scale  of  A  to  be 
used.  In  organs  having  a  further  increased 
number  of  keys  the  Dff  would  be  introduced, 
permitting  the  scale  of  E  to  be  employed ;  and 


80  on.  Strange  to  say,  scales  with  flats  were 
never  planned  unless  specially  ordered  ;  nor  was 
there  much  provision  for  tunes  in  the  minor  mode 
in  organs  with  comparatively  but  few  '  keys.' 

Some  organs  are  made  having  the  complete 
compass  and  with  all  the  chromatic  semitones, 
and  are  'marked'  to  play  overtures,  movements 
of  symphonies,  selections  from  operas,  sets  of 
waltzes,  and  other  music  of  that  class  in  the 
most  beautiful  manner.  The  place  occupied  in 
the  making  of  these  instruments  by  the  late 
John  Robson  has  been  taken  by  Messrs.  Imhof 
and  Mukle  of  London,  who  supply  a  large  num- 
ber of  mechanical  organs  to  private  houses  in  the 
country  at  prices  ranging  from  £100  to  £1500. 
One  of  the  completest  of  these  instruments  con- 
tains 8  ordinary  stops,  ranging  through  a  com- 
plete chromatic  scale  of  5^  oc-  8t--ff«  :g: 
taves,  and  six  solo  stops ;  with  a  yf 
swell  of  three  stops  in  addition  I 
to  drums,  triangle,  cymbals,  and  5 
castanets — in  fact  a  representation  of  the  entire 
orchestra.  Three  machines  work  the  whole  of  this 
elaborate  apparatus.  The  barrels  can  be  changed 
very  rapidly,  and  as  each  barrel  takes  1 minutes 
to  complete  its  revolutions  there  are  few  move- 
ments of  the  great  symphonies  and  few  overtures 
which  cannot  be  performed,  and  in  fact  the  best 
machines  contain  barrels  for  such  movements  as 
well  as  for  the  operatic  selections  more  usually 
found  on  them.  The  mechanical  contrivances  in 
these  instruments  are  highly  ingenious,  the  music, 
as  already  remarked,  is  often  of  the  best,  and  the 
effect  in  a  suitable  space  and  under  proper  cir- 
cumstances is  very  pleasing.  Instruments  of  this 
character  are  occasionally  furnished  with  a  man- 
ual, and  are  then  known  as  '  Barrel  and  Finger 
Organs.' 

The  ordinary  street  organ  was  first  made  by  a 
builder  named  Hicks  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  At  present  the  smallest  kind  has  24 
keys,  sounding  the  following  notes  : — 


In  the  second  size  an  A  is  added  on  the  fifth 
line  of  the  bass  stave,  and  a  C  in  the  treble  ;  in 
the  third  size  an  F,  FJ,  G,  and  A  in  alt. ;  and 
in  the  fourth,  the  largest  of  all,  the  scale  is  con- 
tinued up  to  E,  and  Cjf  is  added  in  alt.  The 
efiect  even  of  simple  modulations  with  such  im- 
perfect means  will  be  easily  understood.  In  fact 
the  'setting'  the  barrels  of  a  street  organ — like 
the  hearing  them — must  be  a  constant  struggle 
with  difiiculties.  There  are  2  stops,  an  open 
(rarely  of  metal)  and  a  closed  (wood).  The  bar- 
rel is  set  to  play  9  or  10  tunes.  These  instru- 
ments weigh  from  40  to  56  lbs.,  and  cost  from 
£18  upwards.  The  pipes  and  all  other  parts  are 
made  at  the  factory  of  the  firm  already  mentioned, 
in  the  Black  Forest,  but  the  barrels  are  'set' — 
i.e.  the  pins  are  inserted — and  the  whole  put 
together  in  London.  Street  organs  are  chiefly 
used  in  England,  but  are  also  largely  exported  to 
South  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  other  places. 


144  BARREL  ORGAN. 

The  annexed  illustration  shows  a  cross  section 
of  an  ordinary  barrel  organ,  a  is  the  barrel, 
'  set '  round  its  circumference  with  '  pins,'  at  the 
various  intervals,  and  of  the  various  lengths, 
necessary  for  the  music,  and  turned  by  the  worm 
h  on  the  shaft  c;  dd  are  the  bellows  worked  by 
the  cranks  ee  on  the  shaft  and  the  connecting 
rods  //,  and  delivering  the  wind  into  an  air 
chamljer  q,  which  runs  to  the  further  end  of  the 
case,  and  is  kept  at  a  uniform  pressure  by  the 
spiral  springs  h  h.  The  air  vessel  again  delivers 
the  wind  into  the  wind-chest  m,  which  communi- 
cates with  the  pipes  n  n.  Each  pipe  has  its 
valve  0,  which  is  kept  closed  by  a  spring  until 
the  corresponding  pin  on  the  barrel  raises  the 
trigger  p,  and  forcing  down  the  connecting  Avire 
r,  opens  the  valve  and  admits  wind  to  the  pipe, 
ss  is  the  case.  Space  being  very  valuable  in 
these  instruments  the  pipes  are  packed  together 
very  closely,  and  are  often  bent  in  shape  to  fit 
the  demands  of  the  case.  In  the  diagram  one  is 
shown  lying  beneath  the  floor  of  the  bellows. 

The  barrel  is  made  of  staves,  about  2i  inches 
wide,  of  the  best  pine  wood  without  knots  or 
sap,  and  seasoned  for  many  years  before  being 
used.  At  each  end  of  the  barrel,  and  sometimes 
also  in  the  middle,  is  a  circular  piece  of  hard 
mahogany  called  a  barrel-Jiead,  to  which  the 
staves  are  glued  and  pegged.  The  barrel  is  then 
handed  to  the  turner,  who  makes  it  perfectly 
cylindrical,  and  it  is  then  covered  with  cartridge 
paper  and  sometimes  painted.  At  one  end  of 
the  barrel  the  '  head '  is  furnished  with  a  circle 
of  teeth  for  the  ivorm  connected  with  the  handle 
to  work  in  when  slowly  rotating  the  barrel. 
Projecting  from  this  *  head '  is  the  notch-pin. 
The  number  of  notches  in  the  pin  corresponds  to 
the  number  of  tunes  played  by  the  barrel.  A 
knife  lowered  into  the  notch  prevents  the  barrel 
from  shifting  its  position.  The  simplest  arrange- 
ment is  for  the  barrel  to  play  a  tune  completely 
through  in  the  course  of  a  single  revolution. 

The  keys  are  usually  7-8ths  of  an  inch  apart, 
and  the  intervening  space  upon  the  barrel  may  be 
filled  either  with  pins  for  producing  fresh  tunes 
to  the  number  of  nine  or  ten,  or  with  a  continua- 
tion of  the  original  piece  lasting  for  the  same 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  barrel.  In  the 
latter  case  the  'notches'  are  arranged  in  a  spiral 
so  as  to  allow  the  barrel  to  shift  horizontally  to 
left  or  right  at  the  end  of  each  revolution  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  hand. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to 
speak  of  the  players  of  the  street  organs,  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  there  are  some  four 
'masters'  in  London,  employing  from  30  to  50 
men  each,  to  wliom  the  organs  are  let  out  on 
hire.  The  number  of  organs  sold  for  use  in 
London  alone  by  the  house  already  named  is 
about  30  a  year,  but  the  export  trade  to  the 
West  Indies,  Brazil,  etc.,  is  also  considerable. 

Barrel  organs  have  been  made  with  three  and 
four  barrels  in  a  circular  revolving  iron  frame. 
The  first  of  the  kind,  containing  four  barrels, 
was  made  by  Mr.  Bishop,  sen.,  the  father  of  the 
present  organ-builder  of  that  name,  for  North- 


BARRTNGTON. 

allerton  church,  Yorkshire,  about  the  year  1820. 
Many  years  later  Messrs.  Gray  and  Davison 


6  IN 


made  grinder  organs  with  three  barrels  in  one 
frame.  [E.  J.  H.] 

BARRET,  Apollon  Marie-Rose,  a  remark- 
able oboe  player,  born  in  the  south  of  France 
in  1804,  pupil  of  Vogt  at  the  Conservatoire,  solo 
player  at  the  Odeon  and  Opdra  Comique,  and  at 
last  permanently  attached  to  the  Italian  Opera 
in  London  till  1874.  Barret  is  the  author  of  the 
'  Complete  Method  for  the  Oboe,  comprising  all 
the  new  fingerings,  new  tables  of  shakes,  scales, 
exercises,'  etc.  He  died  Mar.  8,  1879.    [F.  G.] 

BARRETT,  John,  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Blow,  was 
music  master  at  Christ's  Hospital  and  organist 
of  the  church  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill  about  1710. 
Many  songs  by  him  are  in  the  collections  of  the 
period,  particularly  in  D'Urfey's  *  Wit  and 
Mirth,  or.  Pills  to  purge  Melancholy,'  in  which 
is  '  lanthe  the  lovely,'  which  furnished  Gay  with 
the  tune  for  his  song  'When  he  holds  up  his 
hand'  in  'The  Beggar's  Opera.'  Barrett  com- 
posed overtures  and  act  tunes  for  'Love's  last 
shift,  or.  The  Fool  in  Fashion,'  1696,  'Tun- 
bridge  Walks,'  1703,  and  'Mary,  Queen  of 
Scot?,' 1703.  [W.H.H.] 

BARRINGTON,  Daines,  the  Hon.,  born  in 
London  1727,  died  there  1800,  Recorder  of 
Bristol  and  puisne  judge  in  Wales,  is  mentioned 
here  as  the  author  of  an  account  of  Mozart 
during  his  visit  to  London  in  1764,  at  eight 
years  of  age,  in  the  *  Philosophical  Transactions* 
for  1780  (vol.  xi.).  Barrington  also  published 
'Miscellanies'  (London,  1781),  in  which  the 
foregoing  account  is  repeated,  and  a  similar  ac- 
count is  given  of  the  early  powers  of  four  other 
children,  William  Crotch,  Charles  and  Samuel 
Wesley,  ^nd  Lord  Momington.  [M.  C.  C] 


BARNEY. 


BARTHOLOMEW.  145 


BARNBY,  Joseph,  bom  at  York  Aug.  12, 
1838,  a  chorister  in  York  Minster,  and  student 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  :  was  for  nine 
years  organist  of  St.  Andrew's,  Wells  Street, 
London,  and  contributed  much  to  the  excellence 
of  the  services  at  that  church.    Conductor  of 

*  Barnby's  Choir,'  of  the  '  Oratorio  Concerts,'  and 
of  the  Royal  Albert  Hall  Choral  Society ;  and 
appointed  to  the  important  post  of  succentor  and 
director  of  musical  instruction  at  Eton  College, 
1875.    Mr.  Barnby  has  published  an  oratorio, 

*  Rebekah,'  which  contains  some  charming  modem 
music,  and  many  other  compositions,  both  sacred 
and  secular.  He  edited  the  'Hymnary'  for 
Messrs.  Novello,  to  which  he  contributed  many 
tunes,  justly  admired  for  beauty  of  melody  and 
harmony.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BARSANTI,  Francesco,  bom  at  Lucca 
about  1690.  In  17 14  he  accompanied  Geminiani 
to  England,  which  country  henceforth  became 
his  own.  He  played  both  the  flute  and  oboe,  the 
latter  for  many  years  in  the  opera  band.  He 
held  a  lucrative  situation  in  Scotland,  and  while 
there  made  and  published  *  A  Collection  of  Old 
Scots'  Tunes,  with  the  Bass  for  Violoncello  or 
Harpsichord,'  etc.  (Edinburgh,  1 742).  After  his 
return  to  England  about  1750,  he  played  the 
viola  at  the  opera  in  winter  and  Vauxhall  in 
summer.  At  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  exertions  of  his  wife  and  his 
daughter,  a  singer  and  actress  of  considerable 
ability.  His  other  publications  include  '  Twelve 
concertos  for  violins/  and  Six  *  Antifone'  in  the 
style  of  Palestrina.  [M.  C.  C] 

BARTEI,  GiROLAMO,  general  of  the  Augustin 
order  of  monks  at  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  From  two  somewhat  obscure 
passages  in  Baini's  'Memorie'  we  gather  that  he 
published  at  Rome  in  161 8  some  masses  for  eight 
voices,  some  ricercari  for  two  voices,  and  two 
books  of  concerti  for  two  voices.  To  these  Fdtis 
adds  some  '  Responsoria'  for  four  equal  voices, 
printed  at  Venice  in  1607. 

BARTHEL,  Johann  Christian,  bora  at 
Plauen  1776,  a  musician  from  a  very  early 
age,  in  1789  played  at  the  house  of  Doles 
before  Mozart,  who  praised  him  highly,  and 
soon  after  entered  the  school  of  St.  Thomas 
at  Leipsic  as  a  pupil  of  J.  A.  Hiller.  At 
sixteen,  on  Killer's  recommendation,  he  was 
appointed  concert-conductor  to  the  court  of 
Schoneburg,  and  some  time  afterwards  occupied 
a  similar  post  at  Greitz.  In  1806,  on  the 
death  of  J.  G.  Krebs,  was  appointed  organist 
to  the  court  of  Altenburg,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death  iniS.u.  [M.  C.  C] 

BARTHELEMON,  FRAN901S  Hippolite, 
bom  at  Bourdeaux  July  27,  1741,  was  the  son 
of  a  French  government  officer  and  an  Irish 
lady.  He  commenced  life  as  an  officer  in  the 
Irish  brigade,  but  being  induced  by  the  Earl 
of  Kelly,  a  well-known  amateur  composer,  to 
change  his  profession  for  that  of  music,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  violinists 
of  his  time.    In  1765  he  came  to  England,  and 


was  engaged  as  leader  of  the  opera  band.  In 
1766  he  produced  at  the  King's  Theatre  a 
serious  opera  called  'Pelopida,'  and  in  the 
same  year  married  Miss  Mary  Young,  a  niece 
of  Mrs.  A  me  and  Mrs.  Lampe,  and  a  favourite 
singer.  In  1 768  Garrick  engaged  him  to  com- 
pose the  music  for  the  burletta  of  'Orpheus,' 
introduced  in  his  farce  *A  Peep  behind  the 
Curtain,'  the  great  success  of  which  led  to  his 
composing  the  music  for  other  pieces  brought 
out  at  the  same  theatre.  In  1768  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  produced  there  a  pastoral  opera  called 
*Le  fleuve  Scamandre.'  In  1770  Barthelemon 
became  leader  at  Vauxhall  Gardens.  In  1776 
he  left  England  with  his  wife  for  a  professional 
tour  through  Germany,  Italy,  and  France.  At 
Florence  Barthelemon,  at  the  request  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  set  to  music  the  Abate 
Semplici's  oratorio  'Jeffce  in  Masfa.'  He  re- 
turned to  England  late  in  1777.  An  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Rev.  Jacob  Duch^,  chap- 
lain to  the  Female  Orphan  Asylum,  led  to  his 
composing,  about  1780,  the  well-known  tune 
for  the  morning  hymn  'Awake,  my  soul.'  In 
1784  Barthelemon  and  his  wife  made  a  pro- 
fessional visit  to  Dublin.  In  1791-5  he  con- 
tracted an  intimacy  with  Haydn,  then  in  Lon- 
don. On  Sept.  20,  1799,  Mrs.  Barthelemon 
died.  Besides  the  compositions  above  named 
Barthelemon  wrote  the  music  for  the  following 
dramatic  pieces: — 'The  Enchanted  Girdle'; 
*  The  Judgment  of  Paris,'  1 768  ;  '  The  Election,' 
1774;  'The  Maid  of  the  Oaks,'  1774;  'Belphe- 
gor,'  1778;  and  several  quartets  for  stringed 
instruments,  concertos  and  duos  for  the  violin, 
lessons  for  the  pianoforte,  and  preludes  for  the 
organ.  As  a  player  he  was  distinguished  by 
the  firmness  of  his  hand,  the  purity  of  his  tone, 
and  his  admirable  manner  of  executing  an 
adagio.    He  died  July  20,  1808.       [W.  H.  H.] 

BARTHOLDY,  Jacob  Salomon,  of  a  Jewish 
family,  bom  at  Berlin  1779,  ^i®^  Rome 
1825,  a  Prussian  diplomatist,  and  author  of  an 
important  article  in  the  Berlin  '  Musikalischer 
Zeitung'  for  1805,  'Ueber  den  Volksgesang  der 
Sicilianer.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BARTHOLOMEW,  William,  bom  in  London 
1793;  died  Aug.  18,  1867.  A  man  of  many 
accomplishments — chemist,  violin-player,  and  ex- 
cellent flower-painter  ;  but  to  the  English  public 
familiar  as  the  translator  or  adapter  of  the  words  of 
most  of  Mendelssohn's  vocal  works.  The  English 
text  of  ■  St.  Paul '  was  adapted  by  Mr.  W.  Ball, 
but  'Antigone '  (for  which  he  received  the  gold 
medal  of  merit  from  the  King  of  Prussia), '  Atha- 
lie,'  'CEdipus,' 'LaudaSion,'  the'AValpurgisnight,' 
the  Finale  to  *  Loreley,'  '  Elijah,'  and  the  frag- 
ments of  'Christus,'  with  most  of  Mendelssohn's 
songs,  were  Mr.  Bartholomew's  work — not,  as 
any  one  familiar  with  Mendelssohn's  habits  will 
believe,  without  constant  suggestion  and  super- 
vision from  the  composer.  •  Hear  my  Prayer' 
was  composed  at  Mr.  Bartholomew's  request 
for  the  concerts  of  Miss  Mounsey,  a  lady  whom 
he  married  in  1853.    Besides  the  above,  Mr. 


146  BAETHOLOMEW» 


BARYTON. 


Bartholomew  wrote  English  words  for  M^hul's 
'Joseph'  (by  command  of  the  Queen);  Spohr's 
'Jessonda';  Costa's  'Eli,'  'Naaman,'  and  'The 
Dream';  and  Mrs.  Bartholomew's  'The  Nati- 
vity,' etc.  For  the  last  few  years  of  his  life  he 
was  confined  to  his  room  by  paralysis  of  the  lower 
limbs.  [G.] 

BARTLEMAN,  James,  was  bom  Sept.  19, 
1769,  probably  at  Westminster,  and  educated 
under  Dr.  Cooke  in  the  choristers'  school  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  He  soon  showed  voice 
and  capacity  far  beyond  his  fellow  pupils,  and 
became  a  great  favourite  with  his  master.  His 
voice  while  it  remained  a  soprano  was  remark- 
able for  strength  and  fine  quality  of  tone.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  a  boy-singer  by  his 
refined  and  expressive  rendering  of  Dr.  Greene's 
solo  anthem,  'Acquaint  thyself  with  God.'  He 
was  greatly  patronised  by  Sir  John  Hawkins,  in 
whose  family  he  was  a  frequent  visitor  (see  Miss 
Hawkins's  'Anecdotes').  In  1788  his  name 
appears  for  the  first  time  as  a  bass  chorister, 
at  the  Concerts  of  Ancient  Music,  where  he 
remained  till  1791,  when  he  quitted  it  to 
assume  the  post  of  first  solo  bass  at  the  newly 
established  Vocal  Concerts.  In  1 795  he  returned 
to  the  Ancient  Concerts,  and  immedia^tely  took 
the  station  which,  till  compelled  by  ill  health, 
he  never  quitted,  of  principal  bass  singer  in  the 
first  concert  of  the  metropolis.  Before  Bartle- 
man's  time  only  one  bass  solo  of  Purcell's  had 
been  heard  at  these  concerts — that  of  the  Cold 
Genius  in  the  '  Frost  Scene '  of  '  King  Arthur.' 
It  is  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  making  us  ac- 
quainted with  those  magnificent  monuments  of 
the  giant  of  English  composers,  '  Let  the  dreadful 
Engines,'  *  Thy  Genius,  lo  ! '  '  Ye  twice  ten 
hundred  Deities,'  '  Hark,  my  Daridcar.'  In  the 
short  course  of  one  season  he  revived  them  all,  and 
continued  to  sing  them  with  unabated  applause 
until  he  sang  no  more.  Bartleman's  execution 
was  that  of  his  time  and  school,  and  confined 
chiefly  to  written  divisions ;  his  own  ornaments 
were  few,  simple,  and  chaste,  and  always  in  strict 
keeping  with  the  feeling  of  the  air  in  which  they 
were  introduced.  The  latter  years  of  his  life 
were  embittered  by  disease  which  he  vainly 
struggled  against.  He  died  April  15,  1821,  and 
was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster.  His 
epitaph  is  by  Dean  Ireland.  He  formed  a  large 
and  valuable  musical  library,  which  was  sold  by 
auction  by  White  of  Storey's  Gate,  shortly  after 
his  death.  (Harmonicon,  1830;  Books  of  Ancient 
Concerts;  Private  Sources.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BARTLETT,  John,  an  English  musician  of 
the  early  part  of  the  17th  century.  He  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  '  A  Book  of  Ayres,  with  a 
Triplicitie  of  Musicke,  whereof  the  First  Part  is 
for  the  Lute  or  Orpharion,  and  Viole  de  Gamba, 
and  4  Parts  to  Sing :  the  Second  Part  is  for 
2  Trebles,  to  sing  to  the  Lute  and  Viole :  The 
Third  Part  is  for  the  Lute  and  one  Voyce, 
and  the  Viole  di  Gamba,'  1606.  It  is  dedicated 
to  the  '  Right  Honourable  his  singular  good  Lord 
and  Maister,  Sir  Edward  Seymore.'  Bartlett 


took  his  degree  as  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford  In 
1 610.  (Wood,  Athena  Oxon.;  Rimbault,  Bib. 
Mad.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BARTOLINI,  ViNCENZio,  a  very  good  second 
soprano,  appeared  in  London,  1782,  in  *I1 
Convito,'  a  comic  opera  by  Bertoni.  In  the 
next  season  he  took  part  in  '  L' Olimpiade,'  a 
pasticcio ;  and  in  1 784  he  sang  in  Anfossi's 
'Issipile'  and  'Due  Gemelle,'  and  the  'Demo- 
foonte'  of  Bertoni.  He  sang  also  in  the  Com- 
memoration of  Handel  in  Westminster  Abbey 
that  year,  and  in  1 786  we  find  him  still  in  Lon- 
don, performing  in  Tarchi's  'Virginia.'  He  was 
singing  with  success  at  Cassel  in  1 792.  [J.  M.] 
BARYTON,  also  Viola  di  Bardone  or 
BoEDONE.  Bordone  is  the  Italian  for  '  drone,'  and 
Leopold  Mozart, 
in  his  '  Violin- 
School,'  contends 
that  the  tone  of 
this  instrument, 
owing  probably  to 
the  vibration  of 
the  sympathetic 
metal-strings,  was 
suggestive  of  the 
hum  of  the  bee. 

The  Baryton,  a 
stringed  instru- 
ment not  unlike 
the  viola  da  gam- 
ba, played  with  a 
bow,  was  in  use  up 
to  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century,  but 
owing  probably  to 
its  complicated 
mechanism  and  to 
the  weakness  of 
its  tone,  which 
rendered  it  unfit 
for  use  in  orches- 
tral playing,  is 
now  entirely  ob- 
solete. Its  neck 
was  very  broad, 
hollowed  out,  and 
open  at  the  back. 
It  was  usually 
mounted  with 
six  or  seven  catgut 
strings,  stretched 
over  the  finger- 
board, and  played 
on  with  the  bow  ; 
while  the  metal 
strings,  varying 
in  number  from  nine  to  twenty-four,  and  running 
underneath  the  fin^^erboard,  were  pinched  with 
the  thumb  of  the  left  hand,  and  acted  at  the 
same  time  as  sympathetic  strings.  The  catgut 
strings  were  tuned  as  follows  : — 


BAHYTON. 


BASS. 


147 


Leopold  Mozart  considered  it  one  of  the  loveliest 
of  instruments ;  and  when  we  hear  that  Haydn 
for  a  considerable  time  tried  hard  to  learn  to 
play  it,  we  must  regret  its  being  now  so  entirely 
neglected. 

C.  F.  Pohl,  in  his  Biography  of  Haydn  (Berlin, 
iS75\  gives  us  the  following  notices  concerning 
the  barvton- 

1.  Makers  :—M.  Feldlen  (1656),  H.  Kramer 
(1714),  D.  A.  Stadlmann  (1732X.  J.  Stadlmann 
(1750),  all  of  Vienna  ;  Joachim  Tielke  at  Ham- 
burg (16S6),  maker  of  the  fine  specimen  in  the 
S.  Kensington  Museum,  from  which  our  cut  is 
taken ;  and  Andreas  Stainer,  of  Absom  in  the 
Tyrol  (1660). 

2.  Performers: — M.  A.  Berti,  Vienna  (17 21- 
1740);  Signor  Farrant,  London  (1744);  Abell, 
London  (1759-S7).  Anton  Kraft,  Karl  Franz 
and  Andreas  Lidl,  members  of  Prince  Este^haz^■'s 
private  band  under  Haydn  '^Lidl  played  in  con- 
certs in  England  in  1776);  Friedel,  member  of 
the  royal  band  at  Berlin  at  the  end  of  the  last 
and  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Faimer 
(17941  and  V.  Hauschka  (1795-1S23)  are  named 
as  accomplished  amateur-performers. 

3.  Composers  : — Xiemecz,  L.  Tomasini  and  A. 
Kraft  of  Esterhaz,  "Wenzl  Pichl,  Ferd.  Paer, 
Weigl  and  Eybler,.  all  of  Vienna  :  and  last,  but 

:  least,  Haydn.  Pohl  enumerates  no  less  than 
;  5  compositions  of  Haydn's  for  the  instrument ; 
-z.  6  Duets  for  two  barytons,  12  Sonatas  for 

rvton  and  violoncello,  1 2  Bivertimenti  for  two 
-rytons  and  bass,  125  Divertimenti  for  baryton, 

la  and  violoncello  ;  1 7  so-called  Cassations ;  3 

ncertos  for  baryton  with  accompaniment  of 
;wo  violins  and  bass.  [P.  D.] 

BAEYTOX  iltaL  Ban/ton;  Fr.  Basse -TailU, 
■ant"^.  The  male  voice  intermediate  to 
j=  and  the  tenor.    The  compound  Bapvcr- 

■  os  signifies  *of  heavy  timbre,' — in  this  in- 

mce,  in  relation  to  the  tenor.  It  is  therefore  a 
-^snomer ;  for,  however  close  their  approximation 
in  compass,  the  quality  of  what  is  now  understood 
V  V  the  baryton  voice  unmistakeably  marks  it  as 

high  bass,  not  a  low  tenor.  The  recognition 
:  this  important  fact  is  manifest  in  the  works 
:  the  majority  of  modem  composers.  One  in- 
:jjice  out  of  many  will  suflBce.  The  princif  al 
part  in  Mendelssohn's  oratorio  'Elijah'  rani'es 
from  the  C  in  the  bass  stave  to  the  F  above  it, 
very  rarely  descending  below  the  former  note. 
Sung,  as  it  might  be  with  perfect — or  too  much — 
ease,  by  a  low  tenor,  it  would  obviously  lose  all 
ite  dignity  and  breadth.  Since  the  production  of 
Mozart's  'Nozze  di  Figaro'  and  'Don  Giovanni' 
the  baryton  voice  has  found  much  favour  with 
composers,  and  been  cultivated  with  impre- 
cedented  success.  Innumerable  principal  parts 
have  been  written  for  it ;  and  not  to  speak  of 
artists  of  this  class  still  before  the  public,  the 
names  of  Bartleman  in  England,  of  Ambrogetti 
in  Italy,  and  of  Martin  in  France,  are  historical. 
[Bass:.  [J.  H.] 

BASE VI,  Abramo,  a  learned  Florentine  mu- 
cian,  founder  and  proprietor  of  the  musical 


j  periodical  'Armenia'  and  of  its  continuation 
*  Boccherini,'  and  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
j  Societa  del  Quartetto,'  which  has  done  much  to 
;  introduce  German  music  into  Italy.    Basevi  is 
I  the  composer  of  two  operas,  '  Eomilda  ed  Ezze- 
I  Hno,'  produced  at  the  Teatro  Alfieri  in  March 
1840,  and  'Enrico  Odoardo'  at  the  Pergola  in 
j  1847 ;  the  author  of  theoretical  works  on  music, 
of  a  treatise  'Sulla  divinazione,'  and  a  'Studio 
'  delle  opere  di  G.  Verdi,  1S59.'  [F.  G.] 

BASELI,  or  BASILY,  Dome>-ico  A>-drea, 
chapel-master  at  Loreto  in  the  middle  of  last 
century.  He  died  in  1775.  Santini's  collection 
contained  works  by  him ;  and  a  set  of  twenty- 
foxir  studies  of  his  for  the  clavier,  entitled 
'Musica  universale,'  etc  was  printed  by  Aless- 
andri  of  Venice,  and  is  not  without  merit.  His 
son  FBA^'CESCO  was  bom  in  1 766,  and  on  the 
death  of  his  father  the  boy  was  sent  to  Rome 
and  became  a  scholar  of  JA^"^■ACO^^.  While 
still  young  he  was  made  chapel  -  master  at 
Foligno.  His  first  appearance  in  opera  was 
at  Milan,  in  'La  bella  incognita,'  when  he 
was  twenty- two.  For  Home  he  wrote  '  La 
Locandiera'  (17S9);  for  Florence  'Achille  nell' 
assedio  di  Troja'  (179S)  and  the  '  Ritorao 
d'TTlysse'  (1799  ,  and  for  Venice  'Antigono.' 
Later  he  became  chapel-master  at  Macerata, 
and  wrote  a  large  number  of  comic  operas  for 
Venice,  not  all  equally  successful.  He  then 
made  a  rich  marriage,  which  enabled  liim  to 
give  up  work,  but  the  marriage  turned  out 
unhappy,  and  after  a  separation,  in  1S16,  he 
returned  to  his  former  post  at  Loreto.  For 
the  San  Carlo  at  Naples  Basili  composed  an 
oratorio,  '  Sansone,'  in  which  La'blache  sang  the 
chief  part.  A  requiem  which  he  had  written 
for  Jannaconi  was  penonned  on  March  23, 1816, 
at  the  Apastlfcs'  Church  in  Rome.  In  1827  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Conservatorio  at 
Milan,  where  it  was  his  fortune  to  refuse 
a<imission  to  Verdi.  In  August  1S37  he  was 
called  to  Rome  to  take  the  place  of  chapel- 
master  at  St.  Peter's,  vacant  by  the  death  of 
Flora vanti,  and  remained  there  till  his  own  death 
on  March  25,  1S50.  While  at  Rome  he  was 
made  very  unhappy  by  his  inability  with  the 
means  at  his  disposal  to  perform  the  great 
masterpieces  of  old  Italian  church  music.  If 
supported  in  his  wish  a  great  revival  might 
have  been  accomplished,  but  with  Basili  the 
last  hope  of  a  resurrection  of  ItaUan  churc'n 
music  has  perished,  a  doom  which  neither  Ros- 
sini nor  Verdi — whose  style  the  rigid  Basili 
Wi  -uld  hardly  have  approved — have  done  much  to 
avert.  In  a'dd;tion  to  many  operas,  besides  those 
already  named,  and  much  church  music,  Basili 
composed  symphonies  in  the  style  of  Haydn,  one 
of  which  used  often  to  be  played  at  Brussels 
under  Fetis'  conducting,  and  always  with  great 
applause,  ^F.  G.] 

I     BASS.    (Ger.  Bas^ ;  Fr.  Basse ;  Ital.  Basso.) 

The  lower  or  grave  part  of  the  musical  system 
i  as  contradistinguished  from  the  treble,  which  is 
I  the  high  or  acute  part.    The  Limits  of  the  two 
L  2 


148  BASS. 

are  generally  rather  vague,  but  middle  C  is  the 
practical  di\'ision  between  them.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  spell  the  word  '  base ' ;  but  this 
proceeds  from  a  mistake.  'Bass'  derives  its 
form  from  the  French  or  Italian,  though  ulti- 
mately from  the  Greek  ^dais  in  its  sense  of 
foundation  or  support,  the  bass  being  that  which 
supports  the  harmony.  In  former  times  this 
was  much  more  obvious  than  it  is  now,  when 
a  single  bass  line  represented  a  whole  piece,  and 
an  accompanyist  was  satisfied  with  the  addition 
of  figures,  from  which  he  deciphered  the  rest  of 
the  harmony  without  having  it  written  out  in 
fidl.  The  importance  of  melody,  which  is  a 
development  of  more  modem  styles,  has  some- 
what obliterated  this  impression,  and  music 
seems  to  most  people  now -a -days  to  depend 
more  upon  the  upper  part  than  to  rest  upon  the 
lower.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BASS  is  also  the  lowest  or  deepest  of  male 
voices. 

By  the  old  masters  those  notes  of  the  bass  voice 
only  were  employed  which  could  be  placed  on  the 
bass  stave,  eleven  in  number.  By  the  moderns 
this  compass  has  been  largely  extended,  chiefly 
upwards.  For  whereas  even  the  employment  of 
the  lower  E  is  now  exceptional,  and  that  of  the 
D  below  it  most  rare,  its  double  octave,  and 
even  the  F  and  FS  above  it,  are  not  unfre- 
quently  called  into  requisition,  even  in  choral 
music.  Examples  dating  even  as  far  back  as  the 
end  of  the  1 7th  century  point  to  the  existence  of 
bass  voices  of  extraordinary  extent.  The  Ser- 
vices (intended  for  choral  performance)  of  Blow 
and  his  contemporaries  abound  in  deep  notes; 
and  in  a  solo  Anthem,  *  They  that  go  down  to  the 
sea  in  ships,'  composed  no  doubt  for  an  excep- 
tional performer,  Mr.  Gostling,  of  His  Majesty's 
Chapel  Koyal,  as  well  as  for  a  special  oc- 
casion— the  escape  of  King  Charles  II  and  the 
Duke  of  York  from  shipwreck  —  PurceU  has 
employed  repeatedly  both  the  lower  D  and  the 
E  two  octaves  and  a  tone  above  it.  Handel 
however  has  employed  a  still  more  extended 
compass.  In  a  song  for  Polifemo,  '  Xel  Africano 
selve,'  from  his  early  Acis  and  Galatea,  is  the 
following  passage,  quoted  by  Chrysander  (Handel, 
i.  244) 


A  contemporary  singer,  BoscHi,  might  by  all  ac- 
counts have  sung  these  passages — the  groups  of 
high  notes  in  the  third  or  falsetto  register. 

No  theory  resting  on  difference  of  pitch  will 
account  for  such  passages.  If  the  church-pitch 
of  the  T7th  century  was  lower  than  that  of  our 
own  time,  the  lower  notes  employed  in  them  be- 
come still  more  astonishing  to  us  than  they  are 
already ;  if  (as  is  probable  if  not  certain)  that 
pitch  was  higher  than  our  own,  the  higher  notes 
will  stand  in  the  same  predicament.  The  un- 
questionably greater  compass  of  the  basses,  and 


BASS. 

even  tenors,  of  former  times,  is  however  ex- 
plained by  the  fact,  that  judicious  training, 
while  it  increases  the  intensity  and  flexibility, 
and  improves  the  quality  and  equality  of  a 
voice,  diminishes  its  compass.  Voices  of  exten- 
sive range  are  rarely  homogeneous;  and  their  timbre 
or  quality  is  generally  found  to  be  in  inverse 
ratio  to  their  extent.  More  than  one  passage 
in  Milton,  beyond  doubt  a  competent  judge,  in- 
dicates the  existence,  at  any  rate  in  Italy,  of 
considerable  vocal  skill  even  in  the  r  7th  century ; 
and  if  half  that  has  come  down  to  us  respecting 
the  accomplishments  of  Balthazar  FzKRi  be  true, 
one  singer  at  least  flourished  in  the  first  half  of 
that  century  of  extraordinary  skill.  But  prior  to 
the  end  of  it,  when  the  first  Italian  schools  were 
opened  at  Bologna  under  Pistocchi,  singing,  in 
the  full  sense  of  the  word,  was  an  art,  skill  in 
which  was  confined  to  a  small  number  of  per- 
sons, and  instruction  in  which  had  not  extended 
beyond  the  land  of  its  origin.  It  is  not  extraor- 
dinary therefore  that  in  the  North  of  Europe 
very  extensive — in  other  words,  untrained — voices 
existed  in  the  17th  century  in  greater  number 
than  now. 

The  intensity  or  power  of  the  bass  voice  is  due  to 
the  same  causes  as  that  of  the  tenor,  the  contralto, 
the  soprano,  or  indeed  of  any  other  wind-instru- 
ment— the  capacity  and  free  action  of  the  ap- 
paratus by  which  it  collects  and  ejects  air — in 
the  human  body,  the  lungs.  Its  'volume'  de- 
pends on  the  capacity  of  the  pharynx,  the  cavity 
at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  between  the  root  of 
the  tongue  and  the  veil  of  the  palate,  the  part 
of  the  vocal  mechanism  most  easily  open  to 
inspection.  As  with  all  well-endowed  vocalists, 
the  jaw  of  the  bass  is  generally  wide,  the 
tongue  large,  the  teeth  small,  and  the  mouth 
capable  of  easy  expansion.  The  bass  singer  is 
generally  above,  as  the  tenor  is  generally  below, 
the  middle  height. 

The  bass  voice  is  of  three  kinds ;  the  Basso 
profondo,  the  Basso  cantante,  and  the  Baryton. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  altogether  ex- 
ceptional Contra-Basso,  standing  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  Basso  profondo  as  the  instrument 
so  called  does  to  the  violoncello.  This  voice, 
found,  or  at  least  cultivated  only  in  Russia,  is  by 
special  training  made  to  descend  with  facility  to 

C  below  the  bass  stave,         "~: ,  and  even  two. 


three,  and  four  notes  lower. 

The  Basso  yrofondo  and  the  Basso  cantante  are 
distinguished  rather  by  their  quality  than  their 
compass  ;  that  of  both  extending  occasionally 
from  the  E  flat  below  the  bass  stave  to  the  F 
above  it.  This  possible  compass  is  frequently  in- 
creased by  a  third  register,  or  falsetto,  of  a  quality 
wholly  distinct  from  that  of  the  first  or  second. 
The  English  male  counter-tenor  is  in  general 
a  bass  whose  second  and  third  registers  have 
been  cultivated  exclusively,  always  to  the  de- 
terioration, sometimes  to  the  destruction,  of  the 
first. 

The  employment  of  basses  and  barytons  in 


BASS. 


BASS  CLARINET.  149 


principal  characters  on  the  operatic  stage,  though 
frequent  only  since  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century,  dates  from  a  much  earlier  epoch.  In- 
stances of  it  may  be  found  in  the  operas  of 
Lully  and  his  imitators,  native  and  foreign.  Its 
subsequently  increased  frequency  may  still  be 
attributed  to  the  French,  with  whom  drauiatic 
propriety,  in  opera,  has  always  taken  precedence 
of  musical  effect.  Gluck  and  his  contemporary 
Piccinni,  whose  laurels  were  chiefly  gathered  on 
the  French  stage,  both  employ  this  class  of  voice 
largely ;  but  it  first  assumed  its  still  greater  im- 
portance in  the  operas  of  Mozart,  who  would  seem 
to  have  been  the  first  composer  to  recognise  the 
fact  that  the  baryton  or  higher  bass  is  the  average 
and  therefore  typical,  voice  of  man.  To  the  pro- 
minence given  both  to  the  bass  and  the  baryton 
voice  in  his  later  operas  he  was  doubtless  urged 
by  a  variety  of  causes,  not  the  least  being  a 
paucity  of  competent  tenors  in  the  companies 
for  which  he  had  to  write.  To  this  however 
must  be  added  the  decline,  in  number,  excel- 
lence, and  popularity,  of  the  class  of  vocalists 
of  which  Farinelli  may  be  regarded  as  the 
type  ;  and  (closely  connected  with  this)  to  an 
increased  craving  for  dramatic  effect,  only  at- 
tainable by  the  employment  of  basses  and  bary- 
tons,  among  whom  as  a  rule — liable  however  to 
splendid  exceptions — singing  actors  have  always 
been  found  in  the  gTeatest  excellence  and  num- 
ber. This  change  in  the  once  established  order 
of  things  has  not  been  brought  about  without 
protest.  A  distinguished  amateur,  the  Earl  of 
Mount- Edgecumbe,  whose  'Musical  Reminis- 
cences' embody  an  account  of  the  Italian  Opera 
in  England  from  1773  to  1834,  says,  in  reference 
to  it : — '  The  generality  of  voices  are  (now) 
basses,  which,  for  want  of  better,  are  thrust  up 
into  serious  operas  where  they  used  only  to 
occupy  the  last  place,  to  the  manifest  injury  of 
melody,  and  total  subversion  of  harmony,  in 
which  the  lowest  part  is  their  peculiar  province. 
These  new  singers  are  called  by  the  novel  appella- 
tion of  basso  cantante  (which  by-the-bye  is  a  kind 
of  apology,  and  an  acknowledgment  that  they 
ought  not  to  sing),  and  take  the  lead  in  operas 
with  as  much  propriety  as  if  the  double-bass 
were  to  do  so  in  the  orchestra,  and  play  the  part 
of  the  first  fiddle,  A  bass  voice  is  too  unbend- 
ing and  deficient  in  sweetness  for  single  songs, 
and  fit  only  for  those  of  inferior  character,  or 
of  the  buffo  style.  In  duettos  it  does  not  coalesce 
so  well  with  a  female  voice,  on  account  of  the 
too  great  distance  between  them,  and  in  fuller 
pieces  the  earc  cannot  be  satisfied  without  some 
good  intermediate  voices  to  fill  up  the  interval, 
and  complete  the  harmony.'  And  he  adds  in  a 
note,  '  It  has  always  surprised  me  that  the  prin- 
I    cipal  characters  in  two  of  Mozart's  operas  should 

I  have  been  written  for  basses,  namely,  Count 
Almaviva  and  Don  Giovanni,  both  of  which 
seem  particularly  to  want    the  more  lively 

i     tones  of  a  tenor ;  and  I  can  account  for  it  in  no 

II  other  wise  than  by  supposing  they  were  written 
.    for  some  particular  singer  who  had  a  bass  voice, 

for  he  has  done  so  in  no  other  instance.'  In 


making  this  last  assertion  the  venerable  writer 
forgot  or  ignored  Mozart's  *Cosi  fan  tutte,' 
'Die  Zauberflote,'  and  'Die  Entfiihrung  aus 
dem  Serail,'  in  all  of  which  basses  are  employed 
for  principal  characters.  His  argument,  how- 
ever, though  ingenious,  is  based  on  an  assump- 
tion unjustified  and  unjustifiable  by  either 
theory  or  practice  —  that  melody  inevitably 
occupies,  or  is  only  effective  in,  an  upper  part. 
The  example  of  Mozart,  which  he  so  severely 
denounces,  has  been  followed  largely  by  Ros- 
sini and  all  the  operatic  composers  of  later 
times.  In  the  majority  of  their  operas  hassi 
cantanti  appear  in  large  numbers,  without  any 
'kind  of  apology,'  and  persons  who  'ought 
not  to  sing'  do  so,  greatly  to  the  enhancement 
of  dramatic  effect  and  the  pleasure  of  their 
hearers.    [Baryton.]  [J.  H.] 

BASS-BAR,  an  oblong  piece  of  wood,  fixed 
lengthwise  inside  the  belly  of  the  various  instru- 
ments belonging  to  the  violin-tribe,  running  in 
the  same  direction  with  the  strings,  below  the 
G  string,  and  acting  as  a  beam  or  girder  to 
strengthen  the  belly  against  the  pressure  of  the 
left  foot  of  the  bridge,  as  the  sound-post  does 
against  that  of  the  right  foot.  It  is  the  only 
essential  part  of  the  instrument  which,  owing  to 
the  gradual  elevation  of  the  pitch,  has  had  to 
undergo  an  alteration  since  Stradivari's  time. 
Tartini  states,  in  the  year  1734,  that  the  tension 
of  the  strings  on  a  violin  was  equal  to  a  weight 
of  63  lbs.,  while  now-a-days  it  is  calculated  at 
more  than  80  lbs.  This  enormous  increase  of 
pressure  requires  for  the  belly  a  proportionate 
addition  of  bearing-power,  and  this  could  only 
be  given  by  strengthening  the  bass-bar,  which 
has  been  done  by  giving  it  a  slight  additional 
depth  at  the  centre,  and  adding  considerably 
to  its  length.  In  consequence  of  this  we  hardly 
ever  find  in  an  old  instrument  the  original  bass- 
bar  of  the  maker,  just  as  rarely  as  the  original 
sound-post  or  bridge,  all  of  which,  however, 
can  be  made  as  well  by  any  experienced  living 
violin-maker  as  by  the  original  Stradivari  or 
Amati.  [P.  D.] 

BASS  CLARINET,  an  instrument  of  the 
same  construction  as  the  ordinary  clarinet,  but 
speaking  an  octave  lower.  The  one  most  gen- 
erally used  is  that  in  Bb,  but  Wagner  writes  for 
one  in  A,  and  a  third  in  C  has  been  employed. 
They  are  all  slow -speaking  hollow -toned  in- 
struments, rather  wanting  in  power.  The  clarinet 
quality  is  less  marked  than  in  the  acuter  forms 
of  the  instrument,  insomuch  that  they  more  re- 
semble an  organ  pipe  of  bourdon  tone.  Meyer- 
beer, from  his  friendship  wuth  Sax,  who  paid 
particular  attention  to  this  instrument,  has  in- 
troduced it  in  his  operas  and  other  works.  In 
the  fifth  act  of  '  The  Huguenots '  there  is  a  fine 
declamatory  passage  for  it  in  Bb,  exhibiting  its 
extreme  lower  compass  : — 

Solo.    ^ — 


150 


BASS  CLARINET. 


:  = 

-  — 

In  the  Coronation  March  of  the  'Prophete'  it 
takes  the  melody,  and  in  Auber's  Exhibition 
March  two  such  instruments  are  employed.  It  is 
written  in  the  treble  or  tenor  clef,  the  latter  being 
better,  as  assimilating  its  part  to  that  for  the 
bassoon.  Although  occasionally  of  value  for  pro- 
ducing exceptional  effects,  it  does  not  present  any 
great  advantages  for  orchestral  use.  [W.H.S.] 

BASS  CLEF.  The  well-known  mark  of  the 
bass  —  is  a  modification  of  the  letter  F,  which 
clef,  has  in  the  course  of  centuries  arrived 

at  its  present  shape,  in  the  same  way  that  the 
G  and  C  have  altered  their  forms. 

The  early  sub -division  of  the  graver  male 
voices  is  attested  by  the  variety  of  positions  on 
the  stave  occupied  by  the  bass  or  E  clef.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  this  clef  (for 
whatever  variety  of  bass  voice)  has  occupied 
the  fourth  line  exclusively.    Up  to  that  period 

its  occasional  position  on  the  third  line 

indicated  that  the  music  following  it  was  for  the 
baryton  voice  ;  the  stave  so  initiated  being 
called  the  baryton  stave.  At  a  still  earlier 
epoch  the  bass  clef  was  sometimes  placed  on  the 

fifth  line,  ^ — . .    This  basso  profondo  stave, 

which  makes  room  for  two  more  notes  below 
than  can  be  placed  on  the  bass  stave  proper,  is 
used  (among  others)  by  L.  Lossius  in  his  '  Psal- 
modia'  (VVittenbach,  1579),  and  more  recently 
by  Praetorius  in  his  'Cantiones  Sacrae'  (Ham- 
burg, 1622).  It  does  not  seem  however  at  any 
time  to  have  met  with  general  favour.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  baryton  stave  was  much  em- 
ployed, not  only  for  choral  music,  but  for  solos, 
up  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  Some 
of  Purcell's  songs  (e.  g.  *  Let  the  dreadful  en- 
gines')  in  the  'Orpheus  Britannicus'  are  written 
upon  it,  and  with  reason,  for  it  takes  in,  with 
the  aid  of  a  single  leger-line,  the  entire  compass 
employed,  from  the  lower  A  to  the  upper  F. 
[Clef.]  [J.  H.] 

BASS-DRUM.  This  is  the  largest  of  all 
drums,  and  is  used  in  military  bands  and  modern 
orchestras.    [Drum,  3.]  [V.  de  P.] 

BASS  FLUTE.  There  were  in  former  times 
four  forms  of  the  flute  a  bee  or  flageolet,  the 
lowest  being  the  bass  flute,  and  the  others 
respectively  tenor,  alto,  and  descant  flutes.  These 
are  now  all  but  disused.  A  bass  flute  still  exists, 
though  it  is  rarely  heard,  and  is  not  -written  for 
by  any  composer  of  eminence.    Its  compass  is 

from        f-  upwards.    In  older  forma  of  the 


BASSET-HORN. 

Bass-flute,  to  bring  the  mouthpiece  within  reach 
of  the  finger  holes  the  tube  was  bent,  and  re- 
turned upon  itself,  as  in  the  Bassoon;  but  as 
made  by  Boehm  it  resembles  an  ordinary  flute  of 
large  size — 32  inches  long,  and  one  inch  diameter. 
The  Bass-flute  requires  a  great  deal  of  breath, 
and  the  tone  is  not  strong,  but  it  is  of  very  fine 
quality.  [W.  H.  S.] 

BASS  TRUMPET.  [Tbombone.] 

BASS  TUBA.   The  lowest  of  the  saxhorns. 

[Bombardon.] 

BASSANI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  eminent 
violin-player  and  composer,  was  born  at  Padua 
about  1657.  He  lived  for  some  years  at 
Bologna  as  conductor  of  the  cathedral-music, 
and  from  1685  in  a  similar  position  at  Ferrara, 
where  he  was  a  member  of  the  'Accademia  della 
Morte.'  He  was  also  made  a  member,  and  in 
1682  'principe'  of  the  'Accademia  dei  Filar- 
monici'  of  Bologna.  From  1680  to  1710  he 
published  six  operas  and  thirty-one  vocal  and 
instrumental  works,  viz.  masses,  cantatas  for 
one,  two,  or  three  voices  with  instruments, 
and  two  sets  of  sonatas  for  two  violins  with 
bass — a  complete  list  is  given  by  Fetis.  These 
works,  copies  of  which  are  now  very  rare,  are 
said  to  be  written  in  a  noble  pathetic  style, 
and  to  be  marked  by  good  and  correct  work- 
manship. Kent  borrowed  from  them  largely. 
Amongst  others  the  chorus  *  Thy  righteousness,' 
in  his  anthem  'Lord  what  love,'  is  taken  from 
Bassani's  Magnificat  in  G  minor  with  very 
slight  alteration.  The  'Hallelujahs'  in  'Hearken 
unto  this'  are  transcribed  note  for  note  from 
Bassani's  'Alma  Mater.'  But  Kent  was  a  sad 
appropriator, 

Bassani  died  at  Ferrara  in  1716.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed,  though  not  abso- 
lutely proved,  that  Corelli  was  his 
pupil.  [P.  D.] 

BASSET-HORN  (Fr,  Car  de  Bas- 
sette  ;  Ital.  Corao  di  Jkissetto ;  Germ. 
Bassethorn).  A  tenor  clarinet  stand- 
ing in  F,  furnished  with  additional 
low  keys  and  a  prolonged  bore,  en- 
abling it  to  reach  the  octave  C,  which 
is  equivalent  to  F  below  the  bass 


clef 


With  the  exception 


of  the  last  four  semitones  thus  add- 
ed, the  instrument  is  in  all  respects 
a  clarinet,  and  the  necessary  trans- 
position will  be  found  under  that 
heading.  These  four  notes  are  ob- 
tained by  means  of  long  keys  worked 
by  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand, 
which,  in  the  ordinary  clarinet,  has 
no  other  function  besides  that  of  sup- 
porting the  instrument.  For  con- 
venience of  handling,  the  instrument 
has  been  made  in  various  curved 
shapes ;  with  a  bend  either  between 
the  right  and  left  hands,  or  in  the 
upper  part  just  below  the  mouthpiece.  Occasion- 


BASSET-HORN. 


BASSOON. 


151 


ally  it  has  been  made  with  a  bore  abruptly  bent 
on  itself  like  that  of  the  bassoon.  Its  compass  is 
more  extensive  than  even  the  clarinet,  and  its 
tone  fuller  and  more  reedy. 

Mozart  is  the  composer  who  has  written  most 
for  this  instrument.  In  one  great  work,  his 
'  Requiem,'  it  replaces  the  clarinet,  there  being 
independent  parts  for  two  players.  Perhaps  the 
finest  instance  of  its  use  is  in  the  opening  of  the 
'  Recordare.'  In  his  opera  '  Clemenza  di  Tito ' 
it  is  also  employed,  and  a  fine  obbligato  is 
allotted  to  it  in  the  song  *Non  piu  di  fiori.'  In 
his  chamber  music  there  are  often  parts  for  two 
or  even  three  bassethorns. 

Mendelssohn  has  also  written  for  it,  especially 
two  concert-pieces  for  clarinet  and  bassethom, 
op.  113  and  114,  intended  to  be  played  by  the 
Barmanns,  father  and  son,  with  pianoforte  ac- 
companiment. Other  composers  have  occasion- 
ally employed  it,  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
it  has  never  taken  so  prominent  a  place  in  or- 
chestral music  as  its  fine  tone  and  facility  of 
execution  entitle  it  to  hold.  It  is  often  confused 
with  the  Cob  anglais,  or  English  horn,  w'liich 
is  an  oboe  of  similar  pitch  to  the  Basset- 
horn.  [W.  H.  S.] 

BASSI,  LuiGT,  bom  at  Pesaro  1766,  died  at 
Dresden  1825.  An  eminent  baritone  singer, 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  women's  parts  at 
the  age  of  thirteen ;  a  pupil  of  Laschi  at 
Florence.  In  1784  he  went  to  Prague,  where 
he  made  a  great  reputation,  especially  in  Paisi- 
ello's  'Re  Teodoro,'  and  'Barbiere  di  Siviglia,' 
and  Martini's  'Cosa  rara.'  Mozart  wrote  the 
part  of  Don  J uan  for  him.^  He  is  said  to  have 
asked  Mozart  to  write  him  another  air  in  place 
of  'Fin  c'han  dal  vino'  in  Don  Juan,  but 
Mozart  replied  '  Wait  till  the  performance  :  if 
the  air  is  not  applauded,  I  will  then  write  you 
another.'  A  hearty  encore  settled  the  question. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  induced  Mozart  to  re- 
write '  La  ci  darem'  five  times  to  suit  him. 
But  these  stories  are  probably  mere  leger-ds  of 
Mozart's  good  humour.  In  1806  Bassi  left 
Prague  in  consequence  of  the  war.  For  some 
years  he  was  in  the  pay  of  Prince  Lobkowitz, 
Beethoven's  friend,  appearing  occasionally  in 
public  in  Vienna;  but  in  1814  he  returned  to 
Prague,  when  Weber  had  the  direction  of  the 
opera,  and  in  181 5  was  called  to  Dresden  as 
a  member  of  the  Italian  company  there,  but 
shortly  afterwards  became  manager  of  the  opera 
instead,  and  died  there  in  1825.  Bassi  was  gifted 
with  a  fine  voice,  even  throughout  the  register, 
a  prepossessing  appearance,  and  considerable 
dramatic  ability.  He  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  Nicolo  or  Vincenzo  Bassi.  [M.  C.  C] 

BASSIRON,  Philippe,  a  native  of  the 
Netherlands,  living  in  the  15  th  century,  and 
contemporary  with  Josquin  des  Pres.  Some  of 
his  masses  were  printed  by  Petrucci  of  Fossom- 
broneini5o8.  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

>  Basd  Is  usually  said  to  have  been  also  the  original  Almaviva  In 
Figaro;  but  this  is  incorrect,  Mandini  was  the  first.  See  Jahn's 
Moiarf(2nded.)ii.243. 


BASSO  CONTINUO,  Basse  Continue,  or 
simply  CoNTiNUO,  is  the  same  thing  as  our 
English  term  Thorough-Bass  in  its  original  and 
proper  signification,  as  may  be  seen  by  com- 
parison of  English  with  foreign  works  where 
these  terms  occur.  For  instance,  in  the  score 
of  the  'Matthaus  Passion'  of  Bach  the  lowest  line 
in  the  accompaniments  of  the  choruses  is  for  the 
violoncellos  and  basses  and  'organ  e  continue,' 
for  the  two  latter  of  which  figures  are  added ; 
while  in  the  recitative  a  single  line  and  figures 
is  given  for  the  'continue'  alone.  The  edition 
of  Purcell's  '  Orpheus  Britannicus,'  published  in 
1 698-1 702,  has  the  title  'A  collection  of  choicest 
songs  for  i,  2,  and  3  voices,  with  symphonies  for 
violin  and  flutes  and  a  thorough-bass  to  each 
song  figured  for  the  Organ,  Harpsichord,  or 
Theorbo- Lute.*  The  origin  of  the  name  is  the 
same  in  both  cases,  as  it  is  the  bass  which  con- 
tinues or  goes  through  the  whole  piece,  from  which 
with  the  aid  of  figures  the  accompaniment  used 
to  be  played.  (For  complete  discussion  of  the 
subject  see  Thorough-Bass.)       [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BASSO  DI  CAMERA,  Italian  for  a  chamber- 
bass  ;  that  is,  a  small  double-bass,  such  as  is 
generally  used  by  double-bass  players  for  solo 
performances. 

BASSO  OSTINATO  is  the  same  as  the 
English  Ground-Bass,  which  see.  It  means  the 
continual  repetition  of  a  phrase  in  the  bass  part 
through  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  a  movement, 
upon  which  a  variety  of  harmonies  and  figures 
are  successively  built.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BASSOON  (Fr.  Basson,  Ital.  Fagotto,  Ger. 
Fagott).  A  wooden  double -reed  instrument  of 
eight-foot  tone.  The  English  and  French  names 
are  derived  from  its  pitch,  which  is  the  natural 
bass  to  the  oboe  and  other  reed  instruments ; 
the  Italian  and  German  names  come  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  faggot  or  bundle  of  sticks. 

It  is  probably,  in  one  form  or  another,  of  great 
antiquity,  although  there  exists  circumstantial 
evidence  of  its  discovery  by  Afranio,  a  Canon  of 
Ferrara.  This  occurs  in  a  work  by  the  inventor's 
nephew,  entitled  '  Introductio  in  Chaldaicam  lin- 
guam,  mystica  et  cabalistica,  a  Theseo  Albonesio 
utriusque  juris  doctori,'  etc.  (Pavia,  1539).  It 
is  illustrated  by  two  rough  woodcuts,  and 
is  termed  'Descriptio  ac  simulacrum  Phagoti 
Afranii,'  from  which  it  would  appear  that  the 
author,  although  an  Italian,  did  not  realise  the 
etymological  origin  of  the  name.  A  class  of  in- 
struments named  bombards,  pommers,  or  brum- 
mers,  which  were  made  in  many  keys,  seems 
to  have  been  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the 
bassoon.  Some  of  the  older  forms  are  well 
described,  with  representations  of  their  shape, 
in  the  'Metodo  complete  di  Fagotto'  of  Willent. 
They  possess  a  contrivance  which  does  not  exist 
at  the  present  day  on  any  reed,  though  it  some- 
what anticipates  the  'crooks'  and  'transposing 
slides'  of  brass  instruments.  Besides  the  holes 
to  be  stopped  by  the  fingers,  there  are  other 
intermediate  apertures  stopped  by  pegs,  and 
only  to  be  opened  in  certain  keys.    No  doubt 


152 


BASSOON. 


BASSOON. 


in  the  older  style  of  music  this  mechanism 
may  have  been  useful ;  but  it  would  hardly 
adapt  itself  to  the  rapid  modulations  of  later 
composers. 

The  Bassoon  is  an  instrument  which  has  evi- 
dently originated  in  a  fortuitous  manner,  de- 
veloped by  successive  improvements  rather  of  an 
empirical  than  of  a  theoretical  nature ;  hence  its 
general  arrangement  has  not  materially  altered 
since  the  earliest  examples.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  give  greater  accuracy  and 
completeness  to  its  singularly  capricious  scale ; 
but  up  to  the  present  time  all  these  seem  either 
to  have  diminished  the  flexibility  of  the  instru- 
ment in  florid  passages,  or  to  have  impaired  its 
peculiar  but  telling  and  characteristic  tone. 
Almenrader  in  Germany  is  credited  with  certain 
improvements,  but  one  of  the  best  of  these  efforts 
at  reconstruction  was  shown  in  the  Exhibition  of 
1 85 1  by  Cornelius  Ward,  and  it  has  already  fallen 
entirely  into  disuse.  Hence  bassoons  by  the  older 
makers  are  generally  preferred  to  newer  speci- 
mens, and  they  therein  alone  resemble  stringed 
among  wind-instruments.  Those  of  Savary  espe- 
cially are  in  great  request,  and  command  high 
prices.  The  copies  of  these  made  by  Samme  in 
this  country  are  not  far  inferior  to  them,  though 
they  lack  the  particular  sweetness  and  singing 
tone  of  the  French  maker. 

The  compass  is  from  sixteen -foot  Bb  to  Ab 


in  the  treble 


The  uppier  limit  has  been 
greatly  raised  in  modern 
instruments  by  additional 
mechanism,  so  that  the  C, 
and  even  the  F  above  the 
Ab  referred  to,  can  be 
reached.  The  natural  scale 
is  however  that  named,  the 
notes  above  Ab  being  un- 
certain and  somewhat  dif- 
ferent in  quality  from  those 
below. 

Like  the  oboe,  of  which  it 
is  the  bass,  the  bassoon  gives 
the  consecutive  harmonics  of 
an  open  pipe,  a  fact  which 
Hebnholtz  has  shown  mathe- 
matically to  depend  on  its 
conical  bore. 

It  consists  of  five  pieces, 
named  respectively  the  crook, 
wing,  butt,  long  joints,  and 
bell.  These,  when  fitted  to- 
gether,  form  a  hollow  cone 
about  eight  feet  long,  tapering 
from  ^  of  an  inch  at  the  reed 
to  inches  at  the  bell  end. 
In  the  butt  joint  this  bore 
is  bent  abruptly  back  upon 
itself,  both  sections  being 
pierced  in  the  same  block  of  wood,  and  united 
at  the  lower  end  ;  the  prolongation  of  the  double 
tube  being  in  general  stopped  by  means  of  a 


flattened  oval  cork.  The  whole  length  of  the  in- 
strument, by  internal  measurement,  being  ninety- 
three  inches,  about  twelve  are  in  the  crook, 
thirty -two  in  the  downward  branch,  and  the 
remaining  forty -nine  in  the  ascending  joints. 
The  height  is  thus  reduced  to  a  little  over  four 
feet,  and  the  various  holes  are  brought  within 
reach  of  the  fingers.  They  would  still  be  situated 
too  far  apart  for  an  ordinary  hand  if  they  were 
not  pierced  obliquely ;  the  upper  hole  for  each 
forefinger  passing  upwards  in  the  substance  of 
the  wood,  and  those  for  the  third  or  ring-fingers 
passing  downwards  in  a  similar  way.  There  are 
three  holes  in  the  wing  joint — so  named  from 
a  projecting  wdng  of  wood  intended  to  contain 
them;  three  others  on  the  front  of  the  butt 
joint — to  be  closed  by  the  first  three  fingers  of 
the  left  and  right  hands  respectively ;  a  single 
hole  on  the  back  of  the  butt  joint,  for  the 
thumb  of  the  right  hand ;  and  a  series  of  inter- 
locking keys  on  the  long  joint,  producing  the 
lowest  notes  of  the  scale  by  means  of  the  left 
thumb.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  instru- 
ment is  held  in  the  hollow  of  the  two  hands, 
with  the  left  uppermost,  at  the  level  of  the 
player's  breast,  the  right  hand  being  somewhat 
below  and  behind  the  right  thigh.  A  strap 
round  the  neck  supports  the  bulk  of  the  weight. 
The  little  finger  of  the  right  hand  touches  two 

^F=F.  With 


keys  which  produce  Ab  and  F 

this  latter  note  the  real  fundamental  scale  ends, 
exactly  as  it  does  in  the  oboe ;  all  the  mechanism 
of  the  long  joint  and  bell  only  strengthening  the 
tone  and  producing  the  seven  lowest  semitones 
upwards  from  Bb.  In  comparing  the  bassoon 
with  its  kindred  treble  instrument,  the  oboe,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  it  has  this  supple- 
mentary prolongation  of  its  compass  downwards, 
which  the  other  lacks.  The  seven  lowest  holes 
and  keys  therefore  produce  only  one  sound 
apiece ;  but  the  case  is  totally  difierent  with 
those  following  next  above  them,  from  the  little 
finger  of  the  right  hand  to  the  forefinger  of  the 
left.  These  eight  holes  and  keys  can  each  be 
made  to  give  two  sounds  at  an  interval  of  an 
octave  by  varying  the  pressure  of  the  lip.  After 
the  double  register  thus  obtained  has  been  run 
through,  there  still  remain  a  few  notes  to  be  got 
by  cross -fingerings  at  the  interval  of  a  twelfth, 
namely  the  F$,  Gl|,  and  Ab,  with  which  the 
natural  scale  has  been  stated  to  end.  In  modern 
instruments  two  or  even  three  keys  are  added  at 
the  top  of  the  wing -joint,  to  be  worked  by  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand  stretched  across  from 
the  other  side.  They  open  small  harmonic  holes 
close  to  the  crook,  and  enable  seven  semitones  to 


be  added,  from  Alj  to  Eb  inclusive 


W 


Even  above  this  there  are  two  outlying  notes. 


Elj  and  F 


to  be  obtained  by 


exceptional  players  without  mechanism ;  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  still  higher,  although 


BASSOON. 


BASSOON". 


153 


useless,  harmonics  might  by  assiduous  study  be  j 
exacted  from  this  remarkable  instrument. 

It  will  thus  be  seen — what  indeed  was  aflfirmed 
in  the  outset — that  the  scale  of  the  bassoon  is 
complicated  and  capricious.  To  this  it  must  be 
added  that  it  is  variable  in  different  patterns, 
and  that  even  a  fine  player  cannot  play  upon  an 
iiTifa.Tm'lia.r  instnmient.  Each  has  to  be  learned 
independently ;  and  although  the  theoretical 
imperfection  of  such  a  course  is  obvious,  it  has 
a  certain  compensation  in  the  fact  that  a  bassoon- 
player  must  necessarily  rely  upon  his  ear  alone 
for  correct  intonation,  and  that  he  thus  more 
nearly  approximates  to  the  manipulation  of 
stringed  instruments  than  any  member  of  the 
orchestra,  except  the  trombones.  In  some  of  the 
most  important  and  delicate  notes  there  are  two, 
three,  or  even  four  alternatives  of  fingering  open 
to  the  performer  ;  as  these  produce  sounds  slightly 
differing  in  pitch  and  quality,  they  may  be 
employed  by  a  judicious  musician  for  obtaining 
accurate  consonance  and  for  facilitating  difficult 
passages.  But  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
scale  of  the  bassoon  is  a  sort  of  compromise, 
for  the  construction  of  which  no  precise  formula 
can  be  given. 

^1iate%er  its  theoretical  imperfections,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  musical  value  of  the 
bassoon  is  very  great,  and  it  has  for  about  two 
centuries  been  largely  used  by  composers.  Its 
position  in  the  orchestra  has  somewhat  changed 
in  the  course  of  time.  Originally  introduced — 
probably  first  in  Cambert  s  'Pomone'  (Paris, 
1671) — as  a  purely  bass  instrument,  it  has  grad- 
ually risen  to  the  position  of  tenor,  or  even  alto, 
frequently  doubling  the  high  notes  of  the  vio- 
loncello or  the  lower  register  of  the  viola.  The 
cause  of  the  change  is  evidently  the  greater 
use  of  bass  instnmients  such  as  trombones  and 
ophicleides  in  modem  orchestral  scores,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  improvements  in  the  upper  register 
of  the  bassoon  itself  on  the  other.  There  is  a 
peculiar  sweetness  and  telling  quality  in  these  ex- 
treme sounds  which  has  led  to  their  being  named 
vox-humana  notes.  We  have  good  evidence  that 
even  in  Haydn's  time  they  were  appreciated,  for 
in  the  graceful  minuet  of  his  '  Military  S_\Tnphony' 
we  find  a  melody  reaching  to  the  treble  Ajf. 
The  passage  affords  an  excellent  specimen  of  good 
solo  •«Titing  for  the  instrument,  though  requiring 
a  first-rate  player  to  do  it  justice. 


Indeed  it  is  between  the  time  of  Handel  and 
Haydn  that  the  above-mentioned  change  seems 
to  have  taken  place.  Handel's  scores  contain 
few  bassoon  parts,  and  those — with  one  remark- 
able exception,  the  Witch  music  in  the  oratorio 
of  Saul — mostly  of  a  ripieno  character ;  Haydn 
on  the  other  hand  uses  it  as  one  of  the  most 


prominent  voices  of  his  orchestra.  Boieldieu  also, 
who  dates  a  little  later,  has  assigned  to  the  bas- 
soon the  principal  melody  in  the  overture  to  the 
'Dame  Blanche,'  repeating  it  afterwards  with  in- 
creased elaboration  in  the  form  of  a  variation. 


etc. 

Variation. 


Bach  uses  it  frequently,  sometimes  merely  to 
reinforce  the  basses,  but  often  with  an  inde- 
pendent and  characteristic  part.  The  'Quoniam' 
in  the  Mass  in  B  minor  has  two  bassoons  obli- 
gato  throughout,  and  other  instances  of  its  use 
will  be  found  in  the  cantatas  '  Am  Abend  aber ' 
(Xo.  42),  and  '  Ich  hatte  viel  Bekiimmemiss' 
(Xo.  21),  in  the  volumes  of  the  Bach-Gesell- 
schaft.  In  the  Score  of  the  Matthew  Passion 
the  bassoon  does  not  appear.  Boyce,  a  \s-riter 
who  can  hardly  have  kno^-n  much  of  foreign  music, 
gives  it  a  fine  part  in  the  song  '  Softly  rise  thou 
southern  breeze,'  in  his  'Solomon'  (1743). 

Cherubini  has  gi\  en  it  a  fine  solo  in  his  opera 
of  *  Medee,'  which  is  remarkable  for  its  dif&culty, 
and  also  for  its  extraordinary  compass,  ending  on 
the  extreme  high  notes. 

Mozart,  besides  a  concerto  with  orchestra  which 
is  hardly^  knoAvn,  constantly  employs  the  bas- 
soon in  his  scores.  It  figures  prominently  in  his 
symphonies,  even  when  other  wind -parts  are  de- 
ficient ;  most  of  his  masses  contain  fine  phrases 
for  it ;  in  the  Requiem,  of  which  the  instrumenta- 
tion is  peculiar,  it  fills  a  leading  place,  contrasting 
with  three  trombones  and  two  comi  di  bassetto. 
All  his  operas  moreover  assign  it  great  promi- 
nence ;  he  seems  fully  aware  of  its  beauty  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  voice,  which  it  supports 
and  intensifies  without  the  risk  of  overpowering 
the  singer. 

Beethoven  never  fails  to  employ  it  largely, 
reinforcing  it  in  some  works  by  the  contra  fagotto. 
The  First  S}-mphony  is  remarkable  for  the  as- 
signment of  subject  as  well  as  counter-subject  in 
the  slow  movement  to  first  and  second  bassoons 
working  independently ;  both  afterwards  joining 
with  the  two  clarinets  in  the  curious  dialogue 
of  the  trio  between  strings  and  reeds.  The 
Second  Symphony  opens  with  a  prominent  pas- 
sage in  vmison  with  bass  strings ;  in  the  Adagio 
of  the  Fourth  is  an  effective  figure  exhibiting  the 
great  power  of  staccato  playing  possessed  by  the 
bassoon ;  in  the  first  movement  of  the  Eighth  it 
is  employed  with  exquisite  himaour,  and  in  the 
minuet  of  the  same  symphony  it  is  entrusted 
with  a  melody  of  considerable  length.  Perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  passage  in  Beethoven's 
writing  for  this  instrument,  certainly  the  least 
known,  occurs  in  the  opening  of  the  Finale  of  the 
Ninth  or  Choral  Symphony,  where  the  theme  of 
the  movement,  played  by  cellos  and  -vnolas  in 
unison,  is  accompanied  by  the  first  bassoon  m  a 

»  In  B  flat,  composed  VT-L  Kochel.  N  o.  ISO- 


154 


BASSOON. 


BATES. 


long  independent  melody  of  the  greatest  in- 
genuity and  interest. 

Mendelssohn  shows  some  peculiarity  in  dealing 
with  the  bassoon.  .  He  was  evidently  struck,  not 
only  with  the  power  of  its  lower  register,  a  fact 
abundantly  illustrated  by  his  use  of  it  in  the 
opening  of  the  Scotch  Symphony  and,  with  the 
trombones,  in  the  grand  chords  of  the  overture  to 
'Ruy  Bias';  but  he  evidently  felt,  with  Bee- 
thoven, the  comic  and  rustic  character  of  its  tone. 
This  is  abundantly  shown  in  the  music  to  the 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  where  the  two 
bassoons  lead  the  quaint  clowns'  march  in  thirds  ; 
and  still  further  on  in  the  funeral  march,  which 
is  obviously  an  imitation  of  a  small  country  band 
consisting  of  clarinet  and  bassoon,  the  latter 
ending  unexpectedly  and  humorously  on  a  soli- 
tary low  C.  In  the  Overture  the  same  instru- 
ment also  suggests  the  braying  of  Bottom,  It  is 
worth  notice  how  the  acute  ear  of  the  musician 
has  caught  the  exact  interval  used  by  the  animal 
without  any  violation  of  artistic  propriety.  As 
if  in  return  for  these  vile  uses,  the  same  com- 
poser has  compensated  the  instrument  in  num- 
berless fine  figures,  of  which  it  is  unnecessary  to 
specify  more  than  the  quartett  of  horns  and  bas- 
soons in  the  trio  of  the  Italian  Symphony,  the 
majestic  opening  phrases  of  the  so-called  'Pil- 
grim's March,'  and  the  flowing  cantabile  in  oc- 
taves with  the  oboe  which  forms  the  second 
movement  of  the  introductory  symphony  to  the 
*  HjTiin  of  Praise.' 

Weber  exhibits  the  same  knowledge  of  its 
powers  as  his  predecessors.  Although  the 
French  horn,  and  after  it  the  clarinet,  are 
obviously  his  favourite  instruments,  the  bassoon 
comes  very  little  behind  them.  One  of  the 
loveliest  phrases  ever  assigned  to  this  instrument 
occurs  in  the  'Agnus  Dei'  of  his  mass  in  G. 


It  is  absolutely  alone  on  the  telling  G  of  the 
upper  register ;  the  voice  following  in  imitation 
and  the  bassoon  then  repeating  the  passage.  In 
the  Concert-Stiick,  for  piano  and  orchestra,  there 
is  a  difficult  but  beautiful  point  for  bassoon 
alone,  which  leads  into  the  march  for  the  clari- 
nets. His  two  symphonies  are  marked  by  the 
same  character,  especially  the  first,  in  which 
the  bassoon  leads  throughout,  with  some  effective 
organ  points.  The  overtures,  and  indeed  all 
his  operas,  are  very  fully  scored  for  bassoons. 
His  bassoon  concerto  in  F  and  his  Hungarian 
rondo  are  grand  works,  scored  for  full  orchestra. 

Meyerbeer  has  somewhat  neglected  the  bassoon 
for  the  bass  clarinet — in  the  Proph^te  March 
for  instance  ;  but  he  has  given  it  many  passages 
of  importance,  and  some  of  a  grotesque  character, 
as  in  the  incantation  scene  of  '  Robert  le  Diable.' 
He  frequently  employs  four  instead  of  two  in- 
stnunents. 

The  Italian  writers  use  it  freely.  Donizetti 
assigns  it  an  obbligato  in  the  air  'Una  fiirtiva 
lagrima,'  Rossini  opens  the  'Stabat  Mater'  with 
the  effective  phrases — 


for  bassoons  and  cellos  in  unison,  which  again 
occur  at  the  end  of  the  work.  In  his  latest 
composition,  the  'Messe  SolenneUe'  it  is  almost 
too  heavily  written  for,  and  is  at  times  comic  and 
ineffective, 

Auber  writes  but  little  for  the  bassoon,  using 
it  chiefly  in  sustaining  high  notes  at  the  very  top 
of  its  register.  There  is  however  a  melodious 
passage  for  the  two,  with  the  horns,  in  the 
overture  to  the  *  Sirene.' 

The  following  list  of  music  for  bassoon,  solo 
and  concertante,  may  be  found  useful.  The 
"wTiter  desires  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  aid 
he  has  received  in  its  compilation  and  elsewhere 
from  Mr.  Charles  Evans  of  the  British  Museum, 

Mozart,  concerto  in  Bb  ;  Ferdinand  David, 
concertino  in  Bb,  op.  12;  Kalliwoda,  var. 
and  rondeau  in  Bb,  op,  57 ;  Weber,  andante 
and  rondo  ongarese  in  C,  op,  55,  concerto  in  F, 
op.  75  ;  Kummer,  concerto  in  C,  op,  25  ;  Neu- 
kirchner,  fantasia  with  orchestra ;  Jacobi,  pot- 
pourri with  orchestra ;  Dotzauer,  quatuor,  op. 
36,  with  violin,  viola,  and  cello ;  twelve  pieces 
for  three  bassoons,  by  G,  H,  Kummer,  op.  1 1 : 
twelve  trios  for  three  bassoons,  by  G.  H.  Kummer, 
op.  13;  forty- two  caprices  for  bassoon,  by  E. 
Ozi  ;  six  duos  concertants  for  two  bassoons,  by 
E.  Ozi ;  Lindpaintner,  op,  24,  rondeau  in  Bb, 

Other  works  wiU  be  found  under  Clarinet, 
Oboe,  etc,  [W,  H,  S,] 

BASTARDELLA,  or  BASTARDINA,  See 
Agujaei, 

BASTIEN  ET  BASTIENNE,  a  German 
operetta  or  pastoral  in  one  act  (15  Nos.),  words 
by  Schachtner  from  the  French,  the  music  by 
Mozart  'in  his  12th  year,'  1768;  performed  in 
a  Garden-house  at  Vienna  belonging  to  his 
friends  the  Messmers,  (Kochel,  No,  50  ;  Jahn, 
ist  ed,  i,  122).  The  subject  of  the  Intrade  (in 
G)  is  by  a  curious  coincidence  all  but  identical 
with  the  principal  theme  of  the  first  movement 
of  Beethoven's  'Eroica'  Symphony: — 

etc. 


BASTON,  JosQUiN,  a  Flemish  composer  of 
the  first  half  of  the  1 6th  century,  and  still 
living  in  1566.  Unlike  most  of  his  contempora- 
ries, he  does  not  seem  to  have  visited  Italy,  as  his 
published  works,  consisting  of  motets  and  chan- 
sons, form  part  of  collections  printed  either  at 
Louvain  or  Antwerp.  [J.  R.  S,  B,] 

BATES,  Jo  AH,  was  bom  in  1740  at  Halifax, 
where  he  received  his  early  education  under  Dr. 
Ogden,  and  learned  music  from  Hartley,  organist 
of  Rochdale,  He  subsequently  removed  to 
Manchester,  where  he  studied  organ  -  playing 


BATES. 


BATTEN. 


155 


under  Robert  Wainwright,  organist  of  the 
collegiate  church,  now  the  cathedral.  He  next 
removed  to  Eton  and  thence  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  King's  College. 
He  then  became  private  secretary  to  the  Earl  of 
Sandwich,  first  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  a 
well  known  musical  amateur.  About  that  time 
he  conceived  the  plan  of  the  Concert  of  Ancient 
Music  which  was  established  in  1776,  Bates 
being  appointed  conductor.  In  1780  he  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  of  the  Victualling 
Office,  and  married  Miss  Sarah  Harrop,  a  pupil 
of  Sacchini,  and  a  favourite  concert  singer,  who 
liad  studied  under  him  the  music  of  Handel  and 
the  elder  masters.  He  next,  in  1783,  in  con- 
junction with  Viscount  Fitzwilliam  and  Sir 
Watkin  Williams  W3mne,  projected  the  Com- 
memoration of  Handel,  which  was  carried  into 
ottect  the  following  year.  Bates  officiating  as 
conductor.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  a 
coimnissioner  of  the  Customs  and  a  director  of 
(iieenwich  Hospital.  Having  projected  the 
Albion  Mills,  of  the  success  of  which  he  was 
so  sanguine  as  to  invest  the  whole  of  his  own 
and  his  wife's  fortunes  in  them,  he  was  nearly 
ruined  by  their  destruction  by  fire  in  1791. 
In  1793  he  resigned  the  conductorship  of  the 
Concert  of  Ancient  Music.  He  died  June  8, 
1799.  painting  of  Joah  Bates  and  his 

wife,  by  F.  Coates,  R.  A.,  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BATES,  William,  a  composer  of  the  i8th 
century,  produced  music  for  the  following  dra- 
matic pieces: — 'The  Jovial  Crew,'  comic  opera, 
1760;  'Pharnaces,'  opera,  1765;  'The  Ladies' 
Frolick,'  an  alteration  of  'The  Jovial  Crew' 
(jointly  with  Dr.  Arne),  1770;  'The  Theatrical 
Candidates,'  musical  prelude,  1775.  He  was 
also  the  composer  of  '  Songs  sung  at  Marybon 
Cardens,  1768,'  and  of  several  glees,  catches, 
and  canons,  eleven  of  which  are  published  by 
Warren.  Also '  Flora,  or  Hob  in  the  Well,'  balla^ 
opera,  1768;  'Songs  sung  at  the  Grotto-Gardens,' 
1771.    [See  Catley,  Anne.]  [W.  H.  H.] 

BATESON,  Thomas,  one  of  the  great  English 
madrigalian  composers  of  the  Elizabethan  period. 
The  dates  of  his  birth  and  decease  are  unknown  ; 
but  we  may  infer  that  he  was  a  young  'practi- 
tioner in  the  art '  when  he  produced  his  '  First 
Set  of  Madrigals '  in  1 604,  wherein  he  compares 
his  compositions  to  'young  birds  feared  out  of 
their  nest  before  they  be  well  feathered,'  and 
hopes  they  will  be  '  so  shrouded '  in  '  the  leaves 
of  his  patron's  good  liking,'  so  that  neither  any 
*  ravenous  kite  nor  craffcie  fowler,  any  open 
mouthed  Momus  or  mere  shy  detractor  may  de- 
vour or  harm  them  that  cannot  succour  or  shift 
for  themselves.'  At  the  back  of  the  dedication 
to^  his  '  honourable  and  most  respected  good 
friend  Sir  William  Norres,'  is  the  madrigal 
'  When  Oriana  walkt  to  take  the  ayre,'  with  the 
following  note.  'This  song  was  sent  too  late, 
and  should  have  been  printed  in  the  set  of 
Orianas '  (a  set  of  madrigals  in  praise  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  published  in  1601).    In  1599,  five 


years  prior  to  the  date  of  his  first  publication,  he 
was  appointed  organist  of  Chester  Cathedral, 
which  situation  he  held  till  1611.  Shortly  after 
this  date  he  went  to  reside  in  Ireland,  under  the 
patronage  of  Lord  Chichester,  and  in  161 8  pub- 
lished his  '  Second  Set  of  Madrigals.'  On  the 
title-page  of  this  work  he  styles  himself '  Bachelor 
of  Musick,  Organist,  and  Master  of  the  Children 
of  the  Cathedral  Church  of  the  Blessed  Trinity, 
Dublin.'  In  the  university  of  the  latter  city  he 
is  supposed  to  have  taken  his  degree.  Bateson's 
first  set  of  Madrigals  was  reprinted  by  the  Musi- 
cal Antiquarian  Society,  and  specimens  of  his 
church  music  are  in  the  same  society's  '  Anthems 
by  Composers  of  the  Madrigalian  Era.'  {The 
composer's  worhs ;  Private  Sources.)     [E.  F.  R.] 

BATON,  Chakles,  called  'le  jeune'  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  elder  brother  Henri,  who 
performed  on  the  musette.  Was  a  player  on  the 
Vielle  or  hurdy-gurdy  in  Paris  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century.  He  published  an  '  Examen 
de  la  lettre  de  M.  Rousseau  sur  la  musique 
Fran9aise'  (Paris,  1754),  and  a  *  Memoire  sur 
la  Vielle'  in  the  '  Mercure'  for  1757.  He 
improved  his  instrument,  and  composed  much 
for  it — Suites  for  two  vielles,  musettes,  etc. 
Baton  died  at  Paris  in  1758. 

BATON  (Fr.  Baton),  the  stick  with  which  the 
conductor  of  an  orchestra  beats  the  time.  Hence 
the  expression  'under  Mr,  — 's  baton,'  i.e.  under 
his  direction.  The  first  baton  employed  in  Eng- 
land was  probably  the  'Taktirstabchen'  used  by 
Spohr  at  the  Philharmonic  in  1820  (Selbstbiog. 
ii.  87).  Batons  are  usually  turned  out  of  maple- 
wood  for  lightness,  21  or  22  inches  long,  and 
tapering  from  3-4ths  to  3-8ths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  They  are  occasionally  given  as  '  testi- 
monials,' in  which  case  they  are  made  of  metal  or 
of  ivory  ornamented  with  silver  or  gold. 

When  Berlioz  and  Mendelssohn  met  at  Leipsic 
in  1 84 1  they  exchanged  batons,  and  Berlioz  ac- 
companied his  with  the  following  letter,  in  the 
vein  of  Fenimore  Cooper :  —  '  Au  chef  Men- 
delssohn, Grand  chef!  nous  nous  sommes  promis 
d'echanger  nos  tomahawcks ;  voici  le  mien  !  II 
est  grossier,  le  tien  est  simple  ;  les  squaws  seules 
et  les  visages  pales  aiment  les  armes  ornees.  Sois 
mon  frhre  !  et  quand  le  Grand  Esprit  nous  aura 
envoyes  chasser  dans  les  pays  des  ames,  que  nos 
guerriers  suspendent  nos  tomawcks  a  la  porte 
du  conseil.'  Mendelssohn's  reply  is  not  extant, 
but  no  doubt  it  was  quite  a  propos.  [G.] 

BATTEN,  Adrian,  the  date  of  whose  birth 
is  not  known,  was  brought  up  in  the  Cathedral 
Choir  of  Winchester,  under  John  Holmes  the 
organist,  and  in  161 4  appointed  vicar-choral  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  In  1624  he  removed  to 
St,  Paul's  Cathedral,  where  he  held  the  same 
office  in  addition  to  that  of  organist.  Batten's 
name  is  well  known  in  our  cathedral  choirs  from 
his  short  full  anthem  'Deliver  us,  O  Lord.' 
Burney  says  of  him  :  '  He  was  a  good  harmonist 
of  the  old  school,  without  adding  anything  to 
the  common  stock  of  ideas  in  melody  or  modu- 
lation with  which  the  art  was  furnished  long 


156 


BATTEN. 


BATTON. 


before  he  was  bom.  Nor  did  he  correct  any  of 
the  errors  in  accent  with  which  former  times 
aboimded.'  This  criticism  is  hardly  just.  Bat- 
ten's anthem,  'Hear  my  prayer,'  is,  in  point  of 
construction  and  effect,  equal  to  any  composition 
of  his  time.  He  composed  a  Morning,  Com- 
munion, and  Evening  Service  in  the  Dorian 
Mode,  and  a  large  number  of  anthems ;  the 
words  of  thirty-four  may  be  found  in  Clifford. 
Six  are  printed  in  Barnard,  two  more  in  Boyce, 
and  1 8  others  are  comprised  in  Barnard's  MS. 
collection  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society. 

The  date  of  Batten's  death  is  uncertain.  He 
was  living  in  1635,  when  he  made  a  transcript  of 
some  anthem  music,  to  which  the  following  note 
is  appended  : — *  All  these  songs  of  Mr.  John 
Holmes  was  prickt  from  his  own  pricking  in  the 
year  1635,  Adrian  Batten,  one  of  the  vickers 
of  St.  Paul's  in  London,  who  sometime  was  his 
scholar.'  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  1640. 
(Bumey,  Hist.;  MS.  Accounts  of  Westminster 
and  St.  Paul's.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BATTISHILL,  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Jona- 
than Battishill,  a  solicitor,  and  grandson  of  the 
Rev.  Jonathan  Battishill,  rector  of  Sheepwash, 
Devon,  was  born  in  London  in  May  1738.  In 
1 747  he  became  a  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral under  William  Savage,  and  on  the  breaking 
of  his  voice  his  articled  pupil.  On  the  expiration 
of  his  articles  he  officiated  for  Dr.  Boyce  at  the 
organ  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  composed  some 
songs  for  Sadler's  Wells  Theatre.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  engaged  to  play  the  harpsichord 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  an  early  result  of 
which  engagement  was  his  marriage  in  1763 
to  Miss  Davies,  a  singing-actress  at  that  theatre, 
and  the  original  performer  of  Madge  in  'Love 
in  a  Village.'  On  her  marriage  Mrs.  Battishill 
retired  from  the  exercise  of  her  profession.  In 
1764  Battishill  composed,  in  conjunction  with 
Michael  Arne,  the  music  for  the  opera  of 
*Almena.'  The  piece,  owing  to  the  poverty 
of  the  dialogue,  was  soon  withdrawn,  but  for 
proof  that  want  of  merit  in  the  music  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  withdrawal  it  is  only 
necessary  to  refer  to  Battishill's  songs  'Thus 
when  young  Ammon  march'd  along'  and  'Poised 
in  Heaven's  eternal  scale,'  veritten  to  display 
the  fine  bass  voice  of  Samuel  Champness.  In 
the  same  year  Battishill  composed  the  music 
for  the  pantomime  'The  Rites  of  Hecate.'  At 
a  later  period  he  abandoned  the  theatre  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  composition  of 
church  music,  and  produced  several  anthems 
(including  that  beautiful  one  *  Call  to  re- 
membrance'), in  which  melody  and  skilful 
treatment  of  the  parts  are  admirably  combined. 
In  1 771  he  gained  the  Catch  Club  prize  for 
his  fine  Anacreontic  glee  'Come  bind  my  hair.' 
About  this  time  he  was  appointed  organist  of 
the  united  parishes  of  St.  Clement,  Eastcheap, 
and  St.  Martin,  Orgar,  and  soon  afterwards 
of  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street.  In  1775  he 
lost  his  wife,  and  her  death  so  affected  him 
that  he  desisted  from  composition,  and  devoted 


much  of  his  time  to  his  books,  of  which  he 
had  collected  between  six  and  seven  thousand 
volumes,  chiefly  classical  works.  He  died  at 
Islington  Dec.  10,  1801,  aged  sixty-three  years, 
and  was  buried,  pursuant  to  his  dying  wish,  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  near  the  grave  of  Dr. 
Boyce.  Battishill  published  two  collections  of 
songs  for  three  and  four  voices,  and  a  collection 
of  favourite  songs  sung  at  the  public  gardens 
and  theatres.  Several  of  his  glees  and  catches 
are  printed  in  Warren's  and  other  collections. 
Four  of  his  anthems  are  included  in  Page's 
'Harmonia  Sacra.'  In  1804  Page  edited  'Six 
Anthems  and  Ten  Chants,'  with  a  finely  engraved 
portrait  of  the  composer  prefixed.  In  the  same 
year  Page  also  inserted  in  a  collection  of  hymns 
twelve  psalm  tunes  and  an  ode  composed  by  Bat- 
tishill. The  popular  song  '  Kate  of  Aberdeen' 
was  composed  by  BattishiU  for  Ranelagh  Gardens. 
Battishill's  compositions  are  distinguished  by  an 
uncommon  combination  of  energy  and  vigour 
with  grace  and  elegance.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BATTLE  OF  PRAGUE,  THE.  A  piece  of 
military  programme-music  describing  the  en- 
gagement between  the  Prussians  and  Austrians 
before  Prague,  in  1757.  It  was  composed  by 
Kotzwara — a  native  of  Prague — for  Piano,  with 
Violin  and  Cello  ad  libitum,  and  was  published 
at  Hamburg  and  Berlin  (according  to  Fetis) 
about  1792,  and  in  London  in  1793.  The  piece 
had  an  immense  success  at  the  time  and  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century  after,  and  was  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  '  Siege  of  Valenciennes,'  and  many 
others  of  the  same  kind— culminating  in  Bee- 
thoven's 'Battle  of  Vittoria.'  The  English  edi- 
tions contain  '  God  save  the  King,'  as  the  Hymn 
of  triumph  after  the  victory,  and  a  drum-call 
'Go  to  bed  Tom.'  Now  as  'Heil  dir  in 
Siegerkranz,'  which  has  become  a  kind  of  Prus- 
sian national  hymn,  to  the  tune  of  'God  save 
the  King,'  was  not  produced  till  1799,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  tune  and  the  name 
have  been  put  into  the  English  editions  for 
the  English  market,  and  that  if  the  German 
edition  could  be  seen  (which  the  writer  has  not 
been  able  to  do)  it  would  be  found  that  some 
Prussian  air  and  call  were  there  instead  of  those 
named.        •  [G.] 

BATTLE  SYMPHONY.  The  ordinary 
English  name  for  Beethoven's  *  Wellingtons  Sieg, 
oder  die  Schlacht  bei  Vittoria.'  It  was  first  per- 
formed in  London,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
George  Smart,  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  on  Feb. 
10,  1815. 

BATTON,  Desire  Alexandre,  born  in  Paris 
1797,  died  there  1855;  the  son  of  an  artificial 
flower  maker.  Was  a  pupil  at  the  Conservatoire 
(including  counterpoint  under  Cherubini)  from 
1806  to  181 7,  in  which  year  he  won  the  'Grand 
Prix'  for  his  cantata  'La  mort  d' Adonis,'  enti- 
tling him  to  travel  for  five  years  in  Italy  and 
Germany  at  government  expense,  and  he  ac- 
cordingly started  in  1818,  after  the  performance 
of  his  comic  opera  '  La  FenStre  secrfete '  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau.    During  his  tour  he  composed 


BATTON. 


BEALE. 


157 


several  works,  chiefly  sacred  music,  in  Rome, 
and  a  spnphony  performed  in  Munich.  After 
his  return  to  Paris  in  1823  he  brought  out  three 
operas,  the  failure  of  which  drove  him  to  adopt 
his  father's  trade.  •  La  Marquise  de  Brinvilliers,' 
composed  in  1832  in  conjunction  with  Auber, 
Herold,  and  Carafii,  was  however  better  received. 
Batton's  failure  as  a  dramatic  composer  may  in 
great  part  be  attributed  to  the  poverty  of  his 
libretti.  [M.  C.  C] 

BATTUTA  (Ital.  beat,  or  measure).  *A  bat- 
tuta,'  like  *  a  tempo,'  means  a  return  to  the  strict 
beat.  Beethoven  uses  the  word  in  the  Scherzo  of 
the  Choral  Symphony — 'Kitmo  di  tre  battute,' 
'  Ritmo  di  quattro  battute,'  to  signify  that  the 
rhythm  in  those  places  goes  in  groups  of  three 
bars  or  four  bars  respectively.  In  the  Presto  of 
his  E  flat  Quartett  (Op.  74),  where  the  time 
changes  to  '  Piti  presto,  quasi  prestissimo,'  he 
adds  the  direction  *Si  ha  s'immaginar  la  battuta 
di  6-8 ' — the  movement  being  written  in  3-4. 

BAULDUIN,  or  BAUDOUIN,  Noel,  a 
native  of  the  Netherlands,  contemporary  with 
Josquin  des  Pres,  and  from  1513  to  1518  chapel- 
master  of  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at  Antwerp, 
where  he  died  in  1529.  Two  of  his  motets  were 
printed  by  Petrucci  of  Fossombrone  in  15 19, 
w  hich  suggests  that  he  visited  Italy,  and  proves 
in  any  case  that  his  fame  had  reached  that 
country  during  his  lifetime.  The  rest  of  his 
works,  many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Papal 
Chapel,  are  included  in  collections  published 
some  time  after  his  death.  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

BAUMGARTEN,  C.  F.,  a  native  of  Germany, 
and  pupil  of  the  famous  organist  J.  P.  Kunzen ; 
came  early  to  London  and  never  left  it ;  was 
organist  at  the  Lutheran  Chapel  in  the  Savoy, 
and  leader  of  the  band  of  the  English  opera, 
Coveut  Garden.  He  was  also  composer  and 
leader  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland's  private 
band,  which  contained  Blake,  Waterhouse,  Shield, 
Piu'ke,  and  the  elder  Cramer.  Baumgarten  wrote 
much  for  the  'Professional  Concerts'  of  1783  and 
later,  various  operas  and  pantomimes — amongst 
others,  Blue  Beard,  1792.  As  an  organist  he 
had  great  skill  in  modulation  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  his  instrument,  but  as  a  violin- 
player,  both  in  concerted  music  and  as  a  leader, 
he  was  languid  and  wanting  in  energy — '  a  sleepy 
i  orchestra,'  says  Haydn  in  his  diary.  His  theo- 
I  retical  knowledge  was  acknowledged  by  Haydn 
apd  G^rrowetz.  'He  was  the  man  to  mix  learn- 
ing with  eft'ect,  and  therefore  to  write  captiva- 
tions  that  are  felt  by  all'  ('The  World,'  1787). 
When  he  made  Haydn's  acquaintance  in  1792  he 
had  almost  forgotten  his  mother  tongue.  In 
1794  he  lost  his  position  at  Covent  Garden,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Mountain  ('The  Oracle,'  Sept. 
19).  After  this  nothing  is  known  of  him.  Baum- 
I  garten  was  a  man  of  much  ability  and  culture  ; 
his  pupils  were  numerous  and  distinguished. 
He  wrote  an  admirable  treatise  on  music,  and 
was  a  keen  student  of  astronomy,  mathematics, 
,  and  liistory ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  pos- 
I  sessed  the  art  of  making  use  of  his  advantages, 


and  was  quickly  forgotten.  A  song  of  his, 
'Her  image  ever  rose  to  view,'  from  'Netley 
Abbey,'  is  preserved  in  Ayrton's  'Musical  Li- 
brary.' [C.  F.  P.] 

BAYADERES,  dancing  girls  attached  to  the 
Hindoo  temples.  The  nature  of  their  pro- 
fession may  be  inferred  from  Goethe's  Ballad 
*Der  Gott  und  die  Bajadere,'  which  forms  the 
groundwork  of  Catel's  opera  *Les  Bayaderes,'* 
and  of  Auber's  opera-ballet  *Le  Dieu  et  la 
Bayadere.'  They  are  a  prominent  feature  in 
Spohr's  '  Jessonda.' 

BAYLY,  Rev.  Anselm,  D.C.L,  son  of  An- 
selm  Bayly  of  Haresfield,  Gloucestershire,  was 
born  in  the  year  1719.  He  matriculated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  Nov.  4,  1740.  On  Jan. 
22,  1 741,  he  was  appointed  lay  vicar  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  on  the  29th  of  the  same 
month  was  admitted  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  both  places  being  vacant  by  the  death 
of  John  Church.  On  March  13,  1744,  having 
resigned  his  place  as  gentleman,  he  was  ad- 
mitted priest  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  He  graduated 
as  B.C.L.  June  12,  1749,  and  D.C.L.  July  10, 
1764.  In  the  latter  year,  on  the  death  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Fifield  Allen,  Bayly  was  appointed 
his  successor  as  sub-dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
He  died  in  1792.  He  was  author  of  'A 
Practical  Treatise  on  Singing  and  Playing,' 
1 771,  and  'The  Alliance  of  Musick,  Poetry, 
and  Oratory,'  1789,  and  of  several  theological 
and  granmiatical  works.  In  1769  he  edited  a 
collection  of  the  words  of  Anthems,  to  which 
he  contributed  an  interesting  preface  on  cathedral 
music.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BAZZINI,  Antonio,  eminent  violinist,  was 
born  in  181 8  at  Brescia.  From  1840  he  has 
played  with  great  success  in  most  of  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and 
Belgium.  As  a  performer  he  belongs  to  the 
school  of  Paganini,  his  playing,  although  not 
free  from  mannerism  and  a  certain  sentimen- 
tality, being  distinguished  by  a  most  brilliant 
technique  of  the  left  hand  and  the  bow,  and 
by  great  vivacity  of  style.  As  a  composer  for  his 
instrument  Bazziui  shews  more  earnest  artistic 
feeling  than  most  modern  Italians.  Havdng  pub- 
lished in  earlier  years  a  number  of  operatic 
fantasias,  many  pieces  de  salon,  a  concertino  and 
and  an  allegro  de  concert,  he  has  of  late  come 
forward  with  works  for  the  chamber  and  church, 
which  have  met  with  great  success  at  Milan  and 
other  Italian  places.  Bazzini  is  now  (1876) 
Professor  of  Composition  at  the  IMilan  Con- 
servatorio.  [P.  D.] 

BEALE,  John,  a  pianist,  bom  in  London 
about  1 796,  was  a  pupil  of  John  Baptist  Cramer. 
In  1820  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society,  and  in  1821  was  an 
active  promoter  of  a  concert  given  to  celebrate 
the  birthday  of  Mozart.  On  the  estal)lish- 
ment  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  he  was 

1  For  an  amusing  anecdote  coimecii'ii  witli  tliis  opera  and  wiUl 
the  dislike  of  Napoleon  1  to  loud  music  see  Ciemeut, '  Dlciiounaire 
Lyrique,'  p.  921>. 


158 


BEALE. 


BEAT. 


named  one  of  the  professors  of  the  pianoforte 
there.  [W.H.H.] 
BEALE,  William,  was  bom  at  Landrake 
Jan.  I,  1784,  and  brought  up  as  a  chorister  of 
Westminster  Abbey  under  Dr.  Arnold  and 
Robert  Cooke.  In  181 3  he  gained  by  his 
madrigal,  'Awake,  sweet  muse,'  the  prize  cup 
given  by  the  Madrigal  Society.  He  published 
in  1820  a  collection  of  his  glees  and  madrigals. 
On  the  title-page  of  his  madrigal  *  What  ho ! 
what  ho!'  published  in  1816,  he  is  styled 
'  Gentn.  of  His  Majesty's  Chapels  Eoyal,'  an  ap- 
pointment he  never  held.  He  gained  a  prize  at 
the  Adelphi  Glee  Club  in  1840.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  3rd  of  May,  1 854.       [ W.  H.  H.] 

BEARD,  JoHJT,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  j 
English  tenor  singers,  born  about  1 71 7,  was  in 
his  boyhood  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
imder  Bernard  Gates.  He  first  appeared  as  a 
tenor  singer  in  Handel's  performances  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  in  1736,  singing  in  'Alexander's 
Feast,'  'Acis  and  Galatea,'  and  *  Atalanta.'  On 
Aug.  30,  1737,  he  appeared  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  as  Sir  John  Loverule  in  Coffey's  ballad 
opera  'The  Devil  to  Pay,'  and  in  the  following 
season  was  regularly  engaged  there.  In  1739 
he  married  Lady  Henrietta,  the  young  widow 
of  Lord  Edward  Herbert,  and  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Waldegrave,  on  which  he  retired  for 
a  short  time  from  professional  life.  After 
fourteen  years  uninterrupted  happiness,  Lady 
Henrietta  died  in  1753,  aged  thirty-six.  Beard 
performed  at  Drury  Lane  until  1 743,  after  which 
he  was  engaged  at  Covent  Garden  until  1 748  ; 
he  then  returned  to  Drury  Lane,  where  he 
continued  until  1759,  in  which  year  he  married 
Charlotte,  daughter  of  John  Rich,  proprietor  of 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  and  was  again  engaged 
at  that  house.  Rich  dying  in  1761,  Beard 
became,  in  right  of  his  wife,  proprietor  and 
manager  of  the  theatre,  and  so  continued  until 
an  increasing  deafness  determined  him  to  dispose 
of  his  interest  in  it  and  quit  the  stage.  He  took 
his  leave  of  the  public  as  Hawthorn  in  *  Love  in 
a  Village'  May  23,  1767.  After  his  retirement  ' 
he  resided  at  Hampton,  where  he  died,  Feb.  | 
4,  1 79 1,  in  his  seventy-fourth  year.  His  wife  1 
survived  him  until  August  26,  1818,  when  she  ! 
died  at  Hampton  at  the  great  age  of  ninety-two.  I 
Beard  throughout  life  bore  the  reputation  of 
being  a  highly  honourable  and  upright  man. 
To  form  an  estimate  of  his  abilities  as  a  singer 
it  is  only  necessary  to  remember  that  Handel 
composed  for  him  the  great  tenor  parts  in 
'Israel  in  Egypt,'  'Messiah,'  'Samson,'  'Judas 
Maccabeus,'  and  *  Jephthah.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

BEAT.  The  name  given  in  English  to  a 
melodic  grace  or  ornament,  but  with  considerable 
uncertainty  as  to  which  particular  ornament  it 
denotes,  ttie  word  having  been  very  variously 
applied  by  different  writers. 

With  some  authors  it  signifies  the  AcciA- 
CATURA,  but  it  appears  to  be  most  generally 
understood  to  mean  the  Mordent  (Ger. 
Ueisser)  (Ex.  i),  in  which  connection  it  seems 


not  impossible  that  its  English  name  may  have 
been  originally  'bite.'  Dr.  Callcott  however,  in 
his  Grammar  of  Music,  speaks  of  the  beat  as  a 
reversed  shake,  and  derives  its  name  from  Batte- 
ment,  giving  an  example  as  in  Ex.  2.  Battement 
again,  according  to  Rousseau  (Dictionnaire  de 
Musique),  is  a  shake  beginning  on  the  upper 
instead  of  the  principal  note  (Ex.  3) 
I.  Written.     2.  3. 


f 


Played^ 


It  is  doubtless  owing  to  this  uncertainty  that  the 
word  has  now  almost  fallen  into  disuse.    [F,  T.] 

BEAT.  The  movement  of  the  hand  or  baton 
by  which  the  rhythm  of  a  piece  of  music  is  in- 
dicated, and  by  which  a  conductor  ensures  per- 
fect agreement  in  tempo  and  accent  on  the  part 
of  the  orchestra  or  chorus  ;  also,  by  analogy,  the 
different  divisions  of  a  bar  or  measure  with 
respect  to  their  relative  accent. 

Among  the  ancients  the  ordinary  method  of 
beating  time  was  by  striking  the  foot  upon  the 
ground.  The  person  who  exercised  this  function, 
corresponding  to  our  modem  conductor,  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  Coryphneus  (principal),  and 
by  the  Romans  Pedarius  or  Pedicularius,  from 
the  custom  of  employing  the  foot  to  beat  with, 
and  it  was  usual  for  him  to  wear  sandals  of  wood 
or  metal,  called  pedicula  or  scabella,  in  order 
by  their  percussion  to  render  the  rhythm  more 
evident.  Sometimes  the  measure  was  marked 
by  clapping  the  hands — in  which  case  the  time- 
beater  was  called  Manuductor;  and  sometimes  by 
the  striking  together  of  oyster-shells,  bones,  etc. 

To  our  ears  this  incessant  and  noisy  percussion 
would  be  unendurable,  and  a  modern  conductor 
would  be  severely  criticised  who  could  not  keep 
his  performers  in  time  by  the  noiseless  move^ 
ments  of  his  baton ;  nevertheless,  the  improve- 
ment is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  for  we  find 
Rousseau  in  1768  complaining  that  the  listener 
at  the  Paris  opera  should  be  'shocked  by  the 
continual  and  disagreeable  noise  made  by  him 
who  beats  the  measure.' 

The  method  of  beating  now  commonly  in  use 
in  England,  France,  and  Germany  is  as  follows : — 
the  first  note  of  each  bar  (which  has  always  the 
strongest  accent)  is  indicated  by  a  downward 
movement  of  the  hand  or  baton,  and  this  part  of 
the  bar  is  therefore  usually  known  as  the  'do\vn- 
beat';  in  triple  time  this  is  followed  by  two 
unaccented  beats,  which  are  shown  by  a  move- 
ment first  to  the  right  and  then  upwards,  unless 
in  scherzos  or  other  movements  in  rapid  time, 
where  it  is  usual  to  give  merely  a  down  beat  at 
the  beginning  of  the  bar.  In  common  time  there 
may  be  either  one  or  three  non-accents,  in  the 
first  case  the  simple  up-beat  suffices,  in  the  latter 
the  beats  following  the  down-beat  are  to  the  left, 
to  the  right,  and  then  upwards.    In  all  cases 


BEAT. 


BEATS. 


159 


the  movement  immediately  preceding  the  down- 
beat ia  an  up  beat. 

In  beating  compound  time  (that  is,  time  in 
which  each  beat  is  made  up  of  three  parts)  it  is 
customary  to  give  each  beat  three  times  in  suc- 
cession, thus  in  12-8  time  there  would  be  three 
down,  three  left,  three  right,  and  three  up-beats, 
except  in  rapid  tempo,  when  the  ordinary  number 
of  beats  will  sufi&ce,  one  beat  being  equivalent 
to  three  notes. 

In  the  greater  part  of  Italy  a  somewhat  different 
method  of  beating  is  adopted,  there  being  no  beats 
to  the  right  or  left ;  when  therefore  there  are 
more  than  two  beats  in  a  bar,  two  down-beats 
are  given  in  succession,  followed  in  triple  time  by 
one  and  in  common  time  by  two  up-beats. 

In  theoretical  works,  the  down-beat  or  ac- 
cent, and  the  up-beat  or  non-accent,  are  usually 
spoken  of  by  their  Greek  names  of  thesis  and 
arsis.  [F.  T.] 

BEATKICE  DI  TENDA.  Italian  opera,  the 
libretto  by  F.  Romani,  the  music  by  Bellini ; 
produced  at  Venice  in  1833,  and  at  the  Theatre 
des  Italiens,  Paris,  Feb.  8, 1841,  and  in  London, 
at  the  King's  Theatre,  March  22,  1836. 

BEATS  are  a  wavy  throbbing  effect  produced 
by  the  sounding  together  of  certain  notes,  and 
most  noticeable  in  unisons  and  consonances,  when 
not  perfectly  tuned  to  one  another. 

To  explain  their  origin  reference  must  be  made 
[I    to  elementary  facts  in  the  science  of  sound. 
I    Sound  is  conveyed  to  our  ears  by  the  waves 
I    into  which  the  air,  or  other  medium,  is  thrown 
[    by  the  vibration  of  what  is  called  the  sounding 
body.    These  waves  are  proportionally  relative 
,    to  the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  of  the  note 
I    sounding,  and  therefore  also  to  its  pitch ;  they 
j    consist  of  alternate  condensation  and  rarefaction, 
I    each  vibration  being  considered  (in  England  and 
I    Germany)  to  comprise  both  the  compression  slbAt 
I    distension  of  the  particles  of  the  air  analogous 
!    to  the  crest  and  trough  of  a  wave  of  water, 
j    These  are,  as  it  were,  opposite  forces,  and  can 
I    be  made  to  counteract  each  other  if  two  waves 
be  simultaneously  produced  which  start  at  such 
a  distance  from  each  other  that  the  condensation 
of  one  exactly  corresponds  to  the  rarefaction  of 
the  other.    A  very  simple  proof  of  this  may  be 
obtained  by  striking  a  large  tuning-fork  and 
i    holding  it  close  to  the  ear,  and  turning  it 
|i    slowly  round ;  when  a  particular  point  will  be 
j    found  on  either  side  of  the  fork  at  which  the 
'    sound  ceases,  although  the  fork  continues  to 
vibrate,  because  the  two  prongs  are  in  such  a 
position  relative  to  the  ear  that  their  sound- 
waves in  that  direction  mutually  counterbalance 
one  another. 

Beats  are  produced  by  sound-waves  which 
have  such  relations  in  size  and  rapidity,  that  at 
certain  intervals  they  cross  one  another  and,  con- 
densation and  rarefaction  being  simultaneous  for 
j    the  moment,  produce  silence.    For  instance,  if 
I    two  notes  which  vibrate  respectively  100  and  loi 
times  in  a  second  be  sounded  together,  it  is  clear 
I    that  the  sound-waves  of  the  latter  will  gain  ^hn 


on  the  former  at  each  vibration,  and  half-way 
through  the  second  will  have  gained  so  much 
that  its  condensation  will  exactly  correspond 
with  the  rarefaction  of  the  other  note  (or  vice 
versa),  and  for  the  moment  silence  wiU  result ; 
and  so  for  each  second  of  time. 

If  the  notes  be  further  apart,  as  100  to  102,  the 
latter  will  gain  twice  as  much  in  every  vibration, 
and  there  will  be  two  places  where  the  waves 
counteract  each  other,  and  therefore  two  beats  in 
each  second.  Hence  the  rule  that  the  number  of 
heats  per  second  is  equal  to  the  difference  between 
the  rates  of  vibration  of  the  notes. 

It  is  found  practically  that  it  is  not  necessary 
for  the  waves  to  be  exactly  in  opposition ;  for  in 
the  case  of  one  note  with  100  vibrations  in  a 
second  and  another  with  103,  though  the  three 
beats  will  be  heard  according  to  the  rule  above 
given,  it  is  proved  mathematically  that  there  will 
be  only  one  point  at  which  the  condensation  and 
rarefaction  are  exactly  simultaneous,  and  the 
other  two  extremes  of  opposition  are  not  ex- 
act, though  within  Yoioo  ^  second  of  coinci- 
dence. 

In  point  of  fact  the  sound  will  be  lessened  to 
a  minimum  up  to  the  extreme  of  opposition  in  the 
position  of  the  waves,  and  increased  to  the  full 
power  of  the  two  sounds  up  to  the  perfect  coin- 
cidence of  the  vibrations. 

It  wUl  have  been  observed  that  the  beats  in- 
crease in  nvmiber  as  the  notes  become  more  wide 
apart.  According  to  Helmholtz  they  are  most 
disagreeable  when  they  number  about  33  in  a 
second,  which  is  nearly  the  number  produced  by 
the  sounding  together  of  treble  C  and  Db.  From 
that  point  they  become  less  and  less  harsh  till 
with  such  an  interval  as  treble  C  and  E,  which 
produces  128  beats  in  a  second,  there  is  no  un- 
pleasant sensation  remaining. 

Beats  are  of  three  kinds.  The  first  and  most 
commonly  known  is  produced  by  the  sounding 
together  of  two  notes  nearly  in  unison — to  which 
the  above  description  applies  simply.  They  are 
associated  with  the  name  of  the  great  violinist 
Tartini,  for  reasons  concerning  which  a  contro- 
versy has  arisen,  and  which  are  too  long  to  be 
here  set  down. 

The  second  kind  arises  from  the  imperfect 
tuning  of  consonances — such  as  the  third,  fourth, 
fifth,  sixth,  or  octave.  Here  the  notes  are  too 
wide  apart  for  the  primary  beats  as  described 
above  to  be  noticeable  But  the  primary  beats 
are  in  this  case  thrown  into  groups  or  cycles, 
which  produce  the  effect  of  beats.  These  were 
first  investigated  by  Dr.  Robert  Smith,  Master  of 
Trinity  Coll.  Cambridge  (died  1768),  and  are 
called  after  him. 

The  third  kind,  also  due  to  the  imperfect 
tuning  of  consonances,  is  that  which  has  been 
most  carefully  investigated  by  Helmholtz,  and  is 
called  by  him  the  over-tone  beat.  It  is  produced 
exactly  in  the  manner  first  described  between  the 
harmonics  of  one  note  and  anotlier  fundamental 
note  which  is  not  in  tune  with  the  first,  or  be- 
tween the  harmonics  of  two  fundamentals  which 
are  out  of  tune. 


160 


BEATS. 


BECHSTEIN. 


For  instance,  if  bass  C  be  sounded  with  middle 
C,  and  the  latter  be  slightly  out  of  tune,  middle 
C  and  the  first  harmonic  of  the  lower  C  will  be 
in  the  position  of  imperfectly  tuned  unisons, 
and  beats  will  be  produced.  If  C  and  G  be 
sounded  together,  and  the  latter  be  out  of  tune, 
the  second  harmonic  of  the  former  and  the  first  of 
the  latter  will  clash  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
beats  will  be  produced  between  them.  And  so 
with  other  consonances. 

The  value  of  beats  to  organ-tuners  is  well 
known,  as  their  disappearance  when  the  notes 
are  in  tune  is  a  much  safer  criterion  of  exactness 
than  the  musical  sense  unaided.  Moreover  it  is 
possible  to  discover,  by  simple  calculation  of  the 
number  of  beats  in  a  second  relative  to  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations,  the  exact  amount  any  note  is 
out  of  tune  with  another. 

For  more  complete  discussion  of  this  subject, 
see  an  article  by  W.  Pole,  Mus.  Doc,  F.R.S.,  in 
'  Nature'  for  1876,  Nos.  324,  325.    [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BEAULIEU,  Makie  Desire,  whose  family 
name  was  Martin,  son  of  an  artillery  officer 
of  Niort,  born  in  Paris  1791.  He  studied  under 
Rodolph  Kreutzer,  Benincori,  and  M^hul,  and 
obtained  the  *  Grand  Prix'  at  the  Conservatoire 
in  1 8 10.  He  did  not  accept  the  five  years'  tour 
to  which  the  prize  entitled  him,  and  settled  at 
Niort.  Here  he  founded  quartet  meetings,  and 
in  1829  a  Philharmonic  Society,  which  was  after- 
wards expanded  into  the  'Association  musicale 
de  rOuest'  (1835).  This  society  was  the  first 
of  its  kind  in  provincial  France,  and  through 
the  untiring  zeal  of  its  founder  has  attained 
a  high  pitch  of  excellence.  Yearly  festivals  are 
held  in  turn  at  Niort,  Poitiers,  La  Rochelle, 
Angoul^me,  Limoges,  and  Rochefort ;  and  Men- 
delssohn's '  St.  Paul'  and  '  Elijah '  were  performed 
at  Rochelle  by  this  society  long  before  they  were 
heard  in  Paris,  Beaulieu  wrote  in  all  styles,  but 
excelled  in  church  music.  His  principal  work 
was  a  requiem  on  the  death  of  Mehul,  composed 
1 8 19,  performed  1840.  He  also  wrote  much 
on  music.  A  complete  list  of  his  compositions 
is  given  by  Fdtis.  [M.  C.  C] 

BEAUMAVIELLE,  a  baritone  singer, 
brought  from  Toulouse  by  Perrin  to  sing  in 
*  Pomone,'  the  first  French  opera  by  Cambert, 
produced  in  1671.  After  Lulli  had  obtained 
the  transference  of  Perrin's  monopoly  to  himself, 
Beaumavielle  was  one  of  the  best  singers  at  his 
opera-house.  He  died  in  1688,  soon  after  Lulli, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Th^venard.       [M.  C.  C] 

BEBUNG  (Ger.;  Fr.  Balancement ;  Ital. 
Tremolo),  a  certain  pulsation  or  trembling  effect 
given  to  a  sustained  note  in  either  vocal  or  in- 
strumental music,  for  the  sake  of  expression.  On 
stringed  instruments  it  is  effected  by  giving  an 
oscillating  movement  to  the  finger  while  pressing 
the  string ;  on  wind  instruments  and  in  singing 
by  the  management  of  the  breath. 

The  word  Bebung  refers,  however,  more  parti- 
cularly to  an  effiect  peculiar  to  the  old  clavichord, 
but  not  possible  on  the  modem  pianoforte,  in 
which  the  continuous  and  uninterrupted  repeti- 


tion of  a  note  was  produced  not  by  a  fresh  blow, 
but  by  a  movement  of  the  tip  of  the  finger  with- 
out leaving  the  key.  This  effect  was  formerly 
held  in  high  estimation  as  a  means  of  expression, 
and  Emanuel  Bach  in  the  introduction  to  his 
'Versuch  iiber  die  wahre  Art  das  Clavier  zu 
spielen,'  says,  comparing  the  then  newly- invented 
pianoforte  with  the  clavichord,  *  I  believe,  never- 
theless, that  a  good  clavichord  possesses — with 
the  exception  that  its  tone  is  weaker — all  the 
beauties  of  the  former  (the  pianoforte),  and  in 
addition  the  Bebung  and  the  power  of  sustaining 
the  tone,  inasmuch  as  after  striking  each  note  I 
can  give  a  fresh  pressure.' 

The  Bebung  was  not  often  marked,  except 
sometimes  by  the  word  tremolo.  Marpurg,  how- 
ever ('Principes  du  Clavecin'),  gives  the  following 
as  the  sign  of  its  employment,  using  as  many  dots 
over  the  note  as  there  were  to  be  repetitions  of 


the  sound- 


[F.  T.] 


BECHER,  Alfred  Julius,  bom  of  German 
parents  at  Manchester,  1 803 ;  educated  at  Hei- 
delberg, Gottingen,  and  Berlin.  His  life  was 
one  of  perpetual  movement  and  adventure.  Before 
he  was  40  he  had  lived  in  Elberfeld,  Cologne, 
Dflsseldorf,  the  Hague,  and  London,  had  practised 
as  an  advocate,  edited  a  mercantile  newspaper, 
and  twice  filled  the  post  of  Professor  of  Com- 
position. But  whatever  else  he  did  he  was 
always  faithful  to  music.  In  1841  his  wanderings 
came  to  an  end  in  Vienna,  and  at  the  instance 
of  Mendelssohn  he  took  up  musical  criticism,  in 
which  he  was  very  successful,  associating  himself 
with  the  'Wiener  Musik-Zeitung'  and  the 
*  Sontagsblattem.'  He  was  equally  enthusiastic 
for  the  old  masters  and  for  Berlioz.  In  1848  he 
threw  himself  into  politics  as  a  violent  democrat, 
became  editor  of  the  'Radikale,'  was  tried  by 
court  martial  and  shot  on  Nov.  23,  1848,  in  the 
Stadtgraben  of  Vienna.  Becher  published  songs, 
sonatas,  and  pianoforte  pieces,  many  of  which 
became  favourites.  He  composed  a  symphony, 
a  violoncello  fantasia  (performed  at  a  concert  at 
which  he  had  the  aid  of  Jenny  Lind),  and  string 
quartets.  But  these,  though  full  of  ability  and 
intelligence,  never  made  any  impression  on  the 
public.  Becher's  literary  works  were  almost 
entirely  fugitive,  but  he  published  a  biography 
of  Jenny  Lind  ( 1 846).  [C.  F.  P.] 

BECHSTEIN,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Karl. 
The  first  half  of  this  century  was  not  marked 
by  any  noteworthy  progress  in  North  German 
pianoforte-making,  the  instruments  made  being 
far  behind  the  Viennese.  But  this  reproach 
caimot  now  be  applied  either  to  Berlin  or 
Leipsic.  Herr  Bechstein  established  his  work- 
shops in  the  former  city  in  1855.  By  the 
adoption  of  the  American  system  of  iron  framing 
and  of  an  action  based  upon  the  English,  he  has 
raised  a  reputation  for  his  concert  instruments 
reaching  beyond  Prussian  limits.  Herr  Bech- 
stein is  a  native  of  Gotha.  [A.  J.  H.] 


BECK. 


BECKWITH. 


161 


BECK,  Franz,  bom  at  Mannheim  1731,  died 
at  Bourdeaux  1809,  violinist  and  composer. 
When  quite  young  he  took  refuge  in  Paris  from 
the  effects  of  a  duel,  and  thence  removed  to 
Bourdeaux,  Here  he  became  director  of  a  series 
of  concerts  (1780),  and  trained  many  eminent 
musicians ;  among  others  Blanchard  and  Bochsa. 
His  compositions  are  excellent,  though  com- 
paratively few  in  number.  They  comprise  24 
Symphonies  (1776);  a  '  Stabat  Mater,'  performed 
at  the  Concerts  Spirituels  in  1783  ;  *  Bandore,'  a 
melodrama  (1789);  a  'Gloria*  and  'Credo'; 
MS.  Sonatas  for  Pianoforte,  and  Quartets  for 
Strings,  [M.  C.  C] 

BECKER.    In  Russia  the  pianoforte -makers 
have  been  Germans.     The  leading  Russian 
house  at  the  present  time  owes  its  origin  to 
Jacob  Becker,  a  native  of  the  Bavarian  Pala- 
tinate, who  founded  it   in  1841.  Although 
pianoforte  -  making  had  early  in  this  century 
been  introduced  in  St.  Petersburg,  until  about 
1850  pianists  had  imported  their  instruments 
for  public  performance.    From  that  time  how- 
ever Becker  succeeded  in  making  concert  instru- 
ments, and  since  18  71  Mr.  Paul  Peterssen,  the 
present  head  of  the  house,  by  adopting  modem 
I    principles  of  framing,  has  made  an  effectual 
ii    stand  against  this — to  Russian  interests — dis- 
ij    advantageous   competition,    and   it   has  now 
1:    become  as  much  a  matter  of  course  to  hear  the 
Russian  pianofortes  of  Becker  in  the  concerts  of 
Petersburg  and  Moscow  as  it  is  to  hear  the  Rus- 
sian language  in  polite  society.  [A.  J.  H.] 

BECKER,  Carl  Ferdinand,  organist  and 
professor  at  the  Conservatorium  of  Leipsic,  born 
in  1804,  studied  the  piano,  harmony,  and  com- 
position, under  Schicht  and  Schneider.  Played 
the  piano  in  public  at  fourteen  years  old,  but 
afterwards  paid  more  attention  to  the  organ, 
1   and  rose  by  degrees  to  be  organist  of  the  Nicolai- 
]    Kirche  in  Leipsic.    On  the  foundation  of  the 
I    Conservatorium  at  Leipsic  he  was  invited  by 
I    Mendelssohn  to  join  the  new  enterprise.  The 
I   estimation  which  Becker  enjoyed  in  Germany 
j   was  due  less  to  his  compositions  than  to  his 
productions  in  musical  literature.  Prominent 
I  amongst  these  are  his  '  Systematisch-chronolo- 
gische  Darstellung  der  musik-Literatur,'  etc. 
:  (1836),  with  a  supplement  (1839),  in  which 
:  Becker  is  said  to  have  been  assisted  by  Anton 
Schmid,  custos  of  the  Hof  bibliothek  at  Vienna. 
He  also  wrote  'Hausmusik  in  Deutschland  in 
i   i6ten,  I7ten,  iSten  Jahrh.'  (1840);  also  'Die 
Tonwerke  des  1 6ten  und  1 7ten  Jahrh.' —  a  cata- 
logue of  the  music  printed  during  that  period 
(1847) ;  and  a  catalogue  of  his  own  collection — 
*  Alphabetisch  und  chronologisch  geordnetes  Ver- 
zeichniss,'  etc.  (Breitkopf,  1847).    The  collection 
itself,  containing  works  of  the  greatest  rarity,  he 
I  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Leipsic  at  his  death 
Oct.  26,  1877.  [F.  G.] 

j      BECKER,  Const ANTiN  Julius,  bom  at  Frei- 
berg Feb.  3,  181 1.    Showed  an  early  talent  for 
music,  which  was  well  developed  by  his  master 
Anackkr.    In  1835  he  came  to  Leipsic  and 
(c.) 


assisted  Schumann  in  editing  the  'Neue  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Musik';  but  in  1843  removed  to 
Dresden  and  occupied  himself  in  teaching  sing- 
ing. In  1846  he  returned  to  Oberlossnitz,  and 
lived  there  in  solitude  till  his  death,  Feb.  26, 
1859.  A  symphony  of  his  was  performed  with 
great  applause  at  the  Gewandbaus  in  1843, 
and  his  opera  'Die  Belagerung  von  Belgrad' 
was  produced  at  Leipsic  on  May  21,  1848.  But 
the  work  by  which  he  will  be  remembered  is 
his  '  Mannergesang-Schule,'  1845.  He  was  the 
author  of  'Die  Neuromantiker,'  a  romance 
(1840),  and  of  a  translation  of  Berlioz's  'Voyage 
Musicale.'  [F.  G.] 

BECKER,  Dietrich,  violinist  and  composer 
to  the  Hamburg  senate  towards  the  middle  of 
the  1 7  th  century ;  one  of  the  earliest  German 
instrumental  composers ;  published  sonatas  on 
chorales  for  violin,  viol  di  garaba,  and  bass 
(Hamburg,  1668),  as  well  as  'Die  musikalischen 
Friihlingsfruchte,'  consisting  of  pieces  for  in- 
struments in  four  and  five  parts,  with  basso  con- 
tinuo.  [F.  G.] 

BECKER,  Jean,  eminent  violin-player,  bom 
at  Mannheim  in  1836.  His  first  teacher  was 
Kettenus,  then  leader  of  the  Mannheim  orchestra, 
and  he  afterwards  learned  from  Alard  in  Paris. 
He  began  to  perform  in  public  when  only  eleven, 
and  was  still  very  young  when  he  became  the 
successor  of  Kettenus.  In  1859  he  played  with 
great  success  in  Paris,  and  thence  went  to 
London,  where  he  appeared  at  the  Monday 
Popular  Concerts,  and  was  for  one  season  leader 
of  the  Philharmonic  Concerts.  After  travelling 
for  some  years  through  most  parts  of  Europe, 
he  settled  in  1866  at  Florence,  and  associated 
himself  with  two  Italian  musicians,  Masi  and 
Chiostri,  and  the  German  violoncellist  Hilpert. 
These  artists,  well  known  under  the  name  of  the 
'Florentiner  Quartett,'  have  earned,  by  their 
careful  and  spirited  performances  of  the  classical 
masterpieces  of  quartet  literature,  a  great  and 
well-deserved  reputation  in  most  musical  centres 
of  the  continent.  Becker's  style  as  a  solo-player 
appears  to  be  a  compromise  between  the  severe 
style  of  the  German  school  and  the  lighter  and 
more  brilliant  one  of  the  French.  [P.  D.] 

BECKWITH,  John  Christmas,  Mus.  Doc, 
was  bom  Dec.  25,  1759,  and  studied  music 
under  Dr.  Philip  Hayes.  He  succeeded  Garland 
as  organist  of  the  cathedral  and  St.  Peter's  Man- 
croft,  Norwich,  about  1780.  On  July  5,  1803, 
he  took  his  degrees  as  Mus.  Bac.  and  Mus.  Doc. 
at  Oxford.  He  composed  many  anthems  —  six 
of  them  published  by  Clementi — and  a  few  vocal 
pieces,  some  of  which  became  popular.  He  was 
considered  a  good  singing-master,  and  was  the 
instructor  of  Thomas  Vaughan.  In  1808  he 
published  a  set  of  chants  under  the  following 
title : — 'The  First  Verse  of  every  Psabn  of  Da- 
vid, with  an  Ancient  or  Modem  Chant,  in 
Score,  adapted  as  much  as  possible  to  the  Senti- 
ment of  each  Psalm.'  The  preface  to  this  work 
contains  'a  short  history  of  chanting,'  which 
displays  leaming  and  research,  and  contains  the 


162 


BECKWITff. 


BEETHOVEN. 


first  suggestion  of  marked  psalters.  Dr.  Buck, 
who  was  his  pupil  and  successor  at  Norwich 
Cathedral,  describes  his  master  as  being  almost 
as  proficient  in  painting  as  in  music.  He  died 
Junes,  1809.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BEDOS  DE  CELLES,  Dom  rRAN90is,  a 
learned  Benedictine,  born  at  Caux  in  the  diocese 
of  Bezieres  in  1 706,  entered  the  order  at  Toulouse 
in  1726,  and  died  at  St.  Maur  on  Nov.  25,  1779. 
Author  of  'L'art  du  facteur  d'orgues'  (Paris, 
1766-78),  an  admirable  work  for  the  time, 
written  at  the  request  of  the  Academic  des 
Sciences ;  also  of  an  account  of  the  new  organ  at 
St.  Martin  of  Tours,  in  the  'Mercure  de  France' 
for  Jan.  1762,  of  which  a  German  translation 
by  J.  F.  Agricola  will  be  found  in  Adelung's 
'Musica  mechanica  organoedi.'  De  Celles  was 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences  of 
Bourdeaux,  and  corresponding  member  of  that 
of  Paris.  [F.  G.] 

BEER,  Jacob  Meyer,  the  original  name  of 
GiACOMO  Meyerbeer. 

BEER,  Joseph  (sometimes  written  BOER), 
a  remarkable  clarinet  -  player ;  born  1744  at 
Griinwald  in  Bohemia,  served  as  trumpeter  first 
in  the  Austrian  and  then  in  the  French  army 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  1771  he  went 
to  Paris,  and  there  took  up  the  clarinet,  on  which 
he  rap'dly  became  the  first  performer  of  his  time. 
In  1782  he  left  Paris,  and  travelled  through 
HoUand,  Italy,  Russia,  and  Hungary,  exciting 
everywhere  the  greatest  possible  enthusiasm.  He 
died  at  Potsdam  in  181 1.  As  a  performer  Beer 
united  a  masterly  execution  to  great  power  of 
expression,  and  indeed  efiected  a  complete  revo- 
lution in  the  clarinet,  which  he  greatly  improved 
by  the  addition  of  a  fifth  key.  Till  nearly  fifty 
years  old  he  had  heard  only  French  players,  and 
had  insensibly  acquired  their  loud  harsh  tone ; 
but  having  heard  in  Brussels  a  German  per- 
former, Schwartz,  he  discovered  what  the  in- 
strument was  capable  of,  and  finally  became  as 
celebrated  for  the  softness  and  purity  of  his  tone, 
for  the  delicacy  of  his  nuances,  and  especially 
his  decrescendo,  as  he  was  for  his  execution. 
In  fact  he  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
instrument.  His  compositions  comprise  three 
concertos  for  two  clarinets,  variations,  and 
duets.  [M.  C.  C.] 

BEETHOVEN,  Ludwig  vanS  born  at  Bonn, 
probably  Dec.  16,  1770.^  The  earliest  form  of 
the  name  is  that  with  which  we  are  familiar, 
but  it  takes  many  other  shapes  in  the  uncertain 
spelling  of  the  time,  such  as  Biethofien,  Biethofen, 
Biethoven,  Bethoven,  Betthoven,  and  Bethof.  He 
himself  appears  to  have  always  spelt  it  as  we 
know  it.^  The  family  belonged  originally  to  a 
village  near  Louvain  ;  thence  in  1650  they  moved 
to  Antwerp,  where  in  1685  the  name  appears  in 
the  registers.    His  father  Johann  or  Jean,  and 

'  Van  in  Dutch  is  not,  like  von  or  de,  a  sign  of  nobility. 

2  Tlie  baptism  is  registered  on  the  17th,  and  it  was  the  custom  to 
baptise  on  the  day  following  birth.  Beethoven's  own  belief  was  that  he 
was  born  in  1772,  which  accounts  for  an  occasional  mistake  in  his  esti- 
mate of  the  age  at  which  he  wrote  his  early  works. 

In  his  letters ;  but  In  an  advertisement  of  his,  31  March.  1804,  It  is 
Uethofen  (Nottebohm.  Beelhoveniana,  p.  4). 


his  grandfather  Ludwig,  were  both  musicians  in 
the  Court  band  of  the  Elector  of  Cologne,  at 
Bonn — the  latter  a  bass-singer,  and  afterwards 
Capellmeister,  appointed  March  1733,  the  former 
a  tenor  singer,  March  27,  1756.  The  grandfather 
lived  till  Dec.  24,  1773,  when  the  little  Ludwig 
had  just  completed  his  third  year.  He  was  a  small 
lively  person  with  extraordinarily  bright  eyes, 
much  respected  and  esteemed  as  a  musician,  and 
made  an  indelible  impression  on  his  grandson. 
His  portrait  was  the  only  one  which  Beethoven 
took  from  Bonn  to  Vienna,  and  he  often  spoke  of 
it  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Beethoven's  mother — • 
daughter  of  the  chief  cook  at  Ehrenbreitstein — 
was  married  to  Johann  on  Nov.  12,  1767.  She 
was  twelve  years  younger  than  her  husband  ;  her 
original  name  had  been  Keverich,  but  at  the 
time  of  the  marriage  she  was  a  widow — Maria 
Magdalena  Leym  or  Laym.  She  died  after  a 
long  iUness  on  July  17,  1787,  a  woman  of  soft 
heart  and  easy  ways,  much  beloved  by  her  son. 
The  father,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  severe 
hard  man  of  irregular  habits,  who  evidently  saw 
his  son's  ability,  gave  him  the  best  instruction 
that  his  poverty  would  allow,  and  kept  him  to 
his  music  with  a  stem,  strict,  perhaps  cruel,  hand. 
It  is  perhaps  fortunate  he  did  so.  The  first 
house  they  occupied  in  Bonn,  that  in  which  the 
great  composer  was  bom,  was  5 1 5  in  the  Bonn- 
gasse,  now  designated  by  a  tablet  erected  in  1870. 
Besides  their  eldest,  Ludwig  Maria,  who  was  bom 
April  I,  1769,  and  lived  but  six  days,  the  Bee- 
thovens  had  three  other  sons — Caspar  Anton 
Carl,  April  7,  1774;  Nikolaus  Johann,  Oct.  i, 
1776;  and  August  Franz  Georg,  Jan.  16,  1781, 
died  Aug.  1 6, 1 783 ;  a  daughter,  Feb.  2  3, 1 7  79,  who 
lived  only  four  days,  and  a  second  girl,  Maria 
Margaretha  Josepha,  May  4,  1786.  The  first  of 
these  was  the  father  of  the  ill-fated  youth  who 
gave  his  uncle  so  much  distress,  and  was  probably 
the  ultimate  cause  of  his  death.  He  died  at 
Vienna,  Nov.  5,  18 15.  The  second,  Johann,  was 
an  apothecary,  at  Linz  and  Vienna,  the  'Guts- 
besitzer '  of  the  well-known  anecdote,  his  brother's 
hete  noire,  and  the  subject  of  many  a  complaint  and 
many  a  nickname.  He  died  at  Vienna  J  an.  1 2, 
1848.  From  the  Bonngasse  the  family  migrated 
to  7  or  8  on  the  Dreieck,  and  thence  to  the  Rhein- 
gasse,  No.  934.  To  the  latter  they  came  in  1775 
or  76,  and  there  they  remained  for  a  few  years. 
Johann  Beethoven's  income  from  the  Chapel  was 
300  florins  a  year  (£25) — a  miserable  pittance, 
but  that  of  most  musicians  of  the  chapel ;  and 
this  appears  to  have  been  his  sole  means  of  sub- 
sistence, for  his  voice  was  nearly  gone,  and  there 
is  no  sign  of  his  having  had  other  employment.* 

According  to  Beethoven's  own  statement  in  the 
dedication  to  his  earliest  publication — the  3  Sona- 
tas for  Pianoforte  (1781  or  82) — he  began  music 
in  his  fourth  year.  The  few  traits  preserved  of 
that  early  period  show  that,  like  other  children, 
he  did  not  acquire  it  without  tears.  His  father 
was  his  first  teacher,  and  from  him  he  learned 
both  violin  and  clavier ;  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, and  a  little  Latin  he  obtained  in  one  of 

*  gee  the  register  in  Thayer,  Ludwig  van  Eeeihoven$  Leben,  i.  147. 


BEETHOYE^f. 


BEETHOVEN.  163 


the  common  public  schools,  and  even  this  ceased 
when  he  was  thirteen.  At  school  he  was  shy  and 
uncommunicative,  and  cared  for  none  of  the  or- 
dinary games  of  boys.  Before  he  was  nine  his 
music  had  advanced  so  far  that  his  father  had 
no  longer  anything  to  teach  him,  and  in  1 7  79 
he  was  handed  over  to  Pfeiffer,  a  tenor  singer 
who  had  recently  joined  the  opera  in  Bonn,  and 
seems  to  have  lodged  with  the  Beethovens,  and 
by  whom  he  was  taught,  irregularly  enough,  but 
apparently  with  good  and  lasting  effect,  for  a 
year.  At  the  same  time  he  fell  in  with  a  certain 
Zambona,  who  taught  him  Latin,  French,  and 
Italian,  and  otherwise  assisted  his  neglected  edu- 
cation. The  organ  he  learned  from  Van  den 
Eeden,  organist  to  the  Court  Chapel,  and  an  old 
^riend  of  his  grandfather's.  About  this  time,  1 780, 

) ,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Beethovens 

und  a  friend  in  Mr.  Cressener,  the  English 
charge  d'affaires,  long  time  resident  at  Bonn, 
and  that  he  assisted  them  with  a  sum  of  400 
tiorins.  He  died  on  Jan.  1 7,  1 781,  and  Beethoven 
(then  just  past  ten)  is  said  to  have  written  a 
Euneral  Cantata  to  his  memory,^  which  was  per- 
formed. The  Cantata,  if  it  ever  existed,  has 
hitherto  been  lost  sight  of.  One  composition  of 
this  year  we  have  in  9  Variations  on  Dressler's 
March  in  C  minor,  ^  which  though  published  in 
1783,  are  stated  on  the  title  to  be  'composees  .... 
par  un  jeune  amateur  L.  v.  B.  age  de  dix  ans. 
1780.'  In  Feb.  1781  Neefe  succeeded  Van  den 
Eeden  as  Organist  at  the  Court,  and  Beethoven 
became  his  scholar.  This  was  a  great  step  for 
the  boy,  since  Neefe,  though  somewhat  over 
conservative  as  a  musician,  was  a  sensible  man, 
and  became  a  real  friend  to  his  pupil. 

There  is  ground  for  supposing '  that  during  the 
winter  of  1 781  Ludwig  and  his  mother  made  a 
journey  in  Holland,  during  which  he  played  at 
private  houses,  and  that  the  tour  was  a  pecuniary 
success.  On  June  29,  1782,  old  Van  den  Eeden 
was  buried,  and  on  the  next  day  the  Elector's 
band  followed  him  to  Miinster,  where  as  Bishop 
he  had  a  palace,  Neefe  leaving  Ludwig,  then  11^ 
years  old,  behind  him  as  his  regularly  appointed 
deputy  at  the  chapel  organ,  a  post  which,  though 
unpaid,  was  no  sinecure,  and  required  both  skill 
and  judgment.  This  shows  Neefe's  confidence 
in  his  pupil,  and  agrees  with  his  account  of  him, 
written  a  few  months  later,  as  'playing  with 
force  and  finish,  reading  well  at  sight,  and,  to 
sum  up  all,  playing  the  greater  part  of  Bach's 
Well-tempered  Clavier,  a  feat  which  wiU  be 
understood  by  the  initiated.  This  young  genius,' 
continues  he,  'deserves  some  assistance  that  he 
may  travel.  If  he  goes  on  as  he  has  begun,  he 
will  certainly  become  a  second  Mozart.' 

On  the  26th  April  1783,  Neefe  was  promoted 
to  the  direction  of  both  sacred  and  secular  music, 
and  at  the  same  time  Beethoven  (then  12  years 
and  4  months  old),  was  appointed  '  Cembalist  im 
Orchester,'  with  the  duty  of  accompanying  the 
rehearsals  in  the  theatre  ;  in  other  words  of  con- 
ducting the  opera-band,  with  all  the  responsi- 

i  Thayer,  i.  115.  2  b.  &  H.  Complete  Edition,  No,  166. 

»  Thayer,  i.U6. 


bilities  and  advantages  of  practice  and  experience 
which  belong  to  such  a  position.  No  pay  ac- 
companied the  appointment  at  first,  but  the 
duties  ceased  when  the  Elector  was  absent,  so 
that  there  was  leisure  for  composition.  The  pieces 
published  in  this  year  are  a  song,  'Schilderung 
eines  *  Madchens,'  and  3  Sonatas  for  Piano  solo,^ 
composed,  according  to  the  statement  of  the 
dedication,  in  1781.  On  Aug.  16,  1783,  the 
youngest  boy,  August  Franz,  died,  the  father's 
voice  began  still  further  to  fail,  and  things 
generally  to  go  from  bad  to  worse. 

The  work  at  the  theatre  was  now  rather  on 
the  increase.  From  Oct.  83  to  Oct.  85,  2  operas 
of  Gluck,  4  of  Salieri,  2  of  Sarti,  5  of  Paisiello, 
with  a  dozen  others,  were  studied  and  performed  ; 
but  Ludwig  had  no  pay.  In  Feb.  84  he  made 
an  application  for  a  salary,  but  the  consideration 
was  postponed,  and  it  was  probably  as  a  set-off 
that  he  was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  second 
Court-organist.  Meantime,  however,  on  April 
15,  84,  the  Elector  Max  Friedrich  died,  and  this 
postponed  still  farther  the  prospect  of  emolument. 
The  theatrical  company  was  dismissed,  and  Neefe 
having  only  his  organ  to  attend  to,  no  longer 
required  a  deputy.  The  Beethovens  were  now 
living  at  No.  476  in  the  Wenzelgasse,  whither 
they  appear  to  have  moved  in  83,  and  Ludwig 
played  the  organ  in  the  Minorite  church  at  the 
six  o'clock  mass  every  morning. 

The  music  of  84  consists  of  a  Rondo  for 
the  Piano  in  A,^  published  early  in  the  year, 
and  a  song  'An  einen  ''Saugling':  a  Concerto 
for  Piano  and  a  piece  in  3 -part  harmony,  both 
in  MS.,  are  mentioned  as  probably  belonging  to 
this  year.^ 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  Elector  Max 
Franz,  was  to  examine  his  establishment,  and 
on  June  27,  84,  he  issued  a  list  of  names  and 
salaries  of  his  band,^  among  which  Beethoven's 
father  appears  with  a  salary  of  300  florins,  and 
Beethoven  himself,  as  second  organist,  with  150 
florins,  equivalent  to  £25  and  £13  respectively. 
A  memorandum  of  the  same  date^"  shows  that 
an  idea  was  entertained  of  dismissing  Neefe  and 
putting  Beethoven  into  his  place  as  chief  organist. 
In  fact  Neefe's  pay  was  reduced  from  400  to  200 
florins,  so  that  50  florins  a  year  was  saved  by 
the  appointment  of  Beethoven.  An  economical 
Elector  !  In  the  Holy  Week  of  1 785  the  incident 
occurred  (made  too  much  of  in  the  books)  of 
Beethoven's  throwing  out  the  solo  singer  in 
Chapel  by  a  modulation  in  the  accompaniment, 
which  is  chiefly  interesting  as  showing  how  early 
his  love  of  a  joke  showed  itself.^  During  this 
year  he  studied  the  violin  with  Franz  Ries — 
father  of  Ferdinand.  The  music  of  1785  is  3 
Quartets  for  Piano  and  Strings, a  Minuet  for 
Piano  in  Eb,^^  and  a  song  'Wenn  jemand  eine 
Reise  thut'  (Op.  52,  No.  i). 

In  1786  nothing  appears  to  have  been  either 
composed  or  published,  and  the  only  incident  of 
this  year  that  has  survived,  is  the  birth  of  a 

«  B.  &  H.  No.  228.       8  Ibid.  156-158.       «  Ibid.  196.         Ibid.  229. 
B  Thayer,  i.  128.  »  Ibid.  i.  154.  i»  Ibid.  i.  152. 

11  Schindler,  Biographie,  1.  7 ;  Tliayer,  i.  161. 
UB.&H.  75-77.  W  Ibid.  193. 

'  M  2 


BEETHOVEN", 


BEETHOVEN. 


second  girl  to  the  Beethovens  —  Marie  Marga- 
retha  Josepha,  May  4. 

In  1787  occurred  the  first  real  event  in  Bee- 
thoven's life — his  first  journey  to  Vienna.  Con- 
cerning this  there  is  an  absolute  want  of  dates 
and  details.  Some  one  must  have  been  found  to 
supply  the  means  for  so  expensive  a  journey,  but 
no  name  is  preserved.  As  to  date,  his  duties  as 
organist  would  probably  prevent  his  leaving 
Bonn  before  the  work  of  Holy  Week  and  Easter 
was  over.  The  two  persons  who  were  indelibly 
impressed  on  his  recollection  by  the  visit  ^  were 
Mozart  and  the  Emperor  Joseph.  From  the 
former  he  had  a  few  lessons,  and  carried  away  a 
distinct — and  not  very  appreciative^ — recollection 
of  his  playing ;  but  Mozart  must  have  been  so 
much  occupied  by  the  death  of  his  father  (May 
28)  and  the  approaching  production  of  'Don  Gio- 
vanni' (Oct.  29)  that  it  is  probable  they  had  not 
much  intercourse.  The  well-known  story  of  Bee- 
thoven's introduction  to  him,  when  divested  of  the 
ornaments  ^  of  Seyfried  and  others,  stands  as 
follows: — Mozart  asked  him  to  play,  but  thinking 
that  his  performance  was  a  prepared  piece,  paid 
little  attention  to  it,  Beethoven  seeing  this  en- 
treated Mozart  to  give  him  a  subject,  which  he 
did  ;  and  the  boy,  getting  excited  with  the  occa- 
sion, played  so  finely  that  Mozart,  stepping  softly 
into  the  next  room,  said  to  his  Mends  there,  *  Pay 
attention  to  him ;  he  will  make  a  noise  in  the  world 
some  day  or  other.'  His  visit  seems  not  to  have 
lasted  more  than  three  months,  but,  as  we  have 
said,  all  certain  information  is  wanting.  He  re- 
turned by  Augsburg,  where  he  had  to  borrow 
three  Carolins  (£3)  from  Dr.  von  Schaden.  His 
return  was  hastened  by  the  illness  of  his  mother, 
who  died  of  consumption  July  17,  1787,  and  his 
account  of  himself  in  a  letter  *  to  Von  Schaden, 
written  seven  weeks  after  that  date,  is  not  en- 
couraging. A  short  time  more  and  the  little 
Margaretha  followed  her  mother,  on  Nov.  25,  so 
that  1787  must  have  closed  in  very  darkly.  The 
only  compositions  known  to  belong  to  that  year 
are  a  Trio  in  E  b,*  and  a  Prelude  in  F  minor  for 
Piano  solo.®  However,  matters  began  to  mend  ; 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  von  Breuning 
family — his  first  permanent  friends — a  mother, 
three  boys,  and  a  girl.  He  gave  lessons  to  the 
girl  and  the  youngest  boy,  and  soon  became  an 
inmate  of  the  house,  a  far  better  one  than  he  had 
before  frequented,  and  on  terms  of  close  intimacy 
with  them  all.  The  family  was  a  cultivated  and 
intellectual  one,  the  mother — the  widow  of  a  man 
of  some  distinction— a  woman  of  remarkable  sense 
and  refinement ;  the  children,  more  or  less  of 
his  own  age.  Here  he  seems  to  have  been  first 
initiated  into  the  literature  of  his  country,  and  to 
have  acquired  the  love  of  English  authors  which 
remained  with  him  through  life.  The  intimacy 
rapidly  became  strong.  He  often  passed  whole 
days  and  nights  with  his  friends,  and  accompanied 
them  on  excursions  of  several  weeks  duration  to 
their  uncle's  house  at  Kerpen,  and  elsewhere. 
At  the  same  time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 

•  Schlndler.  1. 15.    2  Thayer,  11.  3(53.    »  See  Jahn,  In  Thayer,  1. 164. 
«  Nohl.  Bri'Je,  No,  2,         »  B.  &  H.  86.         «  1  bid.  ■  y5. 


Count  Waldstein,  a  young  nobleman  eight  years 
his  senior,  an  amateur  musician,  whose  acquaint- 
ance was  peculiarly  useful  in  encouraging  and 
developing  Beethoven's  talent  at  a  time  when  it 
naturally  wanted  support.  On  Waldstein  Bee- 
thoven exercised  the  same  charm  that  he  did 
later  on  the  proud  aristocracy  of  Vienna.  The 
Count  used  to  visit  him  in  his  poor  room,  gave 
him  a  piano,  got  him  pecuniary  help  under  the 
guise  of  allowances  from  the  Elector,  and  in  other 
ways  sympathised  with  him.  Either  now  or 
shortly  afterwards,  Beethoven  composed  a  set  of 
variations  for  4  hands  on  a  theme  of  the  Count's,'^ 
and  in  1805  made  him  immortal  by  dedicating 
to  him  the  grand  sonata  (op.  53),  which  is  usually 
known  by  his  name.  Another  acquaintance  was 
the  Countess  of  Hatzfeld,  to  whom  he  dedicated 
a  set  of  Variations,  which  were  for  long  his  show- 
piece. 

In  the  summer  of  1788,  when  Beethoven  was 
17I  years  old,  the  Elector  altered  the  plan^  of  his 
music,  and  formed  a  national  theatre  on  the 
model  of  that  of  his  brother  the  Emperor  Joseph. 
Reicha  was  made  director,  and  Neefe  pianist  and 
stage-manager.  The  band  was  31  strong,  and 
contains  names  such  as  Ries,  the  two  Eombergs, 
Simrock,  Stumpff — which  often  recur  in  Bee- 
thoven's life.  He  himself  played  second  viola, 
both  in  the  opera  and  the  chapel,  and  was  still 
assistant  Hof-organist.  In  this  position  he  re- 
mained for  four  years ;  the  opera  repej'toire  was 
large,  good,  and  various,  the  singers  were  of 
the  best,  and  the  experience  must  have  been  of 
great  practical  use  to  him.  Among  the  operas 
played  in  89  and  90  were  Mozart's  '  Entfuhrung,' 
*  Figaro,'  and  'Don  Giovanni' — the  two  first  ap- 
parently often.  Meantime  Johann  Beethoven 
was  going  from  bad  to  worse.  Stephen  Breuning 
once  saw  Ludwig  take  his  drunken  father  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  police,  and  this  could  hardly 
have  been  the  only  occasion.  At  length,  on 
Nov.  20,  1789,  a  decree  was  issued  ordering  a 
portion  of  the  father's  salary  to  be  paid  over  to 
the  son,  who  thus,  before  he  was  nineteen,  be- 
came the  head  of  the  family. 

The  compositions  of  1789  and  90  are  2  Pre- 
ludes for  the  Piano  (op,  39),  24  Variations  on 
Pighini's  *  Venni  ^  Amore,'  a  Song  *  Der  freie 
Mann,'  and  probably  a  Cantata  on  the  death  of 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  still  in  MS."  The  only 
extra  musical  event  of  this  year  was  the  visit 
of  Haydn  and  Salomon  on  their  road  to  London, 
They  arrived  on  Christmas  Day,  One  of  Haydn's 
Masses  was  performed  ;  he  was  complimented  by 
the  Elector,  and  entertained  the  chief  musicians 
at  dinner  at  his  lodgings.  1 791  opened  well  for 
Beethoven  with  a  *  Ritter  Ballet,'  a  kind  of  masked 
ball,  in  antique  style.  Count  Waldstein  appears 
to  have  arranged  the  plan,  and  Beethoven  composed 
the  music ;  but  his  name  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
connected  with  it  at  the  time,  and  it  remained 
unpublished  till  1872,  when  it  appeared  arranged 
for  piano.  In  the  autumn  the  troupe  accompanied 
the  Elector  to  Mergentheim,  near  AschafFenburg, 

7  B.  &  n.  122.  8  Thayer,  1. 182.  »  B.  &  H.  17R.  »o  ibid.  232. 
"  Thayer,  1. 232.  He  died  Feb.  20. 1790. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


165 


to  a  conclave  of  the  Deutscheu  Orden  ;  the  journey 
was  by  water  along  the  Rhine  and  Main,  the 
weather  was  splendid, — there  was  ample  leisure, 
and  the  time  long  remained  in  Beethoven's  recol- 
lection *a  fruitful  soui-ce  of  charming  images.' 
At  Aschaffenburg  he  heard  a  fine  player — the 
Abbe  Sterkel,  and  showed  his  instant  appre- 
ciation of  the  Abbe's  graceful  finished  style  by 
imitating  it  in  extemporising.  In  Mergentheim 
the  company  remained  for  a  month  (i8  Sept. — 
20  Oct.).  An  interesting  account  of  the  daily 
musical  proceedings  is  given  by  Junker,  the 
Chaplain  at  Kirchberg,^  including  an  account  of 
Beethoven's  extejupore  playing.  He  compares  it 
with  that  of  Vogler,  whom  he  knew  well,  and 
pronounces  it  to  have  displayed  all  Vogler's  ex- 
ecution, with  much  more  force,  feeHng,  and  ex- 
pression, and  to  have  been  in  the  highest  degree 
original. 

The  Beethovens  were  still  living  in  the  Wen- 
zelgasse,  Carl  learning  music,  and  Johann  under 
the  Court  Apothecary,    Ludwig  took  his  meals 
at  the  Zehrgarten- — a  great  resort  of  the  Univer- 
sity professors,  artists,  and  literary  men  of  Bonn, 
*  and  where  the  lovely  Babette  Koch,  daughter 
J,  of  the  proprietress,  was  doubtless  an  attrac- 
'  tion  to  him.^    His  intimacy  with  the  Breunings 
;  continued  and  increased;  Madame  von  Breun- 
I  ing  was  one  of  the  very  few  people  who  could 
i  manage  him,  and  even  she  coidd  not  always 
make  him  go  to  his  lessons  in  time :  when  he 
proved  too  obstinate  she  would  give  up  the 
endeavour  with  the  remark  *  he  is  again  in  his 
raptus,^  an  expression  which  Beethoven  never 
forgot.    Music  was  their  great  bond,  and  Bee- 
thoven's improvisations  were  the  delight  of  the 
family.    His  duties  at  the  organ  and  in  the 
orchestra  at  this  time  were  not  very  gxeat; 
the  Elector's  absences  were  frequent,  and  gave 
him  much  time  to  himself,  which  he  spent  partly 
in  lessons,  partly  in  the  open  air,  of  which  he 
was  already  very  fond,  and  partly  in  assiduous 
j'ractice  and  composition.    The  sketch-books  of 
chat  time  are  crammed  with  ideas,  and  confirm 
his  statement,  made  many  years  later,*  that  he 
j  began  thus  early  the  method  of  working  which 

80  emphatically  distinguishes  him. 
I       In  July  1792  Haydn  again  passed  through 
!  Bonn  on  his  return  from  London.    The  Elector's 
i  Band  gave  him  a  dinner  at  Godesberg,  and  Bee- 
thoven submitted  a  cantata  to  him,  '  which  Haydn 
[  greatly  praised,  warmly  encouraging  the  composer 
I  to  proceed  with  his  studies.'    What  the  cantata 
was  is  not  known,  though  it  is  conjectured  to 
have  been  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold IL* 

I      The  compositions  which  can  be  fixed  to  the 
I  years  1791  and  92  consist  of  Songs  (portions  of 
op.  5  2),  a  Eondino®  for  Wind  instruments,  the  Trio 
for  Strings,  op.  3,  an  Allegro  and  Minuet  for 
j  2  Flutes  (Aug.  23,  MS.),  and  perhaps  a  set  of  14 

»  Thayer,  I.  209-215.  2  Ibid.  i.  218. 

*  He  wrote  twice  to  her  within  a  year  after  he  left  Bonn.  Se€  his 
letter  to  Eleonore  Breuning,  Nov.  2, 17V13. 

*  Letter  to  Archd.  Rodolph.  July  JS,  1615.  Sketches  of  the  Bonn  date 
ue  In  the  British  Museum. 

1      »  Thayer,  i.  232.  Ue  died  March  1. 1792.  i  B,  *  H.  No.  60. 


Variations''  for  Pianoforte,  Violin,  and  Cello,  in  Eb, 
published  in  1804  as  op.  44  ;  12  Variations^  for 
Piano  and  Violin  on  'Se  vuol  ballare';  13  ditto 
for  Piano ^  on  '  Es  war  einmal';  and  12  ditto"  for 
Piano,  4  hands,  on  an  air  of  Count  Waldstein's. 

Hitherto  the  Elector  seems  to  have  taken  no 
notice  of  the  most  remarkable  member  of  his 
orchestra.  But  in  the  course  of  this  year — 
whether  prompted  by  Neefe  or  Waldstein  or  by 
his  owTi  observation,  or  possibly  by  Haydn's  ap- 
probation— he  determined  that  Beethoven  should 
visit  Vienna  in  a  more  permanent  manner  than 
before,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  at  his  expense. 
Haydn  was  communicated  with,  and  in  the  very 
beginning  of  November  Beethoven  left  Bonn,  as 
it  proved,  never  to  return  to  it  again.  His  part- 
ing words  to  Xeefe  are  preserved  — '  Thank 
you  for  the  counsel  you  have  so  often  given  me 
on  my  progress  in  my  divine  art.  Should  I 
ever  become  a  great  man  you  will  certainly  have 
assisted  in  it,  w-hich  will  be  all  the  more  gratify- 
ing to  you,  since  you  may  be  convinced  that'  etc. 
The  Album  in  which  his  friends — Waldstein,  the 
Breunings,  the  Kochs,  Degenhart,  and  others — 
inscribed  their  farewells  is  still  existing,^  and 
the  latest  date  is  Nov.  I.  E.  Breuning's  lines 
contain  allusions  to  '  Albion,'  as  if  Beethoven 
were  preparing  to  visit  England — possibly  with 
Haydn  ?  Waldstein's  entry  is  as  follows  : — '  Dear 
Beethoven,  you  ai"e  travelling  to  Vienna  in  ful- 
filment of  your  long-cherished  wish.  The  genius 
of  Mozart  is  siill  weeping  and  bewailing  the 
death  of  her  favourite.  With  the  inexhaustible 
Haydn  she  found  a  refuge,  but  no  occupation,  and 
is  now  waiting  to  leave  him  and  join  hei-self  to 
some  one  else.  Labour  assiduously,  and  receive 
Mozart's  spirit  from  the  hands  of  Haydn.  Vour 
true  friend  Waldstein.    Bonn,  October  29, 1792.' 

What  provision  the  Elector  made  for  him  be- 
yond his  modest  pay  of  1 50  florins  is  not  known. 
An  entry  of  25  ducats  (£12  los.)  is  found  in  his 
notebook  shortly  after  he  reached  Vienna,  but 
there  is  nothing  to  show  what  length  of  time 
that  moderate  smn  represented,  or  even  that  it 
came  from  the  Elector  at  all. 

Thus  ended  the  first  period  of  Beethoven's  life. 
He  was  now  virtually  twenty -two.  The  list  of 
his  known  compositions  to  this  time  has  been 
given  year  by  year.  If  we  add  the  Bagatelles 
(op.  33),  the  2  easy  Sonatas  (op.  49),  the  2  Violin 
Rondos  (op.  51),  the  Serenade  Trio  (op.  8),  and 
a  lost  Ti-io  for  Piano,  Flute,  and  Bassoon,^^ — all 
probably  composed  at  Bonn — and  compare  them 
with  those  of  other  composers  of  the  first  rank, 
such  as  Mozai-t,  Schubert,  or  Mendelssohn,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  they  are  singularly  few 
and  unimportant.  For  the  orchestra  the  Ritter- 
baUet  ali-eady  referred  to  is  the  single  composition 
known,  while  Mozart — to  mention  him  only — 
had  in  the  same  period  written  36  Symphonies, 
including  so  mature  a  masterpiece  as  the  'Parisian' 
in  D.  Against  Mozart's  28  Operas,  Cantatas,  and 
Masses,  for  voices  and  full  orchestra,  composed 

7  Nott«bohm,  Beethovfniana,  III.  8  B.  .t  H.  Xo.  103. 

»  Ibid.  Xo.  175.  I"  Ibid.  Xo.  122.  "  Tbajer,  >.  227. 

12  Xottebohm,  Bfeihoveniana.  XXVIL 
W  Thayer,  Verttichniaa,  Xo.  22. 


166 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


before  lie  was  23,  Beethoven  lias  absolutely  no- 
thing to  show.    And  the  same  in  other  depart- 
ments.   That  he  meditated  great  works,  though 
they  did  not  come  to  paper,  is  evident  in  at 
least  one  case.    A  resident  in  Bonn,  writing  to 
Schiller's  sister  Charlotte,  on  Jan.  26,  1793,^ 
says  : — '1  enclose  a  setting  of  the  Feuer-farhe  on 
which  I  should  like  your  opinion.     It  is  by  a 
young  man  of  this  place  whose  talent  is  widely 
esteemed,  and  whom  the  Elector  has  now  sent 
to  Vienna  to  Haydn.     He  intends  to  compose 
Schiller's  Freiuh,  and  that  verse  by  verse.  I 
expect  something  perfect :  for,  as  far  as  I  know 
him,  he  is  all  for  the  grand  and  sublime.  Haydn 
informs  us  that  he  shall  set  him  to  great  operas, 
as  he  himself  ^-ill  shortly  leave  off  composing,  j 
He  does  not  usually  occupy  himself  with  such  ! 
trifles  as  the  enclosed,  which  indeed  he  composed  j 
only  at  the  request  of  a  lady.'     This  letter,  ' 
which  shows  how  early  Schiller's  *  Hymn  to  j 
Joj''  had  taken  possession  of  Beethoven — there 
to  remain  t'll  it  formed  the  finale  to  the  Ninth 
Symphony  thirty  years  later — is  equally  inter- 
esting for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  impression 
which  Beethoven  had  already  made  on  those 
who  knew  him,  and  who  credited  him  with  the 
intention  and  the  ability  to  produce  great  works, 
although  he  had  not  yet  produced  even  small 
ones.    This  impression  was  doubtless  due  mainly  ; 
to  the  force  and  originality  of  his  extempore  ' 
playing,  which  even  at  this  early  age  was  pro- 
digious, and  justified  his  friends  in  speaking  of 
him  2  as  one  of  the  finest  pianoforte-players  of 
the  day. 

By  the  middle  of  November  Beethoven  was 
settled  at  Vienna.  His  first  lodging  was  a  garret 
at  a  printer's  in  the  '  Alservorstadt' '  outside  the 
walls,  in  the  direction  of  the  present  Votive- 
Church  ;  but  this  was  soon  exchanged  for  one  '  on 
the  ground  floor,'*  of  which  we  have  no  nearer 
description.  On  the  journey  from  Bonn  we  find 
him  for  the  first  time  making  notes  of  little  oc- 
currences and  expenses — a  habit  which  never  left 
him.  In  the  entries  made  during  his  first  few 
weeks  in  Vienna  we  can  trace  the  purchase  of  a 
wig,  silk  stockings,  boots,  shoes,  overcoat,  writing- 
desk,  seal,  and  hire  of  piano.  From  the  same  source 
we  can  infer  the  beginning  of  his  lessons.  The 
first  pajTnent  to  Haydn  is  8  groschen  (say  9|c?., 
we  may  surely  presume  for  one  hour)  on  Dec.  12. 
The  lessons  took  place  in  Haydn's  house  ^  (Ham- 
berger  Haus,  No.  992)  now  destroyed.  They 
were  lessons  in  'strict  counterpoint,'  and  the  text- 
book was  Fux's  'Gradus  ad  Pamassum.'  Of 
Beethoven's  exercises  245  have  been  preserved,® 
qf  which  Haydn  has  corrected  42.  Haydn  was 
naturally  much  occupied,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  Beethoven  should  have  been  dissatisfied  \dth 
his  slow  progress,  and  with  the  cursory  way  in 
which  his  exercises  were  corrected,  and  have  se- 
cretly accepted  the  offer  of  additional  instruction 
from  Schenk,  a  weU-known  Vienna  composer. 

>  Tharer.  Lebrn.  \.  237.       >  Ibid.  L  227  and  213.       »  Ibid.  U.  103. 
*  IbiiJ.  L  2.>5,  •  auf  der  ErL'  «  Ibid.  i.  2rj{i. 

'  For  all  the  exercise*  here  mentioned  and  an  able  faithfiil  cotn- 
fn«ntar7.  see  Notiebohm's  inraiuble  edition  of  Bttihoven't  BlwUen, 

vol.  i.  l>f7Z. 


But  no  open  rupture  as  yet  took  place,  Bee-^ 

thoven  accompanied  Haydn  to  Eisenstadt  some 
time  in  1793?  and  it  was  not  until  Haydn's 
departure  for  England  on  Jan.  19,  94,  that  he 
openly  transferred  himself  to  another  master. 
He  then  took  lessoris  from  Albrechtsberger  in 
counterpoint,  and  from  Schuppanzigh  on  the 
violin,  three  times  a  week  each.  In  the  former 
the  text-book  was  Albrechtsberger' s  own  *An- 
weisung  zur  Composition,'  and  the  subject  was 
taken  up  where  Haydn  had  left  it,  and  pursued 
much  farther.  No  less  than  263  exercises  are  in 
existence  under  the  following  heads — Simple  strict 
counterpoint ;  Free  composition  in  simple  counter- 
point ;  Imitation ;  Simple  fugue ;  Fugued  cho- 
rale ;  Double  fugue  ;  Double  counterpoint  in 
the  Sth,  loth,  and  12th;  Triple  counterpoint  and 
Triple  fugue  ;  Canon.  Nottebohm  h^  pointed 
out  the  accuracy  and  pains  which  Albrechtsberger 
bestowed  on  his  pupil,  as  well  as"  the  care  with 
which  Beethoven  wrote  his  exercises,  and  the 
characteristic  way  in  which  he  neglected  them  in 
practice.  He  also  gives  his  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  lessons  did  not  last  longer  than  March 
1795.  The  impression  they  left  on  Albrechts- 
berger was  not  flattering  :  '  Have  nothing  to 
do  with  him,'  said  the  old  contrapuntist  to  an 
enquiring  lad,  'he  has  learnt  nothing,  and  will 
never  do  anything  in  decent  style.'*  In  fact 
what  was  a  contrapuntist  to  do  with  a  pupil  who 
regarded  everything  in  music — even  consecutive 
fifths^ — as  an  open  question,  and  also  thought  it 
a  good  thing  to  'learn  occasionally  what  is 
according  to  rule,  that  one  may  hereafter  come 
to  what  is  contrary  to  rule?'*''  Besides  the 
lessons  with  Haydn  and  Albrechtsberger,  some 
exercises  exist  in  Italian  vocal  composition,  dating 
from  1793  to  1802,  and  showing  that  Beethoven 
availed  himself  of  Salieri's  well-known  kindness 
to  needy  musicians,  to  submit  his  pieces  to  him. 
Salieri's  corrections  are  chiefly  in  the  division  of 
the  Italian  syllables.  Another  musician  whom 
he  consulted,  especially  in  his  early  attempts  at 
quartet  writing,  was  Aloys  Fcirster,  to  whom  he 
remained  long  and  greatly  attached.^^ 

Meantime  Beethoven  kept  up  communication 
with  Bonn.  On  Dec.  18,  92,  his  poor  father  died, 
and  the  100  thalers  applied  to  the  support  of  his 
brothers  naturally  stopped.  On  Beethoven's  ap- 
plication, however,  the  grant  was  allowed  to  go 
on,  in  addition  to  his  own  pay.  Eies  drew  and 
transmitted  the  money  for  him.'^  The  Breunings 
still  held  their  place  in  his  heart;  two  letters  to 
Eleonore,  full  of  affection,  are  preserved,  and  he 
mentions  having  also  written  twice  to  one  resident 
of  Bonn,  and  three  times  to  another,  in  the 
course  of  the  first  twelvemonth.  In  January 
1794  the  Elector  visited  Vienna,  and  with  the 
March  quarter-day  Beethoven's  allowance  ceased. 
In  the  following  October  the  Emperor  declared 
war  with  France,  Bonn  was  taken  possession  of 
by  the  republican  army,  and  the  Elector  fled. 


T  Xottcbohm,  Bfefhoren'i  Studien,  p.  196. 
«  Dolezalek.  in  Thayer,  ii.117. 
•  Bie«,  JHoyraphifche  Solizfn,  p.  R7. 
1''  Czemy,  qnoted  in  note  to  Lady  Wallace's  edition  of  the 
U.  12.  U  Thayer.  1. 281.  «  Ibid.  255.  257. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


167 


Now  that  Beethoven  is  landed  in  Vienna — as 
it  turns  out,  never  again  to  leave  it — and  is  left 
to  his  own  resources,  it  may  be  convenient  to 
pause  in  the  narrative  of  his  life,  and  sketch  his 
character  and  person  as  briefly  as  possible.  He 
had  already  a  large  acquaintance  among  the  aris- 
tocracy of  Vienna.  Among  his  kindest  friends 
and  most  devoted  admirers  were  the  Prince  and 
Princess  Karl  Lichnowsky.  They  devoured  his 
music,  gave  him  a  quartet  of  valuable  instru- 
ments ^  for  the  performance  of  it,  put  up  with  his 
caprices  and  eccentricities,  gave  him  an  annuity 
of  £60,  and  made  him  an  inmate  of  their  house 
for  years.  He  was  also  frequently  at  the  houses 
of  Baron  van  Swieten,  Prince  Lobkowitz,  Count 
Fries,  and  other  noblemen,  at  once  leaders  of 
fashion  and  devoted  amateurs.  At  these  houses 
he  was  in  the  constant  habit  of  playing,  and  in 
many  of  them  no  doubt  he  taught,  but  as  to  the 
solid  results  of  this  no  record  remains — nor  do  we 
know  the  prices  which  he  obtained  for  his  pub- 
lished works,  or  the  value  of  the  dedications,  at 
this  period  of  his  career.  Musical  public,  like  that 
which  supported  the  numerous  concerts  floiirish- 
ing  in  London  at  this  date,-  and  enabled  Salomon 
to  risk  the  expense  of  bringing  Haydn  to  Eng- 
land, there  was  none ;  musicians  were  almost 
directly  dependent  on  the  appreciation  of  the 
wealthy. 

That  Beethoven  shoiild  have  been  so  much 
treasured  by  the  aristocracy  of  Vienna  notwith- 
standing his  personal  drawbacks,  and  notwith- 
standing the  gap  which  separated  the  nobleman 
from  the  roturier,  shows  what  an  immense  power 
there  must  have  been  in  his  genius,  and  in  the 
absolute  simplicity  of  his  mind,  to  overcome  the 
abruptness  of  his  manners.  If  we  are  to  believe 
the  anecdotes  of  his  contemporaries  his  sensitive- 
ness was  extreme,  his  temper  ungovernable,  and 
his  mode  of  expression  often  quite  unjustifiable. 
At  the  house  of  Count  Browne,  when  pla}'ing  a 
duet  with  Eies,  a  young  nobleman  at  the  other  end 
of  the  room  persisted  in  talking  to  a  lady :  several 
attempts  to  quiet  him  having  failed,  Beethoven 
suddenly  lifted  Eies's  hands  from  the  keys,  say- 
ing in  a  loud  voice  'I  play  no  longer  for  such 
hogs ' ;  nor  would  he  touch  another  note  nor  allow 
Ries  to  do  so,  though  entreated  by  all.^  On  another 
occasion,  when  living  in  the  house  and  on  the 
bounty  of  the  Lichnowskys,  the  prince,  knowing 
how  sensitive  Beethoven  was  to  neglect,  ordered 
his  servants  whenever  they  heard  Beethoven's 
bell  and  his  at  the  same  time  to  attend  to  Bee- 
thoven's first.  No  sooner  however  did  Beethoven 
discover  that  such  an  order  had  been  given  than 
he  engaged  a  servant  of  his  own  to  answer  his 
bell.*  During  one  of  the  rehearsals  of  '  Leonora,' 
the  third  bassoon  was  absent,  at  which  Beethoven 
was  furious.  Prince  Lobkowitz,  one  of  his  best 
friends,  tried  to  laugh  off  the  matter,  saying  that 
as  the  first  and  second  were  tliere  the  absence 
of  the  third  could  not  be  of  any  great  consequence. 

>  These  were  in  his  possession  for  more  than  20  years,  and  are  now  In 
the  BibUothek  at  Berlin.  Pohl.  Jahreslericht  dt$  Contervatoriuma  Ac 
P  1*5.  »  See  Fohl.  Haijdn  in  Lnnd-m,  7-n3.  »  Ries,  p.  92. 

*  See  also  the  Letter  to  Zmesltall  on  the  Countess  Erdody's  influence 
over  her  servant ;  Xohl,  Brie/e  Be^ovens,  Xo.  51. 


But  so  implacable  was  Beethoven  that  in  crossing 
the  Platz  after  the  rehearsal  he  could  not  resist 
running  to  the  great  gate  of  the  Lobkowitz  Palace 
and  shouting  up  the  entrance,^ '  Lobkowitzscher 
Esel' — 'ass  of  a  Lobkowitz.'  Any  attempt  to 
deceive  him,  even  in  the  most  obvious  pleasantry, 
he  could  never  forgive.  When  he  composed  the 
well-known  'Andante  in  F'  he  played  it  to 
Kies  and  Krumpholz.  It  delighted  them,  and 
with  difficulty  they  induced  him  to  repeat  it. 
From  Beethoven's  bouse  Ries  went  to  that  of 
Prince  Lichnowsky,  and  not  being  able  to  contain 
himself  played  what  he  could  recollect  of  the  new 
piece,  and  the  Prince  being  equally  delighted,  it 
was  repeated  and  repeated  till  he  too  could  play 
a  portion  of  it.  The  next  day  the  Prince  by  way 
of  a  joke  asked  Beethoven  to  hear  something 
which  he  had  been  composing,  and  thereupon 
played  a  large  portion  of  his  own  'Andante.' 
Beethoven  was  furious  ;  and  the  result  was  that 
Ries  was  never  again  allowed  to  hear  him  play  in 
private.  In  fact  it  led  in  the  end  to  Beethoven's 
ceasing  to  play  to  the  Prince's  circle  of  friends.^ 

I  And  on  the  other  hand,  no  length  of  friendship 
or  depth  of  tried  devotion  prevented  him  from 
treating  those  whom  he  suspected,  however  un- 
justly, and  on  however  insufficient  groimds,  in 
the  most  scornful  manner.  Ries  has  described 
one  such  painful  occurrence  in  his  own  case  k  pro- 

I  pos  to  the  Westphalian  negotiations ;  but  all  his 
friends  suffered  in  turn.  Even  poor  Schindler, 
whose  devotion  in  spite  of  every  drawback  was  so 
constant,  and  who  has  been  taunted  with  having 
'  delivered  himself  body  and  soul  to  Beethoven,' 
had  to  suffer  the  most  shameful  reproaches  be- 
hind his  back,  the  injustice  of  which  is  most  surely 
proved  by  the  fact  that  they  are  dropped  as 
suddenly  as  they  were  adopted.^  When  Moritz 
Lichnowsky,  Schuppanzigh,  and  Schindler  were 
doing  their  utmost  to  get  over  the  difficulties  of 
arranging  a  concert  for  the  performance  of  the 
Choral  Symphony  and  the  Mass  in  D,  he 
suddenly  suspected  them  of  some  ulterior  pur- 
pose, and  dismissed  them  with  the  three  following 
notes :^ — 'To  Count  Lichnowsky.  Falsehoods 

[  I  despise.  Visit  me  no  more.  There  will  be 
no  concert.  Beethoven.'  'To  Herr  Schindler. 
Visit  me  no  more  till  I  send  for  you.  No  concert. 
Beethoven.'  '  To  Herr  Schuppanzigh.  Visit  me 
{he-mche  er  micli)  no  more.  I  give  no  concert. 
Beethoven.' 

j  The  style  of  the  last  of  these  three  precious 
productions — the  third  person  singular — ^in  which 
the  very  lowest  rank  only  is  addressed,  seems  to 
open  us  a  little  door  into  Beethoven's  feeling 
towards  musicians.  When  Hummel  died,  two 
notes  from  Beethoven^*'  were  found  among  his 
papers,  which  tell  the  story  of  some  sudden 
violent  outbreak  on  Beethoven's  part.  '  Komme 
er  (the  same  scornful  style  as  before)  nicht  mehr 

I  zu  mir!  er  ist  ein  falscher  Hund,  und  falsche 
Hunde  hole  der  Schinder.  Beethoven.'  And 
though  this  was  followed  by  an  apology  couched 
in  the  most  ultra-affectionate  and  coaxing  terms — 

»  Thayer,  ii.  288.  »  Ries.  p.  102.  T  Rjid.  p.  95.  «  Schindler,  iL  6g. 
9  See  Briefe,  Xos.  278,  2S0,  2&i.  "  Thayer,  il.  54. 


x68 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


*  Herzens  Natzerl/  '  Dich  kiisst  dein  Beethoven/ 
and  so  on — yet  the  impression  must  have  remained 
on  Hmnmel's  mind.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
he  was  on  bad  terms  ■«"ith  most  of  the  musicians 
of  Vienna.  With  Haydn  he  seems  never  to  have 
been  really  cordial.  The  old  man's  neglect  of  his 
lessons  embittered  him,  and  when  after  hearing 
his  first  three  Trios,  Haydn,  no  doubt  in  sincerity, 
advised  him  not  to  pubUsh  the  third,  which 
Beethoven  knew  to  be  the  best,  it  was  difl&cult 
to  take  the  advice  in  any  other  light  than  as 
prompted  by  jealousy.  True  he  dedicated  his 
three  Pianoforte  Sonatas  (op.  2)  to  Haydn,  and 
they  met  in  the  concert-room,  but  there  are  no 
signs  of  cordial  intercourse  between  them  after 
Beethoven's  first  twelve  months  in  Vienna.  In 
fact  they  were  thoroughly  antagonistic.  Haydn, 
though  at  the  head  of  H\-ing  composers,  and  as 
original  a  genius  as  Beethoven  himself,  had 
always  been  punctilious,  submissive,  subservient 
to  etiquette.  Beethoven  was  eminently  in- 
dependent and  impatient  of  restraint.  It  was 
the  old  world  and  the  new — De  Brez^  and  Mira- 
beau  ^ — and  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  agree. 
They  probably  had  no  open  quarrel,  Haydn's 
tact  would  prevent  that,  but  Haydn  nick-named 
him  '  the  Great  Mogul,'  and  Beethoven  retorted 
by  refusing  to  announce  himself  as  "Haydn's^ 
scholar,'  and  when  they  met  in  the  street  their 
remarks  were  unfortunate,  and  the  antagonism 
was  but  too  evident. 

For  Salieri,  Eybler,  Gyrowetz,  and  Weigl, 
able  men  and  respectable  contrapuntists,  he  had 
a  sincere  esteem,  though  little  more  intimate 
feeling.  Though  he  would  not  allow  the  term 
as  regarded  Haydn,  he  himself  left  his  char- 
acteristic visiting  card  on  Salieri's  table  as  his 

*  scholar ' — '  Der  Schuler  Beethoven  war  da.'  ^  But 
with  the  other  musicians  of  Vienna,  and  the 
players  of  his  o^vn  standing,  Beethoven  felt 
no  restraint  on  open  war.*  They  laughed  at  his 
eccentricities,  his  looks  and  his  Bonn  dialect,^ 
made  game  of  his  music,  and  even  trampled  ^  on 
it,  and  he  retorted  both  with  speech  and  hands. 
The  pianoforte-players  were  Hummel,  Woelffl, 
Lipawsk}-,  GeUnek,  Steibelt.  Steibelt  had  dis- 
tinctly challenged  him,'  had  been  as  thoroughly 
beaten  as  a  man  could  wish,  and  from  that  day 
forward  would  never  again  meet  him.  Gelinek, 
though  equaUy  vanquished,  compensated  himself 
by  listening  to  Beethoven  on  ail  occasions,  and 
stealing  his  phrases  *  and  harmonies,  while  Bee- 
thoven retorted  by  engaging  his  next  lodging 
where  Gelinek  could  not  possibly  come  within 
the  sound  of  his  piano.  Woelffl  and  Hummel 
were  openly  pitted  against  him,  and  no  doubt 
there  were  people  to  be  found  in  Vienna  in  1 795, 
as  there  are  in  London  in  1876,  to  stimulate 
such  rivalry  and  thus  divide  artists  whom  a 


1  Ciriyle's  French  Betolution,  bk.  v.  ch.  2.  2  Bies,  p.  86. 

»  Aus  MoKhelW  Ltbm,  1.10. 

«  He  calls  them  his  '  deadly  enemies.'  Letter  to  Eleanore  tod 
Breuning.  No?.  2,  93.  s  ThAver,  ii.  56. 

«  Kozeluch,  see  Thayer,  U.  106.  Eomberg  did  the  same  thing  some 
yean  later ;  and  see  Spohr's  curious  story  of  him,  Settntinog,  L  85. 

1  See  the  story  in  Kies,  p.  81. 

8  Letter  to  Eleonore  v.  Breuning,  Kov.  2,  1793,  with  Wegeler's 
remarkj,  B.  Noliten,  p.  U), 


little  care  might  have  united.  Hummel  is  said 
to  have  excelled  him  in  clearness,  elegance,  and 
purity,  and  Woelffl"s  proficiency  in  cotmterpoint 
was  great,  and  his  huge  hands  gave  him  ex- 
traordinaiy  command  of  the  keys ;  but  for  fire, 
and  imagination,  and  feeling,  and  wealth  of  ideas 
in  extempore  playing,  none  of  them  can  have  ap- 
proached Beethoven.  *  His  improvisation,'  says 
Czerny,^  '  was  most  brilliant  and  striking  ;  in 
whatever  company  he  might  chance  to  be,  he 
knew  how  to  produce  such  an  effect  upon  every 
hearer,  that  frequently  not  an  eye  remained  dry, 
while  many  would  break  out  into  loud  sobs ;  for 
there  was  something  wonderful  in  his  expression, 
in  addition  to  the  beauty  and  originality  of  his 
ideas,  and  his  spirited  style  of  rendering  them.' 
He  extemporised  in  regular  '  form,'  and  his 
variations — when  he  treated  a  theme  in  that 
way — were  not  mere  alterations  of  figure,  but 
real  developments  and  elaborations  of  the  subject.'*^ 
'  No  artist,'  says  Ries,'^  '  that  I  ever  heard  came 
at  all  near  the  height  which  Beethoven  attained 
in  this  branch  of  plapng.  The  wealth  of  ideas 
which  forced  themselves  on  him,  the  caprices  to 
which  he  surrendered  himself,  the  variety  of 
treatment,  the  difficulties,  were  inexhaustible.' 
Even  the  Abbe  Vogler's  admirers  were  compelled 
to  admit  as  much.^^  He  required  much  pressing, 
often  actual  force,  to  get  him  to  the  piano,  and 
he  would  make  a  grimace  or  strike  the  keys  with 
the  back  of  his  hand  as  he  sat  down  ;  but  when 
there  he  would  extemporise  for  two  hours  and 
even  more  at  a  time,  and  after  ending  one  of  his 
great  improvisations,  he  would  burst  into  a  roar 
of  laughter,  and  banter  his  hearers  on  their 
emotions.  'We  artists,'  he  would  say,  'don't 
want  tears,  we  want  applause.'  At  other  times 
he  would  behave  as  if  insulted  by  such  indications 
of  sympathy,  and  call  his  admirers  fools,  and 
spoiled  children. 

And  yet  no  outbursts  of  this  kind  seem  to 
have  made  any  breach  in  the  regard  with  which 
he  was  treated  by  the  nobility — the  only  un- 
professional musical  society  of  Vienna.  Certainly 
Beethoven  was  the  first  musician  who  had  ever 
ventured  on  such  independence,  and  there  was 
possibly  something  piquant  in  the  mere  novelty  ; 
but  the  real  secret  of  his  lasting  influence  must 
have  been  the  charm  of  his  personality — his 
entire  simplicity,  joined  to  his  prodigious  genius. 
And  he  enjoyed  good  society.  'It  is  good,'  said 
he,  '  to  be  with  the  aristocracy ;  but  one  must  be 
able  to  impress  them.'  ^ 

This  personal  fascination  acted  most  strongly 
on  his  immediate  friends — on  Krumpholz  (who 
seems  to  have  played  the  part  of  Coleridge's 
humble  follower  John  Chester^*),  on  the  some- 
what cold  and  self-possessed  Breuning,  as  well  as 
on  Eies,  Zmeskall,  Schindler,  Holz,  and  others, 
who  had  not,  like  Haslinger  or  Streicher,  any- 
thing to  gain  from  him,  but  who  suffered  Ms 


»  Thayer.  11.10. 

I'J  Czemy  gives  the  varlom  forms  of  his  Improyisatlons.  Thayer,  li. 
347.       "  xV£)<izen.  p.lOO.       13  Thayer.  U.  23<3.      1^  ibid.  11. 3J9.  312. 

1*  Conversation  with  Bettina.  Thayer,  11. 13.         is  Ibid.  ii.  313. 

W  '  One  of  those  who  were  attracted  to  Coleridge  as  flies  to  honey,  or 
bees  to  the  sound  ofa  brass  pan.'  HAintt,  ia  The  LiberaL 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


169 


roughest  words  and  most  scurvy  treatment,  and 
returned  again  and  again  to  their  worship  with 
astonishing  constancy.  Excepting  Breuning  none 
of  these  seem  really  to  have  had  his  confidence, 
or  to  have  known  anything  of  the  inner  man 
which  lay  behind  the  rough  husk  of  his  exterior, 
and  yet  they  all  clung  to  him  as  if  they  had. 

Of  his  tours  de  force  in  performance  too  much 
is  perhaps  made  in  the  books.  His  transposing 
the  Concerto  in  C  into  CJJ  at  rehearsal  was 
exactly  repeated  by  ^  Woelffl ;  while  his  playing 
the  piano  parts  of  his  Horn  Sonata,  his  Ejeutzer 
Sonata,  or  his  C  minor  Concerto  without  book, 
or  difficult  pieces  of  Bach  at  first  sight,  is  no 
more  than  has  been  done  by  Mozart,  Mendelssohn, 
Sterndale  Bennett,  and  many  inferior  artists. 
No,  it  was  no  quality  of  this  kind  that  got  him 
the  name  of  the  'giant  among  players';  but  the 
loftiness  and  elevation  of  his  style,  and  his  great 
power  of  expression  in  slow  movements,  which 
when  exercised  on  bis  own  noble  music  fixed  his 
hearers  and  made  them  insensible  to  any  faults 
of  polish  or  mere  mechanism. 

It  was  not  men  alone  who  were  attracted  by  him, 
he  was  an  equal  favourite  with  the  ladies  of  the 
Court.  The  Princess  Lichnowsky  watched  over 
him — as  Madame  von  Breuning  had  done — like 
a  mother.'^  The  Countesses  Gallenberg  and  Er- 
dody,  the  Princess  Odescalchi,  the  Baroness 
Ertmann,  the  sisters  of  the  Count  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  many  more  of  the  reigning  beauties 
of  Vienna  adored  him,  and  would  bear  any 
rudeness  from  him.  These  young  ladies  went 
to  his  lodgings  or  received  him  at  their 
palaces  as  it  suited  him.  He  would  storm  at 
the  least  inattention  during  their  lessons,  and 
would  tear  up  the  music  and  throw  it  about." 
He  may  have  used  the  snuflFers  as  a  toothpick  in 
Madame  Ertmann's  drawing-room ;  but  when 
she  lost  her  child  he  was  admitted  to  console 
her ;  and  when  Mendelssohn  saw  her  *  fifteen 
years  later  she  doted  on  his  memory  and  recalled 
the  smallest  traits  of  his  character  and  behaviour. 
He  was  constantly  in  love,  and  though  his  taste 
was  very  promiscuous,*  yet  it  is  probably  quite 
true  that  the  majority  of  his  attachments  was  for 
women  of  rank,  and  that  they  were  returned  or 
suflFered.  Unlike  poor  Schubert,  whose  love  for 
the  Countess  Marie  Esterhazy  was  so  carefully 
i'  concealed,  Beethoven  made  no  secret  of  his 
I'  attachments.  Many  of  them  are  perpetuated  in 
the  dedications  of  his  sonatas.  That  in  Eb  (op.  7), 
dedicated  to  the  Coimtess  Babette  de  Keglevics, 
was  called  in  allusion  to  him  and  to  her,  •  die 
verliebte.'  To  other  ladies  he  writes  in  the  most 
intimate,  nay  affectionate  style.  He  addresses 
the  Baroness  Ertmann  by  her  Christian  name 
as  'Liebe,  werthe,  Dorothea  Cacilia,'  and  the 
Countess  Erdody — whom  he  called  his  confessor 
— as  'Liebe,  liebe,  liebe,  liebe,  liebe,  Grafin.'^ 
Thayer's  investigations''  have  destroyed  the  ro- 

»  Thayer,  ii.  26. 

*  •  She  would'  hava  put  me  under  a  plass  case  If  she  could,"  said 
Beethoven.  »  Countess  Gallenberg,  in  Thayer,  ii.  172. 

*  Letter  of  July  14, 1831. 

»  See  the  anecdote  in  Thayer,  ii.  104 :  and  Eies's  remark  about  the 
tailor's  daughters,  Notizm,  p.  119. 

*  Nohl.  Neue  Brit/t,  No.  150.  f  See  vol.  il.  166.  etc 


I  mance  of  his  impending  marriage  with  Giulietta 
Guicciardi  (afterwards  Countess  Gallenberg) ; 
yet  the  fact  that  the  story  has  been  so  long 
believed  shows  its  abstract  probability.  One 
thing  is  certain,  that  his  attachments  were  all 
honourable,  and  that  he  had  no  taste  for  im- 
morality. *  Oh  God !  let  me  at  last  find  her  who 
is  destined  to  be  mine,  and  who  shall  strengthen 
me  in  virtue.^  Those  were  his  sentiments  as  to 
wedded  love. 

His  dedications  have  been  mentioned.  The 
practice  seems  virtually  to  have  begun  with 
him,*  to  have  sprung  from  the  equal  and  in- 
timate relation  in  which  he  —  earliest  among 
musicians  —  stood  to  his  distinguished  friends  ; 
and  when  one  looks  down  the  list,^  from  op.  i  to 
op.  135 — unsurpassed  even  by  any  later  composer 
— and  remembers  that  the  majority  were  inspired 
by  private  friendship,^"  and  that  only  a  minority 
speak  of  remuneration,  it  is  impossible  not  to  be 
astonished. 

Formal  religion  he  apparently  had  none ;  his 
religious  observances  were  on  a  par  with  his 
manners.  It  is  strange  that  the  Bible  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  one  of  his  favourite  books. 
He  once  says  to  a  friend,  '  It  happens  to  be 
Sunday,  and  I  will  quote  you  something  out  of 
the  Gospel  —  Love  one  another ' ;  but  such 
references  are  very  rare.  But  that  he  was  really 
and  deeply  religious,  'striving  sacredly  to  fulfil 
all  the  duties  imposed  ^"^  on  him  by  humanity, 
God,  and  nature,'  and  full  of  trust  in  God,  love 
to  man,  and  real  humility,  is  shown  by  many  and 
many  a  sentence  in  his  letters.  And  that  in 
moments  of  emotion  his  thoughts  turned  up- 
wards is  touchingly  shewn  by  a  fragment  of  a 
hjTnn — 'Gott  allein  ist  unser  Herr' — which 
Mr.  Nottebohm'^  has  unearthed  from  a  sketch- 
book of  the  year  1818,  and  which  Beethoven 
has  himself  noted  to  have  been  written,  '  Auf 
dem  Wege  Abends  zwischen  den  und  auf  den 
Bergen.'  The  following  passages,  which  he 
copied  out  himself  and  kept  constantly  before 
him,  served  him  as  a  kind  of  Creed,  and  sum  up 
his  theology : — 

I  am  that  which  is. 

I  am  all  that  is,  that  was,  and  that  shall  be. 
No  mortal  man  hath  lifted  my  veil. 

He  is  alone  by  Himself,  and  to  Him  alone  do 
all  things  owe  their  being. 

How  he  turned  his  theology  into  practice  is 
well  exemplified  in  his  alteration  of  Moscheles' 
pious  inscription.  At  the  end  of  his  arrange- 
ment of  Fidelio  Moscheles  had  written  '  Fine. 
With  God's  help.'  To  this  Beethoven  added, 
'  0  man,  help  thyself.'^* 

In  his  early  Vienna  days  he  attempted  to  dress 

8  Mozart's  six  quartets  are  dedicated  to  Haydn,  but  this  Is  quite  an 
exception.  Haydn  dedicated  a  Sonata  or  two  in  London,  but  it  was  not 
his  practice. 

9  As  given  in  Nottebohm's  Themaliiches  Verzeichnits,  Anhang  iv.  c. 
In  dedicating  opus  90  to  Prince  Moritz  Lichnowsky  he  says,  that 

*  anything  approaching  a  gift  in  return  would  only  distress  him.  and 
that  he  should  decidedly  refuse  it."  See  also  the  letter  to  Znie.^kall 
(Dec.  16.  1816)  dedicating  op.  95. 

11  Frau  Streicher,  Brie/e,  No.  200. 

12  Letter  to  Archd.  Rclolph,  July  18, 1821. 

13  Neue  Beethoveniana,  No.  VIL 
i«  Moscheles,  Leben,  i.  18. 


170 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


in  the  fashion,  wore  silk  stockings,  perruque,  long 
boots,  and  sword,  carried  a  double  eye-glass  and  a 
seal-ring.  But  dress  must  have  been  as  unbearable 
to  him ^  as  etiquette,  and  it  did  not  last ;  'he 
was  -meanly  dressed,'  says  one  of  his  adorers, 
'  and  very  ugly  to  look  at,  but  full  of  nobility  and 
fine  feeling,  and  highly  cultivated.''^  Czerny 
first  saw  him  in  his  own  room,  and  there  his 
beard  was  nearly  half  an  inch  long,  his  black 
hair  stood  up  in  a  thick  shock,  his  ears  were 
filled  with  wool  which  had  apparently  been 
soaked  in  some  yellow  substance,  and  his  clothes 
were  made  of  a  loose  hairy  stuff,  which  gave 
him  the  look  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  But  we  know 
that  he  never  wore  his  good  clothes  at  home;' 
at  any  rate  the  impression  he  usually  made  was 
not  so  questionable  as  this.  Those  who  saw  him 
for  the  first  time  were  often  charmed  by  the 
eager  cordiality  of  his  address,  and  by  the  absence 
of  the  bearishness  and  gloom*  which  even  then 
were  attributed  to  him.  His  face  may  have  been 
ugly,  but  all  admit  that  it  was  remarkably  ex- 
pressive. When  lost  in  thought  and  abstracted 
his  look  would  naturally  be  gloomy,  and  at  such 
times  it  was  useless  to  expect  attention  from 
him ;  but  on  recognising  a  friend  his  smile  was 
peculiarly  genial  and  winning.^  He  had  the 
breadth  of  jaw  which  distinguishes  so  many 
men  of  great  intellect ;  the  mouth  firm  and  de- 
termined, the  lips  protruded  with  a  look  almost 
of  fierceness :  but  his  eyes  were  the  special  feature 
of  the  face,  and  it  was  in  them  that  the  earnestness 
and  sincerity  of  his  character  beamed  forth.  They 
were  black,  not  large  but  bright,  and  when  ! 
under  the  influence  of  inspiration — the  raptus  of 
Madame  von  Breuning — they  dilated  in  a  peculiar 
way.  His  head  was  large,  the  forehead  both  high 
and  broad,  and  the  hair  abundant.  It  was 
originally  black,  but  in  the  last  years  of  his  life, 
though  as  thick  as  ever,  became  quite  white, 
and  formed  a  strong  contrast  to  the  red  colour  ^ 
of  his  complexion.  Beard  or  moustache  he  never 
wore.  His  teeth  were  very  white  and  regulai', 
and  good  up  to  his  death;'  in  laughing  he 
shewed  them  much.  The  portraits  and  busts 
of  Beethoven  are  with  few  exceptions  more  or 
less  to  blame ;  they  either  idealise  him  into  a 
sort  of  J upiter  Olympus,  or  they  rob  him  of  all 
expression.  It  must  have  been  a  difficult  face 
to  take,  because  of  the  constant  variety  in  its 
expression,  as  well  as  the  impatience  of  the 
sitter.  The  most  trustworthy  ^likenesses  are 
(i)  the  miniature  by  Hornemann,  taken  in  i8o3, 
and  photographed  in  Breuning's  'Schwarzspa- 
nierhaus'  (Vienna,  1874)  ;  (2)  the  head  by  La- 
tronne,  engraved  by  Hofel,  and  (badly)  by  Biedel 
for  the  A.  M.  Z.,  1817 ;  (3)  the  little  full  length 

'  ■  It  Is  no  object  to  me  to  have  my  hair  dressed,*  says  he,  a  propos 
to  a  servant  who  possessed  that  accomplishment,  Keb.  25. 1813. 
2  Countess  Galleuberg,  in  Thayer,  ii.  172.      ^  Letter  of  June  15, 1825. 
*  Spohr,  Selbntbiog.  108.  E.  B.,  in  Q  hayer  li.  297. 

s  Kochlitz,  Fur  Freunde  d.  Tonkunst,  Iv.  a'X) ;  and  the  charming 
account  (by  a  niece  of  Dr.  Burney)  in  the  Jlarmonicon,  Dec.  1825. 

«  Pir  Julius  Benedict's  recollection. 

'  Breuning,  Aus  dem  Srhwarz^panierhaus,  p.  67. 

8  I  heartily  wish  it  were  in  my  power  to  give  these  two  portraits,  so 
full  of  character  and  so  unlike  the  ordinary  engravings.  The  first  of 
the  two  has  a  special  interest  as  having  been  sent  by  Beethoven  to 
Breuning  as  a  pledge  of  reconciliation.  See  the  letter,  p.  192. 


sketch  by  Lyser,  to  the  accuracy  of  which  Breun- 
ing expressly  testifies,  except  that  the  hat  should 
be  straight  on  the  head,  not  at  all  on  one  side. 


He  was  below  the  middle  height — not  more  than 
5  feet  5  inches ;  but  broad  across  the  shoulders 
and  very  firmly  built — 'the  image  of  strength.'^ 
His  hands  were  much  covered  with  hair,  the  fingers 
strong  and  short  (he  could  barely  span  a  tenth), 
and  the  tips  broad,  as  if  pressed  out  with  long 
practising  from  early  youth.  He  was  very- 
particular  as  to  the  mode  of  holding  the  hands 
and  placing  the  fingers,  in  which  he  was  a 
follower  of  Emanuel  Bach,  whose  Method  he  em- 
ployed in  his  earlier  days.  In  extempore  playing 
he  used  the  pedal  far  more  than  one  would 
expect  from  his  published  sonatas,  and  this  made 
his  quick  playing  confused,  but  in  Adagios  he 
played  with  divine  clearness  and  expression.'* 
His  attitude  at  the  piano  was  perfectly  quiet  and 
dignified,  with  no  approach  to  grimace,  except  to 
bend  down  a  little  towards  the  keys  as  his  deafness 
increased.^^  This  is  remarkable,  because  as  a 
conductor  his  motions  were  most  extravagant.'' 
At  a  pianissimo  he  would  crouch  down  so  as  to 
be  hidden  by  the  desk,  and  then  as  the  crescendo 
increased,  would  gradually  rise,  beating  all  the 
time,  until  at  the  fortissimo  he  would  spring  into 
the  air  with  his  arms  extended  as  if  wishing  to 
float  on  the  clouds.  When,  as  was  sometimes 
the  case  after  he  became  deaf,  he  lost  his  place, 
and  these  motions  did  not  coincide  with  the 
music,  the  effect  was  very  unfortunate,  though 
not  so  unfortunate  as  it  would  have  been  had 

9  Peyfried,  Biogr.  Nolizen,  13.—'  In  that  limited  space  was  concen- 
trated tl<e  pluck  of  twenty  battalions.'— J5o<;ie>i,  ch.  xviii. 
»"  (;zeniey,  in  Thayer,  ii.  348,  n  Thayer,  ii.  236. 

^  Seyfried,  p.  17,  confirmed  by  Spohr.  SeifrsfWoj.  i.  -201. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


171 


he  himself  been  aware  of  the  mistake.  In  the 
orchestra,  as  at  the  piano,  he  was  urgent  in 
demanding  expression,  exact  attention  to  pia^io 
and  forte,  and  the  slightest  shades  of  nuance, 
ami  to  tempo  rabato.  Generally  speaking  he 
was  extremely  courteous  to  the  band,  though 
to  this  rule  there  were  now  and  then  exceptions. 
'J'hough  so  easily  made  angry  his  ])ains  as  a 
teacher  must  have  been  great.  'Unnaturally 
jiatient,'  says  one  pupil, ^  'he  would  have  a  pas- 
sive repeated  a  dozen  times  till  it  was  to  his 
luiud';  'infinitely  strict  in  the  smallest  detail,' 
says  another,'^  'until  the  right  rendering  was 
obtained.'  'Comparatively  careless*  as  to  the 
ri-ht  notes  being  played,  but  angry  at  once  at 
any  failure  in  expression  or  nuance,  or  in  ap- 
prehension of  the  character  of  the  piece  ;  saying 
that  the  first  might  be  an  accident,  but  that 
the  other  showed  want  of  knowledge,  or  feeling, 
or  attention.'  What  his  practice  was  as  to  re- 
muneration does  not  appear,  but  it  is  certain 
that  in  some  cases  he  would  accept  no  pay  from 
his  pupils. 

His  simplicity  and  absence  of  mind  were  now 
and  then  oddly  shown.  He  could  not  be  brought 
to  understand  why  his  standing  in  his  nightshirt 
at  the  open  window  should  attract  notice,  and 

asked  with  perfect  simplicity  '  what  those  d  d 

boys  were  hooting  at.'*  At  Penzing  in  1823  he 
shaved  at  his  window  in  full  view,  and  when  the 


people  collected  to  see  him,  changed  his  lodging 
rather  than  forsake  the  practice.^  Like  Newton 
he  was  unconscious  that  he  had  not  dined,  and 
urged  on  the  waiter  payment  for  a  meal  which 
he  had  neither  ordered  nor  eaten.  He  forgot 
that  he  was  the  owner  of  a  horse  until  recalled 
to  the  fact  by  a  long  bill  for  its  keep.  In  fact 
he  was  not  made  for  practical  life ;  never  could 
play  at  cards  or  dance,  dropped  everything  that 
he  took  into  his  hands,  and  overthrew  the  ink 
into  the  piano.  He  cut  himself  horribly  in 
shaving.  '  A  disorderly  creature '  (ein  unordent- 
licher  Mensch)  was  his  own  description,  and  '  ein 
konfuser  Kerl'  that  of  his  doctor,^  who  wisely 
added  the  saving  clause  '  though  he  may  still  be 
the  greatest  genius  in  the  world.'  His  ordinary 
handwriting  was  terrible,  and  supplied  him  with 
many  a  joke.  'Yesterday  I  took  a  letter  myself 
to  the  post-office,  and  was  asked  where  it  was 
meant  to  go  to.  From  which  I  see  that  my 
writing  is  as  often  misunderstood  as  I  am  myself.'' 
It  was  the  same  twenty  years  before — '  this  cursed 
writing  that  I  cannot  alter.'*  Much  of  his 
difficulty  probably  arose  from  want  of  pens, 
which  he  often  begs  from  Zmeskall  and  Breun- 
ing  ;  for  some  of  his  MSS.  are  as  clear  and 
flowing  as  those  of  Mozart,  and  there  is  a  truly 
noble  character  in  the  writing  of  some  of  his 
letters,  e.g.  that  to  Mr.  Broadwood  (see  p.  194), 
of  which  we  give  the  signature. 


Notwithstanding  his  illegible  hand  Beethoven 
M-as  a  considerable  letter  writer.  The  two  col- 
lections published  by  Nohl  contain  721,  and 
these  are  probably  not  more  than  half  of  those 
he  wrote.'''  Not  a  large  number  when  compared 
with  those  of  Mendelssohn  or  cven  Mozart — both 
of  whom  died  so  early, — but  large  under  all  the 
circumstances.  'Good  letters'  they  cannot  be 
called.  They  contain  no  descriptions  or  graces 
•of  style ;  they  are  often  clumsy  and  incorrect. 
But  they  are  also  often  eminently  interesting 
from  being  so  brimfull  of  the  writer  s  personality. 
They  are  all  concerned  with  himself,  his  wants 
and  wishes,  his  joys  and  sorrows ;  sometimes 
when  they  speak  of  his  deafness  or  his  ill  health, 
or  confess  his  faults  and  appeal  to  the  affection 
of  his  correspondent,  they  overflow  with  feeling 
and  rise  into  an  affecting  eloquence,  but  always 
to  the  point.  Of  these,  the  letters  to  Wegeler 
and  Eleanore  von  Breiming,  and  that  to  his 
brothers  (called  his  'Will'),  are  fine  specimens. 
Many  of  those  addressed  to  his  nephew  are  inex- 
pressibly touching.   But  his  letters  are  often  very 

>  Ries,  p.  94.  »  Countess  Gallenberg,  in  Thayer,  ii.  172. 

»  Kies,  p.  94.  «  Moscheles,  Lehen,  i.  17. 

6  Breuning,  p.  44.  «  Thayer,  li.  340. 

">  Letter  to  Zmeskall,  Oct,  9. 1813. 


short.  Partly  perhaps  from  his  deafness,  and 
partly  from  some  idiosyncrasy,  he  would  often 
write  a  note  where  a  verbal  question  would  seem 
to  have  been  more  convenient.  One  constant 
characteristic  is  the  fun  they  contain.  Swift 
himself  never  made  worse  puns  with  more  plea- 
!  sure,  or  devised  queerer  spelling^'  or  more  miser- 
I  able  rhymes,  or  bestowed  more  nicknames  on  his 
friends.  Krumpholz  is  'my  fool' ;  he  himself  is 
' the  Generalissimus,'  Haslinger  'the  Adjutant,' 
Schindler  'the  Samothracian '  and  'Papageno'; 
Schuppanzigh  is 'Falstaff ' ;  Bernard,  'Bernardus 
non  Sanctus '  ;  Leidesdorf  is  '  Dorf  des  Leides ' ; 
Hoffmann  is  adjured  to  be  'kein  Hdftnann,' 
Kuhlau  is  '  Kiihl  nicht  lau,'  and  so  on.  Nor 
are  they  always  comme  il  faut,  as  when  he 
addresses  Holz  as  'lieber  Holz  vom  Kreuze 
Christi,'  or  apostrophises  'Monsieur  Friederich, 
nomme  Liederlich.'  Sometimes  such  names  bite 
deeply: — his  brother  Johann  is  the  'Braineater,' 
'  Pseudo-brother,'  or '  Asinus,'  and  Caspar's  widow 
the  '  Queen  of  Night.'  No  one  is  spared.  A 
canon  to  Count  Moritz  Lichnowsky  runs  '  Bester 

»  Letter  to  Simrock.  Aug.  2, 1704. 

9  For  histance  a  MIS.  of  the  B  flat  Concerto,  formerly  in  possession  ot 
Mr.  Powell,       Thayer's  two  vols,  contain  many  not  before  published, 
u  See  Nos.  298.  302  of  Nohl's 


172 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


Herr  Graf,  du  bist  ein  Schaf.'  The  anecdote 
about  his  brother  akeady  alluded  to  is  a  case  in 
point.'  J ohann,  who  lived  on  his  own  property, 
called  on  him  on  some  jour  de  fete,  and  left  his 
card  '  Johannvan  Beethoven,  Gutsbesitzer'  (land 
proprietor),  which  Beethoven  immediately  re- 
turned after  writing  on  the  back  *L.  van 
Beethoven,  Hirnbesitzer '  (brain  proprietor). 
This  fondness  for  joking  pervaded  his  talk 
also;  he  liked  a  home-thrust,  and  delivered  it 
with  a  loud  roar  of  laughter.  To  tell  the  truth 
he  was  fond  of  horse-play,  and  that  not  always 
in  good  taste.  The  stories — some  of  them  told 
by  himself — of  his  throwing  books,  plates,  eggs, 
at  the  servants  ;  of  his  pouring  the  dish  of  stew 
over  the  head  of  the  waiter  who  had  served  him 
wrongly ;  of  the  wisp  of  goat's  beard  sent  to  the 
lady  who  asked  him  for  a  lock  of  his  hair — are 
all  instances  of  it.  No  one  had  a  sharper  eye 
or  ear  for  a  joke  when  it  told  on  another.  He 
was  never  tired  of  retailing  the  delicious  story  of 
Simon  the  Bohemian  tenor  who  in  singing  the 
sentence  *Auf  was  Art  Elende'  transformed  it 
into '  Au  !  fwa  !  Sartellen  Thee  ! '  But  it  must  be 
confessed  that  his  ear  and  his  enjoyment  were  less 
keen  when  the  joke  was  against  himself.  When 
at  Berlin  in  1 796  he  interrupted  Himmel  in  the 
middle  of  an  improvisation  to  ask  when  he  was 
going  to  begin  in  earnest.  But  when  Himmel, 
months  afterwards,  wrote  to  him  that  the  latest 
invention  in  Berlin  was  a  lantern  for  the  blind, 
Beethoven  not  only  with  characteristic  simplicity 
did  not  see  the  joke,  but  when  it  was  pointed  out 
to  him  was  furious,  and  would  have  nothing 
more  to  do  with  his  correspondent. 

The  simplicity  which  lay  at  the  root  of  so 
many  of  his  characteristic  traits,  w-hile  it  gave 
an  extraordinary  force  and  freshness  to  much 
that  he  did  and  said,  must  often  have  been  very 
inconvenient  to  those  who  had  intercourse  with 
him.  One  of  his  most  serious  quarrels  arose 
from  his  divulging  the  name  of  a  very  old  and 
intimate  friend  who  had  cautioned  him  privately 
against  one  of  his  brothers.  He  could  see  no 
reason  for  secresy ;  but  it  is  easy  to  imagine  the 
embarrassment  which  such  disregard  of  the  ordinary 
rules  of  life  must  have  caused.  Bochlitz  describes 
the  impression  he  received  from  him  as  that  of 
a  very  able  man  reared  on  a  desert  island,  and 
suddenly  brought  fresh  into  the  world.  One 
little  trait  from  Breuning's  recollections  ex- 
emplifies this — that  after  walking  in  the  rain 
he  would  enter  the  living  room  of  the  house  and 
at  once  shake  the  water  from  his  hat  all  over 
the  furniture,  regardless,  or  rather  quite  unaware, 
of  the  damage  he  was  doing.  His  ways  of  eating 
in  his  later  years  became  quite  unbearable. 

One  fruitful  source  of  difficulty  in  practical  life 
was  his  lodgings.  His  changes  of  residence  were 
innumerable  during  the  first  year  or  two  of  his 
life  in  Vienna ;  it  is  iinpossible  to  disentangle 
them.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  the  Lichnowskys 
took  him  into  their  house,  and  there  for  some 
years  he  had  nominally  a  pied  d  terre ;  but  with 

*  Schlndler  Ust  ed.)  121.  2  Thaver.  ».  ?27, 


all  the  indulgence  of  the  Prince  and  Princess 
the  restraint  of  being  forced  to  dress  for  dinner, 
of  attending  to  definite  hours  and  definite  rules, 
was  too  much  for  him,  and  he  appears  very  soon 
to  have  taken  a  lodging  of  his  own  in  the  town, 
which  lodging  he  was  constantly  changing.  In 
1803,  when  an  opera  was  contemplated,  he  had 
free  quarters  at  the  theatre,  which  came  to  an 
end  when  the  house  changed  hands  early  in  1804. 
A  few  months  later  and  he  was  again  lodged  in 
the  theatre  free.  At  Baron  Pasqualati's  house  on 
the  ramparts  he  had  rooms — with  a  beautiful 
look-out^ — which  were  usually  kept  for  him, 
where  he  would  take  refuge  when  composing, 
and  be  denied  to  every  one.  But  even  with 
this  he  had  a  separate  and  fresh  quarter  nearly 
every  winter.*  In  summer  he  hated  the  city,  and 
usually  followed  the  Vienna  custom  of  leaving 
the  hot  streets  for  the  delicious  wooded  environs 
of  Hetzendorf,  Heiligenstadt,  or  Dobling,  at  that, 
time  little  villages  absolutely  in  the  country,  or 
for  Modling  or  Baden,  further  off.  To  this  he 
'  looked  forward  with  the  delight  of  a  child. .  .  . 
No  man  on  earth  loves  the  country  more.  Woods, 
trees,  and  rocks  give  the  response  which  man  re- 
quires.' *  Every  tree  seems  to  say  Holy,  ^  Holy.' 
Here,  as  already  remarked,  he  was  out  of  doors 
for  hours  together,  wandering  in  the  woods,  or 
sitting  in  the  fork  of  a  favourite  lime-tree  in  the 
Schonbrunn  gardens  ^  sketch-book  in  hand  ;  here 
his  inspiration  flowed,  and  in  such  circumstances 
the  '  Mount  of  Olives, '  '  Fidelio,'  the  '  Eroica 
Symphony,'  and  the  majority  of  his  great  works 
were  sketched  and  re-sketched,  and  erased  and 
re-written,  and  by  slow  degrees  brought  far  on 
to  perfection. 

His  difficulties  with  his  lodgings  are  not  hard  to 
understand ;  sometimes  he  quarrelled  with  them 
because  the  sun  did  not  shine  into  the  rooms,  and 
he  loved  the  light ;  sometimes  the  landlord  inter- 
fered. Like  other  men  of  genius  whose  appearance 
would  seem  to  belie  the  fact,  Beethoven  was  ex- 
tremely fond  of  washing.'^  He  would  pour  water 
backwards  and  forwards  over  his  hands  for  a  long 
time  together,  and  if  at  such  times  a  musical 
thought  struck  him  and  he  became  absorbed,  he 
would  go  on  until  the  whole  floor  was  swimming, 
and  the  water  had  found  its  way  through  the 
ceiling  into  the  room  beneath.  On  one  occasion 
he  abandoned  a  lodging  for  which  he  had  paid 
heavily  in  advance,  because  his  landlord.  Baron 
Pronay,  insisted  on  taking  off  his  hat  to  him 
whenever  they  met.  One  of  the  most  momentous 
of  his  changes  was  in  1 804.  After  he  was  turned 
out  of  his  lodgings  at  the  theatre  Beethoven  and 
Stephen  Breuning  inhabited  two  sets  of  rooms  in 
a  building  called  the  Rothe  Haus.  As  each  set 
was  large  enough  for  two,  Beethoven  soon  moved 
into  Breuning's  rooms,  but  neglected  to  give  the 
necessary  notice  to  the  landlord,  and  thus  after  a 
time  found  that  he  had  both  lodgings  on  his 

n  Thayer,  li.  258. 

*  See  the  list  for  1822,  3,  and  4,  In  Breuning,  43-45. 
B  Letter  to  Mme.  von  Drossdick,  lirieje.  No.  61 ;  also  to  Arcbd.  Ro- 
dolph,  May  27, 1813,  and  to  Hauschka.  No.  210.  Nohl,  Lehen,  ii.  573. 
«  Thayer,  ii.  278. 

In  a  letter  to  Countess  Erdody  accepting  an  invitation  he 
stipulates  for  '  a  little  hath  room.' 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


173 


hands  at  once.  The  result  was  a  violent  quar- 
rel, which  drove  Beethoven  off  to  Baden,  and 
estranged  the  two  friends  for  a  time.  We  have 
Beethoven's  version  of  the  affair  in  two  letters  to 
Ries— July,  and  July  24, 1 804— angry  implacable 
letters,  but  throwing  a  strong  light  on  his  cha- 
racter and  circumstances,  showing  that  it  was 
not  the  loss  of  the  money  that  provoked  him,  but 
an  imputation  of  meanness ;  showing  further  that 
here,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  his  brother  was  his 
evil  genius ;  and  containing  other  highly  interest- 
ing personal  traits. 

Besides  the  diflficulties  of  the  apartments  there 
were  those  with  servants.  A  man  whose  prin- 
ciples were  so  severe  as  to  make  him  say  of  a 
servant  who  had  told  a  falsehood  that  she  was 
not  pure  at  heart,  and  therefore  could  not  ^make 
good  soup ;  who  punished  his  cook  for  the  stale- 
ness  of  the  eggs  by  throwing  the  whole  batch  at 
her  one  by  one,  and  who  distrusted  the  expend- 
iture of  every  halfpenny — must  have  had  much  to 
contend  witlx  in  his  kitchen.  The  books  give 
full  details  on  this  subject,  which  need  not  be 
repeated,  and  indeed  are  more  unpleasant  to 
contemplate  than  many  other  drawbacks  and  dis- 
tresses of  the  life  of  this  great  man. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  money  was  no 
object  to  him,  and  he  speaks  as  if  his  purse  were 
always  open  to  his  friends.^  But  after  the  charge 
of  his  nephew  was  thrust  upon  his  hands  a  great 
change  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  came  over 
liim.  After  181 3  complaints  of  want  of  money 
abound  in  his  letters,  and  he  resorted  to  all 
possible  means  of  obtaining  it.  The  sum  which 
lie  had  been  enabled  to  invest  after  the  congress 
he  considered  as  put  by  for  his  nephew,  and 
therefore  not  to  be  touched,  and  he  succeeded  in 
maintaining  it  till  his  death. 

It  is  hard  to  arrive  at  any  certain  conclusion 
on  the  nature  and  progress  of  Beethoven's  deaf- 
ness, owing  to  the  vagueness  of  the  information. 
Difficulty  of  hearing  appears  first  to  have  shown 
itself  about  1798  in  singing  and  buzzing  in  his 
ears,  loss  of  power  to  distinguish  words,  though 
he  could  hear  the  tones  of  voice,  and  great  dislike 
to  sudden  loud  noise.  It  was  even  then  a  subject 
of  the  greatest  pain  to  his  sensitive  nature ;  ^ 
like  Byron  with  his  club-foot  he  lived  in  morbid 
dread  of  his  infirmity  being  observed,  a  temper 
which  naturally  often  kept  him  silent ;  and  when 
a  few  years  later  '  he  found  himself  unable  to  hear 
the  pipe  of  a  peasant  playing  at  a  short  dis- 
tance in  the  open  air,  it  threw  him  into  the 
deepest  melancholy,  and  evoked  the  well-known 
letter  to  his  brother  in  1802,  which  goes  by  the 
name  of  his  Will.  Still  many  of  the  anecdotes 
of  his  behavour  in  society  show  that  during  the 
early  years  of  the  century  his  deafness  was  but 
partial ;  and  Ries,  intimate  as  he  was  with  his 
master,  admits  that  he  did  not  know  it  till  told* 
by  S.  Breuning.  It  is  obvious  from  Schindler's 
statement  that  he  must  have  been  able  to  hear 
the  yellowhanuners  in  the  trees  above  him  when 

»  See  Nohl,  Lehn,  Ui.  841. 
,    »  Letter  to  Wegeler,  June  29, 1801. 

»  Letters  to  Ameoda  (1800);  Wegeler,  June  29  Xovr.l6  (1801).  Bie*,  p.98. 
j  •IUai.p.98. 

I 


he  was  composing  the  Pastoral  Symphony  in  1807 
and  1808.  A  few  facts  may  be  mentioned  bearing 
on  the  progress  of  the  malady.  In  1805  he  was 
able  to  judge  severely  of  the  nuances  in  the 
rehearsal  of  his  opera.  In  1807,  1809,  181 3  he 
conducted  performances  of  his  own  works.  In 
1 8 14  he  played  his  B  flat  trio — his  last  appearance 
in  public  in  concerted  music.  From  1816  to  1818 
he  used  an  ear  trumpet.*  At  the  opening  of  the 
Josephstadt  Theatre  in  1822,  he  conducted  the 
performance — nearly  to  ruin  it  is  true,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  was  able  to  detect  that  the  soprano 
was  not  singing  in  time,  and  to  give  her  the 
necessary  advice.  A  subsequent  attempt  (in 
Nov.  1822)  to  conduct  'Fidelio'  led  to  his  hav- 
ing to  quit  the  orchestra,  when  his  mortification 
was  so  great  that  Schindler  treats  the  occurrence 
as  an  epoch  in  his  life.^  At  this  time  the  hear- 
ing of  the  right  ear  was  almost  completely  gone  ; 
what  he  did  hear  —  amongst  other  things  a 
musical  box''  playing  the  trio  in  '  Fidelio,'  and 
Cherubini's  overture  to '  Medea ' — was  with  the 
left  ear  only.  After  this  he  conducted  no  more, 
though  he  stood  in  the  orchestra  at  the  per- 
formance of  the  '  Choral  Symphony,'  and  had 
to  be  turned  round  that  he  might  see  the  applause 
which  his  music  was  evoking.  From  this  to  the 
end  all  communication  with  him  was  carried  on 
by  writing,  for  which  purpose  he  always  had  a 
book  of  rough  paper,  with  a  stout  pencil,  at  hand. 

The  connexion  between  this  cruel  malady  and 
the  low  tone  of  his  general  health  was  closer  than 
is  generally  supposed.  The  post  mortem  examina- 
tion showed  that  the  liver  was  shrunk  to  half  its 
proper  size,  and  was  hard  and  tough  like  leather, 
with  numerous  nodules  the  size  of  a  bean  woven 
into  its  texture  and  appearing  on  its  surface. 
There  were  also  marks  of  ulceration  of  the 
pharynx,  about  the  tonsils  and  Eustachian  tubes. 
The  arteries  of  the  ears  were  athrumatous,  and 
the  auditory  nerves — especially  that  of  the  right 
ear — were  degenerated  and  to  all  appearance 
paralysed.  The  whole  of  these  appearances  are 
most  probably  the  result  of  syphilitic  affections 
at  an  early  period  of  his  life.^  The  pains  in  the 
head,  indigestion,  colic,  and  jaundice,  of  which 
he  frequently  complains,  and  the  deep  depression 
which  gives  the  key  to  so  many  of  his  letters, 
would  all  follow  naturally  from  the  chronic  in- 
flammation and  atrophy  implied  by  the  state  of 
the  liver,  and  the  digestive  derangements  to  which 
it  would  give  rise,  aggravated  by  the  careless  way 
in  which  he  lived,  and  by  the  bad  food,  hastily 
devoured,  at  irregular  intervals,  in  which  he 
too  often  indulged.  His  splendid  constitution 
and  his  extreme  fondness  for  the  open  air  must 
have  been  of  great  assistance  to  him.  How 
thoroughly  he  enjoyed  the  country  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  for,  like  Mendelssohn,  he  was  a  great 
walker,  and  in  Vienna  no  day,  however  busy  or 
however  wet,  passed  without  its  'constitutional' 
— a  walk,  or  rather  run,  twice  round  the  ramparts, 

«  Schindler.  iL  170.  «  Ibid.  11.  »  Ibid.  9. 

*  This  diagnosis,  which  I  owe  to  the  kindness  of  my  friend  I>r 
Lauder  Bruuton.  is  confirmed  by  the  existence  of  two  prescriptions,  ol 
wiiicli,  since  the  passage  in  the  text  was  written,  I  have  been  told  bj 
Mr.  Thayer,  who  heard  of  tliem  from  Dr.  Bartolinl. 


174 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


a  part  of  the  city  long  since  obliterated ;  or  far- 
ther into  the  environs. 

Beethoven  was  an  early  riser,  and  from  the 
time  he  left  his  bed  till  dinner — which  in  those 
days  was  taken  at,  or  shortly  after,  noon — the 
day  was  devoted  to  completing  at  the  piano  and 
writing  down  the  compositions  which  he  had 
previously  conceived  and  elaborated  in  his  sketch- 
books, or  in  his  head.  At  such  times  the  noise 
which  he  made  playing  and  roaring  was  some- 
thing tremendous.  He  hated  interruption  while 
thus  engaged,  and  would  do  and  say  the  most 
horribly  rude  things  if  disturbed.  Dinner — when 
he  remembered  it — he  took  sometimes  in  his  own 
room,  sometimes  at  an  eating-house,  latterly  at 
the  house  of  his  friends  the  Breunings ;  and  no 
sooner  was  this  over  than  he  started  on  his  walk. 
He  was  fond  of  making  appointments  to  meet  on 
the  glacis.  The  evening  was  spent  at  the  theatre 
or  in  society.  He  went  nowhere  without  his 
sketch-books,  and  indeed  these  seem  to  distin- 
guish him  from  other  composers  almost  as  much 
as  his  music  does.  They  are  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  relic  that  any  artist  or  literary  man 
has  left  behind  him.  They  aiford  us  the  most 
precious  insight  into  Beethoven's  method  of  com- 
position. They  not  only  show — what  we  know 
from  his  own  admission — that  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  working  at  three,  and  even  four,  things 
at  once,^  but  without  them  we  should  never 
realise  how  extremely  slow  and  tentative  he  was 
in  composing.  Audacious  and  impassioned  be- 
yond every  one  in  extemporising,  the  moment  he 
takes  his  pen  in  hand  he  becomes  the  most 
cautious  and  hesitating  of  men.  It  would  al- 
most seem  as  if  this  great  genius  never  saw  his 
work  as  a  whole  until  it  actually  approached 
completion.  It  grew  like  a  plant  or  tree,  and 
one  thing  produced  another,''  There  was  nothing 
sudden  or  electric  about  it,  all  was  gradual 
and  organic,  as  slow  as  a  work  of  nature  and  as 
permanent.  One  is  prompted  to  believe,  not  that 
he  had  the  idea  first  and  then  expressed  it,  but 
that  it  often  came  in  the  process  of  finding  the 
expression.  There  is  hardly  a  bar  in  his  music 
of  which  it  may  not  be  said  with  confidence  that 
it  has  been  re-written  a  dozen  times.  Of  the  air 
*  0  Hofihung '  in  Fidelio  the  sketch-books  show 
1 8  attempts,  and  of  the  concluding  chorus  lo. 
Of  many  of  the  brightest  gems  of  the  opera,  says 
Thayer,  the  first  ideas  are  so  trivial  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  admit  that  they  were 
Beethoven's  if  they  were  not  in  his  own  hand- 
writing. And  so  it  is  with  all  his  works.  It 
is  quite  astonishing  to  find  the  length  of  time 
during  which  some  of  his  best-known  instru- 
mental melodies  remained  in  his  thoughts  till 
they  were  finally  used,  or  the  crude  vague  com- 
monplace shape  in  which  they  were  first  written 
down.  The  more  they  are  elaborated  the  more 
fresh  and  spontaneous  do  they  become. 

To  quote  but  two  instances  out  of  many.  The 
theme  of  the  Andante  in  the  C  minor  Symphony, 

•  Letter  to  Wegeler,  June,  1800. 

2  Thus  the  3-bar  rhythm  of  the  Scherzo  of  the  9th  Symphony 
(gradually  came  as  he  wrote  and  re-wrote  a  fugue  subject  apparently 
destined  for  a  very  different  work.  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  XXIII. 


completed  in  i8o8,  is  first  found  in  a  sketch-book 
of  the  year  i8oo,  mixed  with  memoranda  for  the 
6  Quartets,  and  in  the  following  form  -.^ — 
 -.r^-^-*  -  •••^  n.m-m-^  ...  . 


Another  is  the  first  subject  of  the  Allegro  in  tli( 
Sonata  Op.  io6.    It  first  appears*  thus— 


then,  vnth  a  slight  advance, 

m 


next 


then 


and  finally,  after  several  pages  more  of  writing 
and  rewriting,  it  assumes  its  present  incisive  and 
spontaneous  shape. 

In  these  books  every  thought  that  occurred  to 
him  was  written  down  at  the  moment ;  he  even 
kept  one  by  his  bedside  for  use  in  the  night.' 
Abroad  or  at  home  it  was  all  the  same,  only 
out  of  doors  he  made  his  notes  in  pencil,  and 
inked  them  over  on  his  return  to  the  house.  It 
is  as  if  he  had  no  reliance  whatever  on  his  me- 
mory. He  began  the  practice  as  a  boy®  and 
maintained  it  to  the  last.  In  the  sale  catalogue 
*of  his  eJffects  more  than  50  of  such  books  are 
included.  Many  of  them  have  been  parted  and 
dispersed,  but  some  remain  intact.  They  are 
usually  of  large  coarse  music  paper,  oblong,  200 
or  even  more  pages,  16  staves  to  the  page,  and 
are  covered  from  beginning  to  end,  often  over 
the  margin  as  well,  with  close  crowded  writing. 
There  is  something  very  aSecting  in  the  sight  of 
these  books/  and  in  being  thus  brought  so  close 
to  this  mighty  genius  and  made  to  realise  the 
incessant  toil  and  pains  which  he  bestowed  on 
all  his  works,  small  and  great.  In  this  he 
agreed  with  Goethe,  who  says,  k  propos  to  his 
'Ballad,'  'Whole  years  of  reflection  are  com- 
prised in  it,  and  I  made  three  or  four  trials 
before  I  could  bring  it  to  its  present  shape.'* 
The  sketch-books  also  show  how  immense  was 
the  quantity  of  his  ideas.  '  Had  he,'  says  Notte- 
bohm,^  'carried  out  all  the  symphonies  which 
are  begun  in  these  books  we  should  have  at  least 
fifty.' 

But  when,  after  all  this  care  and  hesitation, 
the  works  were  actually  completed,  nothing  ex- 

'  First  given  by  Thayer,  Chron.  Verzcichniss,  Xo.  140.  For  further 
information  on  this  interesting  subject  see  Nottebohm's  Ein  Skitten- 
huch  Beethoven's.  *  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  VH. 

6  Breuning,  98.  •  Letter,  July  23, 1815. 

T  There  is  one  in  the  MS.  department  of  the  British  Museum. 

6  Conversations  vnth  Eckermann,  Oxeoford's  translation.  U.  112. 

*  Nei*e  Beethoveniana,  XIII. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


175 


teraal  made  him  change  them.  No  convenience 
of  singers  or  players  weighed  for  a  moment 
against  the  integrity  of  his  finished  composition. 
When  Sonntag  and  Ungher  protested  against 
the  unsingable  passages  in  the  Ninth  Symphony, 
and  besought  him  to  bring  them  within  the 
compass  of  their  voices,  *  Nein  und  immer  nein,' 
was  the  dry  answer.^  When  Kraft,  the  cellist  in 
the  Schuppanzigh  Quartet,  complained  that  a 
passage  '  did  not  lie  within  his  hand,'  the  answer 
was  'it  must  lie' — 'muss  liegen.'^ 

A  man  to  whom  his  art  was  so  emphatically 
the  business  of  his  life,  and  who  was  so  insatiable 
in  his  standard  of  perfection,  must  huve  been 
always  advancing.     To  him  more  than  to  any 
other  musician  may  be  applied  Goethe's  words 
on  Schiller  : — '  Every  week  he  altered  and  grew 
more  complete,  and  every  time  I  saw  him  he 
appeared  to  me  to  have  advanced  since  the  last 
in  knowledge,  learning,  and  judgment.'^   It  is 
no  wonder  then  that  he  did  not  care  for  his 
early  works,  and  would  sometimes  even  have 
destroyed  '  Adelaide,'  *  the  Septet,  and  others  of 
his  youthful  pieces,  if  he  could.    Towards  the 
end  of  his  life  he  heard  a  friend  practising  his  32 
Variations^  in  C  minor.  After  listening  for  some 
time  he  said  '  Whose  is  that  V    *  Yours,'  was  the 
answer.'  '  Mine  ?  That  piece  of  folly  mine  ? '  was 
I    his  retort;  'Oh,  Beethoven,  what  an  ass  you 
I    were  in  those  days  ! '    A  good  deal  of  this  may 
have  been  momentary  caprice ;  but  making  all 
allowance,  one  can  imagine  his  feelings  at  the 
close  of  his  life  on  receiving  a  commission  from 
I    an  English  amateur  for  a  'Symphony  in  the 
style  of  his  Second  or  of  his  Septet,'  or  on  reading 
the  contemporary  eflFusions  on  the  Eroica  and 
C  minor  Symphonies,  in  which  his  honest  and 
i    well-meaning  critics  ®  entreated  him  to  return  to 
I    the  clearness  and  conciseness  of  his  early  works. 
I       Hardly  less  characteristic  than  the  sketch- 
I,    books  are  his  diaries  or  journals,  in  which  the 
most  passionate  and  personal  reflections,  resolu- 
j    tions,  prayers,  aspirations,  complaints,  are  mixed 
up  with  memorandiuns  of  expenses  and  house- 
f    hold  matters,  notes  about  his  music,  rules  for  his 
'    conduct,  quotations  from  books,  and  every  other 
I    conceivable  kind  of  entry.    These  books  have 
been  torn  up  and  dispersed  as  autographs  ;  but 
I    a  copy  of  one  extending  from  181 2  to  18 18  for- 
.    tunately  exists,  and  has  been  edited  with  copious 
f    notes  and  elucidations  by  Herr  Nohl,  the  whole 
^    throwing  great  light  on  that  unfortunate  period 
I    of  his  life.    A  ray  of  light  is  also  occasionally 
!    to  be  gained  from  the  conversation -books  already 
mentioned,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved, 
though  as  Beethoven's  answers  were  usually 
•    spoken  this  source  is  necessarily  imperfect. 
<       If  now  we  ask  what  correspondence  there  is 
'    between  the  traits  and  characteristics  thus  im- 
perfectly sketched  and  Beethoven's  music,  it  must 
I    be  confessed  that  the  question  is  a  difficult  one 
'    to  answer.    In  one  point  alone  the  parallel  is 
obvious — namely,  the  humour,  which  is  equally 

!        •  Schlndler,  p.  154.  1  Thayer,  11. 53. 

»  Eckennann.  Jan.  18, 1825. 
I        «  Letter  to  Matthison,  Aug.  4,  1800.  Czerny,  In  Thayer,  H.  99;  also 
186.       «  Thayer,  il.  SW.       «  See  the  quotations  In  Thayer,  IL  275. 


salient  in  both.  In  the  finale  of  the  7th  and  8th 
Symphonies  there  are  passages  which  are  the 
exact  counterparts  of  the  rough  jokes  and  horse- 
play of  which  we  have  already  seen  some 
instances.  In  these  we  almost  hear  his  loud 
laugh.  The  Scherzo  of  Symphony  No.  2,  where 
the  Fj  chord  is  so  suddenly  taken  and  so 
forcibly  held,  might  almost  be  a  picture  of  the 
unfortunate  Kellner  forced  to  stand  still  while 
the  dish  of  stew  was  poured  over  his  head.  The 
bassoons  in  the  opening  and  closing  movements 
of  No.  8  are  inimitably  humorous ;  and  so  on 
in  many  other  instances  which  will  occur  to 
every  one.  But  when  we  leave  humour  and  go 
to  other  points,  where  in  the  life  shall  we  look  for 
the  grandeur  and  beauty  which  distinguish  the 
music?  Neither  in  letters  nor  anecdotes  do  we 
find  anything  answering  to  the  serene  beauty  of 
the  slow  movements  (No.  2,  No.  4,  No.  9),  or 
the  mystic  tone  of  such  passages  as  those  of  the 
horns  at  the  end  of  the  Trio  of  the  Eroica  or 
of  certain  phrases  in  the  finale  of  the  Choral 
Fantasia  and  of  the  Choral  Symphony,  which 
lift  one  so  strangely  out  of  time  into  eternity. 
These  must  represent  a  state  of  mental  absorption 
when  all  heaven  was  before  his  eyes,  and  in 
which  he  retired  within  himself  far  beyond  the 
reach  of  outward  things,  save  his  own  divine 
power  of  expression. 

Equally  difficult  is  it  to  see  anything  in  Bee- 
thoven's life  answering  to  the  sustained  nobility 
and  dignity  of  his  first  movements,  or  of  such 
a  piece  as  the  'Overture  to  Leonora,  No.  3.' 
And  then  if  we  come  to  the  most  individual 
and  characteristic  part  of  all  Beethoven's  artistic 
self,  the  process  by  which  his  music  was  built 
up — the  extraordinary  caution  which  actuated 
him  throughout,  the  hesitation,  the  delays,  the 
incessant  modification  of  his  thoughts,  the  re- 
jection of  the  first  impressions — of  the  second — of 
the  third — in  favour  of  something  only  gradually 
attained  to,  the  entire  subordination  of  his  own 
peculiarities  to  the  constant  thought  of  his 
audience,  and  of  what  would  endure  rather  than 
what  pleased  him  at  first — to  all  this  there  is 
surely  nothing  at  all  corresponding  in  his  life, 
where  his  habit  was  emphatically  a  word  and 
a  blow.  The  fact  is  that,  like  all  musicians, 
only  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other,  in 
speech  Beethoven  was  dumb,  and  often  had  no 
words  for  his  deepest  and  most  characteristic 
feelings.  The  musician  has  less  connexion  with 
the  outside  world  than  any  other  artist,  and  has 
to  turn  inward  and  seek  his  art  in  the  deepest 
recesses  of  his  being  only.''  This  must  naturally 
make  him  less  disposed  to  communicate  with 
others  by  the  ordinary  channels  of  speech  and 
action,  and  will  account  for  much  of  the  irritability 
and  uncertainty  which  often  characterise  his 
dealings  with  his  fellow  men.  But  the  feelings 
are  there,  and  if  we  look  closely  enough  into  the 
life  we  shall  be  able  to  detect  their  existence 
often  whex-e  we  least  expect  it.  In  Beethoven, 
for  example,  what  was  his  treatment  of  his 
nephew — the  strong  devotion  which  seized  him 

7  Goethe,  WOhelm  Mtitttri  Wandeijahre,  Bk.  11.  chap.  9. 


176 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


directly  after  his  brother's  death,  and  drove  him 
to  sacrifice  the  habits  of  a  lifetime ;  his  in- 
exhaustible forgiveness,  his  yearning  tenderness — 
what  are  these,  if  properly  interpreted,  but  a 
dumb  way  of  expressing  that  noble  temper  which, 
when  uttered  in  his  own  natural  musical  language, 
helps  to  make  the  first  movement  of  the  Eroica 
so  lofty,  so  dignified,  and  so  impressive  ? 

We  must  now  return  to  the  chronicle  of  the 
events  of  Beethoven's  life. 

His  position  at  Bonn  as  organist  and  pianist 
to  the  Emperor's  uncle,  his  friendship  with 
Count  Waldstein,  who  was  closely  related  to 
some  of  the  best  families  in  Vienna,  and  his 
connexion  with  Haydn,  were  all  circumstances 
sure  to  secure  him  good  introductions.  The 
moment  was  a  favourable  one,  as  since  Mozart's 
death,  a  twelvemonth  before,  there  had  been  no 
player  to  take  his  place  ;  and  it  was  as  a  player 
that  Beethoven  was  first  known.  It  is  pleasant 
to  know  that  his  show-piece,  with  which  he  took 
the  Vienna  connoisseurs  by  storm,  was  his  Varia- 
tions on  '  Venni  amore,'  which  we  have  abeady 
mentioned  as  composed  before  he  left  Bonn.  Pub- 
lic concerts  in  our  sense  of  the  word  there  were 
few,  but  a  player  had  every  opportunity  at  the 
musical  parties  of  the  nobility,  who  maintained 
large  orchestras  of  the  best  quality,  and  whose 
music-meetings  differed  from  public  concerts 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  audience  were  better 
educated,  and  were  all  invited  guests.  Prince 
Lichnowsky  and  Baron  van  Swieten  appear  to 
have  been  the  first  to  secure  Beethoven,  the 
former  for  his  regular  Friday  morning  chamber 
performances,  the  latter  for  soirees,  when  he  had 
either  *  to  bring  his  night- cap  in  his  pocket'  or 
else  to  stay  after  the  other  guests  had  gone,  and 
send  his  host  to  bed  with  half-a-dozen  of  Bach's 
fugues  as  an  Ahendsegen.  The  acquaintance 
probably  began  shortly  after  Beethoven's  arrival; 
and  after  a  twelvemonth  of  unpleasant  expe- 
rience in  the  Vienna  lodgings,  the  Prince  in- 
duced him  to  accept  apartments  in  his  house. 
His  wife  was  a  Princess  of  Thun,  famous  for 
her  beauty  and  her  goodness ;  he  himself  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Mozart ;  and  both  were  known 
as  the  best  amateur  musicians  of  Vienna.  Bee- 
thoven was  poor  enough  to  be  tempted  by  such 
hospitality,  but  it  was  an  absurd  arrangement, 
and  he  very  soon  infringed  it  by  disregarding 
the  Prince's  hours,  often  dining  at  the  Gasthof,  I 
having  a  lodging  of  his  own  elsewhere,  and  ; 
other  acts  of  independence.  Here  however  he  ' 
was  frequently  heard,  and  thus  became  rapidly  j 
known  in  the  most  musical  circles,  and  Ries's 
anecdotes  show  (after  making  allowance  for  the 
inaccuracy  of  a  man  who  writes  30  years  after 
the  events)  how  widely  he  was  invited,  how 
completely  at  his  ease  he  was,  and  how  en- 
tirely his  eccentricities  were  condoned  for  the 
sake  of  his  playing  and  his  great  qualities. 
Not  that  we  are  to  suppose  that  Beethoven  gave 
undue  time  to  society.  He  was  too  hard  a 
worker  for  that.  His  lessons  with  Haydn  and 
Albrechtsberger  (from  the  latter  he  had  three 
a  week)  were  alone  enough  to  occupy  a  great 


deal  of  time,  and  his  own  studies  in  conn- 
terpoint  exist  to  show  that  he  did  not  con- 
fine himself  to  the  mere  tasks  that  were  set 
him.  Moreover  his  lessons  with  Albrechts- 
berger contain  sketches  for  various  composi- 
tions, such  as  '  Adelaide,'  a  part  of  one  of  the 
Trios  (op.  i),  and  the  Symphony  in  C,^  all  show- 
ing how  eager  he  was  to  be  something  more 
than  a  mere  player  or  even  a  splendid  impro- 
viser.  These  sketches  afford  an  early  instance  of 
his  habit  of  working  at  several  compositions  at 
one  and  the  same  time.  The  date  of  one  of 
them,  about  Feb.  1795,  seems  to  imply  either 
that  the  story — grounded  on  Ries's  statement — 
that  the  Trios  were  in  MS.  for  many  months* 
before  they  were  printed  is  inaccurate,  or,  more 
probably,  that  Beethoven  re-wrote  one  of  the 
movements  very  shortly  before  delivering  the 
work  to  the  publisher,  which  he  did  on  May  19. 
In  this  case  it  would  show  the  wisdom  of  the  plan 
which  he  adopted  with  most  of  his  early  works,^  of 
keeping  them  in  MS.  for  some  time  and  playing 
them  frequently,  so  as  to  test  their  quality  and 
their  effect  on  the  hearers,  a  practice  very  con- 
sistent with  his  habitual  caution  and  fastidious- 
ness in  relation  to  his  music.  At  any  rate  the 
Trios  were  published  first  to  the  subscribers,  by 
July  1795,  and  then,  on  Oct.  21,  to  the  pulDlic. 
They  were  shortly  followed  by  a  work  of  equal 
importance,  the  first  three  Pianoforte  Sonatas,* 
which  were  first  played  by  their  author  at 
one  of  the  Prince's  Fridays  in  presence  of 
Haydn,  and  published  on  the  9th  of  the  following 
March  as  op.  2,  dedicated  to  him.  He  had  not 
then  written  a  string- quartet,  and  at  this  concert 
Count  Appony^  proposed  to  Beethoven  to  com- 
pose one,  offering  him  his  own  terms,  and  refus- 
ing to  make  any  conditions  beyond  the  single 
one  that  the  quartet  should  be  written — a  plea- 
sant testimony  to  the  enthusiasm  excited  by  the 
new  Sonatas,  and  to  the  generosity  of  an  Aus- 
trian nobleman.  In  addition  to  the  Trios,  the 
publications  of  his  three  first  years  in  Vienna 
include  the  12  Variations  on  'Se  vuol  baUare' 
(July  1793) ;  the  13  on  *Es  war  einmal'  (early 
in  1 794) ;  the  8  for  4  hands  on  Count  Wald- 
stein's  theme  (1794) ;  and  9  for  Piano  Solo  on 
'  Quant'  e  piti  bello'^  (Dec.  30,  1 795).  The  com- 
positions are  more  numerous,  and  besides  the 
Trios  and  Sonatas  (op.  1  and  2)  include  a  Trio 
for  Oboes  and  Corno  inglese  (op.  87),  which 
remained  unpublished  till  1 806  ;  a  Rondo  in  G 
for  Pianoforte  and  Violin,'^  which  he  sent  to 
Eleanore  von  Breuning,  and  which  remained 
unpublished  tiU  1 808 ;  the  two  Concertos  for 
Piano  and  Orchestra,  of  which  'No.  2'  is  the 
earlier,  and  '  No.  i '  was  composed  before  March 

1  See  Nottebohm's  Beefhovens  Studien,  1.  202. 

2  Haydn  left  Vienna  for  London  on  Jan.  ]9,  "^i,  and  did  not' return 
till  Sept.  'O."),  when  the  Trios  had  been  printed  and  in  the  subscribers' 
hands  for  some  weelcs.  If  he  therefore  advised  Beethoven  not  to 
publish  the  third  it  must  have  been  before  he  left  Vienna.  Ries's 

i  statement  is  so  explicit  that  tlie  alternative  suggested  In  the  text  seems 
the  only  escape  from  the  difficulty. 

3  He  maintained  this  plan  till  1812.  when  he  Informs  Varenna  that 
he  never  publishes  until  a  year  after  composition.  Letter  Feb.  8, 1812. 

*  In  the  Adagio  of  No.  1  the  corresponding  movement  in  No.  3  of  the 
early  Piano  Quartets  is  partially  adopted-a  rare  thing  with  Beethoven. 
5  Wegeler,  p.  29.  6  B.AH.  167.  •  loid.  lOO. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN.  177 


29,  95;  Songs,  'Adelaide,' and  ' Opferlied,' *  both 
to  Matthison's  words,  and  '  Seufzer  eines  Unge- 
liebten,'''  all  probably  composed  in  95;  Canon 
'  Im  Arm^  der  Liebe,'  an  exercise  with  Albrechts- 
berger ;  1 2  Minuets  and  1 2  *  Deutsche  Tanze'  for 
Orchestra,*  composed  Nov.  95. 

On  March  29,  95,  Beethoven  made  his  first 
appearance  before  the  outside  public  at  the  an- 
nual concert  in  the  Burg  Theatre,  for  the  widows' 
fund  of  the  Artists'  Society.    He  played  his  Con- 
certo in  C  major.'    The  piece  had  probably  been 
suggested  by  Salieri,  and  with  it  Beethoven  began 
a  practice  which  he  more  than  once  followed 
I   when  the  work  was  bespoken  —  of  only  just 
finishing  the  composition  in  time  ;  the  Rondo 
was  written  on  the  afternoon  of  the  last  day  but 
one,  during  a  fit  of  colic.    At  the  rehearsal,  the 
piano  being  half  a  note  too  flat,  Beethoven  played 
in  Off,*    Two  days  after  he  appeared  again  at 
the  same  theatre  at  a  performance  for  the  benefit 
of  Mozart's  widow,  playing  a  Concerto  of  Mo- 
zart's between  the  acts  of  the  'Clemenza  di 
Tito.'"    Later  in  the  year  he  assisted  another 
benevolent  object  by  writing  1 2  minuets  and  1 2 
waltzes  for  orchestra  for  the  ball  of  the  '  Gesell- 
]  schaft  der  bildenden  Kiinstler'  on  the  22nd  Nov. 
i  He  was  evidently  a  favourite  with  the  Artists, 
'  who  advertise  *  the  master-hand  of  Herr  Ludwig 
van  Beethoven,'  while  they  mention  Siissmayer 
— who  also  contributed  music — without  an  extra 
word.   These  dances,  after  publication,  remained 
in  favour  for  two  more  seasons,  which  is  men- 
tioned as  a  great  exception  to  rule.   On  Dec.  1 8  he 
1  again  appeared  in  public  at  a  concert  of  Haydn's 
in  the  '  little  Eedoutensaal,'  playing  a  Concerto 
of  his  own — but  whether  the  same  as  before  is 
;  not  stated.    The  dedication  of  the  Sonatas  and 
,  his  co-operation  at  Haydn's  concert  allow  us  to 
I  hope  that  the  ill-feeling  already  alluded  to  had 
:  vanished.    So  closed  the  year  1 795.    Bonn  was 
at  this  time  in  the  hands  of  the  Republican 
army,  and  Beethoven's  brother  the  Apotheker 
I ;  was  serving  as  a  '  pharmacien  de  3^™®  classe.' 
I  i      1 796  was  a  year  of  wandering.    Haydn  and 
!    he  appeared  together  at  a  second  concert  on 
I    January  10.^    In  the  interval  Beethoven  went 
perhaps  to  Prague,  certainly  to  Nuremberg.  On 
Feb.  19  he  was  in  Prague  again,  where  he 
composed  the  Scena^  'Ah  !  perfido'  ifor  Madame 
Duschek,  the  friend  of  Mozart.   From  thence  he 
travelled  to  Berlin,  played  at  court,  amongst 
other  things  the  two  cello  sonatas  cp.  5,  probably 
composed  for  the  occasion,  and  received  from  the 
King  a  box  of  louis  d'or,  which  he  was  proud 
of  showing  as  '  no  ordinary  box,  but  one  of  the 
kind  usually  presented  to  ambassadors.'  At 
Berlin  his  time  was  passed  pleasantly  enough 
with  Himmel  the  composer  and  Prince  Louis 
Ferdinand.    He  went  two  or  three  times  to  the 
Singakademie,'"  heard  the  choir  sing  Fasch's 

'  B.  *  H.  233.  »  Ibid.  2-3.  »  Ibid.  2^.  «  Ibid.  16, 17.    »  Thayer,  i.  294. 
*  Wegeler,  p.  36.       "  Wassack,  Chrrmik  des  Hofburgtheater,  p.  98. 
8  Hanslick.  Cone^tces^n  in  Wien,  p.  105. 

5  '  Une  grande  Scene  mise  en  musique,  par  L.  t.  BeethoTen,  k  Prague, 
1796,'  is  Beethoven's  own  title  (Nottebohni,  lieetb'neuuiua,  p.  1,  note). 

Fasch's  Journal,  Thayer  ii.  13.    Strange  that  Zelter  (Corr.  trith 
Oofthe'i  should  not  refer  to  this  visit  Mme.  von  Voss's  Journal,  too,  is 
I  blank  during  these  very  months. 
(C.) 


psalms,  and  extemporised  to  them  on  themes 
from  those  now  forgotten  compositions.  In  July 
the  Court  left  Berlin,  and  Beethoven  probably 
departed  also ;  but  we  lose  sight  of  him  till 
Nov.  15,  the  date  of  a  'farewell-song'"  addressed 
to  the  volunteers  on  their  leaving  Vienna  to 
take  part  in  the  universal  military  movement 
provoked  by  Napoleon's  campaigns  in  Italy. 
The  war  was  driving  all  Germans  home,  and 
amongst  others  Beethoven's  old  colleagues  the 
two  Rombergs  passed  through  Vienna  from  Italy, 
and  he  played  for  them  at  a  concert. 

The  publications  of  1796  consist  of  the  3 
Piano  Sonatas,  op.  2  (March  9) ;  12  Variations  on 
a  minuet  d  la  Vigano^"^  (Feb.),  and  6  on  '  Nel  cor 
piii  sento'  (Mar.  23) ;  6  Minuets  (also  in  March) 
for  Piano,  originally  written  for  orchestra — per- 
haps the  result  of  his  success  with  the  '  bildender 
Kiinstler,'^*  Of  the  compositions  of  the  year,  be- 
sides those  already  named,  may  be  mentioned  as 
probable  the  Piano  Sonata  in  G,^  the  second  of 
the  2  small  ones  (op.  49) ;  and  another  of  the 
same  rank  in  C^^  for  jEleanore  von  Breuning; 
we  may  also  ascribe  to  the  latter  part  of  this 
year  the  Duet  Sonata  (op.  6) ;  1 2  Variations  on 
a  Russian  dance  the  String  Quintet  (op.  4), 
arranged  from  an  Octet  for  wind  instruments, 
very  probably  of  his  prae-Vienna  time.  The 
Russian  Variations  were  written  for  the  Countess 
Browne,  wife  of  an  officer  in  the  Russian  service, 
and  were  acknowledged  by  the  gift  of  the  horse 
which  we  have  already  mentioned  as  afi"ording  an 
instance  of  Beethoven's  absence  of  mind.  But 
the  winter  months  must  have  been  occupied 
by  a  more  serious  work  than  variations — the 
Quintet  for  piano  and  wind  (op.  16),^^  which 
Beethoven  produced  at  a  concert  of  Schup- 
panzigh's  on  April  6,  1797,  and  which  is  almost 
like  a  challenge  to  Mozart  on  his  own  ground, 
and  the  not  less  important  and  far  more  original 
Pianoforte  Sonata  in  Eb  (op.  7).  This  great 
work,  '  quite  novel,  and  wholly  peculiar  to  its 
author,  the  origin  of  which  can  be  traced  to 
no  pre%-ious  creation,  and  which  proclaimed  his 
originality  so  that  it  could  never  afterwards  be 
disputed,'  was  published  on  Oct.  7,  '97,  but  must 
have  been  often  played  before  that  date.  The 
sketches  for  the  3  Sonatas,  op.  10,  are  placed  by 
Nottebohm  in  this  period,  with  the  Variations 
on  the  'Une  fi^vre  brdlante.'  The  three  String 
Trios,  op.  9,  also  probably  occupied  him  during 
some  part  of  the  year.  The  Serenade  Trio,  op.  8, 
though  published  in  1797,  more  probably  belongs 
with  op.  3  to  the  Bonn  date.  The  Variations  on 
'See  the  conquering  hero'  for  Pianoforte  and 
Cello,  dedicated  to  the  Princess  Lichnowsky,*' 
were  published  during  this  year,  and  were 
probably  written  at  the  time. 

Vienna  was  full  of  patriotism  in  the  spring  of 
1797.  Haydn's  'Emperor's  Hymn'  had  been 
sung  in  the  theatre  for  the  first  time  on  Feb.  12,^ 
and  Beethoven  wrote  a  second  military  Lied, '  Ein 

»»B.4H.230.        I3n)id.l69.        "  ibid.168.        "  Ibid.m. 
15  Nottebohm,  Catalogue,  p.  2(>5.       JS  B.  A  H.  159.       1"  Ibid.  170. 
18  An  unusual  combination,  which  may  explain  why  so  fine  a  work 
remained  in  MS.  till  1801.  >s  B.  4  H.  110. 

»  Schmid,  Joseph  Baydn  und  K.  Zingarelli,  etc.  (Vienna,  1847),  p.  8, 


178 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


grosses  deutsches  Volk  sind  vdr,'^  to  Friedel- 
berg's  words,  which  is  dated  April  14,  but  did 
not  prove  more  successful  than  his  former  one. 
In  May  he  writes  to  Wegeler  in  terms  which 
show  that  with  publications  or  lessons  his 
pecuniary  position  is  improving ;  but  from  that 
time  till  Oct.  i — the  date  of  an  affectionate 
entry  in  Lenz  von  Breuning's  album — we  hear 
nothing  whatever  of  him.  A  severe  illness  has 
to  be  accounted  for,^  and  this  is  probably  the  time 
at  which  it  happened.  In  November  occurred 
the  annual  ball  of  the  '  Bildenden  Kiinstler,'  and 
his  dances  were  again  played  for  the  third  time  ; 
the  seven  Landler,^  ascribed  to  this  year,  were 
not  improbably  written  for  the  same  ball.  His 
only  other  publications  of  1 797  not  yet  mentioned 
are  the  Pianoforte  Rondo  in  C  major,  which 
many  years  afterwards  received  the  opus  number 
51,  and  last,  but  not  least,  'Adelaide.'  Some 
variations*  for  2  Oboes  and  Corno  Inglese  on 
'La  ci  darem'  were  played  on  Dec.  23  at  a 
concert  for  the  Widows  and  Orphans  Fund,  but 
are  still  in  MS. 

The  chief  event  of  1 798  is  one  which  was  to 
bear  fruit  later — Beethoven's  introduction  to 
Bemadotte  the  French  ambassador,  by  whom 
the  idea  of  the  Eroica  Symphony  is  said  ^  to 
have  been  first  suggested  to  him.  Bemadotte 
was  a  person  of  culture,  and  having  H.  Kreutzer, 
the  violin-player,  as  a  member  of  his  establish- 
ment may  be  presumed  to  have  cared  for  music. 
Beethoven,  who  professed  himself  an  admirer  of 
Bonaparte,  frequented  the  ambassador's  levees  ; 
and  there  is  ground  for  believing  that  they  were 
to  a  certain  extent  intimate.  On  April  2  Bee- 
thoven played  his  Piano  Quintet  (op.  16)  at  the 
concert  for  the  Widows  and  Orphans  Fund. 
The  publications  of  this  year  show  that  the 
connexion  with  the  von  Brownes  indicated  by 
the  dedication  of  the  Russian  Variations  was 
kept  up  and  even  strengthened ;  the  3  String 
Trios,  op.  9  (published  July  21),  are  dedicated 
to  the  Count,  and  the  3  Sonatas,  op.  10  (sub- 
scribed July  7,  published  Sept.  26),  to  the 
Countess.  The  3rd  of  these  sonatas  forms  a 
landmark  in  Beethoven's  progress  of  equal  sig- 
nificance with  op.  7.  The  letter®  which  he 
appended  to  the  Trios  speaks  of  'munificence 
at  once  delicate  and  liberal';  and  it  is  obvious 
that  some  extraordinary  liberality  must  have 
occurred  to  draw  forth  such  an  expression  as 
*the  first  Maecenas  of  his  muse'  in  reference  to 
any  one  but  Prince  Lichnowsky.  In  other 
respects  the  letter  is  interesting.  It  makes 
music  depend  less  on  'the  inspiration  of  genius' 
than  on  'the  desire  to  do  one's  utmost,'  and 
implies  that  the  Trios  were  the  best  music  he 
had  yet  composed.  The  Trio  for  Piano,  Clarinet, 
and  Cello  (op.  11),  dedicated  to  the  mother  of 
Princess  Lichnowsky,  was  published  on  Oct.  3. 
This  is  the  composition  which  brought  Steibelt 

iB.ftH.231.  »  Thayer,  H.  18.  »B.&H.198. 

*  Not  the  Trio,  op.  87  (Nottebohm,  Nfue  Jieethoveniana). 

•  By  Schindler,  on  the  statement  of  Beethoven  himself  and  others. 

e  See  Thayer,  11.  33,  and  Nottebohm'g  Catalogue,  op.  9.  Why  are  not 
guch  interesting  matteri  a.^  this  I^etter  or  th«  Dedications  reprinted 
In  all  casei  with  Beethofen's  works? 


and  Beethoven  into  collision,  to  the  sad  dis- 
comfiture of  the  former.''  Steibelt  had  shown 
him  studied  neglect  till  they  met  at  Count 
Fries's,  at  the  first  perforinance  of  this  Trio,  and 
he  then  treated  him  quite  de  haul  en  has.  A 
week  later  they  met  again,  when  Steibelt  pro- 
duced a  new  Quintet  and  extemporised  on  the 
theme  of  Beethoven's  Finale — an  air  from  Weigl's 
*  Amor  marinaro.'  Beethoven's  blood  was  now 
fairly  up ;  taking  the  cello  part  of  Steibelt's 
quintet  he  placed  it  upside  down  before  him,  and 
making  a  theme  out  of  it  played  with  such  efiect 
as  to  drive  Steibelt  from  the  room.  Possibly 
this  fracas  may  account  for  Beethoven's  known 
dissatisfaction  with  the  Finale.^  The  other 
publications  of  1 798  are  Variations :  1 2  for 
Piano  and  Cello  on  an  air  in  the  '  Zauberflote,' 
afterwards  numbered  as  op.  66 ;  6,  easy,®  for 
Piano  or  Harp,  possibly  written  for  some  lady 
friend,  and  published  by  his  old  ally  Simrock  at 
Bonn  ;  and  8  on  'Une  fifevre  brulante.' 

This  year  he  again  visited  Prague,  and  per- 
formed at  two  public  concerts,  making  an 
immense  impression.^^  After  his  return,  on  Oct. 
27,  he  played  one  of  his  two  Concertos  at  the 
Theatre  auf  den  Wieden.  Wolfl  was  in  Vienna 
during  this  year,  and  in  him  Beethoven  en- 
countered for  the  first  time  a  rival  worthy  of 
his  steel.  They  seem  to  have  met  often  at 
Count  Wetzlar's  (Wolfl's  friend),  and  to  have 
made  a  great  deal  of  music  together,  and  always 
in  a  pleasant  way.^^  It  must  have  been  wonderful 
to  hear  them,  each  excited  by  the  other,  playing 
their  finest,  extemporising  alternately  and  together 
(like  Mendelssohn  and  Moscheles),  and  making 
all  the  fun  that  two  such  men  at  such  an  age 
and  in  capital  company  would  be  sure  to  make. 
Wolfl  commemorated  their  meeting  by  dedicating 
three  sonatas  to  Beethoven,  but  met  with  no 
response. 

But  Beethoven  did  not  allow  pleasure  to  in- 
terfere with  business,  as  the  publications  of  the 
following  year  fully  show.  The  3  Sonatas  for 
Piano  and  Violin,  dedicated  to  Salieri  (op.  12), 
published  on  Jan.  12,  1799,  though  possibly 
composed  earlier  must  at  any  rate  have  occupied 
him  in  correction  during  the  winter.  The  little 
Sonata  in  G  minor  (op.  49,  No.  i)  is  a  child  of 
this  time,  and  is  immediately  followed  in  the 
sketch  books  by  the  'Grande  Sonate  pathetique' 
— Beethoven's  own  title — (op.  13),  dedicated  to 
Pi-ince  Lichnowsky,  as  if  to  make  up  for  the 
little  slight  contained  in  the  reference  to  Count 
Browne  as  his  'first  Maecenas.'  The  well- 
known  Rondo  to  the  Sonata  appears  to  have 
been  originally  intended  for  the  third  of  the 
String  Trios.^^  Of  the  origin  of  the  2  Sonatas, 
op.  14  (published  Dec.  21),  little  is  known.  The 
sketches  for  the  first  of  the  two  are  coincident 
in  time  with  those  for  the  Concerto  in  Bb,  which 
was  completed  in  1 794,"  and  there  is  ground  for 
believing  that  it  was  origina  ly  conceived  as  a 
string  quartet,  into  which  indeed  Beethoven 

7  Ries,  p.  81.     8  Thayer,  ii.  .32,  note.     »  B.  A  H.  176.     >»  Kid.  171- 

11  See  Tomaschek's  interesting  account  In  Thayer,  li.  29. 

12  See  8e>-fried,  Notizen,  6.  »»  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  No.  XX. 
"  Nottebohm.  N.  B.  No.  IL 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


179 


converted  it  »  few  years  after.  The  second  is 
probably  much  later,  and  is  specially  interesting 
from  the  fact  that  Beethoven  explained  it '  to  be 
a  dialogue  between  two  lovers,  he  entreating 
and  she  resisting.  The  Sonatas  are  dedicated  to 
the  Baroness  Braun. 

The  other  publications  of  1 799  are  variations  : 
10  on  Salieri's  'La  Stessa' ;  7  on  Winter's  '  Kind, 
willst  du' ;  and  8  on  Siissmayer's  'Tandeln.'* 
A  comparison  of  the  dates  of  publication  with 
those  of  the  appearance  of  the  operas  from  which 
the  themes  are  taken,  shows  that  two  of  these 
were  written  shortly  before  publication. 

Beethoven  was  now  about  to  attack  music  of 
larger  dimensions  than  before.     His  six  string 
Quartets,  the  Septet,  the  ist  Symphony,  and 
the  '  Mount  of  Olives,'  are  fast  approaching,  and 
I  must  all  have  occupied  him  more  or  less  diiring 
the  last  year  of  the  century.     In  fact  the 
sketches  for  the  three  first  of  the  quartets  (first 
in   date  of  composition),    Nos.  5,  I,  6,  are 
positively  assigned  to  this  year,  though  there  is 
evidence  that  the  earliest  of  the  three  had  been 
1  begun  as  far  back  as  94  or  95.^    And  though 
;  sketches  of  the  Septet  have  not  yet  been  made 
i  public,  yet  it  is  contrary  to  all  Beethoven's 
;  habits  in  the  case  of  so  important  a  piece,  and 
apparently  quite  spontaneously  imdertaken,  that 
,  he  should  not  have  been  at  work  at  it  for  a  long 
while  before  its  production.     The  same  with 
regard  to  the  ist  S}Tnphony.    Both  were  pro- 
duced on  April  2,  1800.    Traces  of  the  Sym- 
phony, or  of  a  previous  one  in  the  same  key,*  are 
found  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  95,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  two  such  experiments  in  a  new 
field  must  have  occupied  much  time  and  labour. 
Besides  these  he  was  working  on  a  very  im- 
portant new  Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  22). 

The  few  recorded  events  of  1800  are  all  closely 
connected  with  music.    On  Wednesday,  April  2, 
Beethoven  gave  the  first  concert  which  he  had 
attempted  in  Vienna  for  his  own  benefit.  It 
took  place  at  the  Burg  Theatre,  which  was  given 
him  for  the  occasion,  at  7  p.m.,  and  the  pro- 
gamme  was  as  follows  : — i.  Symphony,  Mozart, 
i  2.  Air  from  the  Creation.   3.  A  grand  Pianoforte 
(  Concerto,  '  played  and  composed '  by  Beethoven. 
4.  The  Septet.    5.  Duet  from  the  Creation.  6. 
Improvisation  by  Beethoven  on  Haydn's  Empe- 
;  ror's  Hymn.   7.  S\Tuphony,  No.  i.  The  Concerto 
'  was  doubtless  one  of  the  two  already  known — the 
Septet  had  been  previously  performed  at  Prince 
Schwarzenberg's,*  had  pleased  immensely,  and 
Beethoven  was  evidently  proud  of  it.    '  It  is  my 
,  Creation,'  said  he — let  us  hope  not  in  Haydn's 
presence.    He  had  not  forgotten  Bonn,  and  the 
theme  of  the  variations  is  said  by  Czemy^  to  be 
a  Rhine  Volkditd.    The  work  was  dedicated  in 
advance  to  the  Empress,  and  though  not  published 
I  for  some  time,  became  rapidly  popular.   So  much 
for  the  compositions,  but  the  performance  appears 
from  the  report  in  the  Leipsic  paper*  to  have 

!  I  SdiiDdler.  on  Beethoveji^  »utho»1fy,  Bitx^phU  (IMO).  p.  5B1, 
Moscheles-  ed.  U.  124.  »  B.  *  H- 172, 173, 174. 

•  Nottebohm.  .V,  £.  Sa  XVI.  «  Ibid.  Xo.  Xli 

»  Tb«j«r.  ii.  9S.  «  Ibid.  u.  9& 


been  shameful ;  the  band  disliked  Wranitzky  the 
conductor,  and  vented  their  dislike  on  the  music. 
In  addition  to  this  it  appears  that  the  rehearsal, 
if  it  took  place  at  all,  was  a  very  imperfect  one. 
A  reference  in  one  of  Beethoven's  letters  (April 
2  2,  i8ci)  shows  that  it  was  his  custom  not  to 
write  in  the  piano  part  into  his  Concertos,  and 
therefore  to  play  them  from  memory. 

On  the  1 8th  of  the  same  month  Beethoven 
appeared  again  at  the  concert  of  Punto  the  horn- 
player,  with  a  Sonata  for  Horn  and  Piano,  com- 
posed for  the  occasion.  This  he  had  naturally 
not  been  able  to  touch  while  preparing  for  his 
own  concert,  and  in  fact  it  was  written  down  on 
the  day  before  the  performance. '  Here  again 
there  cannot  have  been  much  chance  of  rehearsal. 
But  with  two  such  players  it  was  hardly  needed ; 
and  so  much  did  the  Sonata  delight  the  hearers, 
that  in  defiance  of  a  rule  forbidding  applause  in 
the  Court  Theatre  the  whole  work  was  unani- 
mously encored.  On  the  2  7th,  the  anniversary  of 
the  day  on  which  he  first  entered  Bonn,  Beetho- 
ven's old  master,  the  Elector,  returned  to  the 
capital.  In  May  Steibelt  made  his  appearance 
in  Vienna  from  Prague,  w^here  his  charlatanerie 
and  his  real  ability  had  gained  him  prodigious 
financial  success.  We  have  already  alluded  to 
his  conflict  with  Beethoven.  In  Vienna  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  succeeded,  and  in  August  he 
was  again  in  Paris. 

The  announcement  of  Beethoven's  benefit 
concert  names  No.  241  *im  tiefen  Graben,'  3rd 
storey,  as  his  residence.  He  had  now  left  Prince 
Lichnowsky's,  and  he  maintained  this  lodging 
for  two  years.  In  this  year  we  hear  for  the  first 
time  of  his  going  to  the  country  for  the  autumn. 
He  selected  Unter-Dcibling,  a  village  two  miles 
north  of  Vienna,  and  his  lodging  was  part  of 
the  house  occupied  by  the  Grillparzer  family. 
Madame  Grillparzer  long  recollected  his  fury  on 
discovering  her  listening  to  his  playing  outside 
the  door,  and  the  stem  revenge  he  took.* 

As  regards  publications  1800  is  a  blank,  but 
composition  went  on  with  immense  energy.  If 
we  throw  back  the  Symphony  and  the  Septet 
into  1 797,  we  have  still  the  Horn  Sonata  and  the 
Piano  Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  22) — a  work  of  great 
moment — the  Six  Quartets,  the  String  Quintet 
in  C,  the  Piano  Concerto  in  C  minor.  Of  all 
these  very  important  works  we  have  Beethoven's 
own  mention  in  a  letter  of  Dec.  15,  1800,  in 
addition  to  the  evidence  as  to  date  afibrded  by 
the  sketch-books.*  And  besides  these  we  are 
bound  to  believe  that  the  Ballet  of  Prometheus, 
performed  March  28,  iSoi,  occupied  him  at  least 
during  the  latter  portion  of  the  year.  An  incident 
of  this  summer  was  Beethoven's  letter  to  Matthi- 
son  (Aug.  4)  sending  him  his  'Adelaide,'  a  letter 
interesting  for  its  courteous  and  genial  tone,  for 
its  request  for  another  poem,  and  fur  its  confession 
that  his  early  works  had  already  begim  to  dis- 
satisfy him.  After  his  return  to  town  occurred 
Czemy's  introduction  to  him.  Czemy,  then  a 
lad  of  just  upon  10,  became  Beethoven's  pupil 

1  Bies,  p.  82.  •  Thajer,  ii.  1C4.  *  Rjld.  u.  115. 

N  2 


180 


BEETHOVEJT. 


BEETHOVEN. 


in  pianoforte  playing,  and  has  left  a  delightful 
account  of  his  first  interview,  and  of  much  which 
occurred  after  it.^  Among  the  lettere  of  this 
winter  and  the  spring  of  1 80 1  are  some  to  Hoff- 
meister,  formerly  a  composer,  and  then  a  music- 
publisher  in  Leipsic,  which  ended  in  his  pub- 
lishing the  Septet,  the  Symphony  in  C,  the  Piano 
Concerto  in  Bb,  and  the  Sonata  (op,  22)  in  the 
same  key.  The  price  given  for  these  works  was 
20  ducats  each,  except  the  Concerto,  which  was 
10,  The  ducat  was  equal  to  10?.  English.  The 
Concerto  is  priced  so  low  because  'it  is  by  no 
means  one  of  my  best,  any  more  than  that  I  am 
about  to  publish  in  C  major,  because  I  reserve 
the  best  for  myself,  for  my  journey —  a  confes- 
sion which  proves  that  the  Concerto  in  C  minor 
was  already  in  existence.  The  letters  show  keen 
sympathy  with  projects  for  the  publication  of 
Bach's  works,  and  of  Mozart's  sonatas  arranged 
as  quartets.  2  They  speak  of  his  having  been 
ill  during  the  winter,  but  the  vigorous  tone  of 
the  expression  shows  that  the  illness  had  not 
affected  his  sj^irits.  On  Jan.  30,  1801,  he  played 
his  Horn  Sonata  a  second  time,  with  Punto,  at 
a  concert  for  the  benefit  of  the  soldiers  wounded 
at  Hohenlinden. 

He  was  now  immersed  in  all  the  worry  of 
preparing  for  the  production  of  his  Ballet  of 
Prometheus,  which  came  out  on  March  28  at 
the  Court  (Burg)  Theatre.  Its  great  success  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  it  was  immediately 
published  in  a  popular  form — Pianoforte  Solo,* 
dedicated  to  Princess  Lichnowsky — and  that  it 
had  a  run  of  16  nights  during  1801,  and  13  dur- 
ing the  following  year.  Apart  from  its  individual 
merits  the  Prometheus  music  is  historically 
interesting  as  containing  a  partial  anticipation 
of  the  Storm  in  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  and 
(in  the  Finale)  an  air  which  afterwards  served 
for  a  Contretanz,  for  the  theme  of  elaborate 
variations,  and  for  the  subject  of  the  last  move- 
ment of  the  Eroica  Symphony,  The  Ballet 
gave  occasion  for  an  unfortunate  little  encounter 
between  Beethoven  and  Haydn,  evidently  un- 
intentional on  Beethoven's  part,  but  showing 
how  naturally  antagonistic  the  two  men  were. 
They  met  in  the  street  the  day  after  the  first 
performance,  '  I  heard  your  new  Ballet  last 
night,'  said  Haydn,  'and  it  pleased  me  much.' 
'0  lieher  Papa,'  was  the  reply,  'you  are  too 
good  :  but  it  is  no  Creation  by  a  long  way.'  This 
imnecessary  allusion  seems  to  have  startled  the 
old  man,  and  after  an  instant's  pause  he  said 
'  You  are  right :  it  is  no  Creation,  and  I  hardly 
think  it  ever  will  be  ?' 

The  success  of'  Prometheus'  gave  him  time  to 
breathe,  and  possibly  also  cash  to  spare  :  he 
changed  his  lodgings  from  the  low-l^ang  '  tiefen- 
Graben'  to  the  SaUer-statte,  a  higher  situation, 

»  Publislied  by  C.  F.  Pohl.  Jahres-BericU  det  Conterva'' r!%tms  der 
GtttlXtcUaft  der  Mtuik/reunde  in  Wien,  1870,  Also  Thayer,  ii.  103.  The 
drawback  to  this,  and  to  so  much  of  the  information  regarding 
Beethoren,  Is  that  it  was  not  written  till  many  years  after  the  events 
it  describe*.  *  Letter  of  Dec.  15. 1*00. 

*  In  curious  contradiction  to  the  stroni?  expressions  on  the  subject 
of  arrangements  in  a  subsequent  letter,  quoted  by  Thayer,  ii.  183. 

«  OriKinaliy  numbered  op.  24.  but  when  the  Overture  was  issued  in 
Parts  it  was  numbered  op.  43,  and  op.  24  was  given  to  the  Violin  Sonata 
in  P. 


with  an  extensive  prospect  over  the  ramparts.' 
For  the  summer  of  1801  he  took  a  lodging  at 
Hetzendorf,  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  city, 
attracted  by  the  glades  and  shrubberies  of  Schon- 
brunn,  outside  which  the  village  lies,  and  perhaps 
by  the  fact  that  his  old  master  the  Elector  was 
living  in  retirement  there.  It  was  his  practice 
during  these  country  visits  to  live  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  entire  seclusion,  and  to  elaborate  and 
reduce  into  ultimate  form  and  completeness  the 
ideas  which  had  occurred  to  him  during  the  early 
part  of  the  year,  and  with  which  his  sketch-books 
were  crowded.  His  main  occupation  during  this 
summer  was  '  The  Mount  of  Olives,'  which  Ries 
found  far  advanced  when  he  arrived  in  Vienna 
in  1 80 1.®  The  words  were  by  Huber,^  and  we 
have  Beethoven's  own  testimony  *  that  they  were 
written,  with  his  assistance,  in  14  days.  He  was 
doubtless  engaged  at  the  same  time,  after  his 
manner,  with  other  works,  not  inferior  to  that 
oratorio  in  their  several  classes,  which  are  known 
on  various  grounds  to  have  been  composed  during 
this  year.  These  are  2  Violin  Sonatas  in  A 
minor  and  F,  dedicated  to  Count  von  Fries — 
originally  published  together  (Oct.  28)  as  op.  23, 
but  now  separated  imder  independent  Nos,  ;  the 
String  Quintet  in  C  (op.  29) ;  and  not  less  than 
4  masterpieces  for  the  Piano — the  Grand  Sonatas 
in  Ab  (op.  26)  and  D  (op,  28) ;  the  two  Sonatas 
entitled  'Quasi  Fantasia'  in  Eb  and  in  CJ  minor 
(op,  27);  which,  though  not  published  till  1802, 
were  all  four  completed  during  this  year.  To 
each  of  them  a  word  or  two  is  due.  The  Sonata 
in  Ab — dedicated,  like  those  of  op,  i  and  13,  to 
his  prime  friend  Prince  Carl  Lichnowsky — is 
said®  to  owe  its  noble  Funeral  March  to  pique 
at  the  praises  on  a  march  by  no  means  worthy  of 
them  in  Paer  s  '  Achille.'  That  opera — produced 
at  Vienna  on  the  6th  June  of  this  year — is  the 
same  about  which  Paer  used  to  teU  a  good  story 
i  of  Beethoven,  illustrating  at  once  his  sincerity 
i  and  his  terrible  want  of  manners.  He  was 
I  listening  to  the  opera  with  its  composer,  and 
j  after  saying  over  and  over  again,  '  0 !  que  c'est 
I  beau,'  '0!  que  c'est  interessant,'  at  last  could 
contain  himself  no  longer,  but  burst  out  '  il  faut 
que  je  compose  cela.'  The  Grand  Sonata  in  D 
1  received  its  title  of  'Pastorale'  (more  appro- 
j  priate  than  such  titles  often  are)  from  Cranz  the 
publisher,  of  Hamburg,  The  Andante,  by  some 
thought  inferior  to  the  rest  of  the  Sonata,  was 
Beethoven's  peculiar  favourite,  and  very  frequently 
played  by  him,^^  The  flyleaf  of  the  autograph  of 
the  work  contains  a  humorous  duet  and  chorus — 
'the  praise  of  the  fat,"  making  fun  of  Schuppan- 
zigh  — '  Schuppanzigh  ist  ein  Lump,  ein  Lump,* 
etc.  The  remaining  two,  qualified  as  'Fantasia' 
by  their  author,  have  had  very  different  fates. 
One,  that  in  Eb,  has  always  lived  in  the  shadow 
of  its  sister,  and  is  comparatively  little  known. 

e  Thayer,  11. 131. 

s  Thayer  (ii.  160)  has  shown  that  Bies  has  mistaken  the  year,  and  did 

not  come  to  Vienna  till  180L 
"  Author  of  Winter's  '  Unterbrochene  Opferfest'  and  other  pieces 
8  His  letter  of  Jan.  23. 1'SM,  printed  by  Pohl  in  Die  G<$elUehaft  im 

Musikfrevnde  (Vienna,  1871.1,  p.  57. 
»  Kies,  p.  80.  W  F,  Hiller.  in  Thayer,  u.  131 

"  Czemy,  in  Thayer,  il.  134.  «  Thayer,  VeneiehniM.  No. 


BEEl'HOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


181 


The  other,  the  so-called  '  Moonlight  Sonata,' '  is 
as  widely  played  and  as  passionately  loved  as 
any  of  Beethoven's  pianoforte  works.  It  is  one 
of  his  most  original  productions.  The  dedication 
to  the  Countess  Guicciardi,  upon  which  so  much 
romance  has  been  built,  has  had  a  colder  light 
thrown  on  it  by  the  lady  herself.  *  Beethoven,' 
said  she,  '  gave  me  the  Rondo  in  G,  but  wanting 
to  dedicate  something  to  the  Princess  Lichnowsky 
he  took  the  Rondo  away,  and  gave  me  the  Sonata 
'  in  C  J?  minor  instead.'  ^ 

Meantime  his  deafness,  which  began  with 
I  violent  noise  in  his  ears,  had  gradually  merged 
into  something  more  serious.  He  consulted 
,  doctor  after  doctor,  Frank,  his  friend  Wegeler, 
I  and  Wering,  but  the  malady  constantly  increased, 
i  It  gave  him  the  keenest  distress ;  but  so  great 
1  were  his  resolution  and  confidence  that  not  even 
j  the  prospect  of  this  tremendous  affliction  could 
subdue  him.  *  I  will  as  far  as  possible  defy  my 
fete,  though  there  must  be  moments  when  I  shaU 
be  ihe  most  miserable  of  God's  creatures.'  .... 
*  Not  unhappy  :  no,  that  I  never  could  endure ! 
I  will  grapple  with  fate  ;  it  shall  never  drag  me 
down.*  The  letters  to  Wegeler  of  June  2g^  and 
Nov.  16,  1 801,  from  which  these  words  are  taken, 
give  an  extraordinary  picture  of  the  mingled 
independence  and  sensibility  which  characterised 
this  remarkable  man,  and  of  the  entire  mastery 
which  music  had  in  him  over  friendship,  love, 
pain,  deafriess,  or  any  other  external  circum- 
stance. *  Every  day  I  come  nearer  to  the  object 
which  I  can  feel,  though  I  cannot  describe  it, 
and  on  which  alone  your  Beethoven  can  exist. 
No  more  rest  for  him  ! '  *  I  live  only  in  my 
music,  and  no  sooner  is  one  thing  done  than  the 
next  is  begun.  As  I  am  now  writing,  I  often 
work  at  three  and  four  things  at  once.'  How 
truly  this  describes  the  incessant  manner  in 
which  his  ideas  flowed  may  be  seen  from  the 
sketch-book  published  by  Xottebohm,*  and  which 
is  the  offspring  of  this  very  period — Oct.  1801  to 
May  1802.  It  contains  sketches  for  the  Finale 
of  the  Second  Symphony,  for  the  3  Violin  Sonatas 
(op.  30) ;  for  Piano  Sonatas  in  G  and  D  minor 
(op.  31) ;  for  the  Variations  in  F  (op.  34),  and 
in  Eb  (op.  35)  ;  and  a  large  number  of  less 
important  works,  the  themes  of  which  are  so 
mixed  up  and  repeated  as  to  show  that  they 
were  all  in  his  mind  and  his  intention  at  once. 
'  The  spring  of  1802  saw  the  publication  of 
several  very  important  pieces,  the  correction  of 
which  must  have  added  to  his  occupations — the 
Serenade  (op.  25) ;  the  Sonatas  in  Bi?*  (op.  22), 
Ab  (op.  26),  Eb  and  Cjf  minor  (op.  27);  the 
Variations  for  Piano  and  Cello  on  Mozart's 
air  'Bei  Miinnem,'  and  6  Contretanze.  It  is 
curious  to  notice  that  up  to  op.  22  all  the  Solo 
'  Sonatas,  as  well  as  the  Duet  (op.  6)  and  the  3 
with  Violin  (op.  12)  are  published  'for  Clavecin 

5    1  This  foolish  sobriquet  is  derived  from  a  criticism  on  the  work  by 
I  Bellstab  mentioning  moonlight  on  ths  Lake  of  Lucerne. 
»  Thayer,  IL  172. 

»  No  year  is  given  in  the  date  of  the  letter.  Wegeler  places  it  in 
I  1800,  but  Thayer  (ii.  155.  6)  has  proved  it  to  belong  to  1801. 
♦  £in  Skizzenbuch  von  Beethoven,  etc,  Leip/in,  B.  4  H. 
'  '  Well  engraved,' says  Beethoven  to  HoffineUler, '  but  you  have  been 
4  fine  time  about  it  t ' 


or  Pianoforte.*  The  Sonata  in  Bb  is  the  first  to 
break  the  rule,  which  comes  to  an  end  with  the 
two  quasi-fantasias,  op.  27.  One  would  like  to 
know  if  this  is  a  mere  publisher's  freak — which, 
knowing  Beethoven's  care  of  details,  it  is  hard 
to  believe — or  whether  great  works  like  op.  7  ; 
op.  10,  No.  3;  and  op.  26  were  intended  for 
instruments  so  unlike  the  Piano  as  the  whisper- 
ing Clavichord  or  the  prancing  Harpsichord — for 
'  Clavecin'  may  mean  either.  AU  the  works  just 
enumerated  were  out  by  April,  and  were  followed 
in  the  later  months  by  the  Septet,  issued  in  two 
portions ;  the  Sonata  in  D  (op.  28) ;  6  Landler ;® 
the  Rondo  in  G  (Op.  51,  No.  2)  ;  and  in  December 
by  the  Quintet  in  C  (op.  29). 

Beethoven  had  recently  again  changed  his  doc- 
tor. Vering  did  not  satisfy  him,  and  he  consulted 
Schmidt,  a  person  apparently  of  some  eminence, 
and  it  was  possibly  on  his  recommendation  that 
he  selected  the  village  of  HeUigenstadt,  at  that 
time  a  most  retired  spot,  lying  beyond  Unter- 
Dobling,  among  the  lovely  wooded  valleys  in  the 
direction  of  the  Kahlenberg  and  Leopoldsberg. 
Here  he  remained  till  October,  labouring  at  the 
completion  of  the  works  mentioned  above,  which 
he  had  sketched  early  in  the  year,  and  which  he 
probably  completed  before  returning  to  Vienna. 
Here  too  he  wrote  the  very  affecting  letter 
usually  known  as  'Beethoven's  will,'  dated  Oct. 
6,  and  addressed  to  his  brothers,  to  be  opened  after 
his  death,^  a  letter  fuU  of  depression  and  distress, 
but  perhaps  not  more  so  than  that  written  by  many 
a  man  of  sensibility  imder  adverse  temporary  cir- 
cumstances, and  which  does  not  give  us  a  high  idea 
of  Dr.  Schmidt's  wisdom  in  condemning  a  dys- 
peptic patient  to  so  long  a  course  of  solitude.  At 
any  rate,  if  we  compare  it  with  the  genial,  cheer- 
ful strains  of  the  music  which  he  was  writing 
at  the  time — take  the  Symphony  in  D  as  one 
example  only — and  remember  his  own  words  : 

*  I  live  only  in  my  music,  letter-writing 

was  never  my  forte^ — it  loses  a  good  deal  of  its 
significance.*  Once  back  in  town  his  spirits 
returned ;  and  some  of  his  most  facetious  letters 
to  Zmeskall  are  dated  from  this  time.  On  re- 
turning he  changed  his  residence  from  the  Sailer- 
Statte,  where  we  last  left  him,  to  the  Peters- 
Platz,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city,  and  at  the 
top  of  the  house.  In  the  storey  above  Beethoven 
lived  his  old  friend  Forster,  who  had  won  his 
affection  by  giving  him  hints  on  quartet  writing 
on  his  first  arrival  in  Vienna.  Forster  had  a 
little  son  whom  Beethoven  undertook  to  instruct, 
and  the  boy,  then  just  6,  long^  remembered  having 
to  get  up  in  the  dark  in  the  winter  mornings  and 
descend  the  stairs  for  his  lessons.  This  winter 
again  there  were  many  proofs  to  correct — the  2 
Piano  Sonatas  (op.  31,  i  &  2),  the  3  Violin  ditto,  2 
sets  of  Variations  (op,  34,  35),  all  which  appeared 
early  in  1803,  The  Piano  Sonatas  he  regarded 
as  a  change  in  his  style  — which  they  certainly 
are,  the  D  minor  especially.    The  Variations  he 

•  B.  4  E.  197. 

^  The  autograph  is  in  possession  of  Madame  Lind-QoldscLniidi,  to 
whom  it  was  given  by  Ernst. 
^  See  the  sensible  remarks  of  Thayer,  iL  1S6. 
»  Thayer,  ii.  199.  200.  Ibid.  186. 


182  BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


mentions^  as  distinct  in  kind  from  his  earlier 
ones,  and  therefore  to  be  included  in  the  series 
of  his  large  works,  and  numbered  accordingly. 
In  addition  there  were  published  2  Preludes 
(op,  39),  dating  from  1789;  7  Bagatelles,  some 
of  them  as  old  as  1782,  but  one  at  least  (No.  6) 
written  within  the  last  twelve  months.  Also  the 
Romance  in  G  for  Violin  and  Orchestra  (op.  40), 
which  was  published  this  year,  and  6  Sacred 
Songs  (op.  48),  dedicated  to  his  Russian  friend 
Count  von  Browne.  And  proofs  at  that  date 
appear  to  have  been  formidable  things,  and 
to  have  required  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
vigilance  and  labour.  Not  only  had  the  en- 
gravers' mistakes  to  be  guarded  against,  and  the 
obscurities  of  Beethoven's  writing,  but  the  pub- 
lishers were  occasionally  composers  and  took  on 
themselves  to  correct  his  heresies  and  soften  his 
abruptnesses  as  they  passed  through  their  hands. 
Thus  in  the  Sonata  in  G  (op.  31,  No.  i),  Nageli 
of  Zurich  interpolated  four  bars.'*  Of  course  Bee- 
thoven discovered  the  addition  on  hearing  Ries 
play  from  the  proof,  and  his  rage  was  natiiraUy 
unbounded.  The  mistakes  were  corrected,  and 
an  amended  proof  was  transmitted  at  once  to  | 
Simrock  of  Bonn,  who  soon  got  out  an  '  Edition 
trhs  correcte ' ; — but  Nageli  adhered  to  his  own 
version  of  Beethoven's  music,  and  editions  are  j 
still  issued^  containing  the  four  redundant  bars. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  after  Opus  31  he  ' 
published  no  more  for  Beethoven.  But  even  ' 
without  such  intentional  errors,  correcting  in 
those  days  was  hard  work.  'My  Quartets,'  he* 
complams,  'are  again  published  full  of  mistakes 
and  errata  great  and  small ;  they  swarm  like 
fish  in  the  sea — innumerable.'  The  Quintet  in  C  j 
(op.  29),  published  by  Breitkopf,  was  pirated  by 
AjMiaria  of  Vienna,  and  being  engraved  from  a 
very  hasty  copy  was  extraordinarily  full  of  ' 
blunders.^  Beethoven  adopted  a  very  character-  ! 
istic  mode  of  revenge  ;  fifty  copies  had  been  ' 
struck  off,  which  he  offered  Artaria  to  correct,  [ 
but  in  doing  so  caused  Ries  to  make  the  ! 
alterations  with  so  strong  a  hand  that  the  copies  ' 
were  quite  unsaleable.^  It  was  an  evil  that 
never  abated.  In  sending  off  the  copies  of  the 
A  minor  Quartet  twenty  years  later,  he  says, 
'  I  have  passed  the  whole  forenoon  to-day  and 
yesterday  afternoon  in  correcting  these  two 
pieces,  and  am  quite  hoarse  with  stamping  and 
swearing' — and  no  wonder  when  the  provocation 
was  so  great.  The  noble  Sonatas,  op.  31,  to  the 
first  of  which  one  of  the  above  anecdotes  refers, 
were  unfortunate  in  more  ways  than  one.  They 
were  promised  to  Nageli,  but  Caspar  Beethoven^ 
by  some  blunder— whether  for  his  own  profit  or 
his  brother's  does  not  appear — had  sold  them  to 
a  Leipsic  house.^  The  discovery  enraged  Bee- 
thoven, who  hated  any  appearance  of  deceit  in 

'  See  his  letter  (Dec.  2*5, 1802)  in  Thayer,  li.  213. 

2  i>:tween  the  28th  and  27th  bars  from  the  end  of  the  first  movement. 

»  E.  K.  thatof  Holleof  WolfenbiitteL  An  equally  gratuitous  alteration 
has  been  made  in  the  Sonata  op.  81  a.  See  Thayer,  Verzeichnis$,  p.  192. 

<  Letter  to  HofTmeister,  April  S,  1802.  «  Uies.  120. 

•  Kies,  120.  He  issued  a  notice  to  the  public,  cautioning  them 
against  this  incorrect  edition.  ">  Ries,  S7. 

^  Caspar  had  already  offered  them  to  Andre  of  Offenbach.  See 
Thayer,  ii.  202, 


his  dealings  ;  he  challenged  his  brother  with  the 
fact,  and  the  quarrel  actually  proceeded  to  blows. 
Knowing  how  much  Beethoven  disliked  his  early 
works,  it  is  difi&cult  not  to  imagine  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  two  boyish  Preludes,  op.  39,  and 
of  the  Variations,  op,  44  (1792  or  3),  both  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic — was  due  to  the  interference  of 
Caspar. 

A  great  event  in  1803  was  the  production  of 
'  The  Mount  of  Olives,'  his  first  vocal  composition 
on  a  larger  scale  than  a  scena.  The  concert 
took  place  in  the  Theatre  'an  der  Wien'  on 
April  5,  and  the  programme  included  three  new 
works— the  Oratorio,  the  Symphony  in  D,  and 
the  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  C  minor,  played  by 
himself.  Interesting  accounts  of  the  rehearsal 
(in  which  Prince  Lichnowsky  showed  himself  as 
friendly  as  ever)  and  of  the  performance  will 
be  found  in  Ries  and  Seyfried.*  Difl&cult  as  it 
is  to  conceive  of  such  a  thing,  the  Symphony 
appears  to  have  been  found  too  laboured  by  the 
critics,  and  not  equal  to  the  former  one,*°  The 
success  of  the  Oratorio  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  repeated  three  times  (making  four 
performances)  by  independent  parties  in  the 
course  of  the  next  twelve  months.  The  Sonata 
for  Piano  and  Violin,  now  so  well  known  as 
the  'Kreutzer  Sonata,'  was  first  played  on  May 
17,  at  the  Augarten,  at  8  a.m.  There  was  a 
curious  bombastic  half-caste  English  violin- 
player  in  Vienna  at  that  time  named  Bridge- 
tower.  He  had  engaged  Beethoven  to  write 
a  sonata  for  their  joint  performance  at  his 
concert.  Knowing  Beethoven's  reluctance  to 
complete  bespoken  works,  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  him  behind  time  and  Bridgetower 
clamouring  loudly  for  his  music.  The  Finale 
was  easily  attainable,  having  been  written 
the  year  before  for  the  Sonata  in  A  (op.  30, 
No.  I ),  and  the  violin  part  of  the  first  movement 
seems  to  have  been  ready  a  few  days  before  the 
concert,  though  at  the  performance  the  piano- 
forte copy  still  remained  almost  a  blank,  with 
only  an  indication  here  and  there.  But  the 
Variations  were  literally  fini.shed  only  at  the  last 
moment,  and  Bridgetower  had  to  play  them  at 
sight  from  the  blurred  and  blotted  autograph  of 
the  composer.  Beethoven's  rendering  of  the 
Andante  was  so  noble,  pure,  and  chaste,  as  to 
cause  a  universal  demand  for  an  encore.  A 
quarrel  with  Bridgetower  caused  the  alteration 
of  the  dedication. 

Before  Beethoven  left  town  this  year  he  made 
an  arrangement  to  write  an  opera  for  Schikane- 
der,  Mozart's  old  comrade,  the  manager  of  the 
Theatre  '  an  der  Wien.'  Beyond  the  bare  fact 
nothing  is  known  on  the  subject.  It  is  possible 
that  a  MS.  Trio  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
' Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde'  at  Vienna,  and 
afterwards  worked  up  into  the  duet  in  *  Fidelio,'- 
is  a  portion  of  the  proposed  work,  but  this  is 
mere  conjecture.  The  arrangement  was  an- 
nounced on  June  29,  and  Beethoven  had  before 

»  Bies,  76;  Sej-fried,  Xotizev,19:  and  see  Thayer,  ii.  223,  224. 

10  See  the  report  in  Thayer,  il.  225.  "  See  Thayer,  U.  221,  942. 

12  Nottebohm,  Beethoveniana,  p.  82. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN.  183 


that  date,  perhaps  as  early  as  April,  taken  up 
his  quarters  at  the  theatre  with  his  brother 
Caspar,  who,  with  all  his  faults,  was  necessary  to 
a  person  so  inapt  at  business  as  Ludwig.  His 
summer  and  autunm  were  again  spent — after  a 
few  weeks  Eur  at  Baden  ^ — at  Ober-dobling, 
and  were  occupied  principally  with  his  third 
Symphony  on  '  Napoleon  Bonaparte,'  the  idea  of 
which,  since  its  suggestion  in  1798,  appears  to 
have  ripened  with  the  contemplation  of  the 
splendid  career  of  the  First  Consul  as  soldier, 
lawgiver,  statesman,  and  hero,  until  it  became 
an  actual  fact. 

Of  the  order  in  which  the  movements  of  this 
mighty  work  were  composed  we  have  not  yet  any 
information,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  when 
Beethoven  returned  to  his  lodgings  in  the  theatre 
in  the  autumn  of  1803  the  JFinale  was  complete 
enough,  at  least  in  its  general  outlines,^  to  be 
played  through  by  its  author.    There  are  traces 
of  Beethoven  being  a  great  deal  in  society  this 
winter.  T wo  ymmg  Ehinelanders — Gleichenstein, 
a  friend  and  "fellow  official  of  Breuning's  in  the 
War  Office,  and  Mahler,  also  a  government 
official  and  an  amateur  portrait  painter,  were 
now  added  to  his  circle.^    With  another  painter, 
Macco,  he*  appears  to  have  been  on  terms  of 
great  intimacy.   The  Abbe  Vogler  was  in  Vienna 
this  season  with  his  pupil  Carl  Maria  von  Weber, 
and  a  record^  survives  of  a  soiree  given  by 
Sonnleithner,  at  which  Vogler  and  Beethoven 
met,  and  each  gave  the  other  a  subject  to 
extemporise  upon.    The  subject  given  by  Bee- 
thoven to  Vogler  we  merely  know  to  have  been 
4^  bars  long,  while  that  on  which  he  himself 
held  forth  was  '  the  scale  of  C  major,  three  bars, 
aUa  breve.'    Vogler  was  evidently  the  more  ex- 
pert contrapuntist,  but  Beethoven  astonished 
even  his  rival's  adherents  by  his  extraordinary 
playing,  and  by  a  prodigious  flow  of  the  ffiiest 
ideas.    Nodes  ccenaque  deorum.  —  Clementi  too 
was  in  Vienna  about  this  time,  or  a  little  later, 
with  his  pupil  Klengel.     He  and  Beethoven 
ften  dined  at  the  same  restaurant,  but  neither 
lid  speak  first,  and  there  was  no  intercourse.^ 
)t  for  want  of  respect  on  Beethoven's  side,  for 
he  had  a  very  high  opinion  of  Clementi,  and 
thought  his  Method  one  of  the  best.  This  winter 
saw  the  beginning  of  a  correspondence  which  was 
not  destined  to  bear  fruit  till  some  years  later — 
with  Thomson  the  music-publisher  of  Edinburgh. 
Thomson  had  already  published  arrangements  of 
Scotch  airs  by  Pleyel  and  Kozeluch,  and,  with 
the  true  eye  of  a  man  of  business,  was  now 
anxious  to  obtain  from  a  greater  and  more 
famous  musician  than  either,  six  sonatas  on 
Scotch  themes.    Beethoven  replies  on  Oct.  5, 
offering  to  compose  six  sonatas  for  300  ducats 
(£150).     Thomson  responded  by  ofi"ering  half 
the  sum  named,  and  there  for  the  present  the 
correspondence  dropped.     The  prospect  of  an 
opera  from  Beethoven  was  put  an  end  to  at  the 

>  Not  Baden-Baden,  but  a  mineral-water  bath  16  or  18  miles  south  of 
Vienna.  J  Thayer,  ii.  236.  »  Ibid.  234.  ♦  Ibid.  241. 

s  By  GHinsbacher,  Ibid.  236.  «  Ibid.  246. 

7  S«e  the  letters  and  replies  in  Thajcr,  il.  239. 


beginning  of  1804  by  the  theatre  passing  out  of 
Schikaneder's  hands  into  those  of  Baron  von 
Braun,  and  with  this  his  lodging  in  the  theatre 
naturally  ceased.^  He  moved  into  the  same  house 
with  Stephen  Breuning — the  'Rothe  Haus,'  near 
the  present  Votive  Church,  and  there  the  rupture 
already  spoken  of  took  place. 

The  early  part  of  1804  was  taken  up  in 
passing  through  the  press  the  Symphony  No.  2 
(dedicated  to  Prince  Carl  Lichnowsky),  and  the 
three  4-hand  Marches,  which  were  published  in 
March — but  the  real  absorbing  occupation  of 
the  whole  winter  must  have  been  the  completion 
of  the  Bonaparte  Symphony.  At  length  the 
work  was  done,  a  fair  copy  was  made,  the  out- 
side page  of  which  contained  the  ^  words  '  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  Louis  van  Beethoven,' 

and  it  lay  on  the  composer's  table  for  the  proper 
opportunity  of  official  transmission  to  Paris.  On 
May  3  the  motion  for  making  Napoleon  emperor 
passed  the  Assembly,  and  on  the  1 8th,  after  his 
election  by  plebiscite,  he  assumed  the  title.  The 
news  must  have  quickly  reached  Vienna,  and 
was  at  once  communicated  to  Beethoven  by  Ries. 
The  story  need  not  be  given  here  in  detail.  In 
a  fury  of  disappointment  and  with  a  torrent  of 
reproaches  he  tore  off  the  title  page  and  dashed 
it  on  the  ground.  At  some  future  time  it  re- 
ceived the  new  name  by  which  we  know  it,  and 
under  which  it  was  published — '  Sinfonia  eroica 
per  festeggiare  il  sowenire  d'un  gran  uomo' — 
but  this  was  probably  an  afterthought,  and  the 
cover  of  the  MS.  now  in  the  Bibliothek  at 
Vienna, — 

Sinfonia  grande 
Napoleon  Bonaparte 
804  im  August 
del  Sigr. 
Louis  van  Beethoven 


Sinfonie  3  Op.  55 


an  intermediate  title.  The  right  to  use  the  Sym- 
phony was  purchased  by  Prince  Lobkowitz,  to 
whom  it  is  dedicated.  It  was  played  at  his 
house  during  the  winter,  and  remained  in  MS. 
till  October  i8c6. 

The  fracas  at  Breuning's  rooms  ended  by  Bee- 
thoven's dashing  off  to  Baden,  and  then  returning 
to  his  old  quarters  at  Dobling.  There  he  com* 
posed  the  Grand  Sonata  in  C,  which  he  afterwards 
dedicated  to  Count  Waldstein,  and  that  in  F, 
op.  54,  which  though  only  in  two  movements  and 
dedicated  to  no  one  is  not  inferior  in  originality  to 
its  longer  companion.  It  is  to  the  Finale  of  this 
work,  and  not  that  of  the  '  Appassionata'  as  usually 
believed,  that  Ries's  story  applies.  Ries  appears 
to  have  often  gone  out,  as  he  often  did,  to 
Dobling — within  an  easy  walk  of  Vienna — and 
to  have  remained  with  his  master  all  the  after 

8  Thayer,  li.  246. 

9  These  words  can  stil'  be  made  out  on  the  cover  of  the  MS.  score  at 
Vienna. 


184 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


part  of  the  day.  They  went  for  an  immense 
walk,  and  did  not  get  home  till  eight  in  the 
evening.  During  the  whole  time  Beethoven  had 
been  humming  and  growhng  to  himself,  but 
without  anything  like  a  tune.  On  Ries  asking 
him  what  it  was,  he  replied  that  it  was  a  theme 
for  the  finale  of  the  Sonata,  The  instant  they 
reached  the  house  he  sat  down  to  the  piano 
without  taking  off  his  hat,  and  for  more  than  an 
hour  pounded  away  at  his  new  idea.  Ries  sat  in 
a  comer  listening. — The  Sonata  in  C,  just  men- 
tioned, contained  when  completed  a  long  An- 
dante in  F — the  subject  of  a  very  characteristic 
story,  already  alluded  to  (p.  167).  This,  how- 
ever, at  the  advice  of  some  judicious  critic, 
he  was  induced  to  take  out  and  replace  by  the 
present  short  introductory  Adagio,  after  which 
it  was,  published  separately,  and  became  the 
well-known  'Andante  favori.'^  During  this 
suimner,  on  July  19  or  26,  there  was  a  con- 
cert at  the  Augarten,  at  which  Beethoven  con- 
ducted ;  the  Symphony  in  D  was  performed,  and 
Ries  made  his  first  public  appearance  as  Bee- 
thoven's scholar  in  the  C  minor  Concerto.  Ries's 
story  of  his  cadence  is  too  long  for  these  pages, 
but  should  be  read.^  The  Pianoforte  part  having 
to  be  written  out  for  Ries,  the  Concerto  was  at 
last  ready  for  publication,  and  in  fact  made  its 
appearance  in  November,  dedicated  to  PrLnce 
Louis  Ferdinand  of  Prussia,  an  amateur  of  re- 
markable musical  gifts,  whose  acquaintance  Bee- 
thoven made  when  he  visited  his  father's  court 
in  1796,  and  who  while  in  Vienna  at  this  very 
time  was  one  of  the  first  to  hear  and  appreciate 
the  new  Symphony.  When  Beethoven  came  back 
it  was  to  a  new  lodging,  in  a  house  of  Baron  Pas- 
qualati's,  on  the  Molker-Bastion  near  Prince 
Lichnowsky's,  and  in  some  sense  this  was  his 
last ;  for  though  he  left  it  more  than  once  yet  the 
Baron  always  forbid  the  rooms  to  be  let,  saying 
that  Beethoven  was  sure  to  come  back  to  them 
again.  Breuning  and  he  soon  met,  and  a  recon- 
ciliation took  place  which  was  not  interrupted 
for  many  years — but  they  never  again  put  their 
friendship  so  far  to  the  proof  as  to  live  together. 

Breuning's  attitude  through  the  whole  affair  is 
in  keeping  with  his  solid  sensible  character,  and 
does  him  infinite  credit.  His  letter  to  Wegeler 
of  November  1 3  gives  no  hint  of  a  quarrel,  but  is 
full  of  the  deepest  sympathy  with  Beethoven 
imder  the  affhction  of  his  dea&ess.  In  addition 
to  the  works  already  mentioned  as  published 
during  1 804  must  be  named  the  great  Sonata  in 
Eb,  which  ultimately  became  the  3rd  of  opus  31  ; 
7  Variations  on  '  God  save  the  King,'  ^  and  5  on 
'Rule  Britannia';  a  song,  *Der  Wachtelschlag,' * 
and  'Ah!  perfido.'  Why  he  selected  these  two 
English  airs  does  not  appear.  At  a  later  date 
he  said,  k  propos  to  its  use  in  his  Battle  Symphony, 
*  I  must  show  the  English  a  little  what  a  blessing 
they  have  in  God  save  the  King.'^  It  is 
satisfactory  to  find  him  so  fond  of  it. — The  first 
trial  of  the  Eroica  took  place  in  December^  at 

»  p.  ft  H.  192.     a  Nolizen,  p.  114.      «  B.  &  H.  179, 180.     *  Ibid.  234. 
»  In  hU  journal  1812-1818.  Nohl,  Die  Beeihoven-Feier  (1871),  p.  55. 
«  Thayer.  U.  261 ;  aiid  liies,  p.  79. 


Prince  Lobkowitz's.     The  opinions  expressed 
'  concerning  it  are  collected  by  Thaysr,  and  should 
be  read  and  digested  by  all  who  are  tempted  to 
regard  music  from  the  'finality'  point  of  view. 

Beethoven's  connection  with  the  Theatre  an 
der  Wien,  though  interrupted,  was  not  at  an  end. 
Baron  von  Braun  took  Schikaneder  into  his  ser- 
vice, and  one  of  their  first  acts  was  to  renew  the 
offer.  Bouilly's  opera,  which  had  been  already 
set  by  Gaveaux''  and  Paer,^  was  chosen,  and 
Sonnleithner  was  employed  to  make  the  German 
translation.  Beethoven  went  back  to  his  rooms 
at  the  theatre,  and  set  to  work  with  energy. 
But,  remembering  his  habit  of  doing  several 
things  at  once,  we  need  not  suppose  that,  though 
at  work  on  an  opera,  he  dropped  other  composi- 
tions. A  letter  to  Artaria  shows  that  on  June  i, 
1805,  he  was  engaged  on  a  new  Quintet,  the 
suggestion  of  Count  Fries.*  Though  he  had  even 
proceeded  so  far  as  to  mention  it  to  the  publisher, 
its  ultimate  fate  must  be  left  to  the  discovery  of 
Herr  Nottebohm ;  it  certainly  never  arrived  at 
publication.  He  also  completed  the  Sonata  in  F 
(op.  54),  and  probably  entirely  composed  the 
Triple  Concerto  (op.  56).  But  the  opera  was  his 
main  and  absorbing  business.  During  the  whole 
of  the  spring  he  was  hard  at  work,  and  in  June 
he  betook  himself  to  Hetzendorf,  there  to  put  his 
sketches  into  shape,  and  to  get  inspiration  from 
his  favourite  woods  and  fields.  To  give  an  idea 
of  the  extraordinary  amount  of  labour  and  pains 
which  he  bestowed  on  his  work,  and  of  the 
strangely  tentative  manner  in  which  so  great  a 
genius  proceeded,  we  may  mention  that  in  the 
sketch-book  which  contains  the  materials  for  the 
opera — a  thick  oblong  volume  of  300  pages,  16 
staves  to  the  page — there  are  no  less  than  18 
distinct  and  different  beginnings  to  Florestan's 
air  '  In  des  Lebens  Friihlingstagen,'  and  10  to 
the  chorus  'Wer  ein  holdes  Weib.'  To  reduce 
these  chaotic  materials  to  order,  and  to  score  the 
work,  was  the  entire  occupation  of  these  summer 
months.  Closely  as  he  was  occupied  he  could 
occasionally  visit  Vienna,  and  on  one  occasion  in 
July  we  find  him  at  Sonnleithner 's  rooms  with 
Cherubini  and  Vogler.  Cherubini  arrived  in 
Vienna  with  his  wife  early  in  the  month,  and 
remained  till  the  following  April.  His  operas 
had  long  been  favourites  on  the  Vienna  stage. 
The  'Deux  Journees'  was  performed  under  his 
direction  shortly  after  his  arrival,  and  '  Faniska ' 
was  produced  for  the  first  time  on  Feb.  25,  1806. 
Beethoven  knew  them  well,  and  has  left  on 
record  that  he  esteemed  their  author  above  all 
then  living  writers  for  the  stage.  He  also 
thought  so  highly  of  Cherubini's  Requiem  as 
to  say  that  he  should  borrow  largely  from  it  in 
the  event  of  his  writing  one.  But  the  influence 
of  Cherubini  on  Beethoven's  vocal  music  is 
now  "  acknowledged.   The  two  artists  were  much 

7  •  Leonore  ou  I'amour  conjugale,  opera  comique,'  Feb.  19, 1798. 

8  '  Leonora  ossia  I'araore  conjugale,'  Dresden,  Oct.  3, 1804. 

9  Letter  to  Artaria.  June  1, 1805. 

10  Thayer,  ii.  281.  H  ibid.  282. 

12  SeyfrieH,  p.  22 ;  also  Czemy  in  CdcUia.  See  Thayer,  11.  353. 

1*  See  Hiller,  in  Macmillan's  Mayaiine,  July  1875;  also  the  report  of 
a  conversation  with  Mendelssohn  in  Marx's  Music  of  the  19</»  century. 
A  irttgmeat  of  a  sketch-book  of  Beethoven's  in  Mr.  Joachim's  posseuion 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


185 


together,  and  agreed  as  well  as  two  men  of  such 
strong  character  and  open  speech  were  likely  to 
iiL^ree.  Cherubini  presented  the  composer  of 
'  Jf  idelio '  with  a  copy  of  the  Methode  of  the  Con- 
servatoire, and  the  scores  of  'Medee'  and  *Fa- 
niska'  are  conspicuous  in  the  sale  catalogue  of 
Beethoven's  scanty  library.  ^ 

One  proof  that  '  Fidelio '  was  complete  before 
his  return  to  town  is  afforded  by  the  fact  that 
he  allowed  others  to  hear  it.  On  one  occasion 
he  played  it  to  a  select  set  of  friends,^  when 
Ixies  (as  already  mentioned)  was  excluded;  and 
thus  —  as  he  was  shortly  afterwards  called  to 
Bonn  by  the  conscription — lost  his  chance  of 
hearing  the  opera  at  all  in  its  first  shape.  That 
Beethoven's  voice  in  singing  was  '  detestable '  ^ 
will  not  have  diminished  the  interest  of  the  trial. 
The  work  of  rehearsing  the  music  now  began, 
and  was  evidently  attended  with  enormous  diffi- 
culties, especially  in  regard  to  the  singers.  They 
complained  that  their  passages  were  unsingable, 
while  Beethoven  on  his  part  was  determined  to 
make  no  alterations — and  apparently  none  were 
made.*  With  the  band  he  fared  little  better. 
He  even  invokes  his  deafness  as  an  assistance. 
Writing  only  two  days  before  the  first  perform- 
ance, he  says,®  'Pray  try  to  persuade  Seyfried 
to  conduct  my  opera  to-day,  as  I  wish  to  see 
and  hear  it  from  a  distance ;  in  this  way  my 
patience  wiU  at  least  not  be  so  severely  tried  by 
the  rehearsal  as  when  I  am  close  enough  to  hear 
my  music  so  bungled.  I  really  do  believe  it  is 
done  on  purpose.  Of  the  wind  I  will  say  no- 
thing, but  .    All  'p'p.  cresc,  all  deer  esc,  and 

all  /.  ff.  may  as  well  be  struck  out  of  my  music, 
since  not  one  of  them  is  attended  to.  I  lose  all 
desire  to  write  anything  more  if  my  music  is  to 
be  so  played.'  And  again,  ^  '  the  whole  business 
of  the  opera  is  the  most  distressing  thing  in  the 
world.' 

The  performance  was  fixed  for  Wednesday, 
Nov.  20.  External  events  could  hardly  have 
been  more  unpropitious.  The  occupation  of  Ulm 
and  Salzburg  had  been  followed  on  Nov.  13  by 
the  entry  of  the  French  army  into  Vienna.  Bona- 
parte took  up  his  quarters  at  Schonbrunn;  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  the  chief  nobility  and  other 
wealthy  persons  and  patrons  of  music  had  de- 
serted the  town,  and  it  was  a  conquered  city 
tenanted  by  Frenchmen,  It  was  in  such  circum- 
stances that  *  Fidelio,  oder  die  eheliche  Liebe ' 
was  produced.  The  opera  was  originally  in  3 
acts.  It  was  performed  on  the  20th,  21st,  and 
22nd,  and  was  then  withdrawn  by  the  com- 
poser.'^ The  overture  on  these  occasions  appears 
to  have  been  that  known  as  'Leonora  No,  2.'  It 
was  felt  by  Beethoven's  friends  that,  in  addition 
to  the  drawbacks  of  the  French  occupation  and 
of  the  advanced  character  of  the  music,  the  opera 
was  too  long  ;  and  a  meeting  was  held  at  Prince 
Lichnowsky's  house,  when  the  whole  work  was 

contains  the  Trio  In  the  'Deux  Journees'  and  a  piece  from  the 
•  Zauberflote,"  mixed  up  with  bits  of '  Fidelio '  and  of  the  Finale  of  the 
B  flat  Symphony,  1  Thayer,  CTiron.  Verzeichniss,  pp.  180, 181. 

2  Kies,  102.  3  Ahsrheulich ;  Czerny,  in  Thayer,  il.  202. 

*  Schindler  a860\  i.  135, 136.  6  Letter  to  Meyer. 

•  To  Treitschke,  in  Schindler,  i.  136. 
I  Breuning'g  letter  of  June  2, 1S06. 


gone  through  at  the  piano,  and  after  a  battle 
lasting  from  7  tiU  i  in  the  morning,  Beethoven 
was  induced  to  sacrifice  three  entire  numbers. 
It  is  characteristic  of  Beethoven  that  though 
furious  and  unpleasant  to  the  very  greatest  de- 
gree while  the  struggle  was  going  on,  yet  when 
once  the  decision  was  made  he  was  in  his  most 
genial  temper.^  The  libretto  was  at  once  put 
into  the  hands  of  Stephen  Breuning.  by  whom  it 
was  reduced  to  two  acts  and  generally  improved, 
and  in  this  shortened  form,  and  with  the  revised 
Overture  known  as  'Leonora  No,  3,'  it  was 
again  performed  on  March  29,  1806,  but,  owing 
to  Beethoven's  delays  over  the  alterations,  with 
only  one  band  rehearsal.  It  was  repeated  on 
April  10,  each  time  to  fuller  and  more  apprecia- 
tive houses  than  before,  and  then,  owing  to  a 
quarrel  between  Beethoven  and  Baron  Braun, 
the  intendant  of  the  theatre,  suddenly  and  finally 
withdrawn.  Attempts  were  made  to  bring  it 
out  at  Berlin,  but  they  came  to  nothing,  and  this 
great  work  was  then  practically  shelved  for  seven 
or  eight  years. 

It  is  an  astonishing  proof  of  the  vigour  and 
fertility  of  the  mind  of  this  extraordinary  man 
that  in  the  midst  of  all  this  work  and  worry  he 
should  have  planned  and  partly  carried  out  three 
of  his  greatest  instrumental  compositions.  We 
have  the  assurance  of  Mr.  Nottebohm^  that  the 
Piano  Concerto  in  G  and  the  Symphony  in  C 
minor  were  both  begun,  and  the  two  first  move- 
ments of  the  latter  composed,  in  1805.  The  two 
last  of  the  String  Quartets,  op.  59,  appear  to  have 
been  written  during  this  winter — before  that  in 
F,-^°  which  now  stands  first.  There  are  many 
indications  in  his  letters  that  his  health  was  at 
this  time  anything  but  good,  and  the  demands  of 
society  on  him  must  have  been  great.  Against 
them  he  could  arm  himself  by  such  reflections 
as  the  following  pencil  note  in  the  margin  of  a 
sketch-book  of  this  very  date,  '  Struggling  as 
you  are  in  the  vortex  of  society,  it  is  yet  possible, 
notwithstanding  all  social  hindrances,  to  write 
operas.  Let  your  deafness  be  no  longer  a  secret — 
even  in  your  Art ! ' 

On  April  10,  1806,  'Fidelio'  was  performed  for 
the  last  time ;  on  May  25^  the  marriage  contract 
of  Caspar  Carl  Beethoven  with  Johanna  Eeis 
was  signed — harbinger  of  unexpected  suffering  for 
Ludwig — and  on  May  26  he  began  the  scoring  of 
the  first  of  the  three  Quartets,  which  were  after- 
wards dedicated  to  the  Russian  Ambassador, 
Count  RasoumoflFsky,  as  op.  59.  So  says  his  own 
writing  at  the  head  of  the  autograph,  These 
Quartets,  the  Russian  airs  in  which  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  were  suggested  by  the  Ambassador  (a 
brother-in-law  of  Prince  Lichnowsky),  are  another 
link  in  the  chain  of  connection  between  the  re- 
publican composer  and  the  great  Imperial  court 
of  Petersburg,  which  originated  some  of  his  noblest 
works. 

His  favourite  summer  villages  had  been  de- 
filed by  the  French,  and  perhaps  for  this  reason 

8  See  KoeckeVs  account  of  the  whole  transaction  In  Thayer,  ii.  206. 

9  Nottebohm,  Catalogue,  op.  67  and  5S. 

»o  Letter  to  Brunswick.  May  11.  »  Thayer.  U.  3U, 

U  Thayer,  ii.  3U.  "  Calaloi/ue,  op,  58. 


186 


BEETHOVEN". 


BEETHOVEN. 


Beethoven  did  not  pass  the  summer  of  1806  at 
the  usual  spots,  but  went  to  the  country-house  of 
his  friend  Count  Brunswick — whose  sisters^  were 
also  his  great  allies — in  Hungary.  Here  he 
wrote  the  magnificent  Sonata  in  F  minor,  than 
which  nothing  more  impetuous,  more  poetical,  or 
more  enduring  ever  came  from  his  pen.  His 
letters  may  have  been  full  of  depression^  —  but 
it  vanished  when  he  spoke  in  music,  and  all 
is  force,  elevation,  and  romance.  In  October 
he  left  Count  Brunswick  for  the  seat  of  Prince 
Lichnowsky,  near  Troppau,  in  Silesia,  40  miles 
N.E.  of  Olmiitz.  The  war  was  in  full  progress 
(Jena  was  fought  on  Oct.  16),  and  the  Prince 
had  several  French  officers  quartered  upon  him. 
They  were  naturally  anxious  to  hear  Beethoven, 
but  he  refused  to  play  to  them  ;  and  on  being 
pressed  by  his  host  and  playfully  threatened  with 
confinement  to  the  house,  a  terrible  scene  took 
place — he  made  his  escape,  went  off  by  night 
post  to  Vienna,  and  on  his  arrival  at  home  was 
still  so  angry  as  to  demolish  a  bust  of  the  Prince 
in  his  possession.  He  brought  back  with  him 
not  only  the  Sonata  just  named,  but  the  Piano- 
forte Concerto  in  G,  the  Symphony  in  B  flat 
(No.  4),  the  Easoumofi'sky  Quartets,  and  the 
32  Variations  in  C  minor.  The  Quartets  were 
played  frequently  in  MS.  during  the  winter 
at  private  concerts,  but  the  larger  orchestral 
works  were  not  heard  till  later.  The  Violin  Con- 
certo (op.  61)  was  first  played  by  Clement — a 
well-known  virtuoso,  and  at  that  time  principal 
violin  of  the  Theatre  an  der  Wien — at  his  concert 
on  Dec.  23,  and  there  is  evidence  to  show,  what 
might  haA  e  been  assumed  from  Beethoven's  habit 
of  postponing  bespoken  works  to  the  last,  that  it 
was  written  in  a  hurry,  and  Clement  played  his 
part  without  rehearsal,  at  sight.  What  chance 
can  such  great  and  difficult  works,  new  in  spirit 
and  teeming  with  difficulties,  have  had  of  in- 
fluencing the  public  when  thus  brought  forward  ? 
No  wonder  that  the  Concerto  was  seldom  heard 
till  revived  by  Joachim  in  our  own  time.  The 
MS.  shows  that  the  solo  part  was  the  object  of 
much  thought  and  alteration  by  the  composer — 
evidently  after  the  performance. 

The  publications  of  1 806  consist  of  the  Sonata 
in  F,  op.  54  (April  9)  ;  a  trio  for  two  Violins 
and  Viola  (April  12),  adapted  from  a  trio^  for 
two  Oboes  and  Cor  Anglais,  and  afterwards  nima- 
bered  op.  87;  the  Andante  in  F  (May)  already 
mentioned  as  having  been  originally  intended  for 
the  Waldstein  Sonata  ;  and  lastly,  on  October  29, 
in  time  for  the  winter  season,  the  Eroica  Sym- 
phony, dedicated  to  Prince  Lobkowitz.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  an  arrangement  of  the  2nd  Sym- 
phony as  a  Pianoforte  trio,*  by  Beethoven's  own 
hand,  was  published  at  Vienna. 

The  first  external  musical  event  of  1807  was 
the  performance  of  the  new  Symphony,  No.  4, 
which  took  place  before  a  very  select  audience  in 
the  middle  or  end  of  March.*    The  concert  was 

1  •  Lieber,  lleber  Brunswick  kiisse  deine  Schwester  Therese." 

Letter,  May  11.  His  favourite  Sonata,  op.  78,  was  dedicated  to  this 
lady.  2  BreuninK'g  letter  of  0ctol)er,  in  Thayer,  ii.  312. 

3  Composed  In  or  about  1794.  Kottebohm,  Catalos/tu,  op.  87. 

«B.tH.90.  t  A.M.Z.ix.400. 


organised  for  Beethoven's  benefit,  no  doubt  to 
compensate  him  for  his  disappointment  with  the 
Opera,  and  was  largely  subscribed  to.  No  pro- 
gramme of  equal  length  was  probably  ever  put 
together;  it  contained  the  ist  and  2nd  Sym- 
phonies, the  Eroica — hardly  known  as  yet,  and 
in  itself  a  programme — and  the  new  work — 2j 
hours  of  solid  orchestral  music  without  relief !  A 
second  performance  of  the  Symphony  was  given 
at  a  public  concert  on  Nov.  15.  The  overture  to 
'Coriolan'  —  a  tragedy  by  Collin — must  have 
occupied  him  during  the  opening  of  the  year, 
since  it  is  included  with  the  new  Symphony,  the 
new  Concertos  for  Violin  and  Piano,  and  the  3 
String-quartets  in  a  sale  of  copyrights  for  Eng- 
land,® which  Beethoven  efi"ected  on  April  20 
to  Clementi,  who  had  for  some  years  been  at  the 
head  of  a  musical  business  in  London.  For 
these  and  an  arrangement  of  the  Violin  Con- 
certo for  Piano  (dedicated  to  the  wife  of 
Stephen  von  Breuning),  Clementi  paid  £200 
down,  Beethoven  binding  himself  to  compose 
three  new  Sonatas  for  the  sum  of  £60  more  —  a 
part  of  the  bargain  which  was  not  carried  out. 
Beethoven's  finances  were  thus  for  the  time 
flourishing,  and  he  writes  in  high  spirits  on  his 
prospects.^ 

Another  overture  belonging  to  this  period  is 
that  in  C,  known  as  op.  138,  and  erroneously 
styled  '  Leonora  No.  i,'  the  fact  being  that  it  was 
written  as  '  a  new  Overture'  for  the  production  of 
'Fidelio'  in  Prague  in  the  spring  of  this  year.* 
Another  great  work  approaching  completion 
during  the  summer  was  the  Mass  in  C,  which 
was  written  for  Prince  Esterhazy,  Haydn's  patron, 
and  after  considerable  delay  was  first  sung  in  the 
Chapel  at  Eisenstadt  on  Sept.  13,  the  name-day  of 
the  Princess  Maiie  of  Esterhazy.  Beethoven  and 
his  old  rival  Hummel — then  the  Prince's  Chapel- 
master —  were  both  present.  After  the  mass 
the  Prince,  perhaps  puzzled  at  the  style  of  the 
music,  so  different  from  that  to  which  he  was  ac- 
customed in  his  Chapel — hinted  as  much  to  Bee- 
thoven, in  the  strange  question  *  What  have  you 
been  doing  now  ? '  Hummel  overheard  the  re- 
mark, and  probably  amused  at  the  naivete  of  the 
question  (for  Hummel  can  have  found  nothing 
to  question  in  the  music)  unfortunately  smiled. 
Beethoven  saw  the  smile,  misinterpreted  it,  and 
left  the  Palace  in  a  fury.  This  occurrence  possibly 
explains  why  the  name  of  Esterhazy,  to  whom 
the  mass  is  dedicated  in  Beethoven's  autograph, 
is  replaced  by  that  of  Prince  Eansky  in  the 
published  copy  (181 2). 

The  date  of  the  C  minor  Symphony  has  not 
yet  been  conclusively  ascertained,  but  there  is 
good  ground  for  believing  that  it  and  the  Pas- 
toral Symphony  were  completed,  or  at  any  rate 
much  advanced,  during  this  year,  at  Heiligen- 
stadt  and  in  the  country  between  that  and  the 
Kahlenberg,  as  Beethoven  pointed  out  to  Schind- 
ler  in  1823^ — the  visit  to  Eisenstadt  being  prob- 
ably undertaken  for  the  sake  of  the  Mass  only. 

«  Schindler.  L142. 

7  To  Brunswick, '  an  einem  Maytage.'  Nohl,  Neue  Briefe,  No.  7. 
«  Nottebohm,  Beethovt7iiana,  p.  70,  etc.  »  Schindler,  L  I5i 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


187 


Of  his  activity  in  town  during  the  winter  there 
more  certain  traces.    A  musical  society  of 

lateurs  was  formed,  who  held  their  concerts  in 
tile  Hall  of  the  Mehlgrube.  At  one  of  these,  in 
December,  the  Eroica  Symphony  was  performed, 
and  the  overture  to  Coriolan  played  for  the  first 
time.  At  another  the  B  flat  Symphony  was 
performed  for  the  second  time,  with  immense 
appreciation.  Beethoven  himself  conducted  both 
of  these  concerts.  December  is  also  the  date  of 
a  memorial  to  the  directors  of  the  Court  Theatre, 
praying  that  he  might  be  engaged  at  an  annual 
salciry  of  2400  florins,  with  benefit  performances,  to 
compose  one  grand  opera  and  an  operetta  yearly — 
a  memorial  evidently  not  favourably  received. 

The  publications  of  1807  are  not  numerous, 
they  consist  of  the  Sonata  in  F  minor  (op.  5  7), 
dedicated  to  Count  Brunswick  (Feb.  18),  and 
since  designated  '  Appassionata'  by  Cranz  of 
Hamburg  ;  the  32  Variations  for  Piano^  (April) ; 
and  the  Triple  Concerto  (op.  56),  dedicated  to 
Count  Lobkowitz  (July  i). 

1 808  opened  with  the  publication  of  the  over- 
ture to  'Coriolan'  (op.  62),  dedicated  to  the 
author  of  the  tragedy,  and  the  3  new  String- 
quartets  (op.  59).  There  is  reason  to  believe^ 
that  Beethoven  again  passed  the  summer  at 
Heiligenstadt,  whence  he  returned  to  Vienna, 
bringing  with  him  ready  for  performance  the  two 
Symphonies,  C  minor  and  Pastoral,  the  two 
Pianoforte  Trios  in  D  and  E  flat,  and  the  Choral 
Fantasia,  a  work  new  not  only  in  ideas  and 
eftiects  but  also  in  form,  and  doubly  important  as 
the  precursor  of  the  Choral  Symphony.  It  and 
the  Symphonies  were  produced  at  a  Concert  given 
by  Beethoven  in  the  theatre  an  der  Wien  on 
Dec.  22.  It  was  announced  to  consist  of  pieces 
of  his  own  composition  only,  ail  performed  in 
public  for  the  first  time.  In  addition  to  the 
three  already  mentioned  the  programme  con- 
tained the  Piano  Concerto  in  G,  played  by  him- 
self ;  two  extracts  from  the  Eisenstadt  Mass ; 
■  '  Ah !  perfido ' ;  and  an  extempore  fantasia  on  the 
pianoforte.  The  result  was  unfortunate.  In 
addition  to  the  enormous  length  of  the  programme 
and  the  difficult  character  of  the  music  the  cold 
was  intense  and  the  theatre  unwarmed.  The 
performance  appears  to  have  been  infamous,  and 
in  the  Choral  Fantasia  there  was  actually  a 
break  down.* 

The  Concerto  had  been  published  in  August, 
and  was  dedicated  to  Beethoven's  new  pupil  and 
friend  the  Archduke  Rodolph.  It  commemorates 
the  acquisition  of  the  most  powerful  and  one  of 
the  best  friends  Beethoven  ever  possessed,  for 
whom  he  showed  to  the  end  an  imusual  degree 
of  regard  and  consideration,  and  is  the  first  of  a 
long  series  of  great  works  which  bear  the  Arch- 
duke's name.  The  Sonatina  in  G,  the  fine  Sonata 
for  Piano  and  Cello  in  A,  and  the  Piano  Fantasia 
in  G  minor — the  last  of  less  interest  than  usual — 

»  B.*H.m.  1  Schindler. 

»  Reichardt  in  Schindler,  1. 150  note ;  and  see  Beetlioven'«  note  to 
Zmeskall  of  •  Dec.  1?<18.' 

*  On  this  occasion  the  Introduction  to  the  Choral  Fantasia  was 
extemporised ;  it  was  not  written  down  for  8  or  9  montlis  later.  Notte- 
bohm,A'.B.  No,V. 


complete  the  compositions  of  1808,  and  the 
Pianoforte  adaptation  of  the  Violin  Concerto,^ 
dedicated  to  Madame  Breiming,  closes  the  pub- 
lications. 

Hitherto  Beethoven  had  no  settled  income 
beyond  that  produced  by  actual  labour,  except 
the  small  annuity  granted  him  since  1800  by 
Prince  Lichnowsky.  His  works  were  all  tht; 
property  of  the  publishers,  and  it  is  natural 
that  as  his  life  advanced  (he  was  now  39)  and 
his  aims  in  art  grew  vaster,  the  necessity  of 
writing  music  for  sale  should  have  become  more 
and  more  irksome.  Just  at  this  time,  however, 
he  received  an  invitation  from  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
King  of  Westphalia,  to  fill  the  post  of  Maltre  de 
Chapelle  at  Cassel,  with  a  salary  of  600  gold 
ducats  (£300)  per  annum,  and  150  ducats  for 
travelling  expenses,  and  with  very  easy  duties. 
The  first  trace  of  this  offer  is  found  in  a  letter  of 
his  own,  dated  Nov.  i,  1808  ;  but  he  never  seems 
seriously  to  have  entertained  it  except  as  a  lever 
for  obtaining  an  appointment  under  the  Court  of 
Austria.  In  fact  the  time  was  hardly  one  in 
which  a  German  could  accept  service  under  a 
French  prince.  Napoleon  was  at  the  height  of 
his  career  of  ambition  and  conquest,  and  Austria 
was  at  this  very  time  making  immense  exertions 
for  the  increase  of  her  army  with  a  view  to  the 
war  which  broke  out  when  the  Austrians  crossed 
the  Inn  on  April  9.  With  this  state  of  things 
imminent  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  Eang 
Jerome's  offer  can  have  been  seriously  made  or 
entertained.  But  it  is  easy  to  understand  the 
consternation  into  which  the  possibility  of  Bee- 
thoven's removal  from  Vienna  must  have  thrown 
his  friends  and  the  lovers  of  music  in  general, 
and  the  immediate  result  appears  to  have  been 
an  undertaking  on  the  part  of  the  Archduke  Eo- 
dolph.  Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  Prince  Kinsky, 
dated  March  i,  1809,  guaranteeing  him  an  annual 
income  of  4000  (paper)  florins,  payable  half-yearly, 
until  he  should  obtain  a  post  of  equal  value  in 
the  Austrian  dominions.^  He  himself,  however, 
naturally  preferred  the  post  of  Imperial  Kapell- 
meister under  the  Austrian  Government,  and 
with  that  view  drew  up  a  memorial,''  which 
however  appears  to  have  met  with  no  success, 
even  if  it  were  ever  presented.  At  this  time, 
owing  to  the  excessive  issue  of  bank  notes,  the 
cash  value  of  the  paper  florin  had  sunk  from  2s. 
to  a  little  over  is.,  so  that  the  income  secured  to 
Beethoven,  though  nominally  £400,  did  not 
really  amount  to  more  than  £210,  with  the  pro- 
bability of  still  further  rapid  depreciation. 

Meantime  the  work  of  publication  went  on 
apace,  and  in  that  respect  1809  is  the  most  bril- 
liant and  astonishing  year  of  Beethoven's  life. 
He  now  for  the  first  time  entered  into  relations 
with  the  great  firm  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel. 
Simrock  published  (in  March)  the  4th  Sym- 
phony, dedicated  to  Count  Oppersdorf  as  op.  60, 
and  Breitkopf  and  Hartel  head  their  splendid 
list  vrith  the  Violin  Concerto,  dedicated  to 
Breuning  as  op.  60,  and  also  issued  in  March. 

»  B.  AH.  No.  73.  6  Schindler,  i.  1<57. 

1  See  Nohl.  Brusfe,  Xo.  48.  49,  and  Neue  BrUfe,  41. 


188 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


This  they  followed  in  April  by  the  C  minor 
and  Pastoral  Symphonies  (op.  67  and  68),  dedi- 
cated jointly  to  Prince  Lobkowitz  and  Count 
EasoumofFsky,  and  by  the  Cello  Sonata  in  A 
(op.  69),  dedicated  to  the  Baron  von  Gleichen- 
stein,  who  with  Zmeskall  shared  Beethoven's 
intimate  friendship  at  this  date ;  and  these  again 
in  October/  by  the  two  Pianoforte  Trios  (op.  70), 
dedicated  to  the  Countess  Erdddy,  in  whose 
house  Beethoven  had  been  living  since  his  rup- 
ture with  ^Lichnowsky ;  and  lastly  on  Nov.  22  by 
a  Song,  *  Als  die  Geliebte  sich  trennen  wollte.'  ^ 

Ou  May  1 2  the  French  again  entered  Vienna ; 
on  the  2 1st  Aspern  was  fought,  and  Napoleon 
took  possession  of  the  island  of  Lobau,  close  to 
the  city.  Wagram  took  place  on  July  6,  and 
the  whole  summer,  till  the  peace  was  concluded 
on  Oct.  14,  must  have  been  a  very  disturbed 
season  for  the  inhabitants  of  Vienna.  Beethoven's 
lodging  being  on  the  wall  was  much  exposed  to 
the  firing.  The  noise  disturbed  him*  greatly,  and 
at  least  on  one  occasion  he  took  refuge  in  the 
cellar  of  his  brother's  house  in  order  to  escape  it. 
He  had  his  eyes  open  however  to  the  proceedings 
of  the  French,  and  astonished  a  visitor  many 
years  afterwards  with  his  recollections  of  the 
time.^  It  is  remarkable  how  little  external 
events  interfered  with  his  powers  of  production. 
As  far  as  quality  goes  the  Piano  Concerto  in 
E  flat  and  the  String  Quartet  in  the  same  key — 
both  of  which  bear  the  date  1 809 — are  equal  to 
any  in  the  whole  range  of  his  works.  The  6 
Variations  in  D  (op.  76) — the  theme  afterwards 
used  for  tlie  March  in  the  'Ruins  of  Athens' — 
are  not  remarkable,  but  the  Piano  Sonata  in  Ffl 
written  in  October  is  very  so.  Though  not  so 
serious  as  some,  it  is  not  surpassed  for  beauty 
and  charm  by  any  of  the  immortal  33.  It  seems 
to  have  been  a  special  favourite  of  the  author's. 

*  People  are  always  talking  of  the  C  jj!  minor 
Sonata,'  said  he  once,  *but  1  have  written  better 
things  than  that.  The  FJJ  Sonata  is  something 
very  different.'^  A  more  important  (though  not 
more  delightful)  Sonata  had  been  begun  on 
May  14  to  commemorate  the  departure  of  the 
Archduke  from  Vienna  on  that  day.  It  is  dated 
and  inscribed  by  Beethoven  himself,  and  forms 
the  first  movement  of  that  known  as  'Les  Adieux, 
I'Absence  et  le  Retour.'  Among  the  sketches 
for  the  Adieux  is  found  a  note^  'Der  Abschied 
am  4ten  Mai — gewidmet  und  aus  dem  Herzen 
geschrieben  S.  K.  H.' — words  which  show  that 
the  parting  really  inspu-ed  Beethoven,  and  was 
not  a  mere  accident  for  his  genius  to  transmute, 
like  the  four  knocks  in  the  Violin  Concerto,  or  the 
cook's  question  in  the  last  Quartet.  A  March 
for  a  military  band  in  F,  composed  for  the  Bohe- 
mian Landwehr  under  Archduke  Anton,  and  3 
Songs — 'L'amante  impaziente'  (op.  82,  No.  4), 

*  Lied  aus  der  Feme,'  **  and  *  Die  laute  Klage '  * — 

>  See  the  A.  M.  Z.  for  Oct.  18. 

3  See  the  letter  to  Opperidorf  just  cited,  and  Ileichardt  in  Nohl,  Leben. 
»  B.  &  H.  235. 

•  Since  the  above  was  written  Mr.  Nottebohm  has  published  an 
account  of  a  sketch-book  of  ]H(J9,  which  siiows  a  good  deal  of  agitation. 
N.  B.  No.  XXV.  8  Roclditz,  Fiir  Frmnde  der  Tonkunsl,  Iv.  353. 

6  Thayer,  U.  172.  7  Nottebolun,  ^•.  J?.  No.  V.  8B.&  11,236.  » Ibid. 264. 


complete  the  compositions  of  1809.  Haydn  had 
gone  to  his  rest  on  May  31,  in  the  middle  of  the 
Austrian  occupation,  but  we  find  no  allusion  to 
him  in  any  of  Beethoven's  journals  or  letters. 

The  correspondence  with  Thomson  of  Edin- 
burgh, opened  in  1806,  was  renewed  this  autumn. 
It  began  with  a  letter  from  Thomson,  sending  43 
airs,  which  was  promptly  answered  by  Beethoven, 
and  it  lasted  until  Feb.  21,  1818,  during  which 
time  Beethoven  harmonised  no  less  than  -164 
national  melodies.  For  these  he  received  in  all 
a  sum  of  some  £200.^" 

1 810  began  with  the  return  of  the  Archduke 
on  Jan.  30,  and  the  completion  of  the  Sonata. 
The  sketch  books"  show  that  the  next  few  months 
were  occupied  with  the  composition  of  the  music 
to  'Egmont,'  the  String  Quartet  in  F  minor, 
Songs  of  Goethe's  (including  the  Erl  King,^^  which, 
though  well  advanced,  was  never  completed),  and 
with  the  preliminary  ideas  of  the  B  flat  Trio, 
The  music  to  'Egmont'  was  first  performed  on 
May  24,  probably  at  some  private  house,  as  no 
record  of  it  survives  in  the  theatrical  chronicles. 
It  was  in  May^^  that  Beethoven  had  his  first 
interview  with  Bettina  Brentano,  then  twenty- 
five  years  old,  which  gave  rise  to  the  three  well- 
known  letters,  the  authenticity  of  which  has 
been  so  hotly  disputed.  Knovsdng  Beethoven's 
extreme  susceptibility  it  is  not  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  letters  are  in  the  main  genuine,  though 
some  of  the  expressions  have  probably  been 
tampered  with.  Beethoven's  relation  to  the 
Archduke,  and  his  increasing  reputation,  were 
beginning  to  produce  their  natural  result.  He 
complains  that  his  retirement  is  at  an  end,  and 
that  he  is  forced  to  go  too  much  into  society. 
He  has  taken  up  his  summer  quarter  at  Hetzen- 
dorf  as  before,  but  the  old  seclusion  is  no  longer 
possible,  he  has  to  be  in  and  out  of  Vienna  at 
the  season  which  he  detested,  and  which  hitherto 
he  had  always  devoted  entirely  to  composition. 
That  he  was  also  at  Baden  in  August  is  evident 
from  some  MS.  pieces  of  military  music,  all  dated 
Baden,  18 10,  and  one  of  them  August."  He 
seems  to  have  had  some  prospect  of  marriage  at 
this  time,  though  the  only  allusion  to  it  is  that 
it  has  been  broken  off."  Meantime  this  winter 
was  a  busy  one  for  the  publishers  of  his  music. 
The  pianoforte  arrangement  of  'Fidelio,'  as  re- 
vised for  1806  (without  Overture  or  Finales), 
was  published  by  Breitkopf  in  October,  and  is 
dedicated  to  the  Archduke  Rodolph.  In  De- 
cember the  same  firm  issued  the  Quartet  in  Eb 
(op.  74),  inscribed  to  Prince  Lobkowitz,  the  Va- 
riations in  D  (op.  76),  the  Fantasia  in  G  minor, 
the  Sonata  in  FJf  —  dedicated  respectively  to 
Count  Brunswick,  and  his  sister  Therese — and 
the  Sonatina  "  in  G  ;  also  earlier  in  the  year  the 
Sestet  for  wind  instruments  (op.  71),  and  the 
Song  'Andenken'  (No.  248).    Another  Sestet 

10  See  the  ample  details  In  Thayer,  Chron.  Verzeichniss,  No.  174-177. 
»  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  XXI.  "  Ibid.  BeeChovtniana,  XXIIL 
13  See  Letter  of  Aug.  15, 1812. 

11  Letter  to  Wegeler,  May  2,  and  to  Zmeskall,  July  10. 
1*  Thayer,  Verzeirhniss,  No.  153, 157. 

16  Letter  of  Breuning,  in  Wegeler,  Nachtrag.li. 

17  First  sketched  iu  C,  as  '  Senate  facile,"  N.  B.  XXV. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


189 


(op,  8 1  h) — probably,  like  that  just  mentioned,  an 
early  work  —  was  issued  by  Siinrock,  and  four 
settings  of  Goethe's  *  Sehnsucht,'  with  a  few 
more  songs  by  other  publishers.  The  frequent 
appearance  of  Goethe's  name  in  the  music  of  this 
year  is  remarkable,  and  coupled  with  the  allusion 
in  his  letter  to  Bettina  of  Aug.  ii,  implies  that 
the  great  poet  was  beginning  to  exercise  that 
influence  on  him  which  Beethoven  described  in 
his  interview  with  Rochlitz  in  1823. 

The  Trio  in  B  flat  was  completed  during  the 
winter,  and  was  written  down  in  its  finished 
form  between  March  3  and  26,  as  the  autograph 
informs  us  with  a  particularity  wanting  in  Bee- 
thoven's earlier  works,  but  becoming  more  fre- 
quent in  future.  The  Archduke  (to  whom  it 
was  ultimately  inscribed)  lost  no  time  in  making 
its  acquaintance,  and  as  no  copyist  was  obtain- 
able, seems  to  have  played  it  first  from  the  auto- 
graph.^ The  principal  compositions  of  181 1  were 
the  music  to  two  dramatic  pieces  written  by 
Kotzebue,  for  the  opening  of  a  new  theatre  at 
Pesth,  and  entitled  'Hungary's  first  hero,'  or 
*  King  Stephen,'  and  the  '  Ruins  of  Athens.' 
The  Introduction  to  the  Choral  Fantasia,  which 
may  be  taken  as  a  representation  of  Beethoven's 
improvisation,  inasmuch  as  it  was  actually  ex- 
temporised at  the  performance — was  written  down 
a  propos  to  the  publication  of  the  work  in  July, 
and  a  Song  'An  die  Geliebte'^  is  dated  December 
in  the  composer's  own  hand. 

The  publications  of  the  year  are  all  by  Breit- 
kopf,  and  include  the  Overture  to  '  Egmont '  in 
February;  the  Piano  Concerto  in  Eb,  and  the 
Sonata  in  the  same  key  (op.  81  a),  in  May  and 
July  respectively,  both  dedicated  to  the  Arch- 
duke ; — the  Choral  Fantasia  (op.  80),  dedicated 
to  the  King  of  Bavaria  (July),  and  the  '  Mount 
of  OKves'  (Nov.).  The  preparation  of  the  last- 
named  work  for  the  press  so  long  after  its  com- 
position must  have  involved  much  time  and  con- 
sideration. There  is  evidence  that  an  additional 
chorus  was  proposed  ;^  and  it  is  known  that  he 
was  dissatisfied  with  the  treatment  of  the  prin- 
cipal character.  A  note  to  Treitschke  (June  6) 
seems  to  show  that  Beethoven  was  contemplating 
an  opera.  The  first  mention  of  a  metronome* 
occurs  in  a  letter  of  this  autumn. 

The  depreciation  in  the  value  of  paper  money 
had  gone  on  with  fearful  rapidity,  and  by  the 
end  of  1 8 10  the  bank  notes  had  fallen  to  less 
than  i-ioth  of  their  nominal  value — i.  e.  a  5-florin 
note  was  only  worth  half  a  florin  in  silver.  The 
Finanz  Patent  of  Feb.  20,  181 1,  attempted  to 
remedy  this  by  a  truly  disastrous  measure — the 
abolition  of  the  bank  notes  {Banco-zettel)  as  a 
legal  tender,  and  the  creation  of  a  new  paper 
currency  called  Einl'dsxmgsscheine,  into  which  the 
bank  notes  were  to  be  forcibly  converted  at  i  -5th 
of  their  ostensible  value,  i.e.  a  lOO- florin  note 
was  exchangeable  for  a  20-florin  Einlosungsscliein. 
Beethoven's  income  might  possibly  have  been 

»  Brief e.  No.  70.  2  B.  ft  H.  243. 

s  To  follow  the  air ;  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  XXV.  This  was  as  far  back 
as  1809. 

<  I-etter  to  Zmeskall,  Sept.  10-under  the  name  not  of  '  Metronome ' 
but  of '  Zeitmesser." 


thus  reduced  to  800  florins,  or  £80,  had  not  the 
Archduke  and  Prince  Lobkowitz  agreed  to  pay 
their  share  of  the  pension  (1500+700=2200 
florins)  in  Einldsungsscheine  instead  of  bank  notes. 
Prince  Kinsky  would  have  done  the  same  as  to 
his  1800  florins,  if  his  residence  at  Prague  and 
his  sudden  death  (Nov.  13,  18 12)  had  not  pre- 
vented his  giving  the  proper  instructions.  Bee- 
thoven sued  the  Kinsky  estate  for  his  claim,  and 
succeeded  after  several  years,  many  letters  and 
much  heart-burning,  in  obtaining  (Jan.  18,  181 5) 
a  decree  for  1200  florins  Einldsungsscheine  per 
annum ;  and  the  final  result  of  the  whole,  according 
to  Beethoven's  own  statement  (in  his  letter  to  Pies 
of  March  8,  181 6),  is  that  his  pension  up  to  his 
death  was  3400  florins  in  Einlosungsscheine,  which 
at  that  time  were  worth  1360  in  silver,  =  £136, 
the  Einlosungsscheine  themselves  having  fallen  to 
between  ^  and  ^rd  of  their  nominal  value. 

1812  opens  with  a  correspondence  with  Va- 
renna,  an  oflB.cial  in  Gratz,  as  to  a  concert  for  the 
poor,  which  puts  Beethoven's  benevolence  in  a 
strong  light.  He  sends  the  'Mount  of  Olives,' 
the  'Choral  Fantasia,*  and  an  Overture  as  a 
gift  to  the  Institution  for  future  use — promises 
other  (MS.)  compositions,  and  absolutely  declines 
all  offer  of  remuneration.  The  theatre  at  Pesth 
was  opened  on  Feb.  9  with  the  music  to  the 
'Ruins  of  Athens'  and  'King  Stephen,'  but 
there  is  no  record  of  Beethoven  himself  having 
been  present.  This  again  was  to  be  a  great  year 
in  composition,  and  he  was  destined  to  repeat 
the  feat  of  1 808  by  the  production  of  a  second 
pair  of  Symphonies.  In  fact  from  memoranda 
among  the  sketches  for  the  new  pair,  it  appears 
that  he  contemplated^  writing  three  at  the  same 
time,  and  that  the  key  of  the  third  was  already 
settled  in  his  mind — 'Sinfonia  in  D  moll — 3te 
Sinf.'  However,  this  was  postponed,  and  the 
other  two  occupied  him  the  greater  part  of  the 
year.  The  autograph  score  of  the  first  of  the 
two,  that  in  A  (No.  7),  is  dated  May  13;  so 
that  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  was  finished  be- 
fore he  left  Vienna.  The  second — in  F,  No.  8 — 
was  not  completed  till  October.  His  journey 
this  year  was  of  unusual  extent.  His  health  was 
bad,  and  Malfatti,  his  physician,^  ordered  him  to 
try  the  baths  of  Bohemia — possibly  after  Baden 
or  some  other  of  his  usual  resorts  had  failed  to 
recruit  him,  as  we  find  him  in  Vienna  on  July  4, 
an  unusually  late  date.  Before  his  departure 
there  was  a  farewell  meal,  at  which  Count 
Brunswick,  Stephen  Breuning,  Maelzel,  and 
others  were  present.'^  Maelzel's  metronome  was 
approaching  perfection,  and  Beethoven  said  good- 
bye to  the  inventor  in  a  droll  canon,  which  was 
sung  at  the  table — he  himself  singing  soprano* 
— and  afterwards  worked  up  into  the  lovely 
Allegretto  of  the  8th  Symphony.  He  went 
by  Prague  to  Toplitz,  and  Carlsbad — where  he 
notes  the  postilion's  horn^  among  the  sketches 

0  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  VI.         «  Letter  to  Pchweiger,  Kochel,  No.  1. 

7  Schiudler.  i.  195.  For  the  canon  see  B.  &  H.  233,  No.  2.  There  is 
some  great  error  in  the  dates  ot  tliis  perior'.— possibl.v  there  were  two 
journeys.  The  whole  will  be  settled  in  Mr.  Thayer's  new  volume. 

8  Conversation-book,  Nohl,  Leben,  ill.  841. 

9  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  VL 


190 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


for  the  8th  Symphony — Franzensbrunn,  and  then 
Toplitz  again  ;^  and  lastly  to  his  brother  Johann's 
at  Linz,  where  he  remained  through  October 
and  into  November,  as  the  inscriptions  on  the 
autographs  of  the  8th  Symphony  and  of 
three  Trombone  pieces  written  for  All  Souls 
day  demonstrate.  The  Trombone  pieces  be- 
came his  own  requiem.  At  Toplitz  he  met 
Goethe,  and  the  strange  scene  occurred  in  which 
he  so  unnecessarily  showed  his  contempt  for  his 
friend  the  Archduke  Rudolph  and  the  other 
members  of  the  Imperial  family.^  At  Toplitz 
he  met  Amalie  Sebald,  and  a  series  of  letters ' 
to  her  shows  that  the  Symphony  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  making  love  with  much  ardour. 
While  in  Carlsbad  he*  gave  a  concert  for  the 
benefit  of  the  sufferers  in  a  fire  at  Baden.^  The 
fact  of  his  extemporising  at  the  concert,  and 
hearing  the  postilion's  call,  as  well  as  an  entry 
among  the  sketches  for  the  8th  Symphony,  to  the 
effect  that '  cotton  in  his  ears  when  playing  took 
off  the  unpleasant  ^ noise' — perhaps  imply  that 
his  deafness  at  this  time  was  still  only  partial. 

One  of  his  first  works  after  returning  to 
Vienna  was  the  fine  Sonata  for  Piano  and  Violin, 
published  as  op.  96,  It  was  completed  by  the 
close  of  the  year,  and  was  first  played  by  the 
Archduke  and  Rode — whose  style  Beethoven 
kept  in  view  in  the  violin part — at  the  house  of 
Prince  Lobkowitz,  on  Dec.  29th.  A  comparative 
trifle  is  the  'Lied  an  die  Geliebte,'*  written 
during  this  winter  in  the  album  of  Regina  Lang. 
The  only  work  published  in  181 2  is  the  Mass 
in  C,  dedicated — possibly  as  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  share  in  the  guarantee — to  Prince  Kinsky, 
and  issued  in  Nov.  as  op.  86  by  Breitkopf  &  Har- 
tel.  The  state  of  his  finances  about  this  time 
compelled  him  to  borrrow  2300  florins  from  the 
Brentanos  of  Frankfort,  old  friends  who  had 
known  and  loved  him  from  the  first.  A  trace 
of  the  transaction  is  perhaps  discernible  in  the 
Trio  in  Bb  in  one  movement,^  written  on  June  2, 
181 2,  'for  his  little  friend  Maximiliana  Brentano, 
to  encourage  her  in  playing.'  The  effect  of  the 
Bohemian  baths  soon  passed  away,  the  old  ail- 
ments and  depression  returned,  the  disputes  and 
worries  with  the  servants  increased,  and  his 
spirits  became  worse  than  they  had  been  since 
the  year  1803. 

The  only  composition  which  can  be  attributed 
to  the  spring  of  1813  is  a  Triumphal  March, 
written  for  Kuffners  Tragedy^**  of  'Tarpeia,' 
which  was  produced — with  the  March  advertised 
as  'newly  composed' — on  March  26.  On  April 
20  the  two  new  Symphonies  appear  to  have 
been  played  through  for  the  first  time  at  the 
Archduke's.*^  On  the  advice  of  his  medical  men 
he  went  at  the  end  of  May  to  Baden,  where  he 

»  Letter  to  the  Archduke,  Aug.  12. 
'  Letter  to  Bettina,  Aug.  15, 1X12. 

»  Nohl,  Neur.  Bri^,;  No.  TO-SS.  The  lock  of  hair  which  she  cut  from 
his  head  Is  still  preserved  by  her  family. 

*  Letter  to  Zmeskall,  Brie/e,  No.  9.').  Letter  to  Archduke,  Aug.  12, 
A.  M.  Z.  xlv.  m.  6  Notes  to  Letter  of  July  4. 

«  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  VI.        1  Letter  to  Archduke,  Kochel  No.  4. 

8  Nottebohm,  in  the  Oatntorjuf  .  B.  4  11.  243  o.         »  B.  &  H.  No.  86. 

>"  Published  In  Kuffiier's  complete  works  as  '  Ilersllla.' 

u  Letter  to  Zmeskall,  April  19.         u  Letter  to  Archduke. 


was  received  with  open  arms  by  the  Archduke. 
Hither  he  was  followed  by  his  friend  Madame 
Streicher,  who  remained  at  Baden  for  the  summer, 
and  took  charge  of  his  lodgings  and  clothes,  which 
appear  to  have  been  in  a  deplorable  state.  On  his 
return  to  town  he  re-occupied  his  old  rooms  in  the 
house  of  Pasqualati,  on  the  Molk  Bastion.  The 
Streichers  continued  their  friendly  services  ;  after 
some  time  procured  him  two  good  servants,  and 
otherwise  looked  after  his  interests.  These  ser- 
vants remained  with  him  for  a  year  or  two,  and 
this  was  probably  the  most  comfortable  time  of 
the  last  half  of  Beethoven's  life." 

As  early  as  April  we  find  him  endeavouring  to 
arrange  a  concert  for  the  production  of  his  two 
Symphonies  ;  but  without  success."  The  oppor- 
tunity arrived  in  another  way.  The  news  of  the 
great  defeat  of  the  French  at  Vittoria  (fought 
June  21 )  reached  Vienna  on  July  13,  following 
on  that  of  the  disaster  of  Moscow  and  the  battles 
of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  (May  2  and  21),  and  cuK 
minating  in  Leipsic  Oct.  19.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  great  the  sensation  was  throughout  the 
whole  of  Germany,  and  how  keenly  Beethoven 
must  have  felt  such  events,*'  though  we  may 
wonder  that  he  expressed  his  emotion  in  the 
form  of  the  Orchestral  programme -music,  entitled 
'Wellington's  Victory,  or  the  Battle  of  Vittoria,' 
a  work  conceived  on  almost  as  vulgar  a  plan  as 
the  'Battle  of  Prague,'  and  containing  few  traces 
of  his  genius.  This  however  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  piece  was  suggested  by  Maelzel" 
the  mechanician,  a  man  of  undoubted  ability,  who 
knew  the  public  taste  far  better  than  Beethoven 
did.  An  occasion  for  its  performance  soon  sug- 
gested itself  in  a  concert  for  the  benefit  of  the 
soldiers  wounded  at  Hanau  (Oct.  30),  where  the 
Austrians  endeavoured  to  cut  ofi"  the  retreat  of 
the  French  after  Leipsic.  The  concert  took  place 
on  Dec.  8,  in  the  large  Hall  of  the  University,  and 
was  organised  by  Maelzel.  The  programme,  like 
the  Battle  Symphony  itself,  speaks  of  a  man  who 
knew  his  audience.  It  was  of  reasonable  length 
and  contained  the  7th  Symphony — in  MS.  and 
produced  for  the  first  time — two  Marches  per- 
formed by  Maelzel's  mechanical  trumpet,  and  the 
Battle  Symphony.  The  orchestra  was  fiUed  by 
the  best  professors  of  the  day — Salieri,  Spohr, 
May  seder,"  Hummel,  Romberg,  Moscheles,  etc. 
Beethoven  himself  conducted,  and  we  have  Spohr's 
testimony  that  the  performance  of  the  Symphony 
was  really  a  good  one.  The  success  of  both  con- 
certs was  immense,  and  Beethoven  addressed  a 
letter  of  thanks  to  the  performers,  which  may  be 
read  at  length  in  Schindler  and  elsewhere. 

It  was  probably  about  this  time  that  Bee- 
thoven forwarded  a  copy  of  the  Battle  Sym- 
phony to  the  Prince  Regent.  The  letter  which 
accompanied  it  has  not  been  preserved,  but  it 
was  never  acknowledged  by  the  Prince,  and 

"  Schindler,  i.  187.  "  Letters  to  Zmeskall.  April  19,  26. 

1*  See  the  note  to  Thayer,  11. 313.  The  idea  noted  In  his  diary  Is  a  far 
nobler  one— a  National  Hymn,  each  nation  engaged  to  be  represented 
by  a  march,  and  the  whole  to  close  with  a  Te  Deum.  Nohl,  Beelhove»' 
fcier,  pp.  71,  72. 

1*  See  Moscheles'  note  to  his  edition  of  Schindler,  1. 153. 

"  Beethoven's  droll  note  to  Hummel  (Nohl,  Neue  Brief*.  No.  96) 
ihowi  that  there  waa  no  quarrel  between  them. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


191 


Beethoven  felt  the  neglect  keenly.   The  work  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  a  year  afterwards — Feb.  | 
lo,  1815,  and  had  a  great  run,  but  this  was 
through  the  exertions  of  Sir  George  Smart,  who 
himself  procured  the  copy  from  Vienna. 

Early  in  January  1814  a  third  concert  was 
given  in  the  great  Redoutensaal  with  the  same  | 
programme  and  nearly  the  same  performers  as  ; 
before,  except  that  some  numbers  from  the  '  Buins 
of  Athens '  were  substituted  for  Maelzel's  march ; 
and  on  the  27th  Feb,  a  fourth,  with  similar  pro- 
gramme and  with  the  important  addition  of  the 
Symphony  in  F — placed  last  but  one  in  the  list,  j 
The  huge  programme  speaks  of  Beethoven  himself 
as  clearly  as  the  two  first  did  of  the  more  practical 
Maelzel.    The  7th  Symphony  was  throughout  a 
success,  its  Allegretto  being  repeated  three  times  j 
out  of  the  four.    But  the  8th  Symphony  did  not 
please,  a  fact  which  greatly  discomposed  Beetho- 
ven.  On  April  1 1  Beethoven  played  the  Bb  Trio  | 
at  Schuppanzigh's  benefit  concert,  and  in  the 
evening  a  Chorus  of  his  to  the  words  '  Germania, 
Germania,'  was  sung  as  the  finale  to  an  operetta  . 
of  Treitschke's,  d  propos  to  the  fall  of  Paris  j 
(March  31).    Moscheles  was  present  at  the  con-  i 
cert,  and  gives  ^  an  interesting  account  of  the  style  j 
of  Beethoven's  playing.    Spohr  heard  ^  the  same  j 
trio,  but  under  less  favourable  circumstances. 
A  month  later  Beethoven  again  played  the  Bb 
trio — his  last  public  appearance  in  chamber 
music.    The  spring  of  1814  was  remarkable  for 
the  revival  of  'Fidelio.'    Treitschke  had  been 
employed  to  revise  the  libretto,  and  in  March 
we  find  Beethoven  writing  to  him — '  I  have  read 
your  revision  of  the  opera  with  great  satisfaction. 
It  has  decided  me  once  more  to  rebuild  the 
desolate  ruins  of  an  ancient  fortress.'    This  de- 
cision involved  the  entire  re -writing  and  re -ar- 
rangement of  considerable  portions  ;  others  were 
slightly  altered,  and  some  pieces  were  reintro- 
duced from  the  first  score  of  all.    The  first  per- 
formance took  place  at  the  Kamthnerthor  The- 
atre on  May  23.    On  the  26th  the  new  Overture 
in  E  was  first  played,  and  other  alterations  were 
subsequently  introduced.    On  Jvdy  18  the  opera 
was  played  for  Beethoven's  benefit.    A  Piano- 
forte score,  made  by  Moscheles  under  Beethoven's 
own  direction,^  carefully  revised  by  him,  and 
dedicated  to  the  Archduke,  was  published  by 
Artaria  in  August.    One  friendly  face  must  have 
been  missed  on  aU  these  occasions — that  of  the 
Prince  Lichnowsky,  who  died  on  April  15. 

During  the  winter  of  181 4-1 5  an  unfortunate 
misunderstanding  arose  between  Beethoven  and 
Maelzel.  The  Battle  Symphony  was  originally 
written  at  the  latter's  suggestion  for  a  mechanical 
instrument  of  his  called  the  Panharmonicon,  and 
was  afterwards  orchestrated  by  its  author  for  the 
concert,  with  the  view  to  a  pr  )jected  tour  of 
Maelzel  in  England  *  Beethoven  was  at  the 
time  greatly  in  want  of  funds,  and  Maelzel  ad- 
vanced him  £25,  which  he  professed  to  regard  as 

'  Moscheles,  Leben,  i.  15. 

'  Spohr,  Selbsihiog.  i.  203.    He  says  it  was  a  new  Trio  in  D,  but  the 
Trio  in  D  had  been  out  for  five  years. 
>  See  Moscheles,  Ltben,  i.  17, 18.  *  A.  M.  Z.  1814,  p.  71. 


a  mere  loan,  while  the  other  alleged  it  was  for  the 
purchase  of  the  work.  Maelzel  had  also  engaged 
to  make  ear-tnunpets  for  Beethoven,  which  were 
delayed,  and  in  the  end  proved  failures.  The  mis- 
imderstanding  was  aggravated  by  various  state- 
ments of  Maelzel,  and  by  the  interference  of  out- 
siders, and  finally  by  Maelzel's  departure  through 
Germany  to  England,  with  an  imperfect  copy  of  the 
Battle  Symphony  clandestinely  obtained.  Such 
a  complication  was  quite  sufficient  to  worry  and 
harass  a  sensitive,  obstinate,  and  unbusinesslike 
man  like  Beethoven.  He  entered  an  action  against 
Maelzel,  and  his  deposition  on  the  subject,  and 
the  letter  ^  which  he  afterwards  addressed  to  the 
artists  of  England,  show  how  serious  was  his  view 
of  the  harm  done  him,  and  the  motives  of  the  doer. 
Maelzel's  case,  on  the  other  hand,  is  stated  with 
evident  animus  by  Beethoven's  adherents,^  and  it 
should  not  be  overlooked  that  he  and  Beethoven 
appear  to  have  continued  friends  after  the  imme- 
diate quarrel  blew  over.  If  to  the  opera  and  the 
Maelzel  scandal  we  add  the  Kinsky  lawsuit  now 
in  progress,  and  which  Beethoven  watched  in- 
tently and  w^rote  much  about,  we  shall  hardly 
wonder  that  he  was  not  able  to  get  out  of  town 
till  long  past  his  usual  time.  When  at  length  he 
writes  from  Baden  it  is  to  announce  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Sonata  in  E  minor,  which  he  dedicates 
to  Count  Moritz  Lichnowsky.  The  letter^  gives 
a  charming  statement  of  his  ideas  of  the  relation 
of  a  musician  to  his  patron. 

The  triumphant  success  of  the  S3rmphony  in  A, 
and  of  the  Battle-piece,  and  the  equally  successful 
revival  of  Fidelio,  render  1814  the  culminating 
period  of  Beethoven's  life.  His  activity  during  the 
autumn  and  winter  was  very  great ;  no  bad  health 
or  worries  or  anything  else  external  could  hinder 
the  astonishing  flow  of  his  inward  energy.  The 
Sonata  is  dated  *  Vienna,  1 6th  August,'  and  was 
therefore  probably  completed — as  far  as  any  music 
of  his  was  ever  completed  till  it  was  actually 
printed — before  he  left  town.  On  Aug.  23  he 
commemorated  the  death  of  the  wife  of  his  kind 
friend  Pasqualati  in  an  'Elegischer  Gesang* 
(op.  118).  On  Oct.  4  he  completed  the  Overture 
in  C  (' Namensfeier,'  op.  115),  a  work  on  which 
he  had  been  employed  more  or  less  for  two 
years,  and  which  has  a  double  interest  from  the 
fact  that  its  themes  seem  to  have  been  originally 
intended*  to  form  part  of  that  composition  of 
Schiller's  '  Hymn  to  Joy'  which  he  first  contem- 
plated when  a  boy  at  Bonn,  and  which  keeps 
coming  to  the  surface  in  different  forms,  until 
finally  embodied  in  the  9th  Symphony  in  1823. 
Earlier  in  the  year  he  had  made  some  progress 
with  a  sixth  Piano  Concerto — in  D — of  which 
not  only  are  extensive  sketches  in  existence,  but 
sixty  pages  in  complete  score.  It  was  composed 
at  the  same  time  with  the  Cello  Sonatas  (op. 
102) ;  and  finally  gave  way  to  them.*  But  there 
was  a  less  congenial  work  to  do — Vienna  had 

B  Brief e,  Nos.  U3,  U4. 

*  The  whole  evidence  will  be  given  by  Mr.  Thayer  in  his  forthcoming 
volume.  He  assures  me  that  Maelzel  has  been  much  sinned  against. 

7  Sept.  21,  1814.  8  Nottebohm,  i?ee</ioi:e>ita>i<i,  XIV. 

»  See  Nottebohm,  J^^.B.  X;  and  Crytlal  Palace  Proyramin*.  Not.  % 
1875. 


192  BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


been  selected  as  the  scene  of  the  Congress,  and 
Beethoven  was  bound  to  seize  the  opportunity 
not  only  of  performing  his  latest  Symphonies,  but 
of  composing  some  new  music  appropriate  to  so 
great  an  occasion.^  He  selected  in  September^  a 
Cantata  by  Weissenbach,  entitled  *  Die  glorreiche 
Augenblick' — an  unhappy  choice,  as  it  turned 
out — composed  it  more  quickly  than^  was  his 
wont,  and  included  it  with  the  Symphony  in  A,  and 
the  Battle  of  Vittoria,  in  a  concert  for  his  benefit 
on  Nov.  2  9 .  The  manner  in  which  this  concert  was 
carried  out  gives  a  striking  idea  of  the  extraor- 
dinary position  that  Beethoven  held  in  Vienna. 
The  two  Halls  of  the  Redouten-Saal  were  placed 
at  his  disposal  for  two  evenings  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  he  himself  sent  personal  invitations 
in  his  own  name  to  the  various  sovereigns  and 
other  notabilities  collected  in  Vienna.  The  room 
was  crowded  with  an  audience  of  6ooo  persons, 
and  Beethoven  describes*  himself  as  'quite  ex- 
hausted with  fatigue,  worry,  pleasure,  and  de- 
light.' At  a  second  performance  on  Dec.  2  the 
hall  was  less  crowded.  One  of  the  fetes  provided 
during  the  Congress  was  a  tournament  in  the 
Riding  School  on  Nov.  2  3,  and  for  this  Beethoven 
would  appear^  to  have  composed  music,  though 
no  trace  of  it  has  yet  been  found.  During  the 
continuance  of  the  Congress  he  seems  to  have 
been  much  visited  and  noticed,  and  many  droll 
scenes  doubtless  occurred  between  him  and  his 
exalted  worshippers.  The  Archduke  and  Prince 
Rasoumoffsky,  as  Russian  Ambassador,  were 
conspicuous  among  the  givers  of  fetes,  and  it 
was  at  the  house  of  the  latter  that  Beethoven 
was  presented  to  the  Empress  of  Russia. 

In  addition  to  the  profit  of  the  concerts  Schind- 
ler  implies  that  Beethoven  received  presents 
from  the  various  foreign  sovereigns  in  Vienna. 
The  pecuniary  result  of  the  winter  was  therefore 
good.  He  was  able  for  the  first  time  to  lay  by 
money,  which  he  invested  in  shares  in  the  Bank 
of  Austria.^ 

The  news  of  Bonaparte's  escape  from  Elba 
broke  up  the  Congress,  and  threw  Europe  again 
into  a  state  of  perturbation.  In  Vienna  the  re- 
action after  the  recent  extra  gaiety  must  have 
been  great.  Beethoven  was  himself  occupied 
during  the  year  by  the  Kinsky  lawsuit ;  his 
letters  upon  the  suloject  to  his  advocate  Kanka 
are  many  and  long,  and  it  is  plain  from  such  ex- 
pressions as  the  following  that  it  seriously  in- 
terrupted his  music.  '  I  am  again  very  tired, 
having  been  forced  to  discuss  many  things  with 
P — .  Such  things  exhaust  me  more  than  the 
greatest  efforts  in  composition.  It  is  a  new  field, 
the  soil  of  which  I  ought  not  to  be  required  to  till, 
and  which  has  cost  me  many  tears  and  much  sor- 
row.' ....  *  Do  not  forget  me,  poor  tormented 
creature  that  I  am.' 

Under  the  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising 
that  he  composed  little  during  181 5.  The  two 
Sonatas  for  Piano  and  Cello  (op.  102),  dated 

>  Schlndler,  1. 198. 

>  The  (ilorious  Moment.   See  Nottebohm,  Catalogue,  op.  136. 

«  Nottebohm,  N.  li.  No.  XII.     <  Letter  to  Arcliduke,  Kbchel,  p.  31. 
»  Ills  note  to  the  Archduke,  Kiichel,  p.  29.        «  Schindler,  1.  202. 
T  To  Kanka,  Feb.  24, 1815. 


'July'  and  'August'  ;  the  Chorus  'Es  ist  voU- 
bracht,'  as  finale  to  a  piece  of  Treitschke's,  pro- 
duced to  celebrate  the  entry  into  Paris  (July  15) ; 
the  '  Meeresstille  und  gliickliche  Fahrt,'  and  a 
couple  of  Songs,  'Sehnsucht'  and  'Das  Geheim- 
niss'  ^ — are  all  the  original  works  that  can  with 
certainty  be  traced  to  this  year.  But  the  beauti- 
ful and  passionate  Sonata  in  A  (op.  loi),  which 
was  inspired  by  and  dedicated  to  his  dear  friend 
Madame  Ertmann — *  Liebe  werthe  Dorothea  Ce- 
cilia'— was  probably  composed  at  the  end  of  this 
year,  since  it  was  played  in  public  on  Feb.  18, 
1 8 16,  though  not  published  for  a  year  after.  The 
national  airs  which  he  had  in  hand  since  18 10  for 
Thomson  of  Edinburgh  were  valuable  at  such  a 
time,  since  he  could  turn  to  these  when  his 
thoughts  were  too  much  disturbed  for  original 
composition — a  parcel  of  Scotch  Songs  is  dated 
May  1815. 

The  publications  of  1815  are  still  fewer  than 
the  compositions.  The  Polonaise  in  C  (op.  89) — 
dedicated  to  the  Empress  of  Russia,^  who  had 
greatly  distinguished  Beethoven  at  one  of  Prince 
Rasoumoffsky's  receptions — appeared  in  March  ; 
the  Sonata  op.  90,  and  a  Song,  'Kriegers  Ab- 
schied,'  in  June.  These  are  all.  On  June  i  he 
wrote  to  Salomon,  then  resident  in  London,  offer- 
ing his  works  from  op.  92  to  97  inclusive  for  sale, 
with  'Fidelio,'  the  Vienna  Cantata,  and  the 
Battle  Symphony.  And  this  is  foUowed  in  No- 
vember by  letters  to  Birchall,  sending  various 
pieces.    Salomon  died  on  Nov.  25. 

The  second  quarrel  with  Stephen  Breuning 
must  have  occurred  in  1815^*^.  Some  one  had 
urged  him  to  warn  Beethoven  against  pecuniary 
relations  with  his  brother  Caspar,  whose  character 
in  money  matters  was  not  satisfactory.  Breuning 
conveyed  the  hint  to  Beethoven,  and  he,  with 
characteristic  earnestness  and  simplicity,  and 
with  that  strange  fondness  for  his  unworthy 
brothers  which  amounted  almost  to  a  passion, 
at  once  divulged  to  his  brother  not  only  the 
warning  but  the  name  of  his  informant.  A 
serious  quarrel  naturally  ensued  between  Breuning 
and  Caspar,  which  soon  spread  to  Beethoven 
himself,  and  the  result  was  that  he  and  Breuning 
were  again  separated — this  time  for  several  years. 
The  letter  in  which  Beethoven  at  last  asks 
pardon  of  his  old  friend  can  hardly  be  omitted 
from  this  sketch.  Though  undated  it  was  written 
in  1826."  It  contained  his  miniature  painted  by 
Homemann  in  1802,  and  ran  as  follows  (the  orig- 
inal has  Du  and  dein  throughout) : — 

*  Beneath  this  portrait,  dear  Stephen,  may  all 
that  has  for  so  long  gone  on  between  us  be  for 
ever  hidden.  I  know  how  I  have  torn  your  heart. 
For  this  the  emotion  that  you  must  certainly  have 
noticed  in  me  has  been  sufficient  punishment.  My 
feeling  towards  you  was  not  malice.  No — I 
should  no  longer  be  worthy  of  your  friendship ; 
it  was  passionate  love  for  you  and  myself ;  but  I 
doubted  you  dreadfully,  for  people  came  between 

8  B.  A  H.  239  and  246. 

B  The  Pianoforte  arrangement  of  the  Symphony  in  A  Is  also  dedi- 
cated to  her. 

Schindler  (1.  228)  says  1817;  but  It  Is  obvious  that  It  happened 
before  Caspar's  death  (Breuning,  46).        "  Schindler,  1. 228 ;  ii.  128. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


193 


us  who  were  unworthy  of  us  both.  My  portrait 
has  long  been  intended  for  you.  I  need  not  tell 
you  that  I  never  meant  it  for  any  one  else.  Who 
could  I  give  it  to  with  my  warmest  love  so  well 
as  to  you,  true,  good,  noble  Stephen  ?  Forgive 
me  for  distressing  you  ;  I  have  suffered  myself 
as  much  as  you  have.  It  was  only  when  I  had 
you  no  longer  with  me  that  I  first  really  felt 
how  dear  you  are  and  always  will  be  to  my 
heart.  Come  to  my  arms  once  more  as  you  used 
to  do.' 

October  was  passed  in  Baden,  chiefly  in  bed. 

On  Nov.  15  of  this  year  Caspar  Carl  Beethoven 
died — a  truly  unfortimate  event  for  Ludwig. 
Caspar  had  for  long  received  pecuniary  assistance 
from  his  brother,  and  at  his  death  he  charged  him 
with  the  maintenance  of  his  son  Carl,  a  lad  be- 
tween S  and  9.  This  boy,  whose  charge  Beethoven 
undertook  with  all  the  simplicity  and  fervour  of  his 
nature,  though  no  doubt  often  with  much  want  of 
judgment,  was  quite  unworthy  of  his  great  uncle. 
The  charge  altered  Beethoven's  nature,  weaned 
him  fixim  his  music,  embroiled  him  with  his 
friends,  embittered  his  existence  with  the  worry 
of  continued  contentions  and  reiterated  disap- 
pointments, and  at  last,  directly  or  indirectly, 
brought  the  life  of  the  great  composer  to  an  end 
long  before  its  natural  term. 

On  Christmas  Day,  at  a  concert  in  the  Eedouten 
Saal  for  the  benefit  of  the  Burger  Hospital,  Bee- 
thoven produced  his  new  Overture  and  Meeres- 
stiile,  and  performed  the  '  Mount  of  Olives.'  As 
an  acknowledgment  for  many  similar  services 
the  municipal  council  had  recently  conferred  upon 
him  the  freedom  of  the  city — Ehrenhdrgerthum. 
It  was  the  first  public  title  that  the  great  rofuner 
had  received.  He  was  not  even  a  Capellmeister, 
as  both  ^;>[ozart  and  Haydn  had  been,  and  his 
advocate  was  actually  forced  to  invent  that  title 
for  him,  to  procure  the  necessary  respect  for  his 
memorials  in  the  lawsuit  which  occupied  so  many 
of  his  years  aft^r  this  date.  ^  It  is  a  ciirious 
evidence  of  the  singular  position  he  held  among 
musicians.  He  was  afterwards  made  a  member 
of  the  Philharmonic  Societies  of  Stockholm  and 
Amsterdam,  and  received  Orders  from  some  of  the 
Courts  in  exchange  for  his  Mass,  but  the  one 
title  he  valued  was  that  of  Ton-dichter — 'Poet 
in  music*  ^ 

The  resuscitation  of  his  Oratorio  is  perhaps 
connected  with  a  desire  in  Beethoven's  mind  to 
compose  a  fresh  one.  At  any  rate  he  was  at 
this  time  in  communication  both  with  the  Ton- 
kiinstler  Societiit  and  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
Freunde  of  Vienna  on  the  subject.  Bv  the 
latter  body  the  matter  was  taken  up  in  earnest. 
Subject  and  poet  were  left  to  himself,  and  a  pay- 
ment of  300  gold  ducats  was  voted  to  him  for 
the  use  of  the  oratorio  for  one  year.  The  nego- 
tiation dragged  on  till  1824  and  came  to  nothing, 
for  the  same  ostensible  reason  that  his  second 

1  'Wisl»benSKda?'wthcenqairTofth«'prirfleg1rteBett]«rm' 
■»hen  tbc  he«ne  drew  np  with  MoEin'*  body  »t  the  gate  of  the  Oeme- 
terr.' Ein  CftpeDmeister' wastheansi^r.  ^  Scfaindler,  L  962. 

*  See  Bretmins,  Ktt ;  and  compare  letter  to  Mile.  Streicfaw,  Bri^e, 
No.  -XXI :  and  the  oae  of  the  wt>rd  'gedichtet '  io  tbe  title  of  the  Orer- 
tnreOp.  115. 


Opera  did,  that  no  good  libretto  was  forth- 
coming.* 

1816  was  a  great  year  for  publication.  The 
Battle  Symphony  in  March ;  the  Violin  Sonata 
and  the  Bb  Trio  (op.  96,  97) — both  dedicated  to 
the  Archduke — in  July  ;  the  7th  Symphony — 
dedicated  to  Count  Fries,  with  a  pianoforte 
I  arrangement,  to  the  Empress  of  Eussia ;  the 
String  Quartet  in  F  minor  (op.  95) — to  Zmeskall ; 
and  the  beautiful  Liederkreis  (op,  98)  to  Prince 
Lobkowitz  ;  all  three  in  December.    These,  with 
the  Sth  Symphony  and  three  detached  Songs, 
form  a  list  rivalling,  if  not  surpassing,  that  of 
1S09.    The  only  compositions  of  this  year  are 
j  the  Liederkreis  (April),  a  Military  March  in  D, 
'for  the  Grand  Parade'  (Wachtparade),  June  4, 
I  iSi6;^  a  couple  of  songs;  and  a  trifle  in  the 
'  style  of  a  birthday  cantata  for  Prince  Lobkowitz.^ 
This  is  the  date  of  a  strange  temporary  fancy  for 
German  in  preference  to  Italian  which  took  pos- 
ses.^ion  of  him.  Some  of  his  earlier  pieces  contain 
German  terms,  as  the  Six  Songs,  op.  75,  and  the 
Sonata  Si  a.    They  reappear  in  the  Liederkreis 
]  (op.  98)  and  Merkenstein  (op.  100)  and  come 
I  to  a  head  in  the  Sonata  op.  loi,  in  which  all  the 
indications  are  given  in  German,  and  the  word 
' Hammerklavier '  appears  for  'Pianoforte'  in  the 
title.    The  change  is  the  subject  of  two  letters 
to  Steiuer.'    He  continued  to  use  the  name 
1  'Hammerklavier'  in  the  sonatas  op.  106,  109, 
I  and  no;  and  there  apparently  this  vernacular 
fit  ceased.* 

i  Beethoven  had  a  violent  dislike  to  his  brother's 
widow,  whom  he  caUed  the  '  Queen  of  Night, ' 
and  believed,  rightly  or  wrongly,  to  be  a  person 

J  of  bad  conduct.  He  therefore  lost  no  time  in 
obtaining  legal  authority  for  taking  his  ward 
out  of  her  hands  and  placing  him  with  Gian- 
natasio  del  Eio,  the  head  of  an  educational  in- 
stitution in  Vienna  ;  allowing  his  mother  to 
see  him  only  once  a  month.  This  was  done  in 
February  1S16,  and  the  arrangement  existed  till 
towards  the  end  of  the  year,  when  the  widow 
appears  to  have  appealed  with  success  against  the 
first  decree.   The  cause  had  been  before  the  Land- 

'  7-€chfs  court,  on  the  assumption  that  the  van 

I  in  Beethoven's  name  indicated  nobility.  This 
the  widow  disputed,  and  on  Beethoven's  being 

I  examined  on  the  point  he  confirmed  her  argument 
by  pointing  successively  to  his  head  and  his  heart 
saying — 'My  nobility  is  here  and  here.'  The 
case  was  then  sent  down  to  a  lower  court,  where 
the  magistrate  was  notoriously  ineflBcient,  and 
the  result  was  to  take  the  child  from  his  imcle 
on  the  ground  that  his  deafness  unfitted  him  for 
the  duties  of  a  guardian.  Carl's  afifairs  were 
then  put  into  the  hands  of  an  official,  and  all 
that  Beethoven  had  to  do  was  to  pay  for  his 
education.  Against  this  decree  he  entered  an 
appeal  which  was  finally  decided  in  his  favour, 

I    *  See  the  tctt  corioas  letter  from  Beethordi  of  Jan.  23, 1824,  In  Pohl's 
pamphlet,  OatOteiutfi,  etc^  1S7L 
*B.  4H.15.  •  Seelhajer'sOatalogne.Ko.aCB. 

T  BrU/e,  Nos.  ICT,  168. 

>  The  German  comes  oat  howerer  when  be  fa  deepir  mored.  as  In 
the '  Kite  for  iiuiera  tiiid  MOBeni  FViedou'aod  the '  Aengstlkfa '  in  the 
'Dona'  of  the  Mass,  the  'beUmmt'  in  ttie  Oaratioa  of  the  B  flat 
Quartet,  etc 

O 


194 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


but  not  till  Jan.  7, 1820.  Meantime  his  energies 
were  taken  up  with  the  contest  and  the  various 
worries  and  quarrels  which  arose  out  of  it,  in- 
volving the  writing  of  a  large  number  of  long  and 
serious  letters.  How  he  struggled  and  suffered 
the  following  entry  in  his  diary  of  the  early  part 
of  1 81 8  will  show: — 'Gott,  Gott,  mein  Hort, 
mein  Eels,  o  mein  Alles,  du  siehst  mein  Inneres 
und  weisst  wie  wehe  mir  es  thut  Jemanden 
leiden  machen  miissen  bei  meinem  guten  Werke 
fflr  meinen  theuren  Karl.  0  hore  stets  Unaus- 
sprechlicher,  hore  mich — deinen  ungliicklichen 
unglticklichsten  aller  Sterblichen.'  Between 
the  dates  just  mentioned,  of  the  beginning  and 
ending  of  the  law-suits,  he  completed  no  or- 
chestral music  at  all.  Apart  from  sympathy 
for  a  great  composer  in  distress,  and  annoyance 
at  the  painful  and  undignified  figure  which  he 
so  often  presented,  we  have  indeed  no  reason 
to  complain  of  a  period  which  produced  the 
three  gigantic  Pianoforte  Sonatas,  op.  106,^  op. 
109,*  and  op.  1 10^ — which  were  the  net  product 
of  the  period ;  but  such  works  produce  no  ade- 
quate remuneration,  and  it  is  not  difl&eult  to 
understand  that  during  the  law-suit  he  must 
have  been  in  very  straitened  circimistances,  cheap 
as  education  and  living  were  in  Vienna  at  that 
date.  His  frequent  letters  to  Ries  and  Birchall 
in  London  at  this  time  urging  his  works  on  them 
for  the  English  market  are  enough  to  prove  the 
truth  of  this.  One  result  of  these  negotiations 
was  the  purchase  by  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
through  Mr.  Neate,  under  minute  of  July  11, 
1 81 5,  of  the  MS.  overtures  to  the  'Euins  of 
Athens,'  *  King  Stephen '  and  op.  115,  for  75  guin- 
eas. To  make  matters  worse  Prince  Lobkowitz 
died  on  Dec.  16,  1816,  and  with  him — notwith- 
standing that  here  too  Beethoven  appealed  to 
the  law — all  benefit  from  that  quarter  ceased. 
His  pension  was  therefore  from  that  date  dimin- 
ished to  about  £110.  The  few  compositions 
attributable  to  this  period  are  an  arrangement 
of  his  early  C  minor  Trio  (op.  l)  as  a  String 
Quintet  (op.  104)  ;  two  sets  of  national  airs  with 
variations  for  Piano  and  Flute  (op.  105  and  107), 
a  few  songs — 'So  oder  so,'  'Abendlied,'  and 
the  Hymn  of  the  Monks  in  'William  Tell'*  in 
memory  of  his  old  friend  Kjumpholz,  who  died 
May  2 — and  others.  None  of  these  can  have 
been  remunerative ;  in  fact  some  of  them  were 
certainly  presented  to  the  publishers. 

An  incident  of  this  date  which  gratified  him 
much  was  the  arrival  of  a  piano  from  Broadwoods. 
Mr.  Thomas  Broadwood,  the  then  head  of  the 
house,  had  recently  made  his  acquaintance  in 
Vienna,  and  the  piano  seems  to  have  been  the 
result  of  the  impression  produced  on  him  by 
Beethoven.  The  Philharmonic  Society  are  some- 
times credited  with  the  gift,  but  no  resolution 
or  minute  to  that  effect  exists  in  their  records. 
The  books  of  the  firm,  however,  show  that  on 
Dec.  27,  181 7,  the  grand  piano  No.  7362''  was 

1  Composed  ]«1P-19,  and  T>iil)llshe(l  S'^pt.  1819. 

2  ComiJoscd  M'J-20,  published  Nov.  1821. 

a  Dated  Dec.      im,  and  published  Aug.  1822. 
■<  IJ.  A  H.  224.  247,  2.XJ. 

»  The  compftM  of  this  instrument  was  6  octaves,  from  C  five  lines  be- 


forwarded  to  Beethoven's  address.  A  letter  ap- 
pears to  have  been  written  to  him  at  the  same 
time  by  Mr.  Broadwood,  which  was  answered  by 
Beethoven  immediately  on  its  receipt.  His  letter 
has  never  been  printed,  and  is  here  given  exactly 
in  his  own  strange  French.® 

*A  Monsieur  Monsieur  Thomas  Broadvood  a 
Londres  (en  Angleterre). 

Mon  trhs  cher  Ami  Broadvood  ! 
jamais  je  n'eprouvais  pas  un  plus  grand  Plaisir 
de  ce  que  me  causa  votre  Annonce  de  I'arriv^e 
de  cette  Piano,  avec  qui  vous  m'honorez  de  m'en 
faire  present;  je  regarderai  come  un  Autel,  ou 
je  deposerai  les  plus  belles  offrandes  de  mon 
esprit  au  divine  Apollon.  Aussitot  come  je 
recevrai  votre  Excellent  instrument,  je  vous 
enverrai  d'en  abord  les  Fruits  de  I'inspiration  des 
premiers  moments,  que  j'y  passerai,  pour  vous 
servir  d'un  souvenir  de  moi  a  vous  mon  trhs  cher 
B.,  et  je  ne  souhaits  ce  que,  qu'ils  soient  dignes 
de  votre  instrument. 

Mon  cher  Monsieur  et  ami  recev^z  ma  plus 
grande  consideration  de  votre  ami  et  tres  humble 
serviteur  Louis  van  Beethoven.  Vienne  le  3™* 
du  mois  Fevrier  181 8.' 

The  instrument  in  course  of  time  reached'  its 
destination,  was  unpacked  by  Streicher,  and  first 
tried  by  Mr.  Cipriani  Potter,  at  that  time  studying 
in  Vienna.  What  the  result  of  Beethoven's  own 
trial  of  it  was  is  not  known.  At  any  rate  no 
further  communication  from  him  reached  the 
Broadwoods. 

A  correspondence  however  took  place  through 
Kies  with  the  Philharmonic  Society  on  the  sub- 
ject of  his  visiting  England.  The  proposal  of  the 
Society  was  that  he  should  come  to  London  for 
the  spring  of  1818,  bringing  two  new  MS.  Sym- 
phonies to  be  their  property,  and  for  which  they 
were  to  give  the  sum  of  300  guineas.  He  de- 
manded 400, — 150  to  be  in  advance.^  However, 
other  causes  put  an  end  to  the  plan,  and  on  the 
5th  of  the  following  March  he  writes  to  say  that 
health  has  prevented  his  coming.  He  was  soon 
to  be  effectually  nailed  to  Vienna.  In  the 
summer  of  1818  the  Archduke^  had  been  appoint- 
ed Archbishop  of  Olmiitz.  Beethoven  was  then 
in  the  middle  of  his  great  Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  106), 
and  of  another  work  more  gigantic  still ;  but  he  at 
once  set  to  work  with  all  his  old  energy  on  a  grand 
Mass  for  the  installation,  which  was  fixed  for 
March  20,  1820.  The  score  was  begun  in  the 
autumn  of  181 8,  and  the  composition  went  on 
during  the  following  year,  uninterrupted  by  any 
other  musical  work,  for  the  Bb  Sonata  was  com- 
pleted for  press  by  March  18 19,  and  the  only 
other  pieces  attributable  to  that  year  are  a  short 
Canon  for  3  Voices  ('  Gliick  zum  neuen  Jahr'), 

low  the  Bass  stave.  A  sister  piano,  No.  7252.  of  the  same  compass  and 
quality,  was  made  about  the  same  time  for  the  Princess  Charlotte,  and 
Is  now  at  Claremout.  The  number  of  grand  pianos  (full  and  concert 
only)  now  iFeb.  1878)  reached  by  the  firm  is  21,15(t. 

«  This  interesting  autograpli  is  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  M.  M. 
HoUoway,  to  whom  I  am  iudelited  for  its  presence  here. 

^  The  note  from  Broadwood's  agent  in  Vienna  which  accompanied 
this  letter  show*  that  all  freight  and  charges  were  paid  by  the  giTer  of 
the  piano. 

8  Letter  to  Ries  July  9, 1817 ;  and  Hogarttfs  Philharmonic  Society,  p.  18. 
»  Schindler,  1.  2C9. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


195 


and  10  Variations  of  National  Airs  (op.  107).  I 
The  Sonata  just  referred  to,  the  greatest  work 
yet  written  for  the  piano,  and  not  unjustly  com- 
pared with  the  Ninth  Symphony,  belonged  in  a  \ 
special  sense  to  the  Archduke.     The  first  two 
movements  were  presented  to  him  for  ^  his  Name-  j 
day ;  the  whole  work  when  published  was  dedi-  ' 
cated  to  him,  and  the  sketch  of  a  piece  for  solo  , 
and  chorus  ^  exists  in  which  the  subject  of  the  first 
Allegro  is  set  to  the  words  *  Vivat  Rodolphus,' 
In  addition  the  Archduke  is  said  to  have  been 
able  to  play  the  Sonata.    Beethoven  may  have 
hated  his  '  Dienstschaft,'  but  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  he  was  sincerely  attached  to  his 
clever,  sympathetic,  imperial  pupil. 

The  summer  and  autumn  of  both  1 81 8  and  19 
were  spent  at  Modling.  His  health  at  this  time 
was  excellent,  and  his  devotion  to  the  Mass 
extraordinary.  Never  had  he  been  known  to 
be  so  entirely  abstracted  from  external  things, 
BO  immersed  in  the  struggle  of  composition, 
Schindler^  has  well  described  a  strange  scene 
which  occurred  during  the  elaboration  of  the 
Credo — the  house  deserted  by  the  servants,  and 
denuded  of  every  comfort ;  the  master  shut  into 
his  room,  singing,  shouting,  stamping,  as  if  in 
actual  conflict  of  life  and  death  over  the  fugue 
*  Et  vitam  venturi ' ;  his  sudden  appearance  wild, 
dishevelled,  faint  with  toil  and  24  hours  fast ! 
These  were  indeed  '  drangvollen  *  Umstanden' — 
wretched  conditions — but  they  are  the  conditions 
which  accompany  the  production  of  great  works. 
During  the  whole  of  this  time  the  letters  *  show 
that  his  nephew  occupied  much  of  his  thoughts. 
"SA^ile  at  work  on  this  sublime  portion  of  the 
Mass^  just  mentioned,  he  was  inspired  to  write 
the  beautiful  Sonata  in  E  major  (op.  109),  the 
first  of  that  unequalled  trio  which  terminate  that 
class  of  his  compositions. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  Installa- 
tion went  by  without  Beethoven's  Mass,  which 
indeed  was  not  completed  till  the  beginning  of 
1822.  He  announces  its  termination  on  Feb. 
27,^  and  the  perfect  copy  of  the  score  was  de- 
livered into  his  patron's  hands  on  March  19, 
exactly  two  years  after  the  day  for  which  it  was 
projected.  As  the  vast  work  came  to  an  end,  his 
thoughts  reverted  to  his  darling  pianoforte,  and 
the  dates  of  Dec.  25,  1821,  and  Jan.  13,  1822, 
are  affixed  to  the  two  immortal  and  most  affect- 
ing Sonatas,  which  vie  with  each  other  in  grandeur, 
beauty,  and  pathos,  as  they  close  the  roll  of  his 
large  compositions  for  the  instrument  which  he 
80  dearly  loved  and  so  greatly  emiobled. 

But  neither  Mass  nor  Sonatas  were  sufficient 
to  absorb  the  energy  of  this  most  energetic  and 
painstaking  of  musicians.  The  climax  of  his 
orchestral  compositions  had  yet  to  be  reached. 
We  have  seen  that  when  engaged  on  his  last 
pair  of  Symphonies  in  181 2,  Beethoven  contem- 
plated a  third,  for  which  he  had  then  fixed  the 

1  Letter.  Kdchel,  No. 49.  *  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  VIL 

»  Schindler,  i.  270. 

*  His  own  words  to  Riei  in  describing  the  production  of  the  Sonata 
inBt).  Bn>/(?.  No.  212. 

4  To  Bliichinger  (Sept.  14),  to  Artaria  (Oct.  12),  etc. 

«  End  of  1819  and  beginning  of  1820.  Nottebohm,  Op.  109.  In 
Catalogue.  7  Letter  to  the  Archduke,  KocheL 


key  of  D  minor.  To  this  he  returned  before 
many  years  were  over,  and  it  was  destined  in  the 
end  to  be  the  '  Ninth  Symphony.'  The  very 
characteristic  theme  of  the  Scherzo  actually 
occurs  in  the  sketch-books  as  early  as  1815,^  as 
the  subject  of  a  *  fugued  piece,'  though  without 
the  rhythm  which  now  characterises  it.  But  the 
practical  beginning  of  the  Symphony  was  made  in 
181 7,  when  large  portions  of  the  first  movement 
— headed  *  Zur  Sinfonie  in  D,'  and  showing  a 
considerable  approach  to  the  work  as  carried  out — 
together  with  a  further  development  of  the  subject 
of  the  Scherzo,  are  found  in  the  sketch-books. 
There  is  also  evidence^  that  the  Finale  was  at  that 
time  intended  to  be  orchestral,  and  that  the  idea 
of  connecting  the  'Hymn  to  Joy'  with  his  9th  Sym- 
phony had  not  at  that  time  occurred  to  Beethoven. 
The  sketches  continue  in  1818,'°  more  or  less 
mixed  up  with  those  for  the  Sonata  in  Bb  ;  and, 
as  if  not  satisfied  with  carrying  on  two  such 
prodigious  works  together,  Beethoven  has  left  a 
note  giving  the  scheme  of  a  companion  symphony 
which  was  to  be  choral  in  both  the  Adagio  and 
Finale.^  StiU,  however,  there  is  no  mention 
of  the  'Ode  to  Joy,'  and  the  text  proposed  in 
the  last  case  is  ecclesiastical. 

We  have  seen  how  1819,  1820,  and  1821  were 
filled  up.  The  summer  and  autumn  of  1822 
were  spent  at  Baden,  and  were  occupied  with 
the  Grand  Overture  in  C  (op.  1 24),  for  the  open- 
ing of  the  Josephstadt  Theatre  at  Vienna, 
whence  it  derives  its  title  of '  Weihe  des  Hauses' 
— and  the  arrangement  of  a  March  and  Chorus 
from  the  'Euins  of  Athens'  for  the  same  occa- 
sion, and  was  followed  by  the  revival  of  '  Fidelio ' 
at  the  Kamthnerthor^^  theatre  in  November. 
That  the  two  symphonies  were  then  occupying 
his  mind — 'each  different  from  the  other  and 
from  any  of  his  former  ones' — is  evident  from 
his  conversation  with  Rochlitz  in  July  1822, 
when  that  earnest  critic  submitted  to  him 
Breitkopf's  proposition  for  music  to  Faust.'^ 
After  the  revival  of  '  Fidelio '  he  resumed  the 
Symphony,  and  here  for  the  first  time  Schiller's 
hymn  appears  in  this  connexion.  Through  the 
summer  of  1823  it  occupied  him  incessantly,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  extras — the  33  Variations 
(op,  120),  which  were  taken  up  almost  as  a 
jeu,  d'esprit,  and  being  published  in  June  must 
have  been  completed  some  time  previously,  a 
dozen  'Bagatelles'  for  the  Piano  (op.  119,  1-6, 
and  op.  126),  which  can  be  fixed  to  the  end 
of  1822  and  beginning  of  1823,  and  a  short 
cantata  for  the  birthday  of  Prince  Lobkowitz 
(April  1 3)  for  soprano  solo  and  chorus,  the  auto- 
graph of  which  is  dated  the  evening  previous  to 
the  birthday."  He  began  the  summer  at  Hetzen- 
dorf,  but  a  sudden  dislike  to  the  civilities  of  the 
landlord  drove  him  to  forfeit  400  florins  which  he 
had  paid  in  advance,  and  make  off  to  Baden, 
But  wherever  he  was,  while  at  work  he  was  fully 
absorbed;  insensible  to  sun  and  rain,  to  meals, 

»  Nottebohm,  N.  B.  xxiH.       »  Ihid,       "  Ibid.       "  Ibid. 

"  Schindler,  ii.  11,  A.M.Z.  for  1822,  ?36. 

13  Rochlitz.  Fiir  Freunde  der  Tonkunst,  iv.  357,  8. 

1*  Printed  by  Nohl,  Neue  Brieje,  No.  255. 


196 


BEETHOVEN". 


BEETHOVEN. 


to  the  discomforts  of  his  house  and  the  neglect 
of  the  servants,  rushing  in  and  out  without  his 
hat,  and  otherwise  showing  how  completely  his 
great  symphony  had  taken  possession  of  him. 
into  the  details  of  the  composition  we  cannot 
here  enter,  farther  than  to  say  that  the  subject  of 
the  vocal  portion,  and  its  connexion  with  the 
preceding  instrumental  movements  were  what 
gave  him  most  trouble.  The  story  may  be 
read  in  Schindler  and  Nottebohm,  and  it  is  full 
of  interest  and  instruction.  At  length,  on  Sept. 
5,  writing  from  Baden  to  Ries,  he  announces 
that  'the  copyist  has  finished  the  score  of  the 
Symphony,'  but  that  it  is  too  bulky  to  forward 
by  post.  Ries  was  then  in  London,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  a  little  to  mention  that  on 
Nov.  lo,  1822,  the  Philharmonic  Society  passed 
a  resolution  offering  Beethoven  £50  for  a  MS. 
symphony,  to  be  delivered  in  the  March  follow- 
ing. This  was  communicated  to  Beethoven  by 
Ries,  and  accepted  by  him  on  Dec.  20.  The 
money  was  advanced,  and  the  MS.  copy  of  the 
9th  Symphony  in  the  Philharmonic  library  carries 
a  statement  in  his  autograph  that  it  was  '  written 
for  the  society.'  How  it  came  to  pass  not- 
withstanding this  that  the  score  was  not  received 
by  the  Philharmonic  till  after  its  performance 
in  Vienna,  and  that  when  published  it  was 
dedicated  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  are  facts 
difficult  to  reconcile  with  Beethoven's  usual  love 
of  fairness  and  justice. 

Notwithstanding  the  announcement  to  Ries 
the  process  of  final  polishing  went  on  for  some 
months  longer.  Shortly  before  he  left  Baden,  on 
Oct.  5,  he  received  a  'visit  from  Weber  and  his 
pupil  young  Benedict,  then  in  Vienna  for  the 
production  of  Euryanthe.  The  visit  was  in  con- 
sequence of  a  kind  wish  for  the  success  of  the 
work  expressed  by  Beethoven  to  Haslinger,  and 
was  in  every  way  successful.  In  former  times  ^ 
he  had  spoken  very  depreciatingly  of  Weber,  but 
since  the  perusal  of  Freischiitz  had  ^  changed  his 
mind.  No  allusion  was  made  to  Weber's  youthful 
censures  on  the  4th  and  7th  Symphonies  ;  Bee- 
thoven was  cordial  and  even  confidential,  made 
some  interesting  remarks  on  opera  books,  and 
they  parted  mutually  impressed.  He  returned 
to  town  at  the  end  of  October  to  a  lodging  in 
the  Ungergasse,  near  the  Landstrasse  gate,  and 
by  February  1824  began  to  appear  in  the  streets 
again  and  enjoy  his  favourite  occupation  of  peering 
with  his  double  eyeglass  into  the  shop  windows,* 
and  joking  with  his  acquaintances. 

The  publications  of  1823  consist  of  the  Over- 
ture to  the  'Ruins  of  Athens'  (op.  114),  and 
the  '  Meeresstille'  (op.  112),  both  in  February; 
and  the  Sonata  (op.  iii)  in  April. 

The  revival  of  *  Fidelio'  in  the  previous 
winter  had  inspired  Beethoven  with  the  idea  of 
writing  a  new  German  opera,  and  after  many 
propositions  he  accepted  the  '  Melusina '  by  Grill- 
parzer,  a  highly  romantic  piece,  containing  many 
effective  situations,  and  a  comic  servant's  part, 
which  took  his  fancy  extremely.  Grill parzer  had 

«  n.  M.  von  Wehfr,  vm  Max  v.  W.  U.  .VC-Sll,  »  Seyfried.  22. 

»  C.  M.  von  Weher.  li.  m  *  Schindler.  ii.  06. 


many  conferences  with  him,  and  between  the 
two  the  libretto  was  brought  into  practical  shape. 
While  thus  engaged  he  received  a  commission 
from  Count  Briihl,  intendant  at  the  Berlin 
Theatre,  for  an  opera  on  his  own  terms.  Bee- 
thoven forwarded  him  the  MS.  of  'Melusina' 
for  his  opinion,  but  on  hearing  that  a  ballet  of 
a  somewhat  similar  character  was  then  being 
played  at  Berlin,  he  at  once  renounced  all  idea 
of  a  German  opera,  and  broke  out  in  abuse  of 
the  German  singers  for  their  inferiority  to  the 
Italians,  who  were  then  playing  Rossini  in 
Vienna.  In  fact  this  season  of  1823  had  brought 
the  Rossini  fever  to  its  height,  no  operas  but  his 
were  played.  Beethoven  had  indeed  heard  the 
'Barbiere'  in  1822,^  and  had  even  promised  to 
write  an  opera  for  the  Italian  company  in  the 
same  style,  a  promise  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  say  was  never  redeemed.  Like  Mendelssohn 
he  was  in  earnest  in  pursuit  of  an  opera-book, 
but,  like  Mendelssohn,  he  never  succeeded  in 
obtaining  one  to  his  mind.  What  he  wanted  he 
told  Breuning  on  his  death-bed — something  to 
interest  and  absorb  him,  but  of  a  moral  and 
elevating  tendency,  of  the  nature  of  'Les  Deux 
Journees'  or  '  Die  Vestalin,'  which  he  thoroughly 
approved ;  for  dissolute  stories  like  those  of 
Mozart's  operas  had  no  attraction  for  him,  and 
he  could  never  be  brought  to  set  them.  After 
his  death  a  whole  bundle  of  libretti  was  found 
which  he  had  read  and  rejected.® 

But  opera  or  no,  it  was  quite  a  different  thing 
to  find  the  public  so  taken  up  with  Rossini  that  no 
one  cared  for  either  his  Mass  or  his  new  Sym- 
phony.^ He  had  written  early  in  1 8  2  3  to  Prussia, 
France,  Saxony,  Russia,  proposing  a  subscription 
for  the  Mass  of  50  ducats  from  the  sovereigns  of 
each  of  those  countries — but  the  answers  were 
slow  and  the  subscriptions  did  not  arrive,  and  he 
therefore  made  use  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
him  by  Count  Briihl  to  propose  the  two  works  to 
him  for  production  at  Berlin.  The  answer  was 
favourable,  and  there  appeared  good  prospect  of 
success.  But  the  disgrace  of  driving  their  great 
composer  to  the  northern  capital  for  the  produc- 
tion of  his  last  and  greatest  works  was  too  much 
for  the  music-loving  aristocracy  of  Vienna — and 
an  earnest  memorial  was  drawn  up,  dated  February 
1824,  signed  by  the  Lichnowskys,^  Fries,  Die- 
trichstein,  Palfy,  and  25  others  of  the  persons 
principally  concerned  with  music  in  that  city, 
beseeching  him  to  produce  the  Mass  and  Sym- 
phony, and  to  write  a  second  opera,  which  should 
vindicate  the  claim  of  classical  music,  and  show 
that  Germany  could  successfully  compete  with 
Italy,  Such  an  address,  so  strongly  signed,  natu- 
rally gratified  him  extremely.  The  theatre  '  an 
der  Wien'  was  chosen,  and  after  an  amount  of 
bargaining  and  delay  and  vacillation  which  is 
quite  incredible — partly  arising  from  the  cupidity 
of  the  manager,  partly  from  the  extraordinary 
obstinacy  and  suspiciousness  of  Beethoven,  from 

»  Schindler,  H.  49. 

«*  Breuning,  96,  50  note.  He  thought  the  two  libretti  mentioned  the 
best  in  existence. 
T  Dietrichstein  In  Schindler. 

8  The  Archduke  was  away,  and  «o  also  must  Lobkowitz  have  been. 


BEETHOVEX. 


BEETHOVEX. 


197 


the  regulation  of  the  censorship,  and  from  the 
difficulties  of  the  music — but  which  was  all  in 
time  surmounted  the  tact  and  devotion  of 
Lichnowsky,  Schindler,  and  Schuppanzigh,  the 
concert  took  place  in  the  Kamthnerthor  theatre 
on  ^lay  7.^  The  programme  consisted  of  the 
Overture  in  C — 'Weihe  des  Hauses' — the  Kyrie, 
Credo,  Agnus  and  Dona,  of  the  Mass  in  1),  in 
the  form  of  three  h}-mns,'^  and  the  9th  Symphony, 
The  house  was  crowded,  and  the  music,  espe- 
cially the  Symphony,  excited  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  affecting 
incident  occurred  of  the  daaf  composer  being 
turned  roimd  by  Mile.  Ungher  that  he  might  cee 
the  applause  he  and  his  music  were  evoking. 
But  fijiancially  the  concert  was  a  failure.  The 
use  of  the  theatre,  including  band  and  chorus, 
cost  1000  florins,  and  the  coppng  800  more,  but 
the  prices  remained  as  usual,  so  that  the  net 
result  to  Beethoven  was  but  420  florins,  or  vmder 
£40.  Well  might  he  say  that  '  after  six  weeks  of 
such  discussion  he  was  boiled,  stewed,  and  roasted.' 
He  was  profoundly  distressed  at  the  result,  woidd 
eat  notlung,  and  passed  the  night  in  his  clothes. 
The  concert,  however,  was  repeated  on  the  23rd 
at  noon,  the  theatre  guaranteeing  Beethoven  500 
florins.  On  the  second  occasion  all  the  Mass  was 
suppressed  but  the  KjTie ;  the  trio  '  Tremate'  and 
some  Italian  solos  were  introduced  ;  the  Overture 
and  Symphony  remained.  The  result  of  this  was 
a  loss  to  the  management,  and  furnishes  a  curious 
trait  of  Beethoven's  character.  He  could  not  with- 
out difficulty  be  induced  to  accept  the  guaranteed 
sum,  but  he  invited  Schindler,  Schuppanzigh,  and 
Umlauf  to  dinner,  and  then  accused  them  in  the 
most  furious  manner  of  having  combined  to  cheat 
him  over  the  whole  transaction  !  This  broke  up 
the  party ;  the  three  faithful  friends  went  off  else- 
where, and  Beethoven  was  left  to  devour  the 
dinner  with  his  nephew.  The  immediate  effect 
of  the  outbreak  was  to  put  an  end  to  a  pro- 
mising negotiation  which  he  was  carrying  on 
with  Xeate,  who  in  a  letter  of  Dec.  20,  1S23, 
had,  on  the  part  of  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
offered  him  300  guineas  and  a  benefit  guaranteed 
at  £500  for  a  visit  to  London  with  a  Symphony 
and  a  Concerto.  The  terms  had  been  accepted, 
and  the  arrangements  for  the  journey  were  in  a 
forward  state ;  and  although  it  is  probably  true 
that  Beethoven's  attachment  to  his  nephew  was 
too  strong  to  allow  of  his  leaving  him  when  it 
came  to  the  point,  yet  it  is  equally  true  that 
the  event  just  related  was  the  ostensible  cause. 
Four  days  after  he  was  at  his  beloved  Baden, 
and  craving  for  music  paper 

The  subscriptions  to  the  Mass  had  come  in 
slowly,  and  in  nine  months  amounted  only  to  350 
ducats  (£175)  for  seven  copies.*  This  was  too 
slow  to  satisfy  the  wishes  of  the  composer.  In- 
deed ha  had  for  some  time  past  been  negotiating 

1  Schindler,  ii.  62-<58. 

z  These  were  thui  annonnced,  and  inng  to  German  words,  owing  to 

the  imerference  of  the  Censiire  and  the  clergy.  A  similar  stipulation 
is  still  made  at  Exeter  Hall.  A  Mass  mutt  be  announced  as  a  '  Per- 
▼ice.'  Thus  extremes  meet.  *  Letter  to  Steiner,  May  27. 

*  Schindler,  ii.  17.  The  subscribers  were  the  courts  of  Prussia,  France, 
Saxony,  Darmstadt,  and  Kussia ;  Prince  Kadziwill,  and  Mr.  Schelble,  the 
founder  of  the  Cacilien  Verein  at  Frankfort, 


in  a  much  more  mercantile  style  than  before 
for  the  sale  of  Mass,  S}-mphony,  and  Overture. 
He  oSered  them  to  various  publishers.*  It  is  an 
imexpected  trait  in  his  character,  and  one  for 
which  we  may  thank  his  devotion  to  his  nephew, 
to  whom  he  was  now  sacrificing  everything,  that 
he  might  leave  him  well  provided  for.  It  re- 
sulted in  his  dealing  for  the  first  time  with 
Schott,  of  Mayence,  who  p\irchased  the  Mass  and 
the  Symphony  for  looo  and  600  florins  respect- 
ively on  July  19,  1S24.  He  appears  at  this  time 
to  have  taken  generally  a  more  commercial  \iew 
of  his  position  than  usual,  to  have  been  occupied 
with  plans  ^  for  new  collected  editions  of  his 
works  (which  however  came  to  nothing),  and 
generally  to  have  shown  an  anxiety  to  make 
money  very  unlike  an^-thing  before  observable 
in  him.  In  such  calculations  he  was  much  as- 
sisted by  a  young  man  named  Carl  Holtz,  a 
government  employe,  a  good  player  on  the  violin 
and  cello,  a  clever  caricaturist,  a  bon  vivant,^ 
and  generally  a  lively  agreeable  fellow.  Holtz 
obtained  an  extraordinary  influence  over  Bee- 
thoven. He  drew  him  into  society,  induced  him 
to  be  godfather  to  his  child,  to  appoint  him  his 
biographer,^  and  amongst  other  things  to  forsake 
his  usual  sobriety,  and  to  do  that  which  has  been 
absurdly  exaggerated  into  a  devotion  to  di-ink. 
That  these  commercial  aims — too  absurd  if  one 
reflects  on  the  simple  unbusinesslike  character  of 
Beethoven — and  the  occasional  indulgence  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  did  not  impair  his  in- 
vention or  his  imagination  is  CAndent  from  the 
fact  that  at  this  time  he  composed  his  last  Quar- 
tets, works  which,  though  misunderstood  and 
naturally  unappreciated  at  the  time,  are  now  by 
common  consent  of  those  who  are  able  to  judge 
placed  at  the  head  of  Beethoven's  compositions 
for  individuality,  depth  of  feeling,  and  expres- 
sion. The  relations  with  Russia,  which  Bee- 
thoven had  originally  cultivated  through  the 
Count  de  Browne,  and  the  works  dedicated 
to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  Prince  Rasou- 
moffsky,  and  which  had  been  deepened  by  the  per- 
sonal attention  shown  him  in  1814  by  the  Em- 
press were  now  to  bear  their  full  fruit.  Early  in 
1 8 24  he  received  a  letter  fi-om  Prince  Galitzin, 
a  Russian  nobleman  li\-ing  at  Petersburg,  and 
subsequently  others,  requesting  him  to  compose 
three  string  quartets  to  be  dedicated  to  the  Prince 
and  handsomely  paid  for.  The  first  of  these,  that 
in  Eb,  sketched  at  Baden  in  the  autumn  of  1824, 
was  sold  to  Schott  ^  in  advance  for  the  sum  of 
50  ducats,  and  was  completed  after  his  return  to 
Vienna  early  in  October.  It  was  first  played  on 
^March  6,  1825,  and  published  in  the  following 
March.  With  the  Quartet  Schott  received  the 
Overture  op.  124,  the  'Opferlied'  (op.  121), 
and  'Bundeslied'  (op.  122),  an  air  'An  Chloe' 
(op.  128),  and  II  Bagatelles  (op.  126),  for  which 
he  paid  the  sum  of  130  ducats.   The  Quartet  was 

»  S«e  Briefe,  Nos.  237,  23?,  2S5 :  and  Keut  Brifft,  No.  269  noU. 

«  Letter  to  Peters.  June  5. 1822. 

"  liriffe,  Nos.  363,  377.  «  Ibid.  Xo.  379. 

9  Letter  of  Sept.  17.  Here  a^tiin  we  are  puzzle.I  by  the  fact  that  the 
quartet  was  sold  to  Schotts  before  Prince  Galitzin  had  either  paid,  or 
declined  to  pay,  the  sum  he  promised. 


198 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


played  hj  Scliuppanzigh,Weiss,  Linke,  and  Holtz, 
and  it  was  a  humorous  idea  of  the  Master's  to 
make  each  player,  after  so  long  an  interval,  sign 
a  compact  'pledging  his  honour  to  do  his  best, 
and  vie  with  his  comrades  in  zeal.'  ^ 

The  second  Quartet  was  that  which  now  stands 
third — in  A  minor,  op.  132.  It  was  first  played 
on  Nov.  6,  1825,  and  was  published  on  Sept.  27 
by  Schlesinger.  For  this  he  seems  to  have 
obtained  80  ducats.  In  a  letter  to  Peters  it  is 
mentioned  as  *  a  Quartet,  and  a  grand  one  too.' 

The  third,  in  B  flat  (op.  130),  originally  ended 
with  a  fugue  of  immense  length  and  still  greater 
obscurity,  which  was  afterwards  published  sepa- 
rately as  op.  133.  It  was  completed  in  1825, 
and  was  played  in  its  first  form  on  March  21,  26. 
The  new  finale — so  gay  and  full  of  spirit— was 
written  (at  Artaria's  instance)  in  great  discomfort 
at  his  brother  s  house  at  Gneixendorf  on  Nov.  26, 
just  before  leaving  on  the  journey  which  cost  him 
his  life.  It  is  his  last  completed  composition. 
The  Quartet  was  published  by  Artaria,  May  7, 
1827.  The  relations  between  Beethoven  and 
Prince  Galitzin  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy.  It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  say  that 
Beethoven  is  not  known  to  have  received  the 
promised  payment,  and  that  the  quartets  were 
sold  by  him  to  the  publishers  already  named. 

Beethoven  remained  at  Baden  till  October 
1824.  On  his  return  to  Vienna  his  nephew 
entered  the  University  as  a  student  in  philology. 
The  career  of  this  worthy  may  be  summed  up  in 
a  few  lines.  He  went  in  for  his  degree  and  was 
plucked,  abandoned  literature  for  trade,  stood 
for  the  necessary  examination  in  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  was  plucked  again  ;  in  despair  at- 
tempted to  shoot  himself,  and  failed  even  to  do 
that.  He  was  then,  as  a  suicide,  taken  charge  of 
by  the  police,  and  after  a  time  ordered  out  of  Vienna 
at  a  day's  notice,  and  at  last  joined  the  army.^ 
And  through  it  all  his  old  uncle  clung  to  him 
with  truly  touching  affection.  He,  most  simple- 
minded  of  men,  could  not  believe  that  any  one 
should  really  not  desire  to  do  his  best ;  and  so  on 
the  least  appearance  of  contrition  or  amendment 
he  forgives  and  embraces  him,  he  bathes  him  in 
tenderness  and  confidence,  only  each  time  to  find 
himself  again  deceived.  The  letters  which  this 
more  than  father  wrote  to  his  unworthy  prodigal 
son  are  most  affecting — injudicious  no  doubt,  but 
full  of  tenderness  and  simplicity. 

The  first  few  weeks  of  the  winter  of  1824  were 
occupied  in  scoring  the  E  flat  Quartet,  the  com- 
position of  which  had  been  the  work  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  it  was  hardly  complete  before  Beethoven 
was  taken  with  a  severe  illness  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  stomach.'  For  this  he  called  in  Stauden- 
heim,  a  surgeon  of  eminence,  who  however  was 
soon  cashiered  as  too  brusque,  and  replaced  by 
Braunhofer.  The  malady  hung  about  him  till 
his  next  visit  to  the  country ;  and  its  disappear- 
ance is  commemorated  in  the  canzona  di  rin- 
graziamento  in  modo  lidico  offerta  alia  divinita 
da  un  guarito,  which  forms  bo  noble  a  feature  in 

1  linWe.  322.  2  ITe  died  in  Vienna.  April  13. 1868. 

»  Schiudlor.  Ii.111,112.  | 


the  A  minor  Quartet.  His  stay  at  Baden  in  1 8  2  5 
was  of  unusual  length,  lasting  from  May  2  till 
Oct.  1 5,*  by  which  date  that  Quartet  was  com- 
pletely finished.  It  had  already  been  tried,  strictly 
in  private,  as  early  as  August  at  the  desire  of  the 
publisher,  Beethoven  sitting  close  to  the  players, 
and  perhaps  profiting  by  the  rehearsal  to  make 
many  alterations ;  and  on  Nov,  6  was  played, 
still  in  private  but  to  a  densely  crowded  room,' 
by  Schuppanzigh  and  Linkers  quartet  party. 

The  Bb  Quartet  was  his  next  work,  and  it  was 
first  performed  in  public  by  the  party  just  men- 
tioned on  March  21,  1826.  The  Presto  and 
danza  tedesca^  were  encored,  but  the  Cavatina 
seems  to  have  made  no  impression,  and  the  fugue, 
which  then  served  as  finale,  was  universally 
condemned.  In  the  case  of  the  fugue  his  judg- 
ment agreed  with  that  of  his  critics  ;  it  was  pub- 
lished separately  (op.  133)  and  a  new  finale 
written ,  but  he  did  not  often  give  way  to  the 
judgments  of  his  contemporaries.  'Your  new 
quartet  did  not  please,'  was  one  of  the  bits  of 
news  brought  to  him  on  his  death-bed  by  some 
officious  friend.  *  It  will  please  them  some  day,' 
was  the  answer.'' 

Between  the  date  last-mentioned  and  October 
1826  occurred  the  series  of  disasters  with  young 
Carl  already  alluded  to ;  and  the  latter  month 
found  both  uncle  and  nephew  at  Johann  Bee- 
thoven's residence  at  Gneixendorf.  It  is  a  village 
near  Krems,  on  the  Danube,  about  50  miles  west 
of  Vienna,  and  here  his  brother  had  settled  on  the 
property  {Gut)  which  gave  occasion  to  Lud wig's 
famous  joke  (see  p.  172  a).  The  party  must  have 
been  a  curiously  ill-assorted  one.  The  some- 
what pompous  money-loving  Gutshesitzer ;  his 
wife,  a  common  frivolous  woman  of  questionable 
character ;  ^  the  ne'er-do-weel  nephew,  intensely 
selfish  and  ready  to  make  game  oF  his  uncle  or 
make  love  to  his  aunt ;  and  in  the  midst  of  them 
all  the  great  composer — deaf,  untidy,  unpresent- 
able, setting  every  household  rule  and  household 
propriety  at  defiance,  by  turns  entirely  absorbed 
and  pertinaciously  boisterous,  exploding  in  rough 
jokes  and  horse-laughter,  or  bursting  into  sudden 
fury  at  some  absolute  misconception; — such  a 
group  had  few  elements  of  permanence  in  it. 
But  nothing  could  stop  the  wonderful  flow  of 
Beethoven's  thoughts.  In  fact,  music  being  to 
him  the  language  of  his  emotions,  the  more  agi- 
tated he  was  the  more  he  composed,  and  his  very 
deafness,  which  fortunately  must  have  made  him 
insensible  to  much  that  went  on  around  him, 
drove  him  more  completely  into  himself  and  com- 
pelled him  to  listen  to  the  workings  of  his  own 
heart  unalloyed  by  anything  external.  To  his 
deafness  we  no  doubt  mainly  ov/e  the  very  in- 
dividual and  original  style  of  the  later  Quartets. 
Thanks  to  Michael  Kren,^  who  was  engaged  by 
Frau  Johann  to  wait  on  him,  we  can  see  him 
with  our  own  eyes.  '  At  half-past  5  he  was  up 
and  at  his  table,  beating  time  with  hands  and 
feet,  singing,  humming,  and  writing.    At  half- 

*  Briefe,  Nos.  329  and  372.  'A.  M.  Z.  Dec.  21 ,  1S25, 

«  Originally  written  in  A,  and  Intended  for  the  A  minor  Quartet. 

1  Breuning,  05.  '  Schindler,  in  Wallace  ii.  14& 

9  Nohl,  Leben,  iil.  716.  DeutBche  iUmk-Zeitung,  Mar.  8, 1862. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


199 


past  7  was  the  family  breakfast,  and  directly 
after  it  he  hurried  out  of  doors,  and  would  saun- 
ter about  the  fields,  calling  out,  waving  his 
hands,  going  now  very  slowly,  then  very  fast, 
and  then  suddenly  standing  still  and  writing  in 
a  kind  of  pocket-book.  At  half-past  1 2  he  came 
into  the  house  to  dinner,  and  after  dinner  he 
went  to  his  own  room  till  3  or  so  ;  then  again  in 
the  fields  till  about  sunset,  for  later  than  that  he 
might  not  go  out.  At  halfpast  7  was  supper, 
and  then  he  went  to  his  room,  wrote  till  10, 
and  so  to  bed.' 

During  the  last  three  years  he  had  been  com- 
posing incessantly,  and  yet  all  that  he  had  done 
seemed  to  him  as  nothing — as  a  mere  prelude 
to  what  he  was  yet  to  do.  As  Newton  before 
his  death  spoke  of  himself  as  'a  child  picking 
up  a  few  shells  on  the  shore  while  the  great 
ocean  of  truth  lay  undiscovered  before  him,'  so 
does  Beethoven  in  somewhat  similar  strain  ex- 
press himself  at  the  close  of  his  life  : — '  I  feel  as 
if  I  had  written  scarcely  more  than  a  few  notes.' ^ 
And  again — 'I  hope  still  to  bring  a  few  great 
works  into  the  world,  and  then,  like  an  old  child, 
to  end  my  earthly  course  somewhere  amongst 
good  people.'  ^  His  wish,  however,  was  not 
fulfilled ;  he  was  to  die  in  harness.  Either 
before  leaving  Vienna  or  immediately  after  it 
he  had  completed  the  Cj{  minor  Quartet,  and 
before  the  end  of  October  had  finished  another, 
that  in  F,  which  is  dated  with  his  own  hand 
'  Gneixendorf  3  am  30  Oktober,  1826.'  This  is  the 
work  the  finale  of  which  embodies  the  strange 
dialogue  between  Beethoven  and  his  cook,  '  Muss 
es  sein?  —  Es  muss  sein,'  and  shows  how  he 
could  rise  from  the  particular  to  the  universal. 
A  week  or  two  later  and  he  had  written  a  fresh 
finale  to  replace  the  enormously  long  fugue 
which  originally  terminated  the  Bb  Quartet,  and 
dated  it  'Nov.  1826.'  And  this  was  his  last 
work.  By  that  time  the  fine  weather,  of  which 
he  speaks  shortly  after  his  arrival,*  had  departed. 
The  economical  Gatsbesitzer  had  forbidden  his 
infirm  brother  a  fire  in  his  room,  the  food  was 
not  to  his  taste,  and  he  was  informed  that  for 
both  food  and  lodging  a  charge  would  be  made ; 
so  that  he  determined  to  brave  the  police  and 
return  with  his  nephew  to  Vienna  on  Dec.  2. 
The  journey  from  Gneixendorf  to  Krems,  the  post 
town,  is  not  far,^  but  the  close  carriage  could  not 
be  had,  and  Beethoven  was  obliged  to  perform  it 
in  an  open  chaise — the  weather  was  cold  and 
damp,  and  the  result  was  a  violent  cold  in  the 
stomach,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  end. 
He  took  to  his  bed  on  reaching  the  Schwarz- 
spanierhaus.  His  former  physicians,  Braunhofer 
and  Staudenheim,  refused  to  attend  him,  and  he 
was  in  the  hands  of  a  Dr.  Wavvruch  who  had 
been  casually  called  to  him  by  a  billiard-marker 
at  the  rooms  frequented  by  young  Carl  Beethoven. 

J  Letter  to  Schott,  Sept.  17, 1824. 

»  Letter  to  Wegeler.  Vienna,  Oct.  7, 1P26. 

*  '  1  am  at  Gneixendorf,'  says  he  to  Haslinger.  'The  name  is  some- 
thing like  the  breaking  of  an  axletree '  (BH^e,  No.  3S3). 

*  Letter  to  Haslinger,  Oct.  13. 

5  Gneixendorf  is  on  the  high  ground  which  rises  abova  Krems,  2  miles 
due  north  of  it. 


The  cold  had  developed  into  an  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  and  on  this  dropsy  supervened.  Wa- 
wruch,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  poor  prac- 
titioner and  a  pompous  pedant,^  drenched  his 
patient  with  herb  decoctions,  but  the  malady 
would  probably  have  ended  fatally  whatever 
treatment  had  been  adopted.  What  the  poor 
patient  most  required  was  good  nursing  and  com- 
fort, and  this  he  could  not  obtain  till  after  the 
departure  of  his  nephew  for  his  regiment  in  the 
latter  half  of  December.  Then  Schindler  and 
Stephen  Breuning  came  to  his  bedside,  and  from 
this  time  to  the  end  Gerhard  Breuning,  the  son 
of  Stephen,  a  boy  of  eleven,  was  his  constant 
attendant.  He  was  first  tapped  on  Dec.  i8,  then 
again  on  Jan.  8,  and  a  third  time  on  Jan.  28. 
It  was  during  one  of  these  operations  that  on 
seeing  the  water  he  made  the  characteristic 
remark  '  Better  from  my  belly  than  from  my 
pen.'  The  confidence  both  of  Beethoven  and  his 
friends  in  Wawruch  now  became  much  shaken, 
and  an  application  was  made  to  Malfatti,  who 
had  attended  him  years  before,  but  like  so  many 
others  had  parted  from  him  in  anger.  It  was 
long  before  Malfatti  would  answer  the  appeal, 
and  even  then  he  would  only  act  in  conjunction 
with  Wawruch.  The  treatment  was  now  changed, 
and  iced  punch  administered  in  large  quantities 
as  a  restorative.  His  faith  in  Malfatti  was  only 
equalled  by  his  disgust  at  Wawruch.  He  would 
watch  for  the  arrival  of  the  former  with  eager- 
ness, and  welcome  him  as  if  he  were  an  angel — 
whereas  when  Wa\vruch  appeared  he  would  im- 
mediately stop  talking,  turn  his  face  to  the  wall 
with  the  exclamation  *  Ach,  der  Esel ! '  and  only 
answer  his  enquiries  in  the  most  grumpy  man- 
ner.^ Under  the  change  Beethoven's  spirits 
greatly  improved,  and  if  permitted  he  would  at 
once  have  begun  to  work.  This  however  was 
forbidden,  and  reading  only  allowed.  Walter 
Scott  was  recommended  him,  and  he  began  'Kenil- 
worth,'*  but  soon  threw  it  down  with  the  ex- 
clamation '  the  man  writes  only  for  money.'  He 
now  made  acquaintance  with  some  of  Schu- 
berts  songs  ^  for  the  first  time,  and  v/as  delighted 
with  them — '  Truly  Schubert  has  the  divine  fire,' 
were  his  words.  Handel's  works,  in  40  volumes,^'' 
a  present  from  Stumpff,  arrived  at  this  date, 
and  were  an  unfailing  source  of  interest  to  him " 
as  he  lay  in  bed.  A  lithograph  of  Haydn's  birth- 
place gave  him  the  liveliest  satisfaction ;  his 
delight  at  receiving  it,  his  wrath  at  the  mis- 
spelling of  the  name,  and  his  curious  care  in 
paying  for  it,  may  be  read  in  Breuning's  narra- 
tive (pp.  98-100).  During  the  four  months  of  his 
last  illness  he  wrote  and  dictated  many  letters — 
24  are  published,  some  of  them  of  considerable 
length,  and  others  no  doubt  remain  in  MS. 

His  nephew  still  retained  his  hold  on  his  alfec- 
tions.  A  letter  to  Dr.  Bach,  his  old  advocate,  of 
Jan.  3,  declares  the  lad  his  sole  heir,  and  commits 

8  Breuning.  90.  7  ibid.  92,  90. 

8  Schindler  ii.  135;  but  see  his  letter  in  Moscheles'  Leben,  i.  144. 

9  The  •. lunge  Nonne,'  'Die  Burgschaft,'  'Der  Taucher,'  -Elisium,' 
and  the  Ossian  Songs  are  mentioned  by  Schindler.  But  of  these  the 
only  one  published  before  Beethoven's  death  was  the  first. 

'0  See  the  Sale  Catalogue.  "  Breuning,  94. 


200 


BEETHOVEN-. 


BEETHOVEN. 


him  to  Bach's  special  care.  He  was  continually 
tormented  with  anxiety  as  to  their  future  main- 
tenance. Notwithstanding  Prince  Galitzia's 
promise,  dated  Nov.  10/22,  1826,  no  portion  of 
the  money  due  from  him  on  the  3  Quartets  had 
yet  been  received.  The  seven  bank  shares  he 
would  not  allow  to  be  touched,  regarding  them 
as  the  property  of  his  nephew.  He  therefore 
wrote  to  his  friends^  in  London,  urgiag  the 
Philharmonic  Society  to  carry  out  their  old 
intention  of  giving  a  concert  for  his  benefit. 
The  reply  to  this  was  a  letter  from  Moscheles,^ 
dated  March  i,  sending  £100  from  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  on  account  of  the  proceeds  of 
a  concert  shortly  to  be  given.  His  delight  at 
this  response  was  gTeat,  and  his  answer,  dated 
March  1 8  (forwarding  also  the  metronome  marks 
of  the  9th  Symphony),  is  full  of  warmth  and 
enthusiasm.  Meantime  a  fourth  tapping  had 
taken  place  on  Feb.  27,  and  a  great  discharge 
was  caused  by  his  emotion  at  the  receipt  of  Mos- 
cheles'  letter  on  March  17. 

During  his  illness  he  had  a  few  visitors  be- 
sides ScMndler  and  the  two  Breunings,  who  were 
his  daily  attendants,  and  Holtz,  who  came  fre- 
quently. Breuning  mentions  Johann  Beethoven 
and  the  nephew  (in  the  early  part  of  the  time 
only),  Tobias  and  Carl  Haslinger,  Diabelli,  Baron 
Eskeles,  Eauch,  Dolezalek,  Clement.  Strangers 
occasionally  arrived,  amongst  whom  H'ommel 
with  his  pupil  Ferdinand  Hiller,  then  a  boy 
of  15,  who  saw 2  him  on  March  8,  are  wprthy 
of  note.  But  the  friends  of  his  earlier  days — 
Fries,  Erdody,  Ertmann,  Brunswick,  Gleichen- 
stein,  Zmeskall,  Seyfried,  the  Streichers,  Czemy, 
Schuppanzigh,  Linke  —  those  who  had  been 
honoured  by  his  dedications,  or  had  reaped  the 
glory  of  producing  his  compositions — were  either 
dead  or  otherwise  occupied ;  at  any  rate  none 
appeared.  The  absence  of  all  trace  of  the  Arch- 
duke Rudolph  at  this  time,  or  of  any  reference 
to  him  in  the  correspondence  of  the  last  few 
years,  is  very  remarkable. 

Neither  Beethoven  himself  nor  any  of  his 
fiiends  seem  to  have  been  aware  that  death  was 
near.  His  letter  to  Moscheles  of  March  18  is  } 
full  of  projects,  and  a  conversation  reported  by 
Breuning  (p.  97)  shows  that  he  contemplated  a 
tenth  Symphony,  a  Bequiem,  Music  to  Faust, 
and  an  instruction  book  for  the  Piano — 'to 
be  something  quite  different  from  that  of  any 
one  else.'  To  Moscheles  he  speaks  of  the  Sym- 
phony as  lying  'in  his  desk  fully  sketched,' — 
much  as  Coleridge  used  to  talk  of  works  as  com- 
plete of  which  the  title  pages  only  had  been 
put  on  paper  ;  for  nothing  which  can  be  identified 
with  the  description  has  been  found.  Indeed, 
the  time  of  both  projects  and  fulfilment  was  over 
— the  night  was  come  in  which  no  man  can  work. 
The  accumulation  of  water  increased  alarmingly, 
the  wounds  inflamed,  lying  became  painful,  and 
it  was  evident  that  the  end  was  near.    On  the 

1  Feb.  8  to  Btumpff ;  Feb.  22  to  Mocheles  and  to  Smart ;  March  6  to 
Emart ;  aud  March  14  to  Moscheles. 
*  See  the  account  In  Moschele»'  Leben,  1.138— 17i 
»  UiUer**  Beeihovtn  (lt<71).  p.  73. 


loth  he  wrote  to  Schott  desiring  the  dedication 
of  the  CJJ  minor  Quartet  to  be  altered  in  favour 
of  Baron  von  Stutterheim,  in  token  of  his  obli- 
gation to  him  as  colonel  of  his  nephew's  regi- 
ment. On  the  1 8th,  after  dictating  his  letter  to 
Moscheles,  he  settled  the  dedication  of  his  last 
Quartet  (in  F,  op.  135)  to  Johann  Wolfmayer,^  a 
Vienna  merchant  for  whom  he  had  much  respect. 
On  the  following  day  he  spoke  of  writing  to 
Stumpff  and  Smart,  but  was  compelled  to  re- 
linquish the  task  to  Schindler.  Plaudite  amici, 
comoedia  finita  est,  said  he  to  his  two  faithful 
friends,  with  a  touch  of  his  old  good  humour — 
the  play  was  over,  the  lifelong  symphony  ended, 
and  it  was  time  to  draw  the  curtain.  On  the 
23rd,  with  the  help  of  Breuning,  he  added  with 
his  own  hand  a  codicil  to  his  will,  appointing 
his  nephew  Carl  his  sole  heir,  but  without  power 
over  the  capital  of  the  property  bequeathed. 
Thus  two  of  his  latest  acts  were  inspired  by  his 
nephew.  Several  people  appear  to  have  come  in 
and  out  during  the  last  few  days  to  look  once 
more  at  the  departing  composer.  Amongst  these 
Schubert  is  said  to  have  remained  a  long  time, 
and  to  have  been  recognised  by  Beethoven,  though 
he  failed  to  understand  the  signs  made  by  the 
dying  man.  He  left  the  room  at  length  deeply 
moved.  On  the  24th  Beethoven  received  the 
Sacraments  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  at  about 
one  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  he  sank 
into  apparent  unconsciousness,  and  a  distressing 
conflict  with  death  began  which  lasted  the  rest 
of  that  day,  the  whole  of  the  next,  and  imtil  a 
quarter  to  six  on  the  evening  of  the  26th,  the 
constant  convulsive  struggle  and  the  hard  rattle 
in  the  throat  testifying  at  once  too  painfully  to 
the  strength  of  his  constitution  and  the  fact  that 
he  was  still  alive.  Stephen  Breuning  and  Schind- 
ler had  gone  to  the  Wahringer  Cemetery  to 
choose  the  spot  for  the  grave ;  the  little  Breuning 
was  away  at  his  lessons  ;  J ohann  Beethoven's 
wife  and  Anselm  Hiittenbrenner  (the  friend  of 
Schubert)  alone*  were  in  the  sick  room.  As  the 
evening  closed  in,  at  a  quarter  to  six,  there  came 
a  sudden  storm  of  hail  and  snow,  covering  the 
ground  and  roofs  of  the  Schwarz-spanierplatz, 
and  followed  by  a  flash  of  lightning,  and  an 
instant  clap  of  thunder.  So  great  was  the 
crash  as  to  rouse  even  the  dying  man.  He 
opened  his  eyes,  clenched  his  fist,  and  shook  it 
in  the  air  above  him.  This  lasted  a  few  seconds 
while  the  hail  rushed  down  outside,  and  then  the 
hand  fell,  and  the  great  composer  was  no  more. 

He  was  56  years  old  on  the  i6th  of  the 
pre%-iou8  December. 

The  seven  bank  shares  (for  1000  florins  each) 
were  discovered  the  next  day  after  long  search  in 
a  secret  drawer  in  the  writing  desk,  together 
with  the  two  passionate  and  mysterious  letters 
80  often  supposed — though  to  all  appearance 
inaccurately — to  be  addressed  to  the  Countess 
Giulietta  Guicciardi. 

The  post  mortem  examination  was  made  on 
the  evening  of  the  27th  by  Dr.  Wagner  in  the 
presence  of  Wawruch.     During  the  28th  the 

'  Schindler,  li.  142.  ♦  Eee  the  Wientr  AUndi-ost,  24  Oct.  1W>. 


BEETHOVEN". 


BEETHOVEN. 


201 


body  lay  in  one  of  the  rooms,  and  a  sketch  ^  of 
the  face  was  made  by  Danhauser. 

The  funeral  took  place  on  the  29th  at  3  p.m., 
and  was  attended  by  an  immense  mass  of  people, 
including  all  the  musicians  of  the  city.  From 
the  house  to  the  Church  of  the  Minorites,  in  the 
Alseraasse  on  the  glacis,  a  procession  was  formed, 
in  which  Breuning,  Johann  van  Beethoven,  and 
Mosel,  were  chief  mourners  ;  the  cofl&n  was  borne 
by  eight  members  of  the  Opera,  with  Eybler, 
Hummel,  Seyfried,  Kreutzer,  Weigl,  Gyrowetz, 
Gansbacher,  and  "Wiirfel,  and  32  torch  bearers 
— including  Czerny,  Lablache,  and  Schubert — 
round  it.  A  choir  of  16  men  singers  and  4  trom- 
bones alternately  sang  and  played  two  Equali 
of  Beethoven's,  originally  written  for  trombones 
for  All  Souls  Day  during  his  stay  in  Linz,  and 
arranged  to  the  words  of  the  '^Miserere'  and 
'Amplius'  by  Seyfried.  The  crowd  was  ^enor- 
mous, soldiers  had  to  be  called  in  to  force  the 
way,  and  it  took  an  hour  and  a  half  to  pass  the 
short  distance  from  the  house  to  the  church. 
From  the  church  the  body  was  taken  in  a  hearse 
drawn  by  four  horses,  and  without  music,  to  the 
Wahringer  cemetery,  followed  by  a  long  string 
of  carriages  and  many  people. 

At  the  gate  of  the  cemetery  an  address  by 
Grillparzer  was  recited  by  Anschiitz — who  being 
an  actor  was  not  permitted  to  speak  on  con- 
secrated ground — and  two  poems  by  Castelli  and 
Schiechta  were  read  and  distributed.  Before 
the  earth  was  filled  in  three  laurel  wreaths  were 
placed  on  the  coffin  by  Hummel.  The  grave  is 
against  the  south  wall  of  the  cemetery,  near 
the  middle.  Schubert  is  three  places  oflf,  aud 
Clement  and  Seyfried  lie  nearly  opposite. 

On  April  3,  the  furniture  and  clothes,  with 
the  pianos  by  Graf  and  Broadwood,  were  sold  by 
auction  ^  at  the  lodgings.  The  same  day  a  solemn 
mass  was  performed  in  the  Hofpfarrkirche  of  the 
Augustines ;  Mozart's  Eequiem  was  sung,  La- 
blache  not  only  taking  the  bass  part  but  paying 
Barbaja  a  sum  of  200  gulden  for  the  cost  of  the 
singers.  Two  days  later  Cherubini's  Eequiem 
was  sung  at  the  Karlskirche. 

In  November*  the  sale  of  his  musical  effects 
took  place  by  auction.  Thayer  has  reprinted  the 
catalogue  in  his  Verzeichnus,  p.  173.  There 
were  50  lots  of  sketch  and  note-books;  19  auto- 
graphs of  impublished  and  73  autographs  of 
published  pieces ;  5  MS.  copies  of  published 
pieces  ;  40  copies  of  unpublished  works;  10  sets 
of  MS.  parts  ;  1 7  MS.  copies  of  music  by  various 
authors— including  Cherubini's  'Faniska'  and 
Mozart's  '  Zauberflote' ;  26  lots  of  printed  music ; 
6  of  works  on  music  ;  i  autograph  s}"mphony 
of  Haydn" s  ;  a  pianoforte  ;  a  medal ;  and  two 
violins.  The  produce  of  the  sale  was  1 193  florins, 
curiously  little  ^  when  compared  with  the  prices 
which  such  treasures  would  fetch  now.  This 
sum,  added  to  the  value  of  the  bank  shares  and 
the  Philharmonic  £100,  made  in  all,  accord- 

'  Breuning,  U3.  Afterwards 'lithographed,  but  now  rare  owing  to  the 
stone  having  broken.        *  20,CtiO,  says  Breuning.        '  Breuning,  123. 

*  Ibid.  125.  The  catalogue  and  valuation  are  dated  August  16. 

» Autographs  of  Symphonies  fetched  5  fiorins  each ;  Overtures 
2i  :  Sonatas  2 ;  the  Ma&s  in  D  7 ;  and  so  on. 


ing  to  Schindler,^  a  total  of  10,232  florins  (in 
silver),  or  a  little  over  £1000. 

In  course  of  time  the  grave  fell  into  neglect, 
and  in  1863  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik-freunde 
undertook  to  exhume  and  re-bury^  the  remains 
of  both  Beethoven  and  Schubert.  This  was 
done  on  Oct.  1 3,  and  Beethoven's  monument  now 
consists  of  a  large  flat  stone  covering  the  grave, 
surrounded  by  an  iron  railing,  and  headed  by  an 
obelisk  in  stone  bearing  a  l3rre,  the  usual  emblems 
of  eternity,  and  the  simple  name  Beethoven. 

Beethoven's  music  has  been  divided  by  Herr 
von  Lenz^  into  three  styles,  and  the  division  has 
evidently  some  justice  in  it,  or  it  would  not  have 
been  so  widely  accepted  as  it  is  even  by  those 
who  differ  about  its  details.  That  the  division 
is  not  chronological  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
M.  Lenz  includes  the  2nd  Symphony  (op.  36), 
written  in  1802,  in  the  first  period,  while  he 
places  the  Sonatas  op.  26  and  27,  which  were 
completed  a  year  earlier,  and  the  3  Sonatas 
op.  31,  which  were  written  in  company  with  the 
2nd  Symphony,  in  the  second  period.  As  far 
as  the  Sonatas  are  concerned  he  ends  the  first 
period  with  op.  22. 

But  we  may  go  further  than  that.  The  first 
movement  of  the  Solo  Sonata  in  Eb  (op.  7";  and 
the  Finale  of  the  Quartet  in  F,  op  18,  No.  i, 
contain  examples  of  the  episodes  which  form 
one  of  Beethoven's  main  characteristics,  such  as 
even  the  first  movement  of  the  Eroica  can  hardly 
surpass  for  independence  and  originality.  The 
Scherzo  of  SjTnphony  No.  I  and  the  Scherzo  and 
Finale  of  Symphony  No.  2  contain  passages 
which  would  be  found  original  and  characteristic 
if  met  with  in  the  compositions  of  many  years 
later.  Some  will  find  it  hard  to  place  the 
Quartet  in  F  minor,  which  Mendelssohn  thought 
the  most  Beethovenish  of  all  Beethoven's  works, 
in  anything  but  the  third  style  ;  whUe  the 
overture  in  C,  op.  124,  written  in  1822,  might 
be  classed  with  the  works  of  an  earlier  period. 
And  yet  on  the  whole  the  division  is  just,  as 
an  expression  of  the  fact  that  Beethoven  was 
always  in  progress ;  and  that,  to  an  extent 
greater  than  any  other  musician,  his  style 
matured  and  altered  as  he  grew  in  life.  He 
began,  as  it  was  natural  and  inevitable  he 
should,  with  the  best  style  of  his  day — the  style 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn ;  with  melodies  and 
passages  that  might  be  almost  mistaken  for 
theirs,  with  compositions  apparently  moulded  in 
intention  ®  on  them.  And  yet  even  during  this 
Mozartian  epoch  we  meet  with  works  or  single 
movements  which  are  not  Mozart,  which  Mozart 
perhaps  could  not  have  written,  and  which  very 
fully  reveal  the  future  Beethoven.  Such  are  the 
first  two  movements  of  the  Sonata  in  A  (op.  2), 
the  Sonatas  in  Eb  (op.  7)  and  D  (op.  10,  No.  3) 
and  Bb  (op.  22),  the  Scherzos  of  the  ist  and  2ud 

»  Biographic,  U.  147. 

*  See  the  Acienmiittige  DarsteHung  der  Ausgrabung  und  M'ierUr- 
btiiflzung  dtr  irdischen  Rtste  t  on  ISfelhoven  und  Schubert,  Vienna,  li?63. 

^  Beethoven  et  its  trois  Styles.   Petersbourg.  1852. 

•  Sonata,  op.  10,  Ko.  1 ;  melody  in  working  out  of  lat  movement  of 
Septet ;  Adagio  of  op.  31,  Ko.  1 ;  (Quintet,  op.  16. 


•202 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


Symphonies  already  mentioned,  and  the  Coda  of 
the  Finale  to  the  2nd  Symphony.  From  this 
youthful  period  he  passes  by  the  3  Sonatas 
op.  31 — which  we  have  seen  him  speaking  of 
as  a  change  in  his  style  —  by  the  Kreutzer 
Sonata  (March,  1803),  by  the  Pianoforte  Con- 
certo in  C  minor/  and  by  the  Eroica  (1804), 
to  his  mature  period,  a  time  of  extraordinary 
greatness,  full  of  individuality,  character,  and 
humour,  but  still  more  full  of  power  and  mastery 
and  pregnant  strong  sense. 

This  splendid  and  truly  astonishing  period 
contains  the  opera  of  Leonora  -  Eidelio,  with 
its  4  overtures  ;  the  IMass  in  C  ;  six  Symphonies, 
from  the  Eroica  to  the  No.  8  inclusive ;  the 
overture  to  Coriolan  ;  the  Egmont  music  ;  the 
Pianoforte  Concertos  in  G  and  E  flat ;  the  Violin 
Concerto ;  the  Rassoumoffsky  Quartets,  and 
those  in  Eb  and  F  minor  ;  the  3  later  P.  F.  Trios  ; 
the  Liederkreis;  and  last  not  least,  a  dozen 
Sonatas  for  Piano  solo,  of  which  the  chiefs  are 
the  D  minor  and  the  '  Appassionata,'  though  the 
others  are  closely  akin  and  hardly  inferior. 

From  this  period  of  extraordinary  force  and 
mastery — though  abounding  also  in  beauty  and 
sentiment — he  passes  by  a  second  transition  to 
his  third  and  final  style.  This  transition  is 
perhaps  more  obvious  than  the  former.  The 
difference  between  the  9th  Sjnnphony  and  its 
predecessors — not  only  in  dimensions  and  in  the 
use  of  the  chorus,  but  in  elevation  and  sentiment, 
and  in  the  total  impression  produced  —  is  un- 
mistakable. The  five  Pianoforte  Sonatas,  op. 
loi  to  III,  are  perfectly  distinct  from  any  of 
the  earlier  ones,  not  only  in  individuality — for 
all  Beethoven's  works  are  distinct — but  in  a 
certain  wistful  yearning,  a  sort  of  sense  of  the 
invisible  and  vision  of  the  infinite,  mingled 
with  their  power.  The  last  Quartets,  op.  127 
to  op.  135,  have  the  same  characteristics  as  the 
Sonatas  ;  but  they  are  also  longer,  full  of  changes 
of  time,  less  observant  than  before  of  the  tra- 
ditional forms  of  expression,  less  careful  to  make 
obvious  the  links  of  connection,  and  still  more  fuU 
of  intense  personality  and  of  a  wild  unimprisoned 
spirit.  All  the  sentiment  and  earnestness  of 
Schumann,  all  the  grace  and  individuahty  of 
Schubert,  are  there ;  with  an  intensity,  breadth, 
and  completeness,  which  those  masters  might 
perhaps  have  attained  if  they  had  bestowed  the 
time  and  pains  on  their  work  which  Beethoven 
did.  In  this  period  he  passes  from  being  the 
greatest  musician  to  be  a  great  teacher,  and  in 
a  manner  which  no  one  ever  did  before  and 
possibly  no  one  will  ever  do  again,  conveys 
lessons  which  by  their  intense  suggestiveness 
have  almost  the  force  of  moral  teaching.  The 
cause  of  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  As  we  have 
seen  in  the  preceding  portion  of  this  sketch  the 
year  1814  was  the  culminating  period  of  Bee- 
thoven's prosperity.  He  had  produced  his  latest 
and  then  greatest  works  under  such  favourable 
circumstances  as  no  musician  had  before  enjoyed. 
He  had  been  feted  and  caressed  by  emperors  and 

1  In  the  Finale  of  this  work  we  almost  surprise  the  change  of  style  in 
the  act  of  being  made. 


empresses,  and  others  of  the  greatest  of  this 
world's  great ;  he  had  for  the  first  time  in  his 
life  been  able  to  put  by  money,  and  feel  at  all 
independent  of  daily  labour.  Immediately  on 
this  came  an  equally  great  and  sudden  reverse — 
and  that  not  a  material  reverse  so  much  as  a 
blow  to  his  spirit,  and  a  series  of  misfortunes 
to  mind  and  heart  such  as  left  all  his  former 
sufi'erings  far  behind.  His  brother's  death  ;  the 
charge  of  the  nephew  ;  the  collision  with  the 
widow  and  with  his  other  relatives  and  friends  ; 
the  law-suits  ;  the  attempts  to  form  a  home  of  his 
own,  and  the  domestic  worries  and  \vretchednes3 
consequent  thereon ;  the  last  stages  of  his  deaf- 
ness ;  the  appearance  of  chronic  bad  health  ;  the 
actual  want  of  money — all  these  things,  which 
lasted  for  many  years,  formed  a  Valley  of  the 
Shadow  of  Death,  such  as  few  men  have  been 
called  to  traverse,  and  which  must  inevitably 
have  exercised  a  great  influence  on  a  nature  so 
sensitive  and  in  some  respects  so  morbid.  That 
this  fiery  trial  did  not  injure  his  power  of  pro- 
duction is  e%ddent  from  the  list  of  the  great 
works  which  fonn  the  third  period — from  op.  10 1 
inclusive.  That  it  altered  the  tone  and  colour 
of  his  utterance  is  equally  evident  from  the  works 
themselves.  'He  passes,'  as  Mr.  Dannreuther 
has  finely  '^said,  '  beyond  the  horizon  of  a  mere 
singer  and  poet,  and  touches  upon  the  domain 
of  the  seer  and  the  prophet;  where,  in  unison  with 
all  genuine  mystics  and  ethical  teachers,  he 
delivers  a  message  of  religious  love  and  resignation, 
identification  with  the  sufi'erings  of  all  living 
creatures,  deprecation  of  self,  negation  of  per- 
sonality, release  from  the  world.' 

Beyond  the  individual  and  peculiar  character 
which  distinguishes  his  works  and  makes  them 
Beethovenish,  as  Haydn's  are  Haydnish  and 
Mozart's  Mozartish,  though  in  a  greater  degree 
because  of  the  stronger  character  of  the  man — 
there  are  definite  peculiarities  in  Beethoven's 
way  of  working  which  should  be  specified  as 
far  as  possible.  That  he  was  no  wild  radical, 
altering  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  alteration,  or  in 
the  mere  search  for  originality,  is  e\'ident  from 
the  length  of  time  during  which  he  abstained 
from  publishing  or  even  composing  works  of 
pretension,  and  from  the  likeness  which  his 
early  works  possess  to  those  of  his  predecessors. 
He  began  naturally  with  the  forms  which  were 
in  use  in  his  days,  and  his  alteration  of  them 
grew  very  gradually  with  the  necessities  of  his 
expression.  The  form  of  the  sonata  is  'the 
transparent  veil  through  which  Beethoven  seems 
to  have  looked  at  all  ^  music'  And  the  good 
points  of  that  form  he  retained  to  the  last — the 
*  triune*  symmetry  of  exposition,  illustration,  and 
repetition,'  which  that  admirable  method  allowed 
and  enforced — but  he  permitted  himself  a  much 
greater  liberty  than  his  predecessors  had  done 
in  the  relationship  of  the  keys  of  the  different 
movements  and  parts  of  movements,  and  in  the 
proportion  of  the  clauses  and  sections  with 
which  he  built  them  up.    In  other  words,  he 

2  Macmillan's  Magazine,  July,  1876.  «  Ibid.  «  Ibid. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


203 


was  less  bound  by  the  forms  and  musical  rules, 
and  more  swayed  by  the  thought  which  he  had 
to  express,  and  the  directions  which  that  thought 
took  in  his  mind, 

1.  The  range  of  keys  within  which  the  com- 
posers of  sonatas  and  symphonies  before  Bee- 
thoven confined  themselves  was  ver}-  narrow. 
Taking  the  first  movement  as  an  example  of  the 
practice,  the  first  theme  was  of  course  given  out 
in  the  tonic,  and  this,  if  major,  was  almost 
invariably  answered  in  due  course  by  a  second 
theme  in  the  *  dominant '  or  fifth  above ;  for 
instance,  if  the  sonata  was  in  C  the  second 
subject  would  be  in  G,  if  in  D  it  would  be  in 
A.  If  the  movement  were  in  minor,  the  answer 
was  in  the  relative  major — C  minor  would.be 
answered  by  Eb,  A  minor  by  C[j,  and  so  on. 
This  is  the  case  19  times  out  of  20  in  the 
sonatas  and  symphonies  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. 
A  similar  restriction  governed  the  key  of  the 
second  movement.  It  was  usually  in  the  *  sub- 
dominant'  or  fifth  below — in  F  if  the  key  of 
the  piece  were  C,  in  Bb  if  the  key  were  F,  and 
so  on.  If  the  piece  were  in  a  minor  ke}'  the 
second  movement  was  in  the  third  below.  A 
little  more  latitude  was  allowed  here  than  in  the 
former  case ;  the  subdominant  now  and  then  be- 
came the  dominant,  or,  very  rarely,  the  'mediant' 
or  third  above  ;  and  the  relative  major  was  occa- 
sionally exchanged  for  the  tonic  major. 

Beethoven,  as  already  remarked,  adopted  very 
different  relations  in  respect  of  the  change  of 
key  from  one  movement  to  another.  Out  of  81 
works  in  sonata  form  he  makes  the  transition  to 
the  dominant  only  3  times ;  to  the  subdominant 
19  times  ;  to  the  mediant  or  3rd  above  4  times ; 
and  to  the  submediant  or  3rd  below  30  times. 
From  tonic  major  to  tonic  minor  he  changes  12, 
and  from  minor  to  major  8  times.  His  favourite 
change  was  evidently  to  the  submediant  or  third 
below — that  is  to  say,  to  a  key  less  closely  related 
to  the  tonic  and  more  remote  than  the  usual  key. 
He  makes  it  in  his  first  work  (Op.  i,  No.  2).  In 
his  Bb  trio  (op.  97)  he  has  it  twice,  and  in  his 
Variations  on  an  original  theme  (op.  34),  each 
of  the  first  5  variations  is  a  third  below  the 
preceding. 

In  the  relation  of  his  first  and  second  subjects 
he  is  more  orthodox.  Out  of  26  of  the  Piano- 
forte Sonatas  the  usual  change  to  the  dominant 
occurs  17  times,  to  the  mediant  3,  and  to  the 
submediant  3. 

2.  Another  of  his  innovations  had  respect  to 
the  connection  of  the  different  subjects  or  clauses. 
His  predecessors  were  in  the  habit  rather  of 
separating  their  clauses  than  of  connecting  them  ; 
and  this  they  did  by  conventional  passages  of 
entirely  different  character  from  the  melodious 
themes  themselves,  stuffed  in  between  the  themes 
like  so  much  hay  or  paper  for  mere  packing. 
Any  sjTuphony  of  Mozart  or  Haydn  will  give 
examples  of  this,  which  Wagner  ^compares  to 
the  '  rattling  of  the  dishes  at  a  royal  feast.' 
IMozart  also  has  a  way  of  drawing  up  and  pre- 

'  ^ uf ic  qfiht  Future,  translated  by  Dannreuther,  1873 ;  p.  44. 


senting  arms  before  the  appearance  of  the  second 
subject,  which  tends  to  cut  the  movement  up 
into  very  definite  portions.  Of  these  tiresome 
and  provoking  intermediate  periods  Beethoven 
got  rid  by  the  use  of  phrases  which  are  either 
parts  of  the  main  theme  or  closely  related  to  it ; 
and  he  thus  gives  his  movements  a  unity  and 
consistency  as  if  it  were  an  organic  growth,  and 
not  a  piece  of  work  cunningly  put  together  by 
art  or  man's  device.  How  he  effects  this,  and 
the  very  tentative  and  gradual  way  in  which  he 
does  it,  may  be  seen  in  Symphonies  I  and  2  and 
the  Eroica,  in  which  last  all  trace  of  the  old 
plan  has  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

3.  The  first  movement  of  the  Eroica  supplies 
instances  of  other  innovations  on  the  established 
forms.  Not  only  in  the  '  exposition'  (before  the 
double  bar)  are  other  themes  brought  in  besides 
the  two  main  subjects,  but  in  the  'illustration,' 
or,  to  use  the  more  common  term,  the  '  working 
out,'  there  is  an  unanticipated  explosion  which, 
to  say  the  least,  is  entirely  without  precedent, 
followed  by  an  entirely  fresh  episode  as  important 
as  anything  that  has  occurred  before,  and  that 
again  by  a  new  feature  (the  staccato  bass)  which, 
while  it  accompanies  and  reinforces  the  main 
subject,  adds  materially  to  the  interest  of  the 
music.  Again,  in  the  'repetit'on'  we  have  not 
only  a  great  departure  from  regular  rule  in  the 
keys  which  the  music  goes  through,  but  we  have 
a  coda  of  no  less  than  1 40  bars  long,  proclaiming 
itself  by  its  opening  as  an  independent  mem.ber 
of  the  movement,  and  though  made  almost  entirely 
out  of  previous  material,  yet  quite  differently 
expressed  from  anything  before,  and  full  of  fresh 
meaning.  Now  none  of  these  alterations  and 
additions  to  the  usual  forms  were  made  by  Bee- 
thoven for  their  own  sake.  They  were  made 
because  he  had  something  to  say  on  his  subject 
which  the  rules  did  not  give  him  time  and  space 
to  say,  and  which  he  could  not  leave  unsaid. 
His  work  is  a  poem  in  which  the  thoughts  and 
emotions  are  the  first  things,  and  the  forms  of 
expression  second  and  subordinate.  Still,  even 
in  his  innovations,  how  careful  he  is  to  keep  as 
near  the  rules  as  possible  !  His  chief  episodes 
occur  in  the  working  out,  where  a  certain  licence 
was  always  lawful ;  and  codas  were  recognised, 
and  had  even,  as  in  ]Mozart'3  'Jupiter,'  been 
turned  to  noble  account.  The  same  characteristics 
are  found  in  the  ninth  S}Tnphony  as  in  the  third, 
only  the  mood  of  mind  being  entirely  different, 
the  mode  of  expression  is  different  too,  but  the 
principle  of  the  perfect  subordination  of  the 
expression  to  the  thought,  while  adhering  as 
closely  to  the  '  form '  as  was  consistent  with 
perfect  expression,  is  the  same.  One  or  two 
pieces  of  his  second  period  may  however  be 
named,  in  which  both  thought  and  mode  of 
expression  are  so  entirely  different  from  am-thing 
before  them,  that  they  stand  quite  by  themselves. 
Such  movements  as  the  opening  Adagio  of  the 
Sonata  in  Cf  minor,  or  the  Con  moto  of  the 
Pianoforte  Concerto  in  G — in  which  Schumann 
used  to  see  a  picture  of  Orpheus  taming  brute- 
nature —  have  no  prototypes;   they  are  pure 


204 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


creations,  founded  on  nothing  previous,  but 
absolutely  new  in  style,  idea,  and  form. 

In  the  later  quartets  it  must  be  admitted  that 
he  wandered  further  away  from  the  old  paths  ; 
the  thought  there  seems  everything  and  the  form 
almost  nothing.  And  this  fact,  as  much  as  the 
obscurity  and  individuality  of  the  thoughts  them- 
selves and  their  apparent  want  of  connexion  until 
they  have  become  familiar,  is  perhaps  the  cause 
that  these  noble  works  are  so  difficult  to  under- 
stand. The  forms,  depend  upon  it,  were  founded 
in  reason  and  nature.  They  grew  through  long 
periods  to  be  what  Haydn  fixed  them  at ;  and 
as  long  as  the  thoughts  of  composers  did  not 
burst  their  limits  they  were  perfect.  Beethoven 
came,  and  he  first  enlarged  and  modified  them, 
adhering  however  to  their  fundamental  principle 
of  recurrence  and  recapitulation,  till  in  the  end, 
withdrawn  more  and  more  into  himself  by  his 
deafness,  he  wrote  down  what  he  felt,  often 
without  thinking  of  the  exigences  of  those  who 
were  to  hear  him.  This  however  only  applies 
to  the  later  Quartets.  The  ninth  Symphony 
and  the  last  Pianoforte  Sonatas  are  as  strictly 
in  form,  and  as  coherent  and  intelligible,  aa 
could  be  desired. 

4.  A  striking  instance  of  this  loyalty  is  found 
in  Beethoven's  treatment  of  the  '  Introduction.' 
This — a  movement  in  slow  time,  preceding  the 
first  Allegro — forms  part  of  the  original  design  of 
the  overture  by  Lully,  and  is  found  in  nine  out 
of  ten  of  Handel's  overtures.  Haydn  often  has 
one  in  his  symphonies,  usually  8  to  1 2  bars  long, 
occasionally  as  much  as  20.  Mozart  has  prefixed 
similar  prefaces  to  some  of  his  works,  such  as 
the  Symphony  in  E  flat,  the  Quintet  for  Piano 
and  Wind  instruments,  and  the  famous  Quartet 
in  C,  dedicated  to  Haydn.  Beethoven,  besides 
placing  one  before  his  Quintet  for  Piano  and 
Wind  (op.  16),  which,  as  already  remarked,  is 
like  a  challenge  to  Mozart,  has  one  to  the  Sonata 
Path^tique  and  to  the  first  Symphony.  In  the 
last  of  these  cases  it  is  12  bars  long.  In  the 
2nd  Symphony  it  expands  to  33  bars  long,  and 
increases  largely  in  development.  But  even  this 
is  a  mere  preface  when  compared  with  the  noble 
and  impressive  movements  which  usher  in  the 
Allegros  of  the  4th  and  7th  Symphonies — long 
and  independent  movements,  the  latter  no  less 
than  80  bars  in  length,  full  of  important  and 
independent  ideas,  and  of  the  grandest  effect. 

In  all  the  instances  mentioned — the  Succession 
of  Keys,  the  Episodes,  the  Coda,  the  Introduc- 
tion—  Beethoven's  modifications  seem  to  have 
sprung  from  the  fact  of  his  regarding  his  music 
less  as  a  piece  of  technical  performance  than  his 
predecessors  had  perhaps  done,  and  more  as  the 
expression  of  the  ideas  with  which  his  mind  was 
charged.  The  ideas  were  too  wide  and  too 
various  to  be  contained  in  the  usual  limits,  and 
therefore  the  limits  had  to  be  enlarged.  He 
regards  first  what  he  has  to  say — his  thought — 
and  how  he  shall  convey  and  enforce  and  reiter- 
ate that  thought,  so  as  to  express  it  to  his  hearer 
exactly  as  he  thinks  it,  without  being  careful  to 
find  an  old  formula  in  which  to  couch  it.  Even 


consecutive  fifths  were  no  hindrance  to  him — 
they  gave  the  exact  sound  in  which  he  wished 
to  convey  his  idea  of  the  moment ;  and  therefore 
he  used  them  as  naturally,  as  a  speaker  might 
employ  at  a  particular  juncture,  with  the  best 
effect,  an  expression  usually  quite  inadmissible. 
No  doubt  other  musicians  had  used  similar 
liberties ;  but  not  to  the  same  extent,  because 
no  one  before  had  been  gifted  with  so  independent 
and  original  a  nature.  But  in  Beethoven  the 
fact  was  connected  with  the  peculiar  position  he 
had  taken  in  society,  and  with  the  new  ideas 
which  the  general  movement  of  freedom  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  French 
Revolution  in  particular,  had  forced  even  into 
such  strongholds  as  the  Austrian  courts.  People 
who  were  the  servants  of  archbishops  and 
princes,  and  moved  about  with  the  rest  of  the 
establishment  in  the  train  of  their  master,  who 
wore  powder  and  pigta"l  and  red-heeled  shoes, 
and  were  forced  to  wait  in  ante -rooms  and 
regulate  their  conduct  strictly  by  etiquette,  and 
habitually  keep  down  their  passions  under  deco- 
rous rules  and  forms,  could  not  give  their 
thoughts  and  emotions  the  free  and  natural 
vent  which  they  would  have  had  Avithout  the 
perpetual  curb  of  such  restraints  and  the  habits 
they  must  have  engendered.  But  Beethoven, 
like  Mirabeau,  had  '  swallowed  the  formulas '  of 
the  day  ;  he  had  thrown  over  etiquette,  and, 
rotarier  as  he  was,  lived  on  absolute  equality  with 
the  best  aristocracy  of  Vienna.  What  he  felt  he 
said,  both  in  society  and  in  his  music,  and  the 
result  is  before  us.  The  great  diff'erence  is,  as 
we  have  already  remarked,  that  whereas  in  his 
ordinary  intercourse  he  was  extremely  abrupt  and 
careless  of  eflfect,  in  his  music  he  was  exactly  the 
reverse ;  painstaking,  laborious,  and  never  satis- 
fied tiU  he  had  conveyed  his  ideas  in  unmistake- 
able  language. 

5.  The  Scherzo  stands  perhaps  in  a  difi'erent 
category  from  the  three  features  already  men- 
tioned. It  is  less  of  a  modification  and  more  of 
a  distinct  new  creation.  The  word  is  met  with 
in  Haydn  and  Mozart,  but  in  a  different  sense  to 
that  in  which  Beethoven  uses  it,  and  apparently 
neither  of  those  masters  have  it  in  a  symphony. 
To  both  of  them  the  third  movement  of  a  sym- 
phony was  a  minuet.  All  that  a  minuet  could 
be  made  they  made  of  it,  but  it  was  never  given 
them  to  go  beyond.  The  minuet  remained  a 
dance  tune  to  the  end  of  its  days,  and  is  so  even 
in  Beethoven's  No.  8  Symphony.  In  fact  Haydn 
actually  lamented  that  he  could  not  make  more 
of  it  than  he  had.  When  discussing  a  rule  of 
Albrechtsberger's  by  which  fourths  were  pro- 
hibited in  strict  composition,  he  *  said,  *  Such 
trifling  is  absurd;  I  wish,  instead,  that  some 
one  woxild  try  to  compose  a  really  new  minuet.' 
This  Beethoven  did.  The  third  movement  of  his 
first  Symphony  is  what  Haydn  wished  to  ^see. 
Though  labelled  'menuetto'  it  is  quite  unlike  a 

1  Griesinger,  p.  114. 

»  One  would  like  to  know  If  Haydn  ever  heard  the  First  or  any  other 
of  Beethoven's  Symphonies,  and  trhat  his  real  feelings  were  about 
them.  He  lived  on  till  1809,  and  might  thus  have  heard  the  Eroica  and 
even  the  C  minor. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


205 


minuet.    It  is  in  fact  a  scherzo,  and  in  its  little  1 
dimensions  is  the  pattern  and  model  of  those  j 
gigantic  movements  which  in  the  Eroica,  the 
C  minor,  the  No.  7,  and  especially  the  No.  9  of 
the  Symphonies ;  in  the  B  flat  trio  ;  in  the  So- 
nata, op.  106  ;  and  the  first  of  the  Eassoumoffsky  j 
Quartets,  are  so  truly  astonishing,  and  so  charac-  j 
teristic  of  their  great  author. 

6.  An  innovation  of  great  importance  in  the 
Finale,  for  which  no  precedent  can  be  found,  was 
the  introduction  of  the  Chorus.    In  the  Eroica 
Symphony  Beethoven  showed  how  a  set  of  or- 
chestral variations  could  be  employed  in  a  finale. 
In  the  Choral  Fantasia  again  he  showed  with 
what  eflFect  a  chorus  could  be  employed  in  the 
same  part  of  the  work.    But  in  the  9th  Sym-  j 
phony  he  combined  the  two,  by  using  the  chorus 
in  a  succession  of  variations.    Mendelssohn  has  | 
followed  his  example  in  the  '  Lobgesang,'  the  \ 
vocal  portion  of  which  is  the  last  movement  of  a  | 
symphony ;  but  he  has  not  adopted  the  Variation-  i 
form.  I 

7.  One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of 
Beethoven's  music  is  the  individual  variety  of 
each  piece  and  each  movement.  In  the  Syrn-  [ 
phonies  every  one  of  the  9  first  movements  is 
entirely  distinct  from  the  other  8,  and  the  same 
of  the  andantes,  scherzos,  and  finales.  Each  is 
based  on  a  distinct  idea,  and  each  leaves  a 
separate  image  and  impression  on  the  mind. 
And  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  majority  of 
the  smaller  works,  of  the  concertos  and  quartets 
and  pianoforte  trios — certainly  of  the  sonatas,  all 
but  perhaps  a  very  few.  The  themes  and  pas- 
sages have  no  family  likeness,  and  have  not  the 
air  of  having  been  taken  out  of  a  stock  ready 
made,  but  are  bom  for  the  occasion.  He  thus 
very  rarely  repeats  himself.  The  theme  of  the 
slow  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  F  minor  and 
the  second  theme  in  the  first  movement  of  the 
Sonata  in  C  (op.  2,  Nos.  i  and  3)  are  adapted 
from  his  early  pianoforte  quartets.  The  minuet 
in  the  Septet  is  developed  from  that  in  the  little 
Sonata  in  G  (op.  49,  No.  2).  The  Turkish 
March  in  the  'Ruins  of  Athens'  had  already 
appeared  as  a  theme  for  Variations  in  D  (op. 
76).  The  theme  of  the  Variations  in  the  Choral 
Fantasia  is  a  song  of  his  own,  '  Seufzer  eines 
Ungeliebten'  (No.  253),  composed  many  years 
before.    The  melodies  of  two  Contretanze  (No. 

1 7tt)  are  employed  in  the  Prometheus  music,  and 
one  of  them  is  also  used  in  a  set  of  Variations 
(op.  35)  and  in  the  Finale  to  the  Eroica.  In 
the  Finale  to  the  Choral  Fantasia  there  are  some 
slight  anticipations  of  the  Finale  to  the  Choral 
Symphony  ;  the  Prometheus  music  contains  an 
anticipation  of  the  storm  in  the  Pastoral  Sym- 
phony, and  the  subject  of  the  Allegretto  to  the 
8th  Symphony  is  found  in  a  humorous  Canon 
(No.  256-2) — such  are  all  the  repetitions  that 
have  been  detected.  How  far  he  employed  Volks- 
lieder  and  other  tunes  not  invented  by  himself  is 
not  yet  known.  Certain  melodies  in  the  Eroica, 
Pastoral,  and  No.  7  Symphonies,  are  said  to  have 
been  thus  adopted,  but  at  present  it  is  mere 
assertion. 


This  is  perhaps  the  most  convenient  place  for 
noticing  a  prominent  fact  about  his  own  melodies, 
viz.  that  they  often  consist  wholly  or  mainly  of 
consecutive  notes.  This  is  the  case  with  some 
of  the  very  finest  themes  he  has  written,  witness 
the  Scherzo  and  Finale  to  the  Choral  Symphony; 
and  that  to  the  Choral  Fantasia  ;  the  slow  move- 
ments of  the  Bb  Trio  and  the  Symphony  in  the 
same  key ;  the  Adagio  to  the  Quartet  op.  127, 
and  many  others. 

8.  In  the  former  part  of  this  sketch  we  have 
mentioned  the  extraordinary  manner  in  which 
Beethoven  wrote  and  rewrote  until  he  had  ar- 
rived at  the  exact  and  most  apt  expression  of 
his  thought.  The  same  extraordinary  care  not 
to  be  mistaken  is  found  in  the  nuances,  or 
marks  of  expression,  with  which  his  works  are 
crowded,  and  which  he  was  the  first  to  introduce 
in  such  abundance.  For  instance,  to  compare 
the  'Jupiter'  Symphony — Mozart's  last — with 
Beethoven's  first,  we  shall  find  that  the  violin 
part  of  the  first  half  of  the  opening  Allegro  has 
in  the  former  (120  bars  long)  14  marks  of  ex- 
pression, in  the  latter  (95  bars)  42  marks.  The 
Andante  to  Mozart's  Symphony  in  G  minor  has 
38  marks  to  131  bars,  while  that  to  Beethoven's 
No.  2  has  155  marks  to  276  bars.  In  the  later 
works  this  attention  to  nuance  increases.  The 
Allegro  agitato  of  the  Quartet  in  F  minor,  125 
bars  long,  contains  95  marks ;  the  Cavatina  in  the 
Quartet  in  Bb,  66  bars  long,  contains  58  marks. 
It  is  part  of  the  system  of  unwearied  care  and 
attention  by  which  this  great  man,  whose 
genius  was  only  equalled  by  his  assiduity, 
brought  his  works  to  their  actual  perfection,  and 
to  the  certainty  that  they  would  produce  what 
he  himself  calls  il  suo  proprio  proposto  effetto^ — 
their  owm  special  and  intended  effect.  How 
original  and  splendid  the  effect  of  such  nuances 
can  be  may  be  seen  in  the  Vivace  of  the  No.  7 
Symphony,  where  the  sudden  change  from  ff 
to  pp,  accompanying  an  equally  sudden  plunge 
in  the  melody  and  abrupt  change  in  the  harmony, 
produces  a  wild  romantic  effect  which  once  to 
hear  is  never  to  forget. 

In  addition,  Beethoven  here  and  there  gives 
indications  such  as  the  'Bitte  urn  innern  und 
aussem  Frieden'  at  the  'Dona'  in  the  Mass  in 
D,  the  'beklemmt'  in  the  Cavatina  of  the  Bb 
Quartet,  the  'Arioso  dolente'  of  Sonata  op.  no, 
which  throw  a  very  personal  colour  over  the 
piece.  The  word  'Cantabile'  has  a  special 
meaning  when  he  employs  it. 

9.  Beethoven  used  Variations  to  a  very  great 
extent.  For  the  Pianoforte,  Solo  and  in  con- 
junction with  other  solo  instruments,  he  has  left 
29  sets,  some  on  original  themes,  some  on  airs 
by  other  composers.  But  besides  these  several 
movements  in  his  Sonatas,  Quartets,  and  Trios 
are  variations,  so  entitled  by  him.  Every  one 
will  remember  those  in  the  Septet,  in  the  '  Harp ' 
Quartet,  in  the  Kreutzer  Sonata,  in  the  Solo 
Sonata  in  A  flat,  and  in  the  two  late  Sonatas 
in  E  and  C  minor  (op.  109  and  111).  Many 

»  Preface  to  the  Eroica. 


206 


BEETHOVEN". 


BEETHOVEN. 


other  movements  in  the  same  branches  of  com- 
position are  variations,  although  not  so  named. 
The  slow  movements  in  the  Sonata  'appassionata' 
and  the  op.  io6  are  splendid  instances.  In  the 
Symphonies  the  slow  movements  of  the  C  minor, 
the  Pastoral  and  the  Ninth,  are  magnificent 
examples,  the  last  the  most  splendid  of  all  —while 
the  colossal  Finales  of  the  Eroica  and  the  Ninth 
Symphony  are  also  variations,  though  of  a  very 
different  order  from  the  rest  and  from  each 
other.  Of  the  lowest  and  most  obvious  type  of 
variation,  in  which  the  tune  remains  in  statu 
quo  all  through  the  piece,  with  mere  changes 
of  accompaniment  above,  below,  and  around  it — 
the  Herz-Thalberg  type — the  nearest  approach 
to  be  found  in  Beethoven's  works,  is  the  5th 
variation  in  op.  26.  His  favourite  plan  is  to 
preserve  the  harmonic  basis  of  the  theme  and 
to  modify  and  embellish  the  melody.  Of  this 
type  he  makes  use  with  astonishing  ease  and 
truly  inexhaustible  originality.  It  is  to  be  found 
in  some  shape  or  other  in  nearly  every  work  of 
his  second  and  third  periods.  It  is  not  his  own 
invention,  for  fine  instances  of  it  exist  in  Mozart 
and  Haydn,  but  no  one  practised  it  with  such 
beauty  and  nobility  as  he  did,  unless  it  be 
Schubert,  who  at  any  rate  approaches  very  near 
him  in  its  use.  Perhaps  the  finest  instance  of 
it  is  in  the  Adagio  of  the  Ninth  Symphony,  in 
which  the  melody  is  varied  first  in  common  time 
and  then  in  12-8,  with  a  grace,  beauty,  and 
strength  which  are  quite  unparalleled.  There 
is,  however,  a  ^  third  kind  of  variation  which  is 
all  Beethoven's  own,  in  which  everything  under- 
goes a  change — rhythm,  melody,  and  harmony — 
and  yet  the  individual  theme  remains  clearly 
present.  *  Perhaps  one  melodious  step  only  of 
the  subject  is  taken  (op.  109;  var.  i  and  5); 
perhaps  the  fundamental  progressions  of  the 
harmony  alone  are  retained ;  perhaps  some 
thorough  rhythmical  alteratioa  is  made,  with 
an  entire  change  of  key,  as  in  the  Poco  Andante, 
Finale  of  Eroica ;  in  the  Bb  variation  alia 
marcia,  of  the  Ninth  Symphony;  and  in  many 
of  the  33  Variations.  This  is  no  mere  change 
of  dress  and  decoration,  but  an  actual  creation 
of  something  new  out  of  the  old  germ — we  see 
the  chrysalis  change  into  the  butterfly,  and  we 
know  it  to  be  the  same  creature  despite  the 
change.'  *In  no  other  form  than  that  of  the 
Variation,'  continues  Mr.  Dannreuther,  'does 
Beethoven's  creative  power  appear  more  wonder- 
ful, and  its  efiect  on  the  art  more  difficult  to 
measure.' 

10.  Of  Fugues  Beethoven  wrote  but  few,  and 
those  near  the  end  of  his  career,  but  he  always 
knew  how  to  introduce  a  fugato  or  bit  of  con- 
trapuntal work  with  the  happiest  effect.  Witness 
a  passage  in  the  working  out  of  the  first  move- 
ment of  the  Eroica  Symphony,  and  another  in 
the  Finale  of  the  same  work  ;  or  in  the  middle 
portion  of  the  Allegretto  of  No.  7  ;  or  the  lovely 
counterpoint  for  the  Bassoon  in  the  opening  of 
the  Finale  of  No.  9.    Of  complete  fugues  the 

>  Mr.  Dannreuther  in  ilacmillatu 


only  instrumental  ones  are  the  finale  to  the  3rd 
of  the  Kassoumoflfsky  Quartets  ;  the  finales  to 
the  Cello  Sonata  op.  102,  No.  2,  and  the  Solo 
Sonatas  op.  loi,  106,  and  110  ;  and  the  enormous 
movement  in  B  flat  which  originally  formed  the 
termination  to  the  great  String  Quartet  in  the 
same  key.  Of  the  last-named  fugue  one  has  no 
opportunity  of  judging,  as  it  is  never  played  ; 
but  of  the  others,  especially  those  in  the  Solo 
Sonatas,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  nothing  in 
the  whole  of  Beethoven's  music  is  associated 
with  a  more  distinct  dramatic  intention,  whether 
it  be,  as  has  been  ^suggested,  a  resolution  to 
throw  off  an  affection  which  was  enthralling 
him,  or  some  other  great  mental  effort. 

1 1 .  Beethoven  did  not  originate  '  programme 
music,'  for  Bach  left  a  sonata  describing  the 
departure  of  his  brother  ;  and  two  symphonies 
are  in  existence  by  Knecht — a  countrjrman  of 
Beethoven's,  and  a  few  years  his  senior — entitled 
'Tableau  musical  de  la  nature,'  and  *La  joie  des 
Bergers  interrompue  par  Forage,'  which  are  not 
only  founded  on  the  same  idea  with  his  Pastoral 
Symphony,  but  are  ^said  to  contain  somewhat 
similar  themes  and  passages.  But,  though  he 
did  not  invent  it,  he  raised  it  at  once  to  a 
higher  level  than  before,  and  his  programme 
pieces  have  exercised  a  great  effect  on  the  art. 
'  \\Tien  Beethoven  had  once  opened  the  road,'  said 
Mendelssohn,  '  every  one  was  bound  to  follow ' ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  without  his  example  we 
should  not  have  had  Mendelssohn's  overtures  to 
'The  Hebrides'  or  to  the  ' Meeresstille  und  gliick- 
liche  Fahrt.'  His  works  in  this  line,  omitting  all 
which  did  not  receive  their  titles  from  himself, 
are  : — the  '  Sonata  pathetique';  '  La  Malinconia,' 
an  adagio  in  the  String -quartet.  No.  6 ;  the  'Eroica' 
Symphony ;  the  '  Pastoral '  ditto  ;  the  Battle  of 
Vittoria  ;  the  Sonata  *  Les  Adieux,  1' Absence 
et  le  Retour';  the  movements  in  the  A  minor 
quartet  (op.  132)  entitled  'Canzona  di  ringrazia- 
mento  in  modo  lidico  offerta  alia  divinita  da  un 
guarito,'  and  'Sentendo  nuova  forza';  the  move- 
ment in  the  F  major  quartet  (op.  135),  entitled 
'Der  schwergefasste  Entschluss — Muss  es  sein? 
Es  muss  sein' ;  and  a  Rondo  a  capriccio  for  Piano 
(op.  129),  the  MS.  of  which  is  entitled  by  the  com- 
poser '  Die  Wuth  iiber  den  verlornen  Groschen 
ausgetobt  in  einer  Caprice.'  Beyond  these  Bee- 
thoven made  no  acknowledged  attempts  to  depict 
definite  scenes  or  moods  of  mind  in  instrumental 
music.  We  have  already  (p.  1 79a)  quoted  Schind- 
ler's  statement  that  Beethoven  intended  the 
Sonatas  in  op.  14  to  be  a  dialogue  between  two 
lovers,  and  to  represent  the  'entreating  and  re- 
sisting principle' ;  and  the  Sonata  in  E  minor 
(op.  90)  is  said  to  have  had  direct  reference  to 
the  difficulties  attending  Moritz  Lichnowsky's 
passion  for  the  actress  whom  he  ultimately  mar- 
ried. The  first  movement  was  to  have  been 
called  'Kampf  zwischen  Kopf  und  Herz,'  and 
the  second,  '  Conversation  mit  der  Geliebten.' 
But  none  of  these  titles  were  directly  sanctioned 
by  Beethoven  himself.     In  the  programme  of 

2  Mr.  Dayison's  Analysis  of  the  Sonata  op.  106. 
»  I'itii,  Biographic,  s.  v.  Knecht. 


BEETHOVEX. 


BEETHOVEN. 


207 


the  concert  of  Dec.  22,  1808,  at  whicli  the  Pas- 
toral Symphony  was  produced,  he  prefixed  the 
following  worcb  to  the  description  of  the  Sym- 
phony : — 'Pastoral  S}Tnphonie  :  mehr  Ausdruck 
der  Empfindung  als  Malerei' — 'more  expression 
of  emotions  than  portraiture,'  a  canon  which 
should  surely  be  taken  as  the  guide  in  interpreting 
all  similar  works  of  his. 

We  have  now  endeavoured  to  give  the  main 
external  characteristics  of  Beethoven's  music ; 
but  the  music  itself,  though  it  resides  in  them,  is 
beyond  and  above  them  all.  '  While  listening,' 
says  Mr.  Dannreuther,  '  to  such  works  as  the 
Overture  to  Leonora,  the  Sinfonia  Eroica,  or  the 
Ninth  S}Tnphony,  we  feel  that  we  are  in  the 
presence  of  something  far  wider  and  higher  than 
the  mere  development  of  musical  themes.  The 
execution  in  detail  of  each  movement  and  each 
succeeding  work  is  modified  more  and  more  with 
the  prevailing  poetic  sentiment.  A  religious  pas- 
sion and  elevation  are  present  in  the  utterances. 
The  mental  and  moral  horizon  of  the  music  grows 
upon  us  with  each  renewed  hearing.  The  different 
movements — like  the  different  particles  of  each 
movement  —  have  as  close  a  connection  with 
one  another  as  the  acts  of  a  tragedy,  and  a 
characteristic  significance  to  be  imderstood  only 
in  relation  to  the  whole ;  each  work  is  in  the 
fuU  sense  of  the  word  a  revelation.  Beethoven 
speaks  a  language  no  one  has  spoken  before,  and 
treats  of  things  no  one  has  dreamt  of  before  :  yet 
it  seems  as  though  he  were  speaking  of  matters 
long  familiar,  in  one's  mother  tongue  ;  as  though 
he  touched  upon  emotions  one  had  lived  through 
in  some  former  existence.  .  .  .  The  warmth  and 
depth  of  his  ethical  sentiment  is  now  felt  all  the 
world  over,  and  it  will  ere  long  be  universally 
recognised  that  he  has  leavened  and  widened  the 
sphere  of  men's  emotions  in  a  manner  akin  to 
that  in  which  the  conceptions  of  great  philo- 
sophers and  poets  have  widened  the  sphere  of 
men's  intellectual  activity.'  ^ 


Beethoven's  published  works  may  be  summed 
up  as  follows : — 

I.  IXSTEUMENTAL. 


9  Symphonies— In  CD,  Eb  fEroi- 
c»),  Bb,  C  minor,  F  (Pastoral),  A, 
F,  and  D  minor  iChorali. 

The  Battle  of  Vittoria ;  overture 
and  mtisic  to  Prometheus ;  over- 
ture and  music  to  Egmont. 

9  Orertures— Coriolan;  Leonora 
X0.I;  Do.Xo.2;  Do.  No.  3;  Fidelio; 
King  Stephen ;  Buins  of  Athens : 
op.  115  (Namemfeier) :  op.  124 
(Weihe  des  Hause?'. 

Allegretto  in  £b:  March  from 
T&rpeia— in  C ;  Military  3Iarch— in 
D;  12  Minuets';  12 'denticl  e  Tan- 
ze";  12  Contretanze;  Kiner  Ballet. 

1  Concerto  for  Violin  and  Orches- 
tra in  D ;  1  fragment  of  do.  in  C  ; 
and  2  Bomances  for  do. 

5  Concertos  for  Piano  and  Or- 
che»tr»— in  C,  Bb,  C  minor;  G, 


;and  ;  1  do.  arranged  from  Vio- 
l.nConcerto  ;  Koudo  fur  do.  in  Bb; 
jl  Triple  Concerto  (op.  56' ;  1  Choral 
I  Fantasia  for  Piano,  Orchestra,  and 
1  Chorus. 

Cadences  to  Pianoforte  Con- 


2  Octets  for  Wind— both  in  E  b. 
1  Septet  for  Strings  and  Wind. 
1  Sestet  for  ditto— in  E  t>. 

1  ditto  for  Wind— in  Eb. 

2  Quinteu  for  Strings  — in  Eb 
and  C :  1  ditto,  fugue  (op.  137) ;  1 
ditto  arranged  from  P.  F.  Trio  in 
C  minor. 

1(5  Quartets  for  Strings— in  F,  G, 
D,  C  minor,  A,  Bb  ;  in  F,  E  minor, 
C  (Bauoiunof&ky ) ;  in  £  b  (U&rlen- 


i  I  haye  been  much  indebted  in  this  part  of  my  work  to  an  admirable 
paper  by  Mr.  Dannreuther  in  MacniiUan's  Mayazine  for  July.  1ST6.  I 
haye  quoted  from  it  more  than  once,  and  if  I  have  not  done  so  still 
more  it  is  because  the  style  of  his  remarks  is  not  suited  to  the  bald 
rigidity  of  a  Dictionary  article. 


Q.) :  in  F  minor;  In  Eb  ;  in  Bb  ; 
in  C  JI  minor ;  in  A  minor ;  in  F : 
also  Fugue  in  Bb- 

2  Equali  for  4  Trombones. 

5  Trios  for  Strings— in  E  b) :  in  G, 
D,  C  minor ;  in  D  (Serenadei. 

1  ditto  Strings  and  Hute— in  D 
(Serenade*. 

1  ditto  for  Wind. 

3  Duos  for  Wind— in  C,  F,  Bb. 

1  Quintet  for  Piano  and  Wind- 
in  Eb. 

1  Quartet  for  Piano  and  Strings- 
after  for*^oing.  3  ditto  Uuvenile)— 
in  Eb,  D,  and  C. 

8  Trios  for  Piano  and  Strings— in 
Eb,G,  Cminor;  in  D,  Eb:  inBb; 
in  Bb  (one  movement) ;  iu  Eb  ■  ju- 
venile);  after  Symphony  in  D; 
Variations  in  G;  14  ditto  in  Eb. 
1  Trio  for  Piano,  Clar.,  and  Cello  in 
Bb  ;  1  ditto  (after  Septeti  in  Eb. 

10  Sonatas  for  Piano  and  Violin— 
in  D,  A,  E  b  ;  in  A  minor ;  in  F  ;  in 
A,  C  minor,  6 ;  in  A  (Kreutzer) ;  in 
G.  1  Bondo  in  G  ;  12  Variations 
in  F. 

5  ditto  for  Piano  and  Cello— in  F, 
G  minor ;  in  A ;  in  C,  D.  12  Varia- 
tions in  C;  12  do.  in  F;  7  da  in 
Eb. 


1  ditto  for  Piano  and  Horn— in  F 
7  books  of  Variations  for  Piano 
and  Flute. 

1  Sonata  for  Piano,  4  hands— in 
D.  3  Marches  for  ditto— in  C,  Eb, 
D ;  8  Variations  in  C  and  6  in  D. 

38  ditto  for  Piano  Solo— in  F  mi- 
nor, A,  C ;  in  E  b  ;  in  C  minor,  F, 
D ;  in  C  minor  i  Pathetique) :  in  E, 
G;  inBb  ;  in  Ab  ;  in  Eb,  Cj  mi- 
'  nor  ;  in  D  ;  in  G,  D  minor,  E  b  ;  in 
I G  minor  and  G  (both  small) ;  in  C 
(Waldstein);  in  F;  in  F  minor 
(AppasMonata) ;  in  F  5 ;  in  G  (Sona- 
tina;; in  Eb  CAdieux,  etc) ;  in  E 
minor:  in  A;  in  Bt)  (op.  106);  in 
:E;  inAb;  in  C  minor.  In  Eb,  F 
! minor,  and  D  ("early);  in  C  (easy): 
in  G  and  F  Ceasy). 

I  Variations  for  ditto.  21  sets— viz. 
6  in  F ;  15  in  E  b  (Eroica; ;  6  in  D 
(Turkish  March);  32  in  C  minor; 
33  in  C  ;  15  in  G  (easy) ;  and  15  more 
sets,  containing  144  variations. 

3  Sets  of  Bagatelles  for  ditto— 7, 
U,  6 ;  4  Bondos  in  C,  G ;  in  A ;  and 
in  G  (a  capriccio);  Fantasia  in  G 
minor ;  3  Preludes  ;  Polonaise  : 
Andante  in  F  (favori):  Minuet  in 
Eb:  6do;  ISLandlers. 


II.  VOCAL. 


'  Tremate ';  Trio  with  Orchestra. 
Bundeslied :  2  Solos,  Chorus,  and 
Wind. 

'  Elegischer  Gesang*;  4  Voices  and 
Strings. 

Songs  with  Piano  acct.— €6  and 
1  Duet. 

'  Gesang  der  Monche ' ;  3  Voices 
unacc. 
18  Canons. 

7  Books  of  English,  Scotch,  Irish, 
Webh,  and  Italian  Songs  for  Voice, 
Piano,  Violin,  and  Cello. 


2  Masses- In  C,  and  D  (Solennis). 
1  Oratorio —' Christus  am  Oel- 
berge.' 

1  Opera—'  Fidelio." 

'  The  Buins  of  Athens.'  Arrange- 
ment of  March  and  Chorus  from  do. 
'King  Stephen.' 

2  Patriotic  Finales. 

'  Der  glorreiche  Augenbl-'ck." 
'  Meeresstille    nnd  gliickliche 
Fahrt.' 

'Ah  perfido!'  Soprano  and  Or- 
chestra. Opferlied;  do.,  do.,  and 
Chorus. 


All  the  above  are  included  in  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel's  complete  edition,  except  the  Eitter- 
Ballet,  the  Fragment  of  a  Violin  Concerto  in  C, 
and  the  two  Equali  for  Trombones. 

The  Beethoven  literature  is  very  large.  I 
shall  confine  myself  to  mentioning  those  portions 
of  it  which  appear  to  have  real  value  for  the 
investigator. 

I.  His  own  letters.  Of  these  there  are  several 
collections,  (i)  'Briefe  Beethovens'  (^Stuttgart, 
1S65),  edited  by  Dr.  Xohl :  contains  411.  (2) 
'83  .  .  .  Original  Briefe  L.  v.  B"s  an  den  Erzher- 
zog  Eudolph,'  edited  by  Kochel  (Vienna,  1865). 
(3)  'Briefe  von  B.  an  Grafin  Erdody  und  Max 
Brauchle,'  edited  by  Schcine  (Leipzig,  1867). 
The  two  last  were  included  with  many  others 
in  a  further  collection  of  322  'Xeue  Briefe  Bee- 
thovens,' edited  by  Xohl  (Stuttgart,  1S67).  (4) 
Xohl  s  first  collection  and  66  of  the  letters  to  the 
Archduke  were  translated  (I  wish  I  could  say 
carefully  translated)  by  Lady  Wallace,  and  pub- 
lished by  Longmans  (2  vols.  Svo.  1S66). 

Other  letters  are  given  by  Thayer  in  his  *  Bee- 
thovens Leben,'  and  byPohl  in  'Die  GeseUschaft 
der  Musik  Freunde'  (Vienna,  1S71),  and  many 
others  exist  in  MS.  in  collections  of  autographs. 

II.  Notices  of  him  by  friends  and  contempora- 
ries. Many  of  these  must  be  taken  with  reserve, 
as  written  long  after  the  event,  and  with  strong 
bias. 

(i)  By  Seyfried,  as  Anhang  to  his  edition  of 
Beethoven's  *  Studien'  in  Thorough-bass  (Vienna, 


208 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN. 


March  26,  1832) — 144  pages,  containing  biogra- 
phical sketch,  anecdotes  and  traits,  letters  (^in- 
cluded in  Nohl),  three  conversations,  the  sale 
catalogue,  the  music  sung  at  the  funeral,  poems 
and  addresses,  a  catalogue  of  Beethoven's  works, 
etc. 

(2)  Wegeler  and  Kies,  *Biographische  Notizen,' 
etc.  (Coblenz,  1838),  with  *  Nachtrag  *  by  Wegeler 
alone  (Coblenz,  1845).  Contains  biography,  let- 
ters, and  a  host  of  anecdotes. 

(3)  Schindler,  'Biographie'  (Miinster,  1840). 
This  is  the  first  edition  of  Schindler's  work,  which 
was  translated  into  English  by  Moscheles,  and 
published  with  many  additions  and  modifications, 
and  with  no  mention  of  Schindler  on  the  title 
page,  in  2  vols.  8vo.  (Colburn,  1841).  It  was 
followed  by  'Beethoven  in  Paris'  (Miinster, 
1842),  an  account  of  the  performance  of  some  of 
the  symphonies  by  the  'Society  des  Concerts,' 
with  various  documents  of  interest ;  by  a  second 
edition  of  the  Biography  (Miinster,  1845)  ;  and 
finally  by  a  third  edition  in  two  volumes  (Miinster, 
i860).  This  last  has  been  very  inaccurately 
translated  into  French  by  Sowinski  (Paris,  Gar- 
nier,  1865). 

(4)  Gerhard  von  Breuning,  *  Aus  dem  Schwarz- 
spanierhaus'  (Vienna,  1874) — the  recollections 
of  Stephen  von  Breuning's  son,  who  was  1 1  years 
old  when  Beethoven  died,  and  was  much  with 
him  during  the  last  years  of  his  life. 

III.  Smaller  and  more  fragmentary  notices  are 
given  of  him — in  r  798  or  99  by  Czerny,  in  Pohl's 

'  .Jahresbericht  des  Konservatorium  in 

Wien'  (Vienna,  1870)  ;  and  in  later  years  by  the 
same  in  Cocks's  '  Musical  Miscellany'  (London, 
July  and  Aug.  1852,  Jan.  1853);  in  1809  by 
Beichardt  in  *  Vertraute  Briefe '  (Amsterdam, 
1810) ;  in  i8i4by  Spohrinhis  'Selbstbiographie' 
(Cassel,  i860),  and  by  Tomaschek  in  'Libussa* 
for  1846;  in  1822  by  Bochlitz  in  the  A.  M.  Z., 
1828,  p.  10,  printed  in  '  Ftir  Freunde  der  Ton- 
kunst,'  vol.  iv.  p.  348  (Leipzig,  1832) ;  in  1824. 
[by  Mr.  Edward  Schulz]  in  the  '  Harmonicon,' 
Jan.  1824;  and  [by  Mrs.  Payne.  Dr.  Burney's 
niece,]  in  the  'Harmonicon,"  Dec.  1825;  in 
1825  by  Rellstab  in  'Ausmeinem  Leben,'  ii.  224. 

Of  later  biographies  must  be  mentioned  that 
of  M.  Fdtis  in  his  '  Biographic  universelle  des 
Musiciens' ;  of  Wilhelm  von  Lenz,  'Beethoven, 
eine  Kunst-Studie,'  a  Life,  with  an  extended 
critical  and  historical  catalogue  of  the  works  ; 
and  of  Herr  Ludwig  Nohl,  'Beethovens  Leben,'  of 
which  the  3rd  and  last  volume  was  published  in 
Sept.  1876.  Nohl  is  said  to  be  inaccurate,  and 
he  is  certainly  diffuse,  but  I  for  one  owe  him  a 
debt  of  gratitude  for  his  various  publications,  the 
information  in  which  can  be  found  nowhere  else. 
The  notes  to  the  biography  contain  a  mass  of 
materials  of  the  greatest  interest.  Last  and  best 
is  the  '  Ludwig  van  Beethovens  Leben '  of  A.  W. 
Thayer  (Berlin,  1866,  72),  of  which  the  3rd  vol. 
is  on  the  eve  of  publication,  and  which,  through 
the  caution,  wide  research,  and  unflagging  industry 
of  its  author  has  already  taken  a  place  far  higher 
than  any  of  its  predecessors.  Amongst  other 
sources  of  information  Mr.  Thayer  has  inherited 


the  memoranda  collected  by  the  late  Otto  Jahn, 
who  had  himself  made  some  progress  in  a 
biography  of  Beethoven.  The  coirections  which 
this  able  investigator  has  made  in  many  most 
material  points,  and  the  light  thrown  by  him 
on  passages  hitherto  more  than  obscure,  can 
only  be  appreciated  by  those  who  read  his 
work. 

IV.  Of  more  miscellaneous  works  the  following 
must  be  named : — W.  von  Lenz,  '  Beethoven  et 
ses  trois  Styles'  (Petersburg,  1852;  also  Paris, 
Lavin^e,  1855) — a  book  which,  if  full  of  rhap- 
sody, is  also  full  of  knowledge,  insight,  and  en- 
thusiasm ;  Oulibicheff,  *  Beethoven,  ses  critiques 
et  ses  glossateurs, '  in  direct  antagonism  to  the 
foregoing  (Paris,  1857)  ;  Berlioz,  'Etude  ana- 
lytique  des  Symphonies  de  Beethoven'  in  his 
'Voyage  musical,'  vol.  i.  (Paris,  1844);  Otto 
Jahn,  three  papers  in  his  'Gesammelte  Aufsatze' 
(Leipzig,  1866),  viz.  'Leonore  oder  Fidelio,'  '  B. 
im  Malkasten,'  and  'B.  und  die  Ausgaben  seiner 
Werke '  ;  R.  "Wagner,  '  Beethoven '  (Leipzig, 
1870);  Marx,  'B.'s  Leben  und  Schaffen,  3rd 
edition  (Berlin,  1875);  Actenmassige  Darstellung 
der  Ausgrabung  und  Wiederbeisetzung  der  ir- 
dischen  Beste  von  Beethoven  und  Schubert 
(Vienna,  1863);  Nohl,  'Beethovens  Brevier' 
(Leipzig,  1870),  a  collection  of  passages  in  his 
favourite  authors  extracted  or  marked  by  Bee- 
thoven ;  'Die  Beethoven  Feier '  (Vienna,  1871), 
containing  amongst  other  things  Beethoven's 
diary  from  1812  to  1818.  The  analytical  pro- 
grammes of  Beethoven's  sonatas  by  Mr.  J.  W. 

1  Davison,  prepared  to  a,ccompany  Mr.  Charles 
Halle's  performance  in  1861,  are  full  of  interest. 

V.  We  now  arrive  at  another  class  of  works  of 
more  importance  than  any  yet  mentioned,  except 
perhaps  the  letters,  and  absolutely  indispensable 
to  those  who  wish  to  investigate  Beethoven's 
music  chronologically,  viz.  the  catalogues,  and 
reprints  of  the  sketch-books. 

Catalogues  of  Beethoven's  works  were  attempted 
by  Artaria,  Hofmeister,  and  Cranz,  but  the  first 
one  worthy  of  the  subject  was  issued  by  Breitkopf 
&  Hartel  in  1851 — '  Thematisches  Verzeichniss,' 
etc.,  large  8vo.,  167  pp.  The  second  edition  of 
this,  edited  and  enriched  with  copious  notes, 
remarks,  appendices,  indexes,  etc.  by  Mr.  G. 
Nottebohm  (Leipzig,  1868,  pp.  1-2 2o\  leaves 
little  to  be  desired.  It  is  arranged  in  the  order 
of  the  opus  numbers  of  the  pieces — where  they 
i  are  numbered — that  is  to  say,  in  the  order  of 
publication.  A  catalogue  from  a  different  point 
of  view — in  the  order  of  the  production  of  the 
works,  and  embracing  those  unpublished  as 
well  as  published,  was  issued  by  Mr.  Thayer, 
as  a  precursor,  or  memoire  pour  ftervir,  to  his 
'  Biography,'  viz.  '  Chronologisches  Verzeichniss,' 
etc.  (Berlin,  1865).  It  is  difficult  to  over- 
estimate the  value  of  this  unpretending  list, 
which  contains  a  vast  amount  of  information  not 
only  before  inaccessible,  but  unknown  to  students. 
It  was  followed  by  a  work  of  equal  interest — 
'Ein  Skizzenbuch  von  B.,'  etc.,  the  reprint  of 
one  of  Beethoven's  sketch-books,  with  such  com- 
mentary as  is  necessary  fully  to  elucidate  it. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEGNIS. 


209 


This  was  edited  by  Mr.  Nottebohm,  and  was 
succeeded  in  1 869  by  the  commencement  of  a  series 
of  articles  in  the  'Allgemeine  musik.  Zeitung'  on 
various  points  in  Beethoven's  works,  examined 
and  elucidated  chiefly  through  his  sketch-books, 
and  printed  with  copious  quotations,  the  whole 
throwing  a  most  interesting  light  on  his  method 
of  working.  These  papers  were  collected  and  re- 
published as  *  Beethoveniana'  (Leipzig,  1872).  A 
further  series,  entitled  *  Neue  Beethoveniana,'  by 
the  same  indefatigable  explorer  is  now  (1878) 
being  published  in  the  *  Musikalisches  Wochen- 
blatt.'  The  amount  of  new  and  important  infor- 
mation on  Beethoven's  music .  furnished  by  these 
two  series  no  one  can  tell  who  has  not  studied 
them.  They  are  indispensable  for  all  students 
of  the  subject.  Mr.  Nottebohm  has  published  a 
new  edition  of  'Beethoven's  Studien,'  in  which 
many  mistakes  in  Seyfried's  edition  are  corrected 
and  much  additional  information  given,  such  as 
no  one  who  has  not  the  peculiar  knowledge  pos- 
sessed by  Mr.  Nottebohm  would  be  competent  to 
impart.  [G.] 

BEFFAEA,  Louis  FRAN901S,  born  at  Nonan- 
court,  Aug.  23,  1751  ;  from  1792  to  1816 
Commissaire  He  Police  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
Feb.  2,  1838.  Renowned  for  his  collection  of 
documents  on  the  Paris  operas,  which  were  un- 
fortunately consumed  at  the  burning  of  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  during  the  Commune  in  18  71.  For  com- 
pleteness and  genuineness  the  collection  could  not 
be  surpassed,  and  its  loss  is  irreparable.    [F.  G.] 

BEGGAR'S  OPERA,  The.  A  celebrated 
piece,  written  in  1727  by  John  Gay,  who  was 
said  to  have  been  instigated  to  its  production  by 
a  feeling  of  annoyance  at  having  been  offered  a 
court  appointment  which  he  regarded  as  beneath 
him.  It  is  also  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in 
an  observation  of  Swift's  to  its  author,  that  *  a 
Newgate  pastoral  might  make  an  odd  pretty 
sort  of  thing.'  Under  the  thin  veil  of  ex- 
posing the  vices  of  highwaymen,  pickpockets, 
gaolers,  receivers  of  stolen  goods,  and  their  con- 
federates and  associates,  it  bristles  with  keen, 
well-pointed  satire  on  the  corrupt  and  venal 
politicians  and  courtiers  of  the  day,  and  of  the 
prevailing  fashionable  entertainment — the  Italian 
opera.  It  has  been  denied  that  there  is  any 
reference  to  the  latter,  because  the  style  of  the 
music  of  Italian  operas  is  not  burlesqued,  but 
the  fact  is  apparent  from  the  introductory  dfklogue 
between  the  Beggar  {the  assumed  author  of  the 
piece)  and  the  Player,  in  which  the  former  is 
made  to  say,  *  I  have  introduc'd  the  similes  that 
are  in  all  your  celebrated  operas ;  the  Swallow, 
the  Moth,  the  Bee,  the  Ship,  the  Flower,  etc. 
Besides,  I  have  a  prison  scene,  which  the  ladies 
always  reckon  charmingly  pathetick.  As  to  the 
parts  I  have  observed  such  a  nice  impartiality 
to  our  two  ladies,  that  it  is  impossible  for  either 
of  them  to  take  offence.'  The  allusion  in  the 
last  sentence  to  the  deadly  feud  between  Cuzzoni 
and  Faustina,  which  in  1 7  2  7  divided  the  fashion- 
able world  into  two  violently  hostile  factions,  is 
80  palpable  as  to  cause  surprise  at  its  having 
been  overlooked.  '  The  Beggar's  Opera'  was  first 
(c.) 


offered  to  Colley  Gibber  for  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
but  being  rejected  by  him  was  accepted  by  John 
Rich,  and  brought  out  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields 
Theatre,  Jan.  29,  1727-28.  Its  success  was 
decisive :  it  was  performed  sixty-two  nights 
(not  consecutive)  during  the  season,  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  played  all  over  England,  in 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  even  in  Minorca.  By 
the  time  it  had  reached  its  thirty-sixth  re- 
presentation Rich  had  netted  nearly  £4000, 
whilst  Gay's  four  '  author's  nights '  had  produced 
him  £693  13s.  6c?.;  whence  it  was  said  that  it 
had  made  Gay  rich  and  Rich  gay.  The  songs 
were  all  written  either  to  ballad  tunes  (English 
and  Scotch,  some  of  considerable  antiquity),  or 
the  tunes  of  the  most  popular  songs  of  the  day. 
These  tunes,  sixty-nine  in  number,  were  arranged 
and  scored  by  Dr.  Pepusch,  who  also  composed 
an  overture  for  the  piece.  They  were  chosen 
with  great  judgment,  and  to  them  its  remark- 
able success  was  in  a  great  degree  attributable. 
The  rage  for  'The  Beggar's  Opera'  shewed  itself 
in  its  scenes  and  songs  appearing  on  fans  and 
screens,  in  the  attire  of  Lavinia  Fenton  (the  per- 
former of  Polly)  becoming  the  pattern  for  that  of 
ladies  of  fashion,  and  in  the  temporary  desertion 
of  the  Italian  Opera.  Hogarth  published  an  en- 
graving representing  a  scene  in  Act  11.  Some 
of  the  songs  were  said  to  have  received  finishing 
touches  from  the  hand  of  Pope.  The  success 
of  'The  Beggar's  Opera'  led  to  the  production 
of  a  host  of  other  pieces  with  songs  written  to 
ballad  tunes,  and  thence  denominated  Ballad- 
Operas.  [English  Opera.]  [W.  H.  H.] 
BEGNIS,  Giuseppe  de,  born  at  Lugo,  in  the 
Papal  States,  1793,  sang  soprano  in  the  chapel 
at  Lugo  till  he  was  nearly  fifteen,  when  his 
voice  broke.  Thinking  it  would  never  return, 
and  having  a  strong  taste  for  comedy,  he  took 
lessons  of  Mandini,  a  celebrated  Italian  actor ; 
but,  his  father  being  opposed  to  this  course,  he 
began  to  study  music  again  under  Saraceni  the 
composer,  the  brother  of  Madame  Morandi.  He 
made  his  first  operatic  appearance  in  the  carnival 
of  1813  as  primo  buffo  in  Pavesi's  'Marco 
Antonio'  at  Modena,  and  was  most  successful. 
He  next  went  to  Forli  and  Rimini,  and  returned 
to  Modena.  In  the  following  carnival  he  sang 
at  Siena,  at  the  opening  of  the  new  Teatro  degli 
Academici  Rozzi,  as  Pazzo  in  Paer's  'Agnese,' 
and  as  Selim  in  the  *  Turco  in  Italia '  of  Rossini, 
and  was  enthusiastically  applauded  in  both.  He 
next  appeared  at  Ferrara,  Badia,  and  Trieste. 
In  the  carnival  of  18 15  he  was  at  Cesena,  and 
particularly  brilliant  in  Fioravanti's  '  Bello  place 
a  tutti,'  in  which  he  imitated  with  his  falsetto 
the  celebrated  Pacchierotti.  He  now  sang  at 
various  theatres  until  the  carnival  of  1 8 16,  at 
Milan,  where  he  was  laid  up  for  three  months,  and 
unable  to  sing.  On  his  recovery  he  proceeded  to 
Parma,  where  his  success  was  more  brilliant  than 
ever ;  then  to  Modena  and  Bologna.  Here  he 
played  successfully  in  Paer's  'Agnese,'  which 
had  been  tried  twice  before  there  without  success. 
The  piece  was  chosen  for  the  benefit  of  Signcfra 
Ronzi,  who  was  engaged  there.    Shortly  after, 


210 


BEGXIS. 


BELL. 


she  was  married  to  De  Begnis,  who  was  admitted 

to  the  Philhannonic  Academy  of  Bologna  at  the 
same  time.  They  were,  however,  separated  for 
a  time,  De  Begnis  being  engaged  to  sing  at 
Home,  and  Ronzi  at  Genoa.  lliey  met  again 
at  Florence,  1817,  and  performed  together  at 
Vicenza  and  Verona.  Rossini  engaged  them 
for  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  at  Pesaro. 
Li  1819  they  made  their  debuts  at  Paris  with 
great  success;  and  in  1822  appeared  in  London 
in  the  'Turco  in  Italia,'  where  he  was  considered 
an  excellent  comic  actor  and  singer.  In  1823  he 
had  the  direction,  with  his  wife,  of  the  operas  at 
Bath  ;  and  he  was  again  engaged  for  the  operatic 
season  of  1824.  He  died  Aug.  1849.  [J.  M.] 
BEGXIS,  SiGNORA  Eoyzi  de,  the  wife  of  the 
above,  was  possibly  the  young  girl,  Claudina 
Eonzi,  bom  at  Paris,  Jan.  11,  1800,  of  whom 
there  is  still  a  record  at  the  Conservatoire  in  that 
city,  that  she  was  admitted  to  a  singing  class 
March  9,  1809.  However  this  may  be,  nothing 
more  is  known  of  her  until  her  marriage  with  De 
Begnis  at  Bologna,  1816.  In  18 19  she  made  her 
first  appearance  at  Paris,  having  simg  at  most  of 
the  principal  Italian  operas,  and  for  Rossini  at 
the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  at  Pesaro  in 
1 818.  The  Parisians  thought  her  weak,  especially 
as  Rosina;  but  they  admit  that  Donna  Anna 
was  never  so  well  sung  there  by  any  one  else 
before  Sontag  undertook  it  in  1828.  It  must  be 
said  that  she  received  some  instruction  in  the 
part  from  Garat,  and  that  she  profited  by  his 
lessons.  In  1822  she  came  with  her  husband 
to  London,  where  her  voice  and  style  steadily 
improved.  '  She  made  her  first  appearance,'  says 
Lord  Moimt-Edgecumbe,  '  in  the  Turco  in  Italia, 
and  acted  in  it  delightfully.  With  a  pretty  face 
and  pleasing  countenance,  she  had  a  voice  of 
great  sweetness  and  flexibility,  which  she  man- 
aged with  considerable  skill  and  taste.  She  de- 
cidedly excelled  in  comic  parts  :  indeed,  I  have 
rarely  seen  a  better  buflFa.'  In  1824  she  was 
eclipsed  by  the  arrival  of  Pasta.  In  1825  she 
shared  with  Madame  Vestris  the  principal  parts 
in  the  comic  operas  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
the  temporary  retreat  of  the  company ;  but,  soon 
after  the  return  of  Pasta,  she  fell  lU  and  totally 
lost  her  voice,  was  obliged  to  throw  up  her  en-  | 
gagement,  and  returned  to  Italy.  Her  death 
was  announced  in  the  'Sunday  Times,'  July  3, 
1853.  [J.  M.] 

BEGREZ,  PiEEEE  Ignace,  bom  at  Namur 
Dec.  23,  1783.  At  the  age  of  six  he  sang  in  the 
choir  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Aubin.  After  some 
years  he  went  to  Paris,  and  was  received  in  a 
violin-class  at  the  Conservatoire,  the  1 7th  Floreal, 
An  xii.  (1804).  He  was  at  the  same  time  en- 
gaged in  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera,  then  under 
the  direction  of  Grasset.  Finding,  however, 
that  he  possessed  a  fine  tenor  voice,  he  soon 
threw  aside  the  violin,  and  studied  singing  under 
Garat,  from  October  1806.  In  1814  he  carried 
off  the  first  prize  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  in 
18 1 5  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  opera 
in  Gluck's  '  Armide,'  which  he  followed  with  the 
principal  parts  of  '  Les  Bayaderes'  and  'Ana- 


creon.'  About  the  end  of  the  .=ame  year  he  waa 
engaged  for  the  London  Opera  House,  where  he 
remained  a  permanent  member  of  the  company 
at  the  Bang's  Theatre  tiU  1822,  when  he  retired 
from  the  boards,  and  devoted  himself  to  teaching 
and  singing  in  concerts.  He  ha^l  a  beautiful  voiced 
and  good  French  style.  He  died  Dec.  1863.  [J.M.] 

BEIDEX  NEFFEX,  DIE,  or  Dee  Onkel 
AUS  BosToy.    An  opera  in  three  acts,  contain- 
!  ing  overture  and  14  numbers,  for  voices  and 
;  orchestra,  the  words  by  Dr.  Caspar,  the  music 
by  Mendelssohn,  1822. 

BEIDEX  PADAGOGEX,  DIE.  An  opera 
I  in  one  act,  containing  overture  and  1 2  nimibers, 
I  for  voices  and  orchestra ;  the  words  by  Dr.  Caspar, 
I  the  music  by  Mendelssohn,  18  21.  Like  the  pre- 
ceding this  opera  was  only  performed  at  the  Men- 
delssohn's house.  Both  are  still  in  MS.,  and 
j  the  autographs  are  in  the  Bibliothek  at  Berlin. 

I  BEKLEMMT,  i.e.  heavy  at  the  heart,  op- 
pressed. A  word  which  Beethoven  has  attached 
to  the  middle  section  of  the  Cavatina  in  his 
Quartet  in  B  flat  (op.  130),  where  he  modulates 
into  C  flat ;  and  where  the  choked  and  broken 
accents  of  the  first  violin  fully  bear  out  the  ex- 
pression. None  of  the  old  copies  of  the  quartet 
give  this  interesting  personal  note  of  the  com- 
poser's. It  first  appeared  in  Breitkopf  &  Hartel's 
complete  edition.  Correctly  the  word  woidd  be 
heklommen,  but  in  words  as  in  music  Beethoven 
is  always  original  and  always  right.  [G.] 
I  BELCKE,  Fbiedkich  August,  a  celebrated 
trombone -player,  son  of  the  town  musician  at 
Lucka  in  Saxony,  and  bom  May  27,  1795.  The 
boy  at  an  early  age  showed  a  fondness  for  brass 
instmments,  and  was  a  good  hom-player  before 
he  took  up  the  trombone,  on  which  he  soon 
reached  a  pitch  of  excellence  before  unknown. 
He  first  joined  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra 
in  Leipsic,  and  then  obtained  a  permanent 
post  in  the  royal  band  at  Berlin,  Frequent 
tours  made  him  widely  known.  In  1838  he 
left  the  Berlin  band  of  his  own  accord  and 
retired  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died  Dec. 
10,1874.  By  trombone-players  his  compositions 
are  well  known  and  highly  valued.  He  it  is  of 
whom  Schumann  pleasantly  says,  in  his  essav  on 
'The  Comic  in  Music'  (Ges.  Schriften,  i.  185), 
'Therg  is  a  phrase  in  the  finale  of  Beethoven's 
eighth  symphony  which  always  makes  the  mem- 
bers of  a  well-kno-^vn  orchestra  laugh,  because 
they  insist  upon  it  that  in  this  figure  they  hear 
the  name  of  Belcke,  one  of  the 
best  of  their  number.'  [A.  M.] 
BELISARIO,  Italian  opera  in  three  acts, 
libretto  and  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced  at 
Venice,  Feb.  7,  1836  ;  in  London,  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  April  1,  1837;  and  at  Paris,  Theatre 
des  Italiens,  Oct.  24,  1843. 

BELL  (Fr.  pavilion).  The  everted  opening 
in  which  most  wind  instruments  terminate; 
especially  those  made  of  brass.  It  undoubtedly 
adds  to  the  power  of  the  tone,  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  speaking-trumpet  reinforces  the 


BELL. 


BELLETTI. 


211 


voice,  though  the  exact  cause  of  the  fact  is  not 
known.  It  was  erroneously  maintained  by  Sax 
that  the  material  of  the  bell  exercises  no  influence 
on  the  quality  of  the  tone.  Notes  of  exactly 
similar  pitch  with  those  from  brass  or  wood  can 
of  course  be  obtained,  as  he  stated,  from  similar 
bells  made  of  leather,  gutta  percha,  or  papier- 
mache.  Even  a  trimipet-shaped  orifice  in  a  solid 
wall,  fitted  with  a  mouthpiece,  gives  all  the  open 
notes  of  a  wind  instrument.  But  the  quality 
and  timbre  are  found  to  be  very  difierent  when 
compared  with  the  real  itistrument.  [W.  H.  S.] 
BELLAMY,  Richard,  Mus.  Bac.  Cantab., 
a  bass  singer,  was  on  March  28,  1771,  appointed 
a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on  January 
I,  1773,  a  lay- vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He 
also  held  the  appointment  of  vicar  choral  and 
master  of  the  choristers  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
In  1788  he  published  a  volume  containing  a 
Te  Deum  for  a  full  orchestra  (performed  at  the 
installation  of  Knights  of  the  Bath  in  May  of 
that  year),  and  a  set  of  anthems.  He  died 
Sept.  II,  1813.  His  son,  Thomas  Ludford 
Bellamy,  was  born  in  Westminster  in  1770. 
He  was  educated  in  the  choir  of  Westminster 
Abbey  under  Dr.  Cooke,  and  after  the  change 
of  his  voice  to  a  bass  studied  under  Tasca,  the 
celebrated  bass  singer.  He  sang  in  London  in 
the  cathedral  choirs  and  at  concerts  until  1794, 
when  he  went  to  Ireland  as  agent  on  a  noble- 
man's estate,  but  having  to  give  up  that  employ- 
ment he  went  to  Dublin,  where  in  1797  he 
became  stage  manager  at  the  theatre.  In  1800 
he  became  part  proprietor  of  the  Manchester, 
Chester,  Shrewsbury,  and  Lichfield  theatres. 
In  1803  he  sold  his  share  and  became  sole 
proprietor  of  the  Belfast,  Londonderry,  and 
Newry  theatres.  This  speculation  proving 
unsuccessful  he  returned  to  London,  and  sang 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre  for  five  years.  In 
1 81 2  he  was  engaged  for  five  years  at  Drury 
Lane.  During  all  this  period  he  also  appeared 
as  a  concert  singer.  In  1819  he  was  appointed 
choir-master  at  the  chapel  of  the  Spanish 
Embassy,  which  he  retained  for  many  years. 
In  18 2 1,  on  the  death  of  Bartleman,  he  was 
engaged  as  principal  bass  singer  at  the  Concert 
of  Ancient  Music,  and  so  continued  until,  a  few 
years  later,  he  was  superseded  by  Henry  Phillips. 
In  1840  he  edited  a  volume  of  the  poetry  of 
glees,  madrigals,  catches,  rounds,  canons,  and 
duets.  He  died  in  Judd  Street,  Brunswick 
Square,  January  3,  1843,  in  his  seventy-third 
year.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BELLE  HEL^INE,  LA,  Opera-bouffe  in  three 
acts,  words  by  De  Meilhac  and  Haldvy,  the  music 
by  Offenbach ;  produced  at  Paris,  Theatre  des 
Vari^tds,  Dec,  17,  1864. 

BELLERMANN,  Constantin,  bom  at 
Erfurt,  1696,  rector  of  Miinden,  a  composer  of 
operas  and  oratorios,  and  an  extraordinary 
performer  on  the  lute.  His  most  important 
work  is  '  Programma  in  quo  Parnassus  Musarum 
voce,  fidibus,  tibiisque  resonans,  sive  musices 
divinae  artis  laudes  diversae  species  singulares 


effectus  atque  primarii  autores  succincte  enar- 
rantur'  (Erfurt,  1743),  an  analysis  of  which  is 
given  by  Mitzler  in  his  *  Bibliothek,'  vol.  iii. 
He  died  at  Mfinden  in  1 763.  [F.  G.] 

BELLERMANN,  Johann  Joachim,  bom  at 
Erfurt,  1735,  visited  Russia,  and  returned  to 
become  Director  of  the  Gymnasium  of  his  native 
town.  He  published  very  interesting  'Bemer- 
kungen'  on  Russian  airs,  dances,  and  musical 
instruments  (Erfurt,  1788).  His  son,  Johann 
Friedrich,  bom  at  Erfurt,  March  8, 1795,  served 
in  the  war  of  independence  (1813-15),  studied  at 
Berlin  and  Jena,  and  in  1819  became  Professor, 
and  in  1847  Director  of  the  Gymnasium  'zum 
grauen  Kloster'  at  Berlin.  He  was  a  great 
authority  on  ancient  Greek  music,  and  was 
especially  known  for  his  edition  of  the  *  De 
anonymis  scriptis  de  Musica,'  and  a  work  on  the 
scales  and  notes  of  the  Greeks.  He  died  a  few 
years  since.  His  son  Heinrtch  is  now  (1875) 
professor  in  the  Berlin  university,  and  author 
of  an  esteemed  work  on  counterpoint.       [F.  G.] 

BELLETTI,  Giovanni,  the  great  barytone, 
was  born  in  1813  at  Sarzana,  a  town  in  the 
Lunigiana,  of  respectable  parents  engaged  in 
trade.  While  still  a  child,  he  showed  a  very 
strong  inclination  to  music.  Having  an  exceed- 
ingly delicate  ear  and  a  wonderful  agility  of 
voice,  he  soon  began  to  repeat  with,  his  child's 
treble  every  operatic  air  that  he  heard.  His 
father,  being  advised  to  cultivate  his  son's  talent, 
placed  him  in  the  hands  of  a  master  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, upon  whose  advice  he  soon  after  trans- 
ferred him,  at  no  small  personal  sacrifice,  to  the 
famous  school  at  Bologna,  over  which  the  cele- 
brated Pilotti  presided.  The  latter  took  the 
greatest  interest  in  the  boy,  and  taught  him 
counterpoint  as  well  as  singing.  After  five  years 
of  study,  Belletti  received  his  diploma.  His 
voice  was  now  settled  as  a  barytone  of  the  most 
beautiful  quality  and  evenness,  with  marvellous 
facility  of  execution.  Advised  to  try  the  stage, 
he  hesitated  for  some  time,  until  he  met  at 
Carrara  a  Swedish  sculptor  named  Bystrom,  who 
proposed  to  take  him  to  Stockholm,  free  from  all 
risk  or  expense,  to  lodge  in  his  house,  and  make 
his  debut ;  and,  if  unsuccessful,  to  send  him  back 
on  the  same  terms  to  Italy.  This  generous  oflfer 
he  accepted,  and  arrived  at  Stockholm  in  1837. 
Early  the  next  year  he  appeared  in  the  'Barbiere,' 
and  achieved  his  first  success  about  a  month 
earlier  than  Jenny  Lind,  with  whose  brilliant 
career  he  was  so  much  connected  afterwards. 
With  her  he  sang  in  'Lucia,'  in  'Robert,'  and 
others  of  Donizetti's  and  Meyerbeer's  operas, 
translated  into  Swedish.  To  the  influence  of 
Jenny  Lind,  and  to  the  critical  taste  of  his  first 
audience,  as  well  as  to  the  fine  old  school  of  sing- 
ing in  which  he  had  been  brought  up,  he  owed 
the  pure  style  and  freedom  from  vulgarity  which, 
more  even  than  his  noble  voice,  made  him  the 
greatest  barytone  of  the  century.  When  Jenny 
Lind  left  Stockholm  for  Paris,  young  Belletti  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  :  but  when  she  came  to 
London,  Lumley,  upon  her  urgent  advice,  soon 
persuaded  him  to  come  to  sing  with  her  again. 

P  2 


212 


BELLETTI. 


BELLINI. 


In  tlie  meantime  he  had  sung  with  great  success 
at  Florence  and  Leghorn,  in  operas  of  Rossini 
and  Donizetti.  In  1848  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  in  *Emani,' 
with  Mile.  Cruvelli,  and  during  that  season  sang 
at  both  the  opera-houses.  After  singing  with  no 
less  success  at  Paris,  he  was  engaged,  with  Lind 
and  Benedict,  by  Bamum,  for  a  tour  in  the 
United  States  ;  during  which  he  maintained  his 
reputation,  and  contributed  to  the  enthusiastic 
reception  which  the  company  obtained  in  Ame- 
rica. Returned  once  more  to  London,  Belletti 
remained  there  till  the  end  of  62,  singing  not 
only  at  the  Opera,  but  in  classical  concerts  and 
oratorios,  with  undiminished  success.  Since  that 
time  he  has  retired,  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
brilliant  career,  without  a  sign  of  faded  powers, 
to  Sarzana,  his  native  place,  where  he  lives  a 
life  of  seclusion,  universally  respected,  and  sur- 
rounded by  his  family  and  relations,  with  whom 
he  shares  the  earnings  of  the  years  he  spent  in 
his  profession.  [J.  M.] 

BELLINI,  ViNCENZO,  bom  at  Catania,  the 
capital  of  Sicily,  Nov.  3,  1802,  was,  like  so  many 
distinguished  musicians,  the  son  of  an  organist. 
From  his  father  he  received  his  first  lessons  in 
music ;  but  a  Sicilian  nobleman,  struck  by  the 
child's  talent,  persuaded  old  Bellini  to  allow  him 
to  send  his  son  to  Naples,  where  he  offered  to  pay 
the  child's  expenses  at  the  famous  Conservatorio, 
directed  at  that  time  by  Zingarelli.  Here 
Donizetti,  who  was  born  nine  years  before  and 
died  thirteen  years  after  Bellini,  had  preceded 
his  short-lived  contemporary  by  only  a  few 
years.  Another  of  Bellini's  fellow-pupils  at 
the  Conservatorio  of  Naples  was  Mercadante, 
the  future  composer  of  '  II  Giuramento'  and  '  La 
Testa  di  Bronzo,'  It  is  probable  enough  that 
Mercadante  (who  in  after  years  became  director 
of  the  celebrated  musical  institution  in  which  he 
received  his  early  education)  may  have  written 
better  exercises  and  passed  better  examinations 
than  his  less  instructed  young  friend  Bellini. 
The  latter  however  began  at  an  earlier  age  to 
compose.  Bellini's  first  work  for  the  stage  was 
produced  while  he  was  still  at  the  academy.  His 
'Adelson  e  Sal  vino'  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
played  in  presence  of  the  celebrated  Barbajk, 
manager  at  that  time  of  La  Scala  at  Milan,  of 
the  San  Carlo  at  Naples,  and  of  numerous  minor 
opera-houses.  The  great  impresario,  with  the 
keen-sightedness  which  always  distinguished  him, 
gave  the  promising  student  a  commission  to  write 
an  opera  for  Naples ;  and  in  1826,  Bellini's  'Bianca 
e  Fernando'  was  brought  out  at  the  San  Carlo 
without  being  so  successful  as  to  attract  Euro- 
pean attention.  Bianca  e  Fernando,  however, 
pleased  the  Neapolitan  public,  while  its  general 
merit  encouraged  Barbaja  to  entrust  the  young 
musician  with  the  composition  of  another  work, 
which  this  time  was  to  be  brought  out  at  La 
Scala.  The  tenor  part  in  Bellini's  first  opera 
for  Milan  was  to  be  written  specially  for  Rubini, 
who  retired  with  the  juvenile  maestro  into  the 
country,  and  remained  with  him  until  the  new 
opera,  or  at  least  the  tenor  part  in  it,  was 


finished.  The  florid  music  of  Rossini  was  at 
that  time  alone  in  fashion ;  and,  by  way  of 
novelty,  Bellini  composed  for  Rubini,  with  his 
direct  approbation,  if  not  at  his  express  suggestion, 
the  simple  expressive  melodies  which  the  illus- 
trious tenor  sang  with  so  much  effect  when 
*I1  Pirata'  was  at  length  produced.  Owing  in 
a  great  measure  to  Rubini's  admirable  delivery 
of  the  tenor  airs,  *I1  Pirata' — the  earliest  of 
those  works  by  Bellini  which  are  still  re- 
membered— obtained  a  success  not  merely  of 
esteem  or  even  of  enthusiasm,  but  of  furore.  It 
was  represented  soon  afterwards  in  Paris,  and 
in  due  time  was  heard  in  all  the  capitals  of 
Europe  where  Italian  opera  was  at  that  time 
cultivated.  Bellini's  next  work  was  'La  Stra- 
niera,'  first  performed  at  Milan  in  1828  with  an 
admirable  cast,  including  in  the  chief  parts 
Madame  Tosi,  Donzelli,  and  Tamburini.  *La 
Straniera'  was  less  successful  than  its  predecessor, 
and  it  scarcely  can  be  said  to  have  met  with 
general  favour  in  Europe.  Like  '  II  Pirata'  it 
was  produced  in  London,  where  however  it  made 
but  little  impression.  'Zaira'  (Parma,  1829) 
may  be  said  to  have  failed.  This  at  least  is  the 
only  work  of  Bellini  since  the  production  of  *  II 
Pirata'  which  was  never  performed  out  of  Italy. 
*I1  Capuletti  ed  i  Montecchi,'  composed  for 
Venice  and  represented  for  the  first  time  at  La 
Fenice  in  1830,  was  brilliantly  successful  throughr 
out  Italy ;  though  in  London  and  Paris  the  new 
musical  version  of  *  Romeo  and  J uliet '  seems  to 
have  owed  such  favour  as  it  received  to  Madame 
Pasta's  performance  in  the  character  of  Romeo. 
This  part,  it  may  be  noted,  was  the  one  selected 
by  Herr  Wagner's  niece,  MUe.  Johanna  Wagner, 
for  her  debut  in  London  when,  immediately  after 
the  so-called  'Jenny  Lind  mania,'  that  artist,  so 
much  admired  in  Germany,  appeared  without 
success  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  In  1831 
Bellini,  now  29  years  of  age,  composed  for 
La  Scala  the  work  generally  regarded  as  his 
masterpiece.  Romani,  the  first  of  modem  Italian 
librettists,  had  prepared  for  him,  on  the  basis  of 
a  vaudeville  and  ballet  by  the  late  M.  Scribe, 
the  'book'  of  'La  Sonnambula' ;  and  the  subject, 
so  perfectly  suited  to  Bellini's  idyllic  and  elegiac 
genius,  found  at  his  hands  the  most  appropriate 
and  most  felicitous  musical  treatment.  'La 
Sonnambula,'  originally  represented  at  La  Scala, 
could  not  but  make  the  tour  of  Europe  ;  and, 
warmly  received  wherever  it  was  performed,  it 
seems  nowhere  to  have  hit  the  public  taste  so 
much  as  in  England.  No  Italian  opera  before 
or  since  '  La  Sonnambula '  has  been  so  often 
played  in  London  as  that  charming  work,  the 
popularity  of  which  is  due  partly  to  the  interest 
of  its  simple,  natural,  thoroughly  intelligible 
story,  chiefly  to  the  beauty  of  the  melodies  in 
which  it  abounds.  Thanks  to  Madame  Mali- 
bran,  who  appeared  in  an  English  version  of  the 
work,  '  La  Sonnambula'  soon  became  as  popular 
in  our  own  as  in  its  native  Italian  language ; 
and  even  to  that  large  portion  of  the  public 
which  never  enters  an  Italian  opera-house  the 
baritone's  air  'When  I  view  these  scenes'  (Vi 


BELLINI. 


BELLINI. 


213 


ravviso),  the  tenor's  air  'All  is  lost  now'  (Tutto 
e  sciolto),  the  soprano's  air  '  Ah  do  not  mingle' 
(Ah  non  giunge),  are  as  familiar  as  any  of  our 
national  melodies.  It  may  te  noted,  once  for 
all,  that  the  genius  of  Bellini  was  exclusively 
l}Tncal  and  tuneful.  He  was  no  harmonist,  he 
had  no  power  of  contrivance ;  and  in  his  most 
dramatic  scenes  he  produces  his  effect  simply  by 
the  presentation  of  appropriate  and  expressive 
melodies.  The  beauties  of  'La  Sonnambula,' 
says  an  English  critic,  '  so  full  of  pure  melody 
and  of  emotional  music  of  the  most  simple  and 
touching  kind,  can  be  appreciated  by  every 
one ;  by  the  most  learned  musician  and  the 
most  untutored  amateur — or  rather,  let  us  say, 
by  any  play -goer  who  not  having  been  born 
deaf  to  the  voice  of  music  hears  an  opera  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life.'  The  part  of  Amina,  the 
heroine  of  La  Sonnambula,  is  stiU  a  favourite 
one  with  debutantes  ;  and  it  was  in  this  character 
that  both  Madame  Adelina  Patti  and  Mile. 
Emma  Albani  made  their  first  appearance  before 
an  English  public.  About  a  year  after  the 
production  of  La  Sonnambula  Bellini  delighted 
the  world  of  music  with  'Norma,'  which,  very 
different  in  character  from  its  immediate  pre- 
decessor, is  equally  in  its  way  a  work  of  genius. 
Bellini  has  written  no  melody  more  beautiful 
than  that  of  Norma's  prayer,  'Casta  Diva,'  in 
which  however  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the 
second  movement  is  unworthy  of  the  first.  In 
the  duet  of  the  final  scene  the  reproaches 
addressed  by  Norma  to  the  faithless  PoUio  have, 
apart  from  their  abstract  musical  beauty,  the 
true  accent  of  pathos  ;  and  the  trio  in  which  the 
perjured  priestess  and  betrayed  woman  upbraids 
her  deceiver  with  his  newly  discovered  treachery- 
proves,  when  the  devoted  heroine  is  adequately 
impersonated,  at  least  as  successful  as  the  two 
other  pieces  cited.  The  first  and  most  celebrated 
representative  of  theDruid  priestess  was  Madame 
Pasta.  It  afterwards  became  one  of  Giulia  Grisi's 
greatest  parts,  and  in  our  own  day  we  have 
found  an  admirable  Norma  in  Mile.  Titiens. 
Bellini's  most  important  serious  opera,  like  al- 
most all  operas  of  real  dramatic  merit,  is  founded 
on  a  French  play.  Romani's  libretto  of  'Norma' 
was  based  on  Soumet's  tragedy  of  the  same 
name,  produced  at  the  Theatre  rran9ais  about  a 
year  before  the  opera  of  'Norma'  was  brought 
out  at  the  Scala  Theatre  of  Milan.  The  suc- 
cessful opera  has  killed  the  drama  from  which  its 
subject  was  derived — a  result  which  under  similar 
circumstances  has  happened  more  than  once  in 
the  history  of  the  modem  stage.  '  Don  Giovanni,' 
'Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,'  'Fidelio,'  '11  Barbiere  di 
Siviglia,'  'Lucrezia  Borgia,*  'Norma,'  are  only 
a  few  of  many  examples  which  might  be  cited 
of  highly  successful  operas  indebted  for  their 
dramatic  framework  to  plays  already  nearly 
obsolete.  To  return  to  Bellini:  his  'Norma' 
was  succeeded  by  'Beatrice  di  Tenda,'  which 
did  but  little  to  keep  up  the  composer's  repu- 
tation. Represented  for  the  first  time  at  Venice 
in  1833,  it  was  performed  three  years  afterwards, 
without  much  success,  in  London.    In  1834 


Bellini  went  to  Paris,  where,  by  the  advice  of 
Rossini,  he  was  engaged  to  write  an  opera  for 
the  Theatre  Italien.  Rossini  is  said  to  have 
recommended  his  young  friend  (Bellini  was  then 
twenty-seven  years  of  age)  to  devote  special 
attention  to  his  orchestration,  and  generally  to 
cultivate  dramatic  effect.  In  '  I  Puritani ' — 
which,  according  to  the  almost  invariable  rule, 
owed  its  dramatic  materials  and  its  stage  form 
to  a  Frenchman — Bellini  was  not  well  served 
by  his  librettist.  Its  special  and  absorbing 
interest  is  attached  either  to  the  tenor  part,  as 
in  'II  Pirata,'or  to  the  prima  donna  part,  as  in 
'  La  Sonnambula '  and  '  Norma ' ;  while  besides 
being  dvdl,  even  to  those  who  imderstand  it, 
the  plot  of  'I  Puritani'  has  the  additional  dis-' 
advantage  of  being  obscure.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  score  is  full  of  the  most  engaging  melodies  of 
the  true  BeUinian  type.  The  part  of  Elvira, 
dramatically  considered,  may  be  uninteresting  ; 
but  no  prima  donna  who  is  mistress  of  the  Italian 
style  will  willingly  miss  an  opportunity  of  making 
herself  heard  in  the  beautiful  '  Qui  la  voce, '  and 
in  the  joyful  sparkling  polacca.  The  chief  part 
however  in  the  opera,  in  a  musical  if  not  in  a 
dramatic  sense,  belongs  to  the  tenor.  Few  tenors 
since  the  time  of  Rubini,  for  whom  it  w^as 
written,  have  had  voices  sufficiently  high  to  be 
able  to  sing  it  from  beginning  to  end  in  the 
original  keys.  Otherwise  the  charming  romance  in 
the  first  act,  'A  te  o  cara,'  and  the  melody  of  the 
final  concerted  piece — so  refined  and  so  elevated 
in  character — could  not  but  tempt  our  Marios 
and  Giuglinis.  Both  these  artists  were,  in  fact, 
frequently  heard  in  the  character  of  Arturo. 
The  company  for  which  '  I  Puritani'  was  written 
comprised  as  leading  vocalists,  Grisi,  Rubini, 
Tamburini,  and  Lablache ;  and  the  distribution 
of  characters  when  this  work  was  first  performed 
was  the  same,  for  a  few  years  at  least,  in  London 
as  in  Paris.  '  I  Puritani '  was  produced  in  Lon- 
don for  the  benefit  of  Madame  Grisi  in  1835  ;  and 
the  'Puritani  season'  was  remembered  for  years 
afterwards,  and  is  still  cited  by  experienced 
habitues,  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  ever  known. 
We  have  spoken  of  the  prima  donna's  Cavatina 
and  of  her  polonaise  'Son  Vergin  vezzosa,'  of 
the  tenor's  romance,  and  of  his  leading  motive  ia 
the  concerted  piece  of  the  last  act ;  nor  must  we 
forget  the  duet  in  three  movements  for  the  bari- 
tone and  bass — as  fully  developed  and  destined  to 
be  quite  as  popular  as  the  duet  for  the  two  soprani 
in  '  Norma.'  As  regards  the  spirited  concluding 
movement  in  the  military  style,  with  its  vigorous 
accompaniment  of  brass  instruments,  Rossini, 
writing  of  the  opera  from  Paris  to  a  friend  at 
Milan,  observed :  '  It  is  unnecessary  for  me  to 
describe  the  duet  for  the  two  basses ;  you  must 
have  heard  it  where  you  are.'  'I  Puritani'  was 
Bellini's  last  opera.  Soon  after  its  production  he 
went  on  a  visit  to  an  English  friend,  Mr.  Lewis, 
at  Puteaux,  at  whose  house  he  was  attacked  with 
an  illness  from  which  he  never  recovered,  '  From 
his  youth  upwards,'  says  Mr.  J.  W.  Mould  in  his 
'Memoir  of  Bellini,'  '  Vincenzo's  eagerness  in  his 
art  was  such  as  to  keep  him  at  the  piano  day 


214 


BELLINI. 


BELLOWS. 


and  night,  till  he  was  obliged  forcibly  to  leave  it. 
The  rilling  passion  accompanied  him  through  his 
short  life,  and  by  the  assiduity  with  which  he 
pursued  it,  brought  on  the  dysentery  which  closed 
his  brilliant  career,  peopling  his  last  hours  with 
the  figures  of  those  to  whom  his  works  were  so 
largely  indebted  for  their  success.  During  the 
moments  of  delirimn  which  preceded  his  death, 
he  was  constantly  speaking  of  Lablache,  Tam- 
burini  and  Grisi ;  and  one  of  his  last  recognisable 
impressions  was  that  he  was  present  at  a  brilliant 
representation  of  his  last  opera  at  the  Salle  Fa- 
vart.'  Bellini  died  on  Sept.  23, 1835,  in  the  33rd 
year  of  his  age — not  the  greatest,  but  by  far  the 
youngest,  of  many  admirable  composers  (as  Pur- 
cell,  Mozart,  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Herold)  who 
scarcely  lived  to  accomplish  half  the  allotted  years 
of  man.  It  has  been  said  that  Donizetti,  Bel- 
lini's contemporary  and  fellow-labourer,  born  four 
years  before  him,  outlived  him  by  thirteen  years; 
yet  Donizetti  was  not  fifty-one  when  he  died. 
Judge  Bellini  on  the  other  hand  by  what  another 
of  his  contemporaries  did  during  the  first  twenty- 
eight  years  of  his  career,  and  his  youthful  energy 
dwindles  away  before  that  of  Kossini,  who 
was  but  twenty- six  when  he  produced  'Mos^ 
in  Egitto,'  and  who  had  previously  composed, 
among  works  of  less  fame,  'Tancredi,'  *I1  Bar- 
biere,'  'Otello,'  *La  Gazza  Ladra,'  and  *La 
Cenerentola.'  But  even  if  Bellini  should  outlive 
Eossini — and  in  the  present  day  *I1  Barbiere' 
and  'Semiramide'  are  the  only  Rossinian  operas 
which  are  played  as  often  as  '  La  Sonnambula ' 
and  'Norma' — it  would  still  be  necessary  to  re- 
member that  Bellini  was  but  a  follower  of  Eos- 
sini, and  a  pupil  in  his  most  melodious  of  schools. 
Directly  after  Bellini's  death,  and  on  the  very 
eve  of  his  funeral,  the  Theatre  Italien  opened  for 
the  season  vtith  '  I  Puritani,'  The  performance 
must  have  been  a  sad  one ;  and  not  many  hours 
after  its  conclusion  the  artists  who  had  taken 
part  in  it  were  repeating  Bellini's  last  melodies, 
not  to  the  words  of  the  Italian  libretto,  but  to 
those  of  the  Catholic  service  for  the  dead.  The 
general  direction  of  the  ceremony  had  been  un- 
dertaken by  Eossini,  Cherubini,  Paer,  and  Ca- 
rafa ;  the  musical  department  being  specially 
entrusted  to  Habeneck,  the  distinguished  con- 
ductor of  the  French  Opera.  In  the  Eequiem 
Service  a  deep  impression  was  produced  by  a 
'Lacrymosa'  for  four  voices,  of  which  the  beauti- 
ful tenor  melody  in  the  third  act  of  '  I  Puritani ' 
formed  the  fitting  theme.  The  movement  was 
sung  without  accompaniment  by  Eubini,  Iva- 
noS,  Tamburini,  and  Lablache.  The  mass  was 
celebrated  in  the  Church  of  the  Invalides,  and 
Bellini  lies  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Pfere  la 
Chaise.  Eossini,  who  had  done  so  much  for  his 
young  compatriot  during  his  life-time,  undertook 
the  duty  of  conveying  to  the  father  the  news  of 
his  death.  *  You  always  encouraged  the  object  ' 
of  my  eternal  regret  in  his  labours,'  wrote  the 
old  Bellini  in  reply  ;  ' .  .  .  I  shall  never  cease  to 
remember  how  much  you  did  for  my  son.  I  shall 
make  known  everj^where,  in  the  midst  of  my 
tears,  what  an  affectionate  heart  belongs  to  the  1 


great  Eossini ;  and  how  kind,  hospitable,  and  full 
of  feehng  are  the  artists  of  France.'     [H.  S.  E.] 

BELLOC,  Teresa  Giobgi,  was  bom  at  Milan, 
of  French  parents,  and  made  her  first  appearance 
in  1804  at  the  theatre  of  La  Scala  in  that  city. 
One  of  her  first  roles  was  Paisiello's  *  Nina,'  in 
which  she  was  so  successful  as  to  obtain  an 
engagement  at  the  same  theatre  for  the  following 
year.  She  sang  next  at  Paris  in  the  same  opera, 
in  Martini's  '  Cosa  Eara,'  and  other  pieces. 
Thence  she  visited  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Milan, 
where  she  appeared  in  the  carnival  of  1807,  and 
remained  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  At  Venice  in 
181 2  Eossini  wrote  for  her,  Eafianelli,  and  F. 
Galli,  'L'Inganno  felice,'  and  at  Milan,  in  1817, 
*La  Gazza  Ladra.'  In  the  latter  year  she  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time  in  London  under  the 
name  of  Bellocchi,  and  succeeded  Mme.  Fodor. 
Though  a  good  singer  and  actress  in  comic  operas, 
she  did  not  please  much  here,  owing  to  the 
coarseness  of  her  voice  and  the  plainness  of  her 
person.  She  was  something  like  Storace,  with 
most  of  her  defects,  but  not  all  her  excellences. 
She  however  surprised  the  public,  towards  the 
close  of  her  engagement,  by  a  capital  perform- 
ance of  'Tancredi,'  for  which  nothing  could  be 
less  fitted  than  her  figure ;  but  the  music  suited 
her  voice,  and  her  singing  of  it  was  really  so 
good  as  to  atone  for  her  personal  appearance. 
She  sang  here  during  that  and  the  two  follow- 
ing seasons  ;  and  in  182 1  she  returned  to  Milan, 
singing  there  throughout  that  year  and  the  next 
spring.  She  remained  there  the  whole  of  1823 
and  during  the  spring  of  24.  In  28  she  quitted 
the  stage.  [J.  M.] 

BELLOWS.  The  apparatus  by  which  the  air 
is  collected,  compressed,  and  propelled  through 
the  several  windtrunks  or  channels  of  an  organ 
for  ultimate  redistribution  among  the  pipes. 

One  of  the  matters  of  greatest  importance  in 
an  organ  is  that  the  supply  of  wind  shall  be 
copious,  unvarying,  and  continuous ; — that  it 
shall  possess  'good  lungs,'  as  Sebastian  Bach 
used  to  say.  Yet  it  is  curious  to  note  how 
singularly  far  from  being  in  such  condition  were 
the  early  organs ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  trace 
the  steps  by  which,  through  centuries,  the  desired 
consummation  was  gradually,  and  only  gradually, 
achieved.  In  the  4th  century  organs  were  blown 
by  bellows  formed  like  the  ordinary  household 
bellows,  about  five  feet  in  length,  which  were 
'weighted'  by  two  men  standing  on  the  top  ;  and 
as  the  men  who  performed  the  ofiice  of  dead 
weight  one  day  might  be  fifty  pounds  heavier 
than  those  who  did  so  on  the  next,  it  is  clear 
that  the  tone,  speech,  and  power  of  the  organ 
must  have  been  subject  to  constant  variation.  In 
the  nth  century  the  bellows — stiU  of  the  house- 
hold kind — were  blown  by  hand,  and  although 
'a  nearer  approach  to  an  equal  wind  might  then 
with  care  have  been  to  some  extent  secured,  yet 
it  must  still  have  varied  with  the  muscular  power 
of  successive  blowers.  The  sides  or  folds  of  these 
primitive  contrivances  were  made  of  leather — 
'white  horse's  hides,'  or  'shepis  skyn/  as  the 


BELLOWS. 


BELLOWS. 


215 


old  accounts  inform  us — and  were  consequently 
subject  to  frequent  injury  from  strain  and  friction; 
hence  the  constant  appearance  in  old  parish 
accounts  of  such  entries  as  'Paid  for  mending 
of  the  gret  organ  bellowis,  and  the  small  organ 
bellowis,  A^.'  These  ever-recurring  failures  at 
length  suggested  the  use  of  some  more  durable 
material,  and  wooden  rihs  were  substituted  for 
the  leather  folds.  This  improvement  was  effected 
as  long  ago  as  141 9,  in  which  year,  as  we  learn 
from  the  Fabric  KoUs  of  York  Minster,  John 
Couper,  a  carpenter,  received  Tor  constructing 
the  ribs  of  the  bellows,  xii^' 

These  bellows,  however  formed,  coiild  of  course 
give  only  an  intermittent  supply  of  wind,  being 
wholly  inoperative  while  being  drawn  open ; 
consequently  two  at  the  least  were  always  re- 
(juired,  one  to  supply  wind  while  the  other  was 
replenishing.  A  more  'continuous'  supply,  though 
by  no  means  of  an  'unvarying'  strength,  was 
secured  by  the  use  of  a  contrivance  like  the  or- 
dinary smith's  forge  bellows,  consisting  of  a  feeder 
below  and  a  diagonal  reservoir  above.  When 
this  form  of  bellows  was  first  used,  or  finally 
abandoned,  are  matters  not  quite  clear ;  but  some 
disused  specimens  were  lying  in  a  lumber-room 
attached  to  Tong  church,  Shropshire,  as  late  as  the 
year  1 789.  Father  Smith  (died  1 708)  occasionally 
put  something  of  the  kind  into  ids  small  cabinet 
organs ;  but  attention  was  more  particularly  di- 
rected to  the  correction  of  the  defects  which  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  the  diagonal  bellows. 

A  diagonal  bellows  was  formed  of  two  pairs  of 
triangular-shaped  ribs  for  the  sides,  a  pair  of  par- 
allel ribs  for  the  spreading  end,  a  bottom-board, 
a  top-board — all  attached  together  by  leathern 
hinges — and  the  superincumbent  weights.  For 
a  long  time  the  bellows  were  placed  with  the 
bottom  board  in  a  horizontal  position,  the  top 
board  rising,  and  the  whole  taking  the  following 
outline  when  inflated : — 


This  did  not  however  produce  a  uniform  current 
of  air,  but  a  somewhat  lighter  one  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  descent,  and  a  gradually 
increasing  one  during  the  closing.  This  arose 
from  two  causes.  The  first  was  connected  with 
the  weights.  A  weight  exercises  its  greatest 
influence  on  a  horizontal  surface,  and  loses  some 
of  that  influence  on  an  inclined  plane.  The 
second  was  due  to  the  varying  position  of  the 
wooden  ribs.  These  would  present  an  obtuse 
angle  to  the  wind  in  the  bellows  when  inflated, 
thus — 


and  one  gradually  increasing  in  acuteness  as  it 
closed — 


The  top  weights  acquiring  greater  influence  as 


the  top  board  approached  a  horizontal  position, 
and  the  side  and  end  folds  wedging  their  way 
into  the  wind,  the  two  actions  gradually  in- 
creased the  density  of  the  wind  to  one -fourteenth 
beyond  its  first  pressure.  Various  ingenious 
means  were  devised  for  correcting  this  inequal- 
ity— as  accumulative  springs  ;  a  counterpoise  act- 
ing in  opposition  to  the  descent  of  the  bellows ; 
a  string  of  leaden  weights  which  were  left  in 
suspension  as  the  bellows  descended,  etc.  :  but 
the  simplest  and  perhaps  most  effectual  of  all 
was  that  adopted  by  some  of  the  German  organ- 
builders,  which  consisted  in  placing  the  bellows 
so  that  the  top  board  took  the  horizontal  position 
on  the  bellows  being  inflated— 


In  this  case  the  top  weights  exercised  their 
greatest  pressure  at  the  starting,  at  which  time 
the  ribs  exercised  their  least,  and  vice  versa. 

A  bellows  nevertheless  still  gave  but  an  inter- 
mittent supply,  and  it  was  not  until  the  year 
1762  that  an  approach  towards  a  successful  com- 
Ijination  of  a  feeder  and  a  reservoir  was  made, 
by  a  clockmaker  of  the  name  of  Gumming. 
This  bellows  had  something  of  the  form  shown 
in  the  following  outline  :— 


It  presented  the  mistake  however  of  having 
the  two  double  sets  of  ribs  folding  the  same  way, 
which  continued  the  defect  in  the  increasing- 
pressure  of  wind  during  the  closing,  that  has 
already  been  noticed  in  the  diagonal  bellows. 
This  led  to  the  upper  set  being  inverted,  thus — 


i 


The  upper  set  thus  giving  more  room  to  the 
wind  as  the  lower  gave  less,  the  one  remedied 
the  defect  the  other  was  calculated  to  cause. 
Thus  the  desired  'copious,  unvarying,  and  con- 
tinuous' supply  of  wind  was  at  length  secured. 

There  are  certain  disturbances  which  arise 
from  the  maimer  of  the  consumption  of  the 
wind. 

It  is  essential  that  the  bellows  of  an  organ 
should  yield  a  steady  as  well  as  an  ample  supply. 
The  improved  bellows  being  capable  of  the 
latter,  the -even  flow  was  nevertheless  apt  to  be 
disturbed  from  one  of  many  causes.  A  prolific 
source  of  unsteadiness  was  unskilfulness  on  the 
part  of  the  blower.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  stroke  the  wind,  in  passing  into  the  reservoir, 
has  to  overcome  the  pressure  of  the  surface 
weights  and  raise  the  top- board,  and  at  its 


216 


BELLOWS. 


BELLS. 


termination  the  surface  weights  have  gently  to 
resume  their  compressing  force  on  the  wind.  But 
if  the  stroke  be  begun  or  concluded  too  suddenly 
there  will  be  a  momentary  over-compression  or 
a  jerk  in  the  wind,  resulting  in  either  case  in  a 
disturbance  of  the  smooth  sounding  of  the  pipes. 

Again,  if  several  large  pipes  are  sounded 
together,  by  many  bass  keys  being  put  down 
simultaneously,  there  will  be  a  great  demand 
upon  the  wind  supply,  and  a  consequent  possi- 
bility of  the  small  pipes  in  the  treble  not  being 
properly  '  fed,'  the  result  in  that  case  being  a 
momentary  weakness  or  tremulousuess  in  their 
speech.  On  letting  the  several  bass  keys  sud- 
denly rise,  the  consumption  of  wind  would  as 
suddenly  be  checked,  and  by  thus  causing  for  a 
moment  a  slight  over-compression,  the  sensitive 
small  pipes  would  sound  too  sharp  and  strong. 
These  tendencies  suggested  the  application  of  a 
small  self-acting  reservoir  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  pipes,  which  should  add  to 
or  subtract  from  the  ordinary  wind -supply  as 
occasion  might  require ;  and  such  an  apparatus 
was  successfully  devised  by  the  late  Mr.  Bishop, 
which  consisted  of  side  and  end  ribs,  and  a  board, 
not  unlikft  a  small  'feeder,'  with  strong  springs 
behind  placed  horizontally  or  vertically  over  a 
hole  cut  in  the  wind-chest  or  wind-trunk,  the 
whole  being  called  a  *  concussion  bellows.' 

(  1 

-^^^-^ 

When  at  rest  the  concussion  bellows  stands 
about  half  way  open,  and  charged  to  that  extent 
with  air.  If  a  sudden  and  great  demand  is  made 
upon  the  wind  it  immediately  closes,  adding  its 
contents  to  the  average  supply ;  and  if  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  redundance  it  expands,  and  so 
reduces  it  to  the  average.  [E.  J.  H.] 

BELLS.  Musical  instruments  of  metal,  sound- 
ed by  percussion,  and  consisting  of  a  cup  or  bowl, 
caused  to  vibrate  by  the  blow  of  a  '  clapper '  or 
hammer  on  the  inner  or  outer  surface  of  the  bell. 
The  external  stroke,  however,  is  only  applied  in 
special  cases,  as  when  a  large  bell  is  connected 
with  a  clock,  and  the  hours  struck  upon  it  with 
an  external  hammer  worked  by  mechanical 
means  ;  or  when  a  series  of  bells  are  arranged  so 
that  set  compositions  can  be  played  upon  them 
by  a  series  of  such  hammers,  and  with  musical 
precision.  [See  Carillons.]  A  fixed  bell  can  also 
be  played  by  an  internal  hammer  pulled  or  struck 
against  the  inside.  But  the  essential  and  typical 
form  of  the  bell  is  that  in  which  the  stroke  is 
given  by  a  movable  clapper  hung  within  the 
bell,  and  caused  to  strike  by  swinging  the  latter, 
either  by  hand  (in  the  case  of  small  bells)  or  by 
a  wheel  and  pulley  system  in  the  case  of  large 
ones.  Bells  have  also  been  extensively  used  as 
personal  ornaments  and  decorations,  from  those 
on  the  hem  of  the  garment  of  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  to  those  which  formed  the  appendages  of 
the  head-dress  of  the  mediaeval  jester.    This  de- 


corative use  of  bells  has  also  been  applied  to 
domestic  animals ;  and  the  bells  of  the  English 
waggoner's  team  were  formerly  as  common  an 
appendage  as  the  sheep-bells  and  goat-bells  in 
Switzerland  and  elsewhere,  and  the  cow-bells  in 
the  New  Forest,  still  are.  In  these  cases  the 
sound  of  the  bell  is  excited  by  the  movements 
of  the  body.  But  in  all  these  forms  or  ap- 
plications of  the  bell  the  principle  is  the  same ; 
it  is  an  instrument  with  a  hammer  hung  loose 
inside  it,  and  caused  to  sound  by  the  agitation, 
regular  or  irregular,  conmiunicated  to  it,  and 
by  which  the  hammer  is  made  to  strike  against 
the  inside.  It  is  important  to  note  this  as  the 
essential  characteristic  of  bells,  and  that  which 
distinguishes  their  special  place  among  musical 
instruments.  Of  music,  in  the  artistic  sense  of 
the  word,  bells  in  their  true  form  are  hardly 
capable.  They  may  be  tuned  to  a  regular  scale, 
and  sounded  in  various  successions,  but  the 
method  of  obtaining  the  sound  by  swinging  the 
bell  till  the  clapper  hits  it  (by  which  method 
alone  the  full  sound  can  be  elicited)  necessarily 
precludes  anything  like  the  exactitude  in  time  or 
the  variation  in  intensity  by  which  form  and  ex- 
pression are  given  to  music.  All  the  contrivances 
for  performing  music  on  bells  with  mechanical 
precision  involve  a  greater  or  less  departure  from 
the  true  principle  of  the  bell,  and  an  impairing 
of  its  characteristic  sound  by  fixing  it  instead  of 
letting  it  swing  freely.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  bells  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between 
the  music  of  art  and  the  music  of  nature ;  their 
fixed  tone  and  synchronous  vibrations  connecting 
them  with  the  art,  while  the  irregular  and  formless 
character  of  the  music  produced  from  them  even 
I  by  the  best  peal -ringers,  partakes  of  the  wildness 
I  and  vague  character  of  natural  sounds.  It  is  this 
I  wildness  of  character  which  is  one  of  the  great 
charms  of  bell-music  on  a  large  scale,  and  which 
has  caused  it  to  be  so  much  interwoven  with  the 
associations  of  men,  both  in  real  life  and  in  ima- 
ginative literature. 

Like  the  harp,  the  bell  is  prse-historic  in  its 
origin  ;  nor  would  it  serve  much  purpose  here  to 
speculate  upon  the  probable  origin  or  earliest 
form  of  the  bell,  of  which  in  fact  we  knov/ 
nothing ;  or  even  to  dwell  on  the  very  uncertain 
archaeology  of  the  instrument.  The  records  of 
almost  all  nations  of  whose  early  history  we 
Jtnow  anything  imply  the  use  of  bells  in  one 
shape  or  another ;  generally,  it  would  seem,  as  a 
sign  or  proclamation,  just  as  the  railway  bell,  the 
chvirch  bell,  and  'that  tocsin  of  the  soul,  the 
dinner-bell,'  are  still  used.  But  there  can  be  no 
question  that  the  real  development  of  bells  and 
bell-ringing  into  their  highest  form  is  due  to  the 
art  and  the  ecclesiastical  fervour  combined  of 
the  middle  ages.  The  influences  which  led  to 
the  development  of  bell-ringing  and  bell-founding 
were  not  dissimilar  to  those  which  led  to  the 
great  development  of  architecture  in  the  cathe- 
dral form.  Not  that  either  architecture  or  bells 
were  necessarily  connected  with  ecclesiastical 
predominance  ;  but  that  the  church  being  the 
great  power  and  central  influence  of  mediaeval 


BELLS. 


BELLS. 


217 


Europe,  the  art  of  the  time  was  all  drawn  into 
its  service,  and  thus  it  came  to  pass  that  bells 
having  been,  at  a  comparatively  early  period  of 
the  Christian  era,  introduced  as  an  appendage  to 
places  of  worship,  their  development,  with  all 
the  art  and  science  which  the  mediaeval  workmen 
had  at  command,  became  almost  inseparably  con- 
nected with  that  of  church  architecture,  and 
their  sounds  associated  in  an  especial  degree  with 
church  celebrations.  The  form  of  bell  which  may 
be  said  to  have  been  perfected  by  mediaeval  bell- 
founders  (for  it  has  been  accepted  as  a  type  upon 
which  no  essential  or  radical  improvement  can 
be  made)  is  that  shown  in  the  following  diagram, 
in  which  also  the  principal  component  parts  of 
the  bell  are  distinguished. 


The  elevation  of  the  exterior  of  the  bell 
explains  itself;  the  section  shows  the  relative 
thickness  and  shape  of  the  metal ;  the  thickest 
portion,  the  'sound -bow,'  A,  against  v/hich  the 
clapper  strikes,  is  usually  -jJg-th  of  the  total 
diameter  of  the  bell  at  the  lip.  The  half-section 
marked  No.  i  shows  the  old  method  of  providing 
for  the  hanging  of  the  bell  and  the  attachment 
of  the  clapper;  the  loops  called  'canons,'  B, 
being  cast  on  solid  to  receive  the  iron  straps  by 
which  the  bell  is  fixed  to  the  stock,  and  the  bolt, 

C,  for  attaching  the  clapper  also  cast  solid  on 
the  inside  of  the  bell.  It  is  necessary  that  C 
should  be  well  below  the  line  of  axis  on  which 
the  bell  swings,  so  as  to  describe  an  appreciable 
circle  around  the  axis,  otherwise  there  will  be 
no  leverage  to  drive  the  clapper,  and  it  will  not 
fl^  properly.  The  swing  of  the  clapper  is  further 
ensured  and  accelerated  by  the  small  piece, 

D,  called  the  'flight,'  cast  on  t()  the  striking 
part  to  increase  the  impetus  of  the  blow.  Half- 


section  No.  2  shows  a  method  of  hanging  the 
bell  and  clapper  recommended  by  Sir  E.  Beckett, 
and  adopted  in  a  good  many  instances  by  Mr. 
Taylor  of  Loughborough,  in  which  canons  are 
dispensed  with,  and  a  thick  crown,  E,  is  used 
with  bolt  holes  through  which  the  bell  is  bolted 
to  the  stock,  and  a  larger  hole  in  the  centre 
through  which  the  clapper-bolt  is  also  fixed  to 
the  stock,  instead  of  being  cast  on  to  the  bell. 
The  advantage  of  this  plan  is  that  the  bell  can 
easily  be  turned  on  the  stock,  the  clapper-bolt 
(which  is  circular  where  it  passes  through  the 
bell)  remaining  stationary,  and  thus  the  blow 
of  the  clapper  can  be  directed  against  a  new 
portion  of  the  sound-bow,  should  the  original 
striking  place  have  become  worn  or  show  any 
tendency  to  crack. 

The  material  of  which  bells  are  composed  is  a 
mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  which  in  the  old  bells 
appear  to  have  been  used  in  the  proportion  of 
about  3  to  I .  Modern  experiment  has  given  rise 
to  the  conclusion  that,  while  this  combination 
gave  the  best  sound,  and  the  proportion  of  tin 
might  even  be  increased  with  advantage  to  the 
sound,  this  proportion  represents  the  extreme 
amount  of  tin  which  can  be  used  without  the 
danger  of  rendering  the  metal  brittle  and  liable 
to  crack,  and  that  in  regard  to  this  consideration 
a  margin  within  that  proportion  of  tin  is  safer. 
2  2  of  copper  to  7  of  tin  was  used  for  the  West- 
minster bells  in  the  Victoria  Tower.  Any  consider- 
ably larger  proportion  of  copper  than  this^  on 
the  other  hand,  has  a  tendency  to  render  the 
metal  too  soft,  and  impair  the  brilliancy  of  its 
tone. 

The  conclusion  that  the  special  shape  figured 
above,  or  something  near  it,  is  the  best  for  a  bell, 
has  no  basis  that  any  one  seems  to  know  of  ex- 
cept experience.  It  has  been  theoretically  main- 
tained that  plain  hemispherical  bells  ought  to 
give  the  best  and  purest  tone,  but  except  on  a 
small  scale  it  is  not  found  to  be  so ;  the  result 
being  either  that  the  tone  is  very  heavy  and 
dead,  or  that  when  forced  by  hard  striking  it  is 
unmusical  and  disagreeable  to  the  ear.  Sets  of 
hemispherical  bells  have  lately  been  made  of 
larger  size,  and  with  more  success  than  before ; 
they  require,  however,  to  be  fixed  and  struck, 
and  not  swung  ;  their  tone  when  not  struck 
too  heavily  is  not  unpleasing,  but  quite  inferior 
in  power  and  brightness  to  that  of  a  swung  bell 
of  the  usual  form.  It  is  also  to  be  noted,  though 
this  fact  again  is  equally  inexplicable,  or  at  least 
unexplained,  that  large  and  small  bells  require 
somewhat  differing  shape  and  proportions  to 
realise  the  best  sound.  That  the  proportionate 
thickness  or  weight  of  metal  for  producing  the 
best  results  should  be  different  for  large  and 
small  bells,  it  is  more  easy  to  understand.  For 
a  large  bell,  such  as  6-feet  diameter,  experience 
seems  to  give  a  thickness  of  of  the  diameter 
as  the  best  proportion.  Smaller  bells  will  bear 
a  somewhat  greater  proportionate  thickness,  and 
the  proportionate  thickness — that  is  to  say,  the 
proportionate  weight  of  metal  to  the  note  pro- 
duced— is  always  increased  in  a  large  peal,  from 


218 


BELLS. 


BELLS. 


the  lower  to  the  upper  notes  of  the  scale.  The 
thinner  the  bell  is  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  metal,  it  should  be  observed,  the  deeper  is  the 
pitch  :  so  that  if  the  same  proportionate  thickness 
were  preserved  in  the  treble  as  in  the  tenor  of 
a  peal,  the  former  would  have  to  be  made  of 
too  small  size  and  too  little  weight  of  metal  to 
compete  successfully  with  the  tenor.  By  adding 
to  the  proportionate  thickness  of  the  treble,  we 
are  enabled  to  make  it  of  larger  size  and  heavier 
metal  while  preserving  the  high  pitch.  This 
effect  of  thickness  on  pitch  is  a  thing  to  be 
borne  in  mind  in  ordering  a  peal  of  bells,  and 
deciding  what  scale  or  pitch  is  to  be  adopted. 
The  cost  of  the  bells  is  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  metal,  and  the  question  therefore  is, 
given  so  much  metal,  in  what  form  to  cast  it  so 
as  to  get  the  best  eflFect  from  it.  This  will  often 
be  best  realised  by  not  endeavouring  to  get  too 
deep  a  tone  from  the  peal ;  a  peal  tuned  in  the 
scale  of  E  or  of  F  may  be  equally  cast  with  the 
same  amount  of  metal,  but  will  not  be  equally 
good,  as  either  the  E  peal  in  that  case  must  be 
too  thin,  or  the  F  peal  too  thick.  Where  the 
amount  of  metal  is  limited,  therefore,  the  higher 
pitch  will  give  the  best  result,  and  enable  the 
metal  to  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  precise  note  which  a  bell  of  a  certain 
shape,  size,  and  weight  will  produce  is  almost  a 
matter  of  experience ;  but  the  proportion  be- 
tween size  and  relative  dimensions  and  pitch  is 
capable  of  being  approximately  tabulated.  The 
average  m.odichis  of  the  finest  of  the  large  bells 
of  Europe,  as  between  size  and  weight,  is  given 
by  Sir  E.  Beckett  (to  whose  work  on  Clocks 
and  Bells  the  reader  is  referred  for  more  detailed 
information  on  some  of  the  points  touched  upon 
here),  as  lo  cwt.  of  metal  for  a  bell  3  feet  in  dia- 
meter, and  as  the  weight  of  metal  varies  as  the 
cube  of  the  diameter,  a  bell  of  4  feet  diameter 
would  consume  nearly  2  5  cwt.,  and  one  of  6  feet 
diameter  4  tons  of  metal.  A  bell  of  this  last- 
named  weight  would,  with  the  best  and  most 
effective  disposition  of  the  metal,  give  the  note 
tenor  C ;  and  the  pitch  for  other  sizes  may  be 
deduced  from  this,  on  the  rule  that  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  per  second  in  bells  varies  as 
(thickness)^ 
diameter 

AVhere  a  set  of  bells  are  in  precisely  similar 
proportions  throughout,  their  dimensions  would 
be  simply  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  number 
of  vibrations  per  second  of  the  notes  they  were 
intended  to  sound.  But  as  in  practice  the  higher 
pitched  bells  are  always  made  thicker  in  pro- 
portion to  the  diameter  than  the  lower  ones,  for 
the  reasons  mentioned  above,  the  problem  cannot 
for  practical  purposes  be  stated  in  the  simple 
form  of  inverse  ratio.  Bells,  it  may  be  observed, 
are  tuned  by  turning  out  a  small  portion  from 
the  inner  side  of  the  thickest  part  or  sound-bow, 
when  they  are  too  sharp,  so  as  to  reduce  the 
thickness  and  thereby  flatten  them,  or  by  similarly 
turning  off  a  small  portion  from  the  edge  of  the 
rim,  so  as  to  reduce  the  diameter,  when  it  is 
desired  to  sharpen  them.    This  latter  process, 


however,  impairs  the  shape,  and  is  apt  also  to 
injure  the  tone  of  the  bell;  and  if  the  casting 
cannot  be  so  accurately  regulated  as  to  give 
hope  of  ensuring  correctness  at  first,  it  is  better 
to  let  any  excess  be  on  the  side  of  sharpness, 
which  can  be  corrected  without  damaging  the 
bell.  In  the  case  of  large  peals  the  plan  has 
sometimes  been  followed  of  casting  all  the 
smaller  bells  a  trifle  thick,  so  that  if  the  whole 
peal  is  not  precisely  in  tune,  the  tuning  may  all 
fall  on  the  smaller  bells,  which  will  be  reduced  in 
thickness  till  they  are  brought  down  to  the  pitch 
to  range  correctly  with  the  larger  ones.  Bells  are 
however  now  cast  with  considerable  accuracy, 
and  the  turning  out  of  a  nearly  perfect,  or,  as  it 
is  called,  a  'maiden'  peal,  is  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence  ;  though  it  must  be  said  that  peals  are 
not  unfrequently  so  called  which  are  not  as  per- 
fectly in  tune  as  they  ought  to  be,  but  which  are 
left  untouched  in  order  to  claim  the  credit  of 
being  a  'maiden'  set.  This  ought  never  to  be 
allowed  ;  in  fact  a  much  more  rigorous  standard 
ought  to  be  maintained  in  tuning  bells  than  is 
usual :  the  number  of  bells  not  properly  in  tune 
with  each  other  which  we  hear  is  a  constant 
annoyance  to  those  whose  ears  can  detect  the 
falsity,  and  perhaps  does  something  towards  con- 
firming other  listeners  in  their  deficiency  of  what 
is  called  'ear.' 

The  casting  of  a  large  bell  is  an  operation  re- 
quiring considerable  preparation  and  a  great  deal 
of  nicety  of  workmanship.  The  first  process  is 
to  form  the  model  of  the  inside  surface  of  the 
bell,  or  the  core,  which  is  done  on  a  conical- 
shaped  base  of  iron  or  brickwork ;  the  clay,  after 
being  approximately  modelled  by  hand,  is  brought 
to  the  correct  mould  by  means  of  what  is  called 
a  '  sweep,'  which  is  a  flat  piece  of  hard  M'ood 
with  one  of  its  edges  cut  to  the  section  of  the 
inside  of  the  bell,  and  which  is  attached  to  a 
pivot  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  core,  and  then 
'swept'  round  the  clay  vmtil  the  model  of  the 
inside  of  the  bell  is  correctly  formed.  The  core 
is  then  thoroughly  dried  by  heat,  either  by  a  fire 
lighted  under  it  (if  it  is  on  a  brick  base),  or 
by  being  placed  bodily  in  an  oven  (if  it  is  on  an 
iron  base).  The  next  point  is  to  obtain  the  outer 
shape  of  the  bell,  and  its  thickness.  There  are 
two  ways  of  doing  this.  The  method  which  used 
to  be  universally  adopted  was  to  make  upon  the 
core,  after  it  was  dried,  a  model  of  the  thickness 
of  the  bell  in  clay,  the  outer  shape  of  the  bell 
being  obtained  by  another  sweep  operating  in 
the  same  way,  and  turning  on  the  same  centre  as 
that  which  formed  the  inside  shape ;  then  upon 
this,  when  dry,  to  build  a  cover  or  cope,  the 
inner  side  of  which  closely .  followed  the  outer 
shape  of  the  bell.  This  cope,  going  like  an 
extinguisher  over  the  whole,  was  strengthened 
with  haybands,  or,  in  the  case  of  large  models, 
with  pieces  of  iron  worked  into  it,  so  that  when 
made  it  could  be  bodily  lifted  off,  the  clay  bell 
previously  made  on  the  core  broken  away,  and 
the  cope  replaced,  leaving  between  it  and  the 
core  the  precise  shape  and  thickness  of  the  bell. 
The  difficulty  however  of  getting  a  good  external 


BELLS. 


BELLS. 


219 


finish  in  this  way  must  have  been  considerable. 
The  method  now  usually  emploN'ed  is  to  dispense 
with  the  operation  of  making  the  clay  '  thickness ' 
altogether,  and  to  have  a  metal  cope  larger  than 
the  size  of  the  bell,  and  lined  with  clay,  in  which 
the  external  model  of  the  bell  is  then  formed  by 
an  inv^ed  sweep,  acting  on  the  inside  surface ; 
the  cope  is  then  turned  over  the  core,  and  the 
exact  model  of  the  bell  is  represented,  of  course, 
by  the  space  between  them.  The  direct  action  of 
the  sweep  secures  a  more  finished  exterior  surface 
than  with  the  old  hand-made  cope ;  and  another 
advantage  is  that  the  iron  cope  can  be  bolted 
do%\-n  to  a  plate  below  the  core,  so  as  to  render 
the  whole  thing  perfectly  steady  for  the  casting, 
and  greatly  facilitate  the  process  of  getting  it 
into  the  sand.  The  mould  which  gives  the  shape 
of  the  top  of  the  bell,  with  the  clapper -ring 
and  the  ears  or  *  canons'  for  fixing  the  bell  to  j 
the  stock,  is  added  to  the  model  by  a  separate 
process,  and  the  whole  is  then  imbedded  in  the  ! 
sand  of  the  casting -room  with  the  mouth  down-  j 
ward,  and  the  metal  run  in  and  left  to  cool. 

Bells  have  occasionally  been  used  in  the  or-  j 
chestra,  though  hardly  in  any  sense  which  can 
justify  their  being  included  among  orchestral 
instruments ;  since  when  used  singly  and  sounded 
by  swinging  in  the  ordinary  way,  they  are  in- 
variably intended  to  give  what  may  be  called 
'local  colour'  to  a  dramatic  scene;  to  suggest 
something  beyond  or  apart  from  the  orchestra,  as 
the  prison-bell  in  the  'Trovatore,'  the  goat-beU. 
in  '  Dinorah,'  or  the  vesper-bell  in  Bennett's 
*  Paradise  and  the  Peri '  overture.  Mozart  has, 
however,  used  a  frame  of  bells  played  by  a  key- 
board like  that  of  a  pianoforte  ('Glockenspiel ') 
in  the  score  of  'Die  Zauberflote,'  to  represent 
the  effect  of  Papageno's  bells  which  are  visibly 
present  in  his  head-dress,  though  actually  played 
in  the  band.  The  same  instrument  has  been 
used  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  by  one  or 
two  other  operatic  composers,  but  always  for 
stage  effect  rather  than  for  directly  musical 
purposes.  A  recent  idea  of  some  English  organ- 
builders  has  been  the  attachment  of  a  scale  of 
bells  to  an  organ,  which  are  sounded  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  the  ordinary  stops  on 
drawing  a  stop-head  which  brings  them  under 
the  control  of  the  ke^'s  ;  but  the  addition  is  com- 
pletely out  of  keeping  witn  the  genius  of  the 
organ,  and  is  available  rather  for  '  sensational ' 
effects  than  as  a  real  addition  to  the  proper  range 
of  the  instrument.  All  these  experiments  only 
serve  to  confirm  the  opinion  that  bell-music  does 
not  belong  to  the  region  of  musical  art  properly 
so  called ;  and  attempts  to  drag  the  bell  from  its 
proper  sphere,  and  force  from  it  an  expression 
foreign  to  its  nature,  have  never  permanently 
succeeded.  [H.  H.  S.] 

BELLS  are  rung  in  peal  in  the  British  Islands 
only,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  rings  of 
bells  in  America  and  the  Colonies.  On  the  Con- 
tinent they  are  simply  clashed,  being  swung  with 
a  lever — the  notes  of  the  bells  not  being  arranged 
in  any  special  order.  In  our  islands  it  is  usual 
to  tune  bells  in  the  diatonic  scale,  and  they 


i  are  then  rung  in  order  from  the  highest  to  the 
'  lowest. 

j     To  enable  the  ringers  to  do  this  with  accuracy, 
j  and  also  to  enable  them  to  change  the  order  in 
which  the  bells  strike  by  proper  methods  (see 
j  Change-Eixgixg),  bells  are  hung  as  shown  in 
accompanying  illustrations  : — 


Fig.  1, 


They  are  first  carefully  secured  by  iron  bolts 
and  braces  through  the  ears  or  '  canons,'  K,  to 
the  stock  A  (Fig.  i)  which  is  fitted  with  axles  or 
gudgeons  of  iron,  M,  working  in  brass  or  gun- 
metal  bearings.  The  stock  is  fitted  with  a 
wheel,  E,  and  a  stay,  B  ;  and  a  ground  pulley,  N, 
is  fixed  to  the  floor  of  the  belfry.  By  pulling 
the  rope,  F,  the  bell  is  gradually  swung  till  she 
stands  mouth  upwards,  as  shown  in  Figs.  2  and 
3,  when  she  is  maintained  in  this  position  by  the 
stay  B,  and  slider  C,  which  prevent  her  fi*om 

Fig.  2. 


falling  over  (or  turning  clean  round).  It  will  be 
seen  that  when  the  rope,  F,  has  been  pulled 
enough  to  bring  the  fillet  or  '  sallie  pin,'  G,  down 
to  the  nearest  point  to  the  ground  pulley,  N,  that 
it  can  reach,  it  would  in  swinging  past  that  point 
raise  the  rope ;  this  gives  the  ringer  a  second 
pull,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig.  2,  and 
this  is  called  the  'hand-stroke'  pull.    Now  by 


220 


BELLS. 


BELLY, 


following  with  the  eye  the  motion  of  the  bell  as 
indicated  by  the  arrow  in  No.  2,  she  will  be 
seen  to  turn  over,  bringing  the  fillet  G  past  N  ; 
then,  winding  the  rope  round  the  wheel  as  she 
moves,  she  will  arrive  at  the  position  of  the  bell 
in  Fig.  3 — this  is  called  the  'back-stroke'  blow. 


Fig.  3. 


The  first  thing  a  ringer  has  to  learn  is  so  to 
swing  his  bell  by  the  use  of  the  rope,  that  he  can 
be  quite  certain  to  bring  her  from  one  stroke  to 
another,  pulling  her  with  proper  judgment,  so  as 
just  to  throw  her  over  the  balance  as  shown  in 
Figs.  2  and  3.  If  however  too  much  force  is 
used,  there  is  a  danger  of  breaking  the  stay  or 
some  other  part  of  the  machinery,  and  the  ringer 
himself  may  be  seriously  injured. 

An  alteration  in  the  method  of  hanging  the 
bell  to  the  stock  has  been  invented  by  Sir  E. 
Beckett,  though  only  occasionally  carried  out. 
By  the  ordinary  make  the  *  canons '  for  hanging 
are  so  arranged  as  to  serve  only  for  one  position 
of  the  bell  in  regard  to  the  stock,  so  that  turning 
the  bell  in  order  to  get  the  stroke  of  the  clapper 
in  a  new  position,  after  it  has  worn  the  bell,  is 
impossible.  Sir  E.  Beckett's  plan  consists  in 
having  only  four  instead  of  six  canons,  at  right 
angles  to  one  another  and  forming  a  cross,  on 
plan,  on  the  crown  of  the  bell.  By  this  means 
the  position  of  the  bell  can  be  altered  by  merely 
unstrapping  it  and  turning  it  on  the  stock.  As 
the  clapper  must  always  fly  in  the  same  plane, 
it  is  in  this  plan  bolted  to  the  stock,  the  bolt 
passing  through  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  crown 
of  the  bell.  [C.  A.  W.  T.] 

BELLY.  The  belly  or  upper  part  of  the  in- 
struments of  the  violin  tribe,  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  of  all,  as  it  is  the  first  to  receive 
through  the  bridge  the  vibrations  of  the  strings, 
and  to  communicate  them  to  the  whole  body  of 
the  instrument.  Soft  wood  being  more  easily  set 
in  vibration  in  all  its  parts,  the  belly  is  invariably 
made  of  deal,  while  the  back  and  sides,  which 
are  not  intended  to  vibrate  to  the  same  extent, 
but  rather  to  throw  back  the  waves  of  sound,  are 
made  of  harder  wood — maple. 

As  a  rule,  wood  of  narrow  grain  is  preferred  for 
the  belly,  although  there  are  some  fine  old  instru- 
ments with  bellies  of  wide-grained  wood.  The 
thickness  of  the  belly  is  also  of  very  great  im- 
portance .  if  too  thick,  the  instrument  will  be 


weak  in  tone ;  if  too  thin,  the  tone  will  be  hollow 
and  bellowing.  The  power  of  resonance  is  en- 
hanced by  the  slightly  arched  form  of  the  belly. 
The  wood  is  thickest  in  the  centre,  and  gradually 
gets  thinner  toward  the  sides.  The  gradation 
in  which  this  is  executed  varies  greatly  with 
different  makers,  and  also  depends  on  the  special 
qualities  of  the  individual  piece  of  wood  of  which 
a  belly  is  made.  The  position  and  shape  of  the 
so-called  /-holes  likewise  greatly  influence  the 
quality  of  tone.  The  great  makers  of  the  Brescia 
school,  Gaspar  da  Salo  and  Maggini,  made  the 
/-holes  large  and  almost  upright;  the  Amatis, 
Stradivari,  and  Guameri  gave  them  a  more 
slanting  position,  made  them  smaller,  and  in- 
finitely more  graceful  in  shape.  Close  to  the 
edge  the  belly  is  inlaid  with  a  single  or  double 
line  of  purfling,  which  is  merely  intended  to 
improve  the  outward  appearance  of  the  instru- 
ment. [P.  D  ] 
BELLY  or  SOUNDBOARD  of  pianoforte. 
(Fr.  La  Table  dliarmonie ;  Ital.  Tavola  armonica ; 
Ger.  Mesonanzhoden,  Resonanztafel).  The  broad 
flat  of  wood,  usually  of  Swiss  pine,  extended 
under  the  strings  of  a  pianoforte,  and  connected 
with  them  by  a  bridge  of  hard  wood  over  which 
they  are  stretched,  is  technically  called  the  beUy, 
but  is  also  called  the  sound-  or  sounding-board. 
The  strings  when  set  in  vibration,  owing  to 
their  small  surface  in  contact  with  the  air,  would 
be  scarcely  audible,  were  it  not  for  the  belly, 
an  auxiliary  vibrating  body  of  large  surface,  to 
reinforce  them.  Thus  the  tone  of  a  pianoforte 
essentially  depends  upon  the  movement  and  vari- 
able pressure  of  the  strings  at  the  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  bridge,  by  which  their  vibrations 
are  conveyed  to  the  belly  to  be  intensified  by  the 
vibrations  of  the  fibres  of  this  elastic  support. 
There  is  no  sonorous  body  for  which  we  may 
calculate  movement  under  varied  conditions,  and 
then  verify  the  calculation  by  trial,  to  compare 
with  a  stretched  string.  The  problem  is  far 
more  complicated  of  a  resonant  surface,  as  the 
belly,  and  appears  to  have  offered  less  attraction 
to  research.  We  are  mainly  indebted  to  Chladni 
for  what  we  know  of  the  forms  of  vibration  of 
resounding  substances.  His  determination  of  the 
nodal  lines  by  means  of  fine  sand  placed  upon 
vibrating  surfaces  has  been  of  great  importance 
to  theory,  and  has  been  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  law  of  the  practice  of  ribbing  the 
belly  diagonally  to  the  direction  of  the  grain 
with  slender  bars  of  pine  has  been  finally 
established  by  Dr.  Schafhaeutl,  who  has  proved 
that  this  contrivance  creates  nodal  lines  of  rest, 
and  prevents  the  transversal  vibration  of  the 
belly  as  a  whole  which  would  be  inimical  to 
the  production  of  tone.  But  up  to  this  time, 
in  the  construction  of  bellies,  experiment  alone 
has  effected  what  has  been  achieved.  The 
difference  in  the  character  of  tone  of  piano- 
fortes by  different  makers,  depends  very  much 
upon  variations  in  the  proportions,  direction  of 
the  grain,  and  barring  of  the  belly  ;  but  as  other 
important  variations  of  structure  invariably  and 
simultaneously  exist,  the  question  is  too  complex 


BELLY. 


BENDLER. 


251 


ever  to  be  satisfactorily  answered.  The  further  ! 
description  and  history  of  belly  will  be  found  ! 
under  Pianoforte.  [A.  J.  H.] 

BELMONTE  UXD  COXSTAXZA,  odes 
DIE  ExTFUHBUNG  AUS  DEM  Serail,  an  opera  in 
four  acts,  words  by  Bretzner,  music  by  J ohann 
Andre;  produced  at  Berlin  May  26,  1781.  It  is 
only  worth  mention  because  the  libretto,  as 
altered  by  Stephanie,  was  set  by  Mozart  under 
the  title  of  '  Die  Entfiihrung,'  etc.  [See  p.  66  a.] 

BELSHAZZAR.  An  oratorio  of  Handel's, 
occurring  in  the  series  between  'Joseph'  and 
'  Hercules ' ;  words  by  Jennens,  much  reduced  by 
Handel.  Dates  on  autograph  (in  Buckingham  \ 
Palace) — at  beginning,  August  23, 1744;  at  end  I 
of  first  part.  Scored  Sept.  15,  ditto;  end  of 
second  part,  Sept.  10,  ditto.  First  performance 
at  the  King's  Theatre  on  Wednesday  March  27, 
1745,  announced  as  Belteshazzar.  The  oratorio 
was  revived  bv  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Societv  on 
March  19,  1847.  [G.] 

BEMETZRIEDER,  bom  in  Alsace  in  1743, 
came  to  Paris,  and  was  engaged  as  teacher  of 
music  to  the  daughter  of  Diderot,  whose  patron- 
age was  of  great  service  to  him.  In  1782  he 
left  Paris  for  London,  and  there  he  died  in 
I  Si  7.  He  published  both  in  London  and  Paris 
several  didactic  works  on  music,  one  of  which, 
'Lemons  de  clavecin'  (Paris,  1771),  was  often 
republished  in  France,  Spain,  and  England,  In 
the  contest  between  the  Gluckists  and  Piccinnists 
he  wrote  on  the  side  of  toleration.  Diderot  re- 
wrote the  work  just  named  —  a  questionable 
benefit,  except  as  far  as  style  is  concerned, 

BEMOL,  the  French  term  for  Flat,    For  the 
origin  of  the  name  see  the  article  Accidentals. 

BEXDA,  Hans  Georg,  a  weaver,  and  wan- 
dering performer  on  several  instruments,  belonged 
to  the  village  of  Alt-Benatka  in  Bohemia,  and 
was  the  head  of  a  celebrated  family  of  artists. 
His  four  sons,  Franz,  Johann,  Georg,  and  Joseph, 
all  devoted  themselves  to  music. 

(i)  Fraxz  Bexda.  Bom  Xov.  25,  1709,  re- 
markable as  the  founder  of  a  special  violin  school. 
He  was  brought  up  vmder  Graun  and  Quanz,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  former  became  (i  771)  concert- 
meister  to  Frederick  the  Great,  whose  flute  con- 
certos he  thereafter  accompanied.  In  his  manner 
of  pla}-ing  he  especially  affected  the  cantabile. 
His  published  (posthumous)  works  consist  of 
twelve  solos  for  the  violin  (Paris),  'Etudes  de 
Yiolon,  ou  Caprices,'  2  books,  and  *  Exercises 
progr.  pour  le  Yiolon,'  i  book  (Leipzig,  KiihnelV 
He  died  at  Potsdam,  March  7,  1786.  His 
second  daughter,  Caroline,  married  Capellmeister 
"NVolff,  and  his  fourth,  Julianne,  Capellmeister 
Reichardt.  His  eldest  son,  Friedrich,  bom  1 745, 
was  esteemed  as  an  excellent  player  on  the  violin 
and  clavier,  and  his  compositions — the  cantatas 
'Pygmalion'  and  'Die  Grazien,'  an  oratorio  'Die 
Jiinger  am  Grabe  des  Auferstandenen,'  an  opera 
*  Orpheus,'  and  various  works  for  clavier  and 
violin — found  much  acceptance.  At  his  death,  at 
Potsdam,  in  1814,  he  was  kdn.  preuss.  Kammer- 


musikus.  His  brother  Carl,  bom  1748,  ap- 
proached nearest  to  his  father  in  the  style  of  his 
playing.  He  was  teacher  of  music  to  Wilhelm 
III,  and  left  six  adagios,  with  remarks  on  the 
mode  of  executing  the  adagio  (Berlin,  Hummel). 

(2)  Johann,  the  second  son  of  Hans  Georg, 
and  the  least  eminent  of  the  brothers,  was  bora 
1 713,  and  died  as  Kammermusikus  at  Berlin 
1752- 

(3)  Georg,  bora  1721,  was  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  four,  renowned  as  an  able 
cla\ner-player  and  oboist.  In  1 748  he  was  ap- 
pointed Capellmeister  to  the  Duke  of  Gotha, 
after  which  he  studied  in  Italy,  and  on  his  re- 
turn wrote  his  first  Duodrama,  '  Ariadne  auf 
Xaxos'  (1774),  *  work  which  excited  much 
attention  for  its  novelty  and  ability,  became 
widely  known,  and  entitled  him,  notwithstanding 
the  claims  of  Rousseau's  'Pygmalion,'  to  be  called 
the  inventor  of  the  melodrama.  Full  and  com- 
pressed scores  of  the  work,  with  German  and 
French  words,  quickly  appeared,  and  a  second 
melodrama,  'Medea,'  had  an  equal  success  with 
the  first.  Georg  visited  Vienna  and  Paris  for 
the  performance  of  his  works,  and  at  length 
settled  himself  in  the  hamlet  of  Ktistritz  in 
Thuringia,  where  he  died  in  1795.  Besides 
the  compositions  already  mentioned  he  was  the 
author  of  many  instrumental  works,  of  the 
operettas  of  'Der  Dorfjahrmarkt'  (1776),  'Romeo 
xmd  Julie'  (1778),  'Der  Holzbauer,'  'Lucas 
imd  Biirbchen,'  and  'Orpheus,'  also  of  'Pygma- 
lion,' a  monodrama.  His  son  Friedrich  Ludwig, 
bora  at  Gotha  1746,  was  music-director  of  the 
Hamburg  theatre,  and  published  in  Leipsic  an 
opera,  '  The  Barber  of  Seville,"  three  violin  con- 
certos, and  a  '  Xarren-ballet.'  While  in  Ham- 
burg he  married  a  singer  named  Felicitas  Agnesia 
Rietz,  with  whom  he  visited  Berlin  and  Vienna, 
but  from  whom  he  very  shortly  separated.  He 
died  as  director  of  the  concerts  at  Koaigsberg, 
March  27,  1793. 

(4)  Joseph,  the  last  of  the  four,  a  clever  vioKn- 
player,  held  the  post  of  Concertmeister  to  Fried- 
rich Wilhelm  II.  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  in 
1804.  His  son  Ernst  Friedrich,  bora  at  Berlin 
1747,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Berlin 
amateur  concerts,  and  died  there  in  17S5. 

(5)  Anna  Franziska,  the  only  sister  of  the 
above  four  brothers,  born  1726,  was  one  of  the 
best  singers  of  her  time.  She  married  a  musi- 
cian of  Gotha  named  Hattasch,  and  died  there 
in  1780. 

Of  this  family  of  artists,  which  thns  lasted 
through  three  generations,  the  most  remark- 
able on  the  whole  were  Franz  and  Georg,  the 
latter  of  whom,  by  his  melodrama  and  operet- 
tas has  obtained  a  lasting  position  in  musical 
history.  [C.  F.  P.] 

BEXDLER,  or  BEXDELER,  Salomon, 
was  bora  at  Quedlimburg,  1683.  His  father 
gave  him  his  first  instruction  in  music.  Gifted 
with  artistic  feeling  and  a  magnificent  bass 
voice,  young  Bendler  was  soon  a  most  remark- 
able singer.  In  171 2  he  came  to  London,  and 
sang  the  part  of  the  King  in  'Ambleto'  by 


222  BENDLER. 

Gasparini,  and  of  Argante  in  Handel's  '  E,inaldo.' 
However,  he  preferred  an  engagement  at  the 
opera  in  Hamburg,  where  he  obtained  a  most 
brilliant  success,  as  also  at  Leipzig  and  Bruns- 
wick. 'During  a  visit  at  Dantzig,  he  played 
the  organ  in  the  principal  church ;  and,  after 
a  short  prelude,  gave  forth  the  full  force  of  his 
stupendous  voice  in  a  solo.  A  sudden  noise  in 
the  church  interrupted  both  the  singer  and  the 
service  :  the  wife  of  one  of  the  chief  magistrates, 
terrified  by  the  tremendous  tones,  was  safely 
delivered  of  a  son.  Her  husband,  a  martyr  to 
the  gout,  was  no  sooner  informed  of  the  event, 
than  he  found  himself  instantly  cured.  Hearing 
the  name  of  the  artist  to  whom  he  owed  this 
double  debt  and  happiness,  he  invited  Bendler 
to  meet  a  distinguished  company  at  the  christening 
feast,  when  he  placed  on  his  plate  a  sum  of  300 
ducats,  thanking  him  at  the  same  time  for  the 
service  he  had  rendered  him,  both  as  physician 
and  accoucheur.'  This  extraordinary  singer  died 
in  1724.  [J.  M.] 

BENEDETTI,  an  Italian  singer  at  the  Opera 
in  London,  1720.  He  is  mentioned  in  a  witty 
letter  by  Sir  John  Edgar  in  Steele's  journal, 
'  The  Theatre,'  from  Tuesday  March  8  to  Saturday 
March  12,  1720,  as  an  instance  of  the  touchiness 
of  some  artists.  *  He  set  forth  in  the  recitative 
tone,  the  nearest  approach  to  ordinary  speech, 
that  he  had  never  acted  anything  in  any  other 
opera  below  the  character  of  a  sovereign,  and 
now  he  was  to  be  appointed  to  be  captain  of  a 
guard.' 

His  portrait  was  engraved  by  Vertue,  and  is 
mentioned  by  Walpole,  '  Catalogue  of  Engravers,' 
p.  221.  There  is  a  proof  impression  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  was  painted  by  Beluzzi.  Bene- 
detti  is  represented  in  a  cloak,  turned  to  the 
right,  oval  in  a  frame,  8vo.    It  is  rare.    [J.  M.] 

BENEDICITE,  or  the  'Song  of  the  Three 
Children,'  is  the  canticle  which  is  used  in  the 
Anglican  service  after  the  first  lesson  in  the 
morning,  alternatively  with  the  Te  Deum,  at 
the  option  of  the  minister.  It  is  taken  from 
the  Greek  continuation  of  Daniel,  chap,  iii.,  and 
is  of  very  ancient  use  in  the  Church  service, 
being  mentioned  in  St.  Benedict's  '  Begula,'  and 
by  Amalarius  as  used  at  matins.  It  was  also 
prescribed  by  Athanasius.  The  ancient  Spanish 
and  GaUican  churches  appointed  it  to  come 
between  the  lessons,  and  in  the  ancient  English 
oflices  it  was  one  of  several  psalms  with  which 
Lauds  began.  It  was  retained  by  Cranmer  in 
his  'English  Liturgy'  of  1549,  and  appointed  to 
be  used  instead  of  the  Te  Deum  in  Lent ;  but 
this  injunction  was  afterwards  removed,  and  it 
became  optional  to  use  it  at  any  time  of  the 
year. 

In  '  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  noted '  which 
was  published  in  1550,  the  chant  given  for  it  by 
Marbeck  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  Sarum  Bre- 
viary, but  simplified,  in  accordance  with  Cran- 
mer's  wish  that  '  the  note  that  shall  be  made 
thereunto,  would  not  be  full  of  notes,  but  as 
near  as  may  be  for  every  syllable  a  note,  so  that 
it  may  be  sung  distinctly  and  devoutly.' 


BENEDICT. 

This  canticle  is  more  fitted  for  a  chant  than 
any  other  musical  form,  because  the  second  half 
of  each  verse  is  the  same  throughout.  Purcell 
set  it  in  his  double  service  in  B  flat,  but  garbled 
the  words  by  making  the  burden  '  Praise  him,' 
etc.  only  recur  occasionally.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BENEDICT,  Sir  Julius,  bom  at  Stuttgart, 
Nov.  27,  1804.  Sir  Julius  is  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  numerous  foreign  musicians  who 
have  settled  in  England  since  Handel's  time.  As 
composer,  performer,  and  teacher  of  music,  he  has 
now  held  an  exceptionally  high  position  in  this 
country  for  upwards  of  forty  years.  After  studying 
under  Hummel,  at  Weimar— during  which  he  saw 
Beethoven  (March  8,  1827) — he  was,  in  his  17th 
year,  presented  by  the  illustrious  pianist  to  Weber, 
who  received  him  into  his  house,  and  from  the 
beginning  of  1 821  tmtil  the  end  of  1824,  treated 
him,  in  Sir  Jvdius's  own  words,  'not  only  as  a 
pupil,  but  as  a  son.'  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
young  Benedict  was,  on  Weber's  recommendation, 
appointed  to  conduct  a  series  of  operatic  per- 
formances at  Vienna.  A  few  years  afterwards 
we  find  him  as  chef  d'orchestre  at  the  San  Carlo 
at  Naples,  where  he  produced  his  first  opera, 
'  Giacinta  ed  Ernesto' — a  work  which  seems  to 
have  been  too  German  for  the  Neapolitan  taste. 
On  the  other  hand,  'I  Portoghesi  in  Goa,'  which 
Benedict  composed  in  1830  for  Stuttgart,  may 
have  been  found  too  Italian  for  the  Germans ; 
since,  unsuccessful  in  the  city  for  which  it  was 
specially  written,  it  was  wannly  received  by  the 
operatic  public  of  Naples.  The  youthful  maestro, 
who  showed  himself  a  German  among  the  Ita- 
lians, and  an  Italian  among  the  Germans,  went 
in  1835  to  Paris,  at  that  time  the  head-quarters 
of  Rossini  and  Meyerbeer,  a  frequent  place  of 
rendezvous  for  Donizetti  and  Bellini,  and  the 
home  of  Auber,  Herold,  and  Adolphe  Adam,  of 
Halevy,  Berlioz,  and  Felicien  David.  At  Paris 
Benedict  made  the  acquaintance  of  Malibran, 
who  suggested  his  visiting  London ;  and  from 
1835  until  now  we  have  had  Weber's  favourite 
pupil  residing  permanently  among  us.  In  1836 
Benedict  was  appointed  to  the  musical  direction 
of  the  Opera  BuflFa,  started  by  the  late  John 
Mitchell  at  the  Lyceum  Theatre.  Here  he 
brought  out  with  success  a  little  work  called 
*Un  Anno  ed  un  Giomo,'  originally  given  in  1836 
at  Naples.  In  1838  he  produced  his  first  English 
opera,  'The  Gypsy's  Warning' — known  in  the 
present  day  to  those  who  are  not  acquainted  with 
it  as  a  whole  by  the  very  dramatic  air  for  the 
bass  voice,  '  Rage  thou  angry  storm.'  Benedict 
was  engaged  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  as  orchestral 
conductor  throughout  that  period  of  Mr.  Bunn's 
management,  during  which  Balfe's  most  successful 
operas  ('The  Bohemian  Girl,'  'The  Daughter  of 
St.  Mark,'  'The  Enchantress,'  'The  Bondman,' 
etc.)  were  brought  out.  To  this  period  too  belong 
Sir  Julius  Benedict's  finest  operas,  '  The  Brides 
of  Venice'  and  'The  Crusaders,'  both  produced 
at  Drury  Lane  under  the  composer's  immediate 
direction.  In  1850  Benedict  accompanied  Jenny 
Lind  to  the  United  States,  and  directed  the 
whole  of  the  concerts  given  by  the  'Swedish 


BENEDICT. 


BENELLT. 


223 


Nightingale,'  with  such  unexampled  success, 
during  her  famous  American  tour.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  accepted  an  engagement  as 
musical  conductor  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  and 
afterwards  at  Drury  Lane,  whither  Mr.  Maple- 
son's  establishment  was  for  a  time  transferred. 
When  in  i860  Mr.  Mapleson  was  about  to  pro- 
duce (at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre)  an  Italian  version 
of  '  Oberon,'  he  naturally  turned  to  the  composer 
who,  above  all  others,  possessed  the  secret  of 
Weber's  style,  and  requested  him  to  supply  the 
recitatives  wanting  in  the  *  Oberon'  composed 
for  the  English  stage,  but  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  work  in  Italianised  form.  Benedict  added 
recitatives  which  may  now  be  looked  upon  as 
belonging  inseparably  to  the  Italian  'Oberon.' 
Eighteen  hundred  and  sixty  was  also  the  year  of 
Benedict's  beautiful  cantata  on  the  subject  of 
'Undine' — produced  at  the  Norwich  Festival — 
in  which  Clara  Novello  made  her  last  public 
appearance.  In  1862,  soon  after  the  remarkable 
success  of  Mr.  Dion  Boucicault's  *  Colleen  Bawn,' 
Benedict  brought  out  'The  Lily  of  Killarney,' 
for  which  Mr.  Oxenford  (probably  in  collaboration 
with  Mr.  Boucicault)  had  furnished  the  excellent 
libretto.  In  1863  he  composed  the  cantata  of 
'  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,'  for  the  Norwich  Festival 
of  that  year.  His  operetta  the  'Bride  of  Song' 
was  given  at  Covent  Garden  in  1864 ;  his  oratorio 
of  '  St.  Cecilia,'  at  the  Norwich  Festival  in  1866  ; 
that  of  '  St.  Peter,'  at  the  Birmingham  Festival 
of  1870.  As  'conductor'  at  chamber -concerts, 
where  the  duties  of  the  musician  so  entitled 
consist  in  accompanying  singers  on  the  pianoforte, 
and  in  seeing  generally  that  nothing  goes  wrong, 
Benedict  has  come  at  least  as  often  before  the 
public  as  in  his  character  of  orchestral  chief. 
With  rare  interruptions  he  has  officiated  as  con- 
ductor at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  since 
they  first  started,  now  some  sixteen  years  ago. 
His  own  annual  concert  has  been  looked  upon 
for  the  last  forty  years  at  least  as  one  of  the 
great  festivals  of  the  musical  season.  There  is 
no  form  of  music  which  this  versatile  composer 
has  not  cultivated  ;  and  though  more  prolific 
masters  may  have  lived,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
name  one  who  has  laboured  with  success  in  so 
'many  difierent  styles.  In  1873  a  symphony  by 
the  now  veteran  composer  was  performed  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Crystal  Palace ;  and  a  second  in 
the  following  year  ;  so  that  a  complete  edition  of 
Benedict's  works  would  include,  besides  ballads 
and  pianoforte  fantasias,  operas,  oratorios,  and 
cantatas,  compositions  in  the  highest  form  of  or- 
chestral music.  Sir  Julius  received  the  honour 
of  knighthood  in  1871.  On  the  occasion  of  his 
seventieth  birthday  he  was  named  Knight  Com- 
mander of  the  orders  of  Francis  and  Joseph 
(Austria),  and  of  Frederic  (Wurtemberg).  It 
was  determined  in  the  same  year,  by  his  nume- 
rous English  friends,  to  offer  him  a  testimonial 
'  in  appreciation  of  his  labours  during  forty 
years  for  the  advancement  of  art,  and  as  a 
token  of  their  esteem.'  In  accordance  with  this 
resolution  a  service  of  silver,  including  a  magni- 
ficent group  of  candelabra,  was  presented  to  Sir 


Julius,  the  following  summer,  at  Dudley  House, 
before  a  number  of  the  most  distinguished 
musicians  and  amateurs  in  London.  Besides 
being  a  member  of  the  before -mentioned  Aus- 
trian and  Wurtemburgian  orders,  Sir  Julius 
Benedict  has  been  decorated  by  the  Sovereigns 
of  Prussia,  Italy,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Portugal, 
and  Hanover.  [H.  S.  E.] 

BENEDICTUS,  the  song  of  Zacharias,  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist,  taken  fi*om  Luke  i., 
is  the  canticle  appointed,  alternately  with  the 
Jubilate,  to  follow  the  lessons  in  the  Morning 
Service  of  the  Anglican  Church.  It-has  occupied 
that  position  from  ancient  times,  being  men- 
tioned by  Amalarius  (+837)  as  following  the 
lessons  at  Lauds.  It  followed  the  lessons  in  the 
ancient  English  offices,  and  was  retained  by 
Cranmer  in  his  English  Liturgy  in  1549,  ^^^^ 
without  the  Jubilate,  which  was  added  in  1582 
to  obviate  repetition  when  the  Benedictus  oc- 
curred in  the  gospel  or  second  lesson.  Two 
chants  are  given  for  it  by  Marbeck  in  *  The  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  Noted,'  of  1550,  viz.  the  5th 
tone  with  ist  ending,  and  the  8th  tone  with 
1st  ending.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  more 
elaborate  forms  of  composition,  and  there  are 
two  well-known  ancient  settings  by  Tallis  and 
Gibbons. 

The  same  canticle  is  also  used  by  the  Roman 
Church,  and  is  mentioned  by  Mendelssohn  in  his 
letter  to  Zelter  describing  the  music  of  Holy 
Week.  But  a  difierent  'Benedictus,'  which  is 
better  known  to  musicians,  is  that  which  occurs 
in  the  service  of  the  Mass,  after  the  Sanctus, 
which  has  been  the  occasion  for  much  famous 
and  beautiful  music  by  the  greatest  masters  ;  the 
whole  words  of  which  are  only  '  Blessed  is  he  that 
Cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.'    [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BENELLI,  Antonio  Peregrino,  bom  Sept. 
5,  1 771,  at  Forli.  It  is  doubtful  whether,  as  is 
said,  he  received  instruction  in  counterpoint  from 
Padre  Martini,  who  died  when  Benelli  was  little 
more  than  12,  and  was  unable,  for  above  two 
years  before  his  death,  to  bestow  much  care  upon 
his  scholars.  Benelli  had,  however,  the  instruction 
of  Padre  Mattel,  the  successor  of  Martini. 

In  1790  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
San  Carlo,  at  Naples,  as  first  tenor.  His  voice 
was  of  moderate  quality ;  but  his  method  was 
admirable,  and  obtained  for  him  a  succds  dCestime. 
Benelli  accepted  an  engagement  at  London  in 
1 798,  where  he  was  received  with  favour.  In 
1 80 1  he  repaired  to  Dresden,  and  remained  until 
the  year  1822,  at  which  time,  when  51,  and  after 
singing  in  public  for  32  years,  his  voice  failed, 
and  he  retired  with  a  pension. 

Benelli  had  also  made  himself  known  as  a 
clever  composer,  particularly  in  the  Church  style  ; 
but  his  best  works  are  his  excellent  '  Method,' 
and  his  'Solfeggi'  which  ran  through  several 
editions.  He  was  a  successful  contributor  to  the 
'Allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung'  of  Leipzig. 
Upon  his  retirement,  he  obtained  from  Spontini 
the  post  of  professor  of  singing  at  the  Berlin 
Opera,  which  he  filled  till  1829.     He  might 


224 


BENELLI. 


BENNETT. 


have  remained  much  longer,  had  he  not  attacked 
Spontini  with  violence,  in  1828,  in  the  'Allge- 
meine  Zeitung,'  k  propos  to  his  opera  of '  Olimpia,' 
Unfortunately  he  had  previously  written  a  very 
favourable  review  of  the  same  work :  Spontini 
printed  the  two  accounts  side  by  side.  Benelli 
had  nothing  to  reply  ;  he  soon  received  his  conge 
and  departed,  first  to  Dresden,  where  he  still  had 
his  pension,  then  to  Bomichen  in  the  Hartz, 
where  he  died  in  poverty  August  6,  1830. 
Benelli' s  real  title  to  estimation  is  founded  on 
his  'Gesanglehre'  (1819),  which  appeared  first  in 
Italian,  as  'Kegole  per  il  canto  figurato,'  and 
on  his  '  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  Stimme,'  in  the 
A.M.Z.  Leipzig,  (1824).  [J.  M.] 

BENINCORI,  Angelo  Maria,  bom  at 
Brescia  1779,  died  at  Paris  Dec.  30,  182 1  ; 
pupil  of  Ghiretti,  EoUa,  and  Cimarosa,  His 
opera  of  *Nitteti'  was  produced  in  Italy,  and 
weU  received  also  in  Vienna  about  1800.  At 
Vienna  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Haydn, 
with  whose  quartets  he  was  so  delighted  as 
to  abandon  dramatic  composition  for  the  time 
and  write  nothing  but  quartets.  In  1803  he 
went  to  Paris  and  wrote  two  operas,  which 
were  accepted  but  never  performed,  and  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  this  excellent  musician  ob- 
tained sufficient  pupils  to  secure  him  a  sub- 
sistence. In  1815,  181 8,  and  18 19,  he  brought 
out  three  operas  without  success.  The  end  of 
his  life  was  brightened  by  a  hope  he  did  not 
live  to  see  realised.  Isouard  had  died  leaving 
his  opera  '  Aladin'  unfinished,  and  this  Benincori 
was  commissioned  to  complete.  A  march  for  the 
first  act,  and  the  three  last  acts  completed  the 
work,  which  was  enthusiastically  received  on 
Feb.  6,  1822,  just  six  weeks  after  Benincori's 
death.  Perhaps  however  the  fact  that  the 
theatre  was  on  this  occasion  for  the  first  time 
lighted  with  gas  may  have  had  some  share  in 
the  success  of  the  opera.  He  left  much  music 
in  MS.,  but  his  best  compositions  are  probably 
his  quartets.  [M.  C.  C] 

BENINI,  SiGNOEA,  an  Italian  prima  donna, 
isinging  at  Naples  with  her  husband  in  1784. 
They  came  to  London  in  1787,  and  sustained 
the  first  parts  in  comic  opera.  Benini  had  a 
voice  of  exquisite  sweetness,  and  finished  taste 
and  neatness,  but  too  little  power  for  a  large 
theatre.  Though  generally  confined  to  opera 
buffa,  yet  her  appearance  and  style  seemed 
much  more  adapted  to  the  opera  seria,  for 
which  she  had  sufficient  feeling  and  expression, 
as  she  showed  in  her  excellent  performance  of 
Jephtha's  daughter.  During  an  illness  of  Mara, 
she  filled  with  great  sweetness,  and  much  more 
appropriate  figure  and  manner,  her  part  in 
Tarchi's  *  Vir;i,inia.'  She  had  not  indeed  the 
gaiety  of  c  ountenance  nor  the  vivacity  requisite 
for  a  jyrima  buffa,  and,  though  a  singer  of  con- 
siderable merit,  had  to  give  way  when  Storace 
appeared.  Of  her  subsequent  life  nothing  is 
known.  [J.  M.] 

BENNET,  John,  published  in  1599  ^  set  of 
'Madrigals  to  four  voyces,'  which  he  described 


on  the  title  as  'his  first  works.'  These  are 
seventeen  in  number,  and  excellent  examples 
of  that  style  of  composition.  He  also  contributed 
to  Morley's  collection  '  The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,' 
1 60 1,  the  well-known  madrigal  'All  creatures 
now  are  merry  minded,'  and  to  Ravenscroft's 
'Briefe  Discourse,'  16 14  (see  Bavenscboft), 
five  compositions  in  parts.  In  the  preface  to  the 
latter  work  Bavenscroft  speaks  of  him  in  highly 
eulogistic  terms.  Some  anthems  and  organ  pieces 
by  Bennet  are  extant  in  MS.,  whence  it  may  be 
conjectured  that  he  was  connected  with  one  of 
the  cathedrals.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BENNET,  Saunders,  was  organist  at  Wood- 
stock, and  composer  of  anthems,  pieces  for  piano- 
forte and  several  songs  and  glees.  He  died  of  con- 
sumption in  1809,  at  an  early  age.      [W.  H.  H.] 

BENNETT,  Alfred,  Mus.  Bac.,  Oxon.,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Bennett,  organist  of  Chi- 
chester. In  1 8  2  5  he  s  ucceeded  William  Woodcock, 
Mus.  Bac.,  as  organist  of  New  College,  Oxford, 
and  organist  to  the  University.  He  published  a 
volume  containing  a  service  and  some  anthems  of 
his  composition,  and  in  1829,  in  conjunction  with 
William  Marshall,  a  collection  of  chants.  He 
died,  1830,  by  an  accident,  aged  25.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BENNETT,  Thomas,  bom  about  1779, 
a  chorister  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  uader  Joseph 
Corfe,  organist  and  master  of  the  choristers 
there.  He  became  organist  of  St.  John's  Chapel, 
Chichester,  and  in  1803  organist  at  Chichester 
Cathedral.  He  published  'An  Introduction  to 
the  Art  of  Singing,'  *  Sacred  Melodies'  (selected), 
and  *  Cathedral  Selections.'  He  died  March  2 1, 
1848,  aged  sixty-nine.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BENNETT,  William,  was  bom  about  the 
year  1767  at  Coombeinteignhead,  near  Teign- 
mouth.  He  received  his  early  musical  education 
at  Exeter  under  Hugh  Bond  and  William 
Jackson.  He  then  came  to  London,  and  studied 
under  John  Christian  Bach,  and  afterwards  under 
Schroeter.  In  1793  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  St.  Andrew's  Church,  Plymouth.  His  com- 
positions comprise  anthems,  glees,  songs,  and 
pianoforte  and  organ  music.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BENNETT,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  Mus.  • 
Doc,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  the  only  English  musical 
composer  since  Purcell  who  has  attained  a  dis- 
tinct style  and  individuality  of  his  own,  and  whose 
works  can  be  reckoned  among  the  models  or 
'  classics '  of  the  art,  was  bom  at  Sheffield  April 
13, 18 16.  Like  almost  all  composers  of  eminence 
he  inherited  the  musical  temperament ;  his  grand- 
father, John  Bennett,  having  been  lay  clerk  at 
King's,  St.  John's,  and  Trinity  Colleges,  and  his 
father,  Robert  Bennett,  an  organist  at  Sheffield, 
and  a  composer  of  songs ;  and  doubtless  he  thus 
received  some  of  that  early  familiarity  with 
things  musical  in  the  daily  life  of  his  home  which 
has  had  so  much  influence  in  determining  the 
bent  and  the  career  of  many  eminent  composers. 
The  death  of  his  father  when  he  was  but  three 
years  old  cut  him  off  from  this  influence  of  home 
tuition  or  habituation  in  music,  but  his  education 


EEXXETT. 


BEXXETT. 


225 


in  the  art  seems  to  have  been  well  cared  for  by 
his  grandfather,  to  whose  home  at  Cambridge  he 
was  then  transferred.  At  the  age  of  eight  he 
entered  the  choir  of  King's  College  Chapel,  but 
his  exceptional  musical  ability  became  so  evi- 
dent, that  two  years  after  he  was  removed  from 
Cambridge  and  placed  as  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  with  which  institution  his 
name  was  to  be  closely  connected  throughout  his 
later  life.  He  received  instruction  from  Mr.  Lucas 
and  Dr.  Crotch  in  composition,  and  from  Mr.  W. 
H,  Holmes  in  pianoforte-playing,  from  whom  he 
subsequently  passed  to  the  veteran,  Cipriani 
Potter ;  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  to  the  in- 
fluence of  this  teacher,  well  known  to  have  been 
the  enthusiastic  votary  of  Mozart,  we  may  trace 
in  part  that  admiration  for  the  pure  style  and 
clear  form  of  the  art  of  ]Mozart,  which  Bennett 
retained  to  the  end  of  his  life,  in  the  midst  of 
aU  the  vicissitudes  of  modem  musical  fashion, 
and  the  influence  of  which  is  so  distinctly 
traceable  in  his  own  music.  Among  the  unpub- 
lished compositions  of  his  Academy  student  days 
are  some  productions  of  great  merit ;  but  the  first 
on  which  his  reputation  as  composer  depends 
(and  which  stands  as  Opus  i  in  the  list  of  his 
compositions),  is  the  Concerto  in  D  minor,  written 
in  1832,  and  performed  by  the  composer,  then  in 
his  seventeenth  year,  at  the  prize  concert  of  the 
Academy  in  1833,  on  which  occasion  Mendelssohn 
was  present,  and  encouraged  the  young  composer 
by  his  warmly  expressed  sympathy  and  admira- 
tion, while  the  committee  of  the  Academy  gave  a 
practical  proof  of  their  appreciation  by  publishing 
the  work  at  their  own  expense.  His  next  pub- 
lished work,  the  'Capriccio  in  D  minor,'  op.  2 
(dedicated  to  Cipriani  Potter),  clearly  shows  in 
its  opening  theme  the  influence  of  his  admiration 
for  5lendelssohn,  then  the  central  figure  of  the 
musical  world,  though  there  are  touches  of  com- 
plete originality  suggesting  the  pianoforte  style 
which  the  composer  subsequently  made  his  own. 
The  Overture  to  '  Parisina,'  a  most  impassioned 
work,  was  composed  in  1834,  ^.Iso  the  Concerto 
in  C  minor,  played  at  a  concert  of  the  Society  of 
British  Musicians  in  the  same  year ;  a  work  in 
the  highest  and  purest  style  of  the  Mozart  model, 
and  evincing  in  some  portions  a  constructive 
power  worthy  of  the  composer's  great  predecessor. 
In  1836  the  impression  produced  by  his  un- 
published F  minor  Concerto  and  the  beautiful 
'Naiades'  overture,  led  to  an  offer  from  the 
firm  of  Broadwood  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his 
residence  in  Leipsic  for  a  year,  in  order  that 
he  might  have  the  opportunity  of  extending  his 
circle  of  musical  sympathy  and  experience,  as 
well  as  of  profiting  by  the  neighbourhood  and  in- 
fluence of  Mendelssohn.  That  he  did  profit  in 
his  art  by  this  visit  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  he  gave  to  Leipsic  at  least 
as  much  as  he  carried  away;  and  by  the  com- 
positions produced  there,  as  well  as  by  the  evidence 
afforded  of  his  genius  as  a  musician  and  piano- 
forte-player, he  established  for  himself  a  reputation 
in  that  city  of  music  higher  than  has  perhaps 
been  generally  conceded  to  him  in  his  native 


country,  and  won  the  friendship  and  enthusiastic 
eulogies  of  Robert  Schumann.    It  is  to  this  %'isit 
probably  that  is  to  be  traced  the  idea  still  current 
,  in  England  that  Bennett  was  a  pupil  and  a  mere 
I  imitator  of  Mendelssohn ;  an  idea  which  can  only 
[  be  entertained  by  those  who  are  either  ignorant 
j  of  his  works  or  totally  destitute  of  any  perception 
of  musical  style,  but  which  has  been  parrotted  by 
'  incapable  or  prejudiced  critics  till  it  has  come  to 
I  be  regarded  by  many  as  an  admitted  fact.  After 
his  return  to  England,  Bennett  composed  in  1840 
his  other  F  minor  Concerto,  the  published  one, 
which  is  among  the  best  known  of  his  works,  and 
one  of  the  finest  of  modem  compositions  of  its 
class.   During  a  second  ^^sit  to  Leipzig  in  1 840-1 
he  composed  his  'Caprice  in  E'  for  pianoforte 
and  Orchestra,  and  his  Overture  'The  Wood 
Nymphs,'  both  among  the  most  finished  and  ar- 
tistic of  his  compositions.    From  1843  to  1856  he 
was  brought  periodically  before  the  English  public 
by  his  chamber  concerts,  at  which  his  indi\adual 
and  exceptional  style  and  ability  as  a  pianoforte- 
player  were  fully  recognised.    It  may  here  be 
j  mentioned  that  in  1844  he  married  Mary  Anne, 
'  daughter  of  Captain  James  Wood,  R.  N.   In  1849 
!  he  founded  the  Bach  Society  for  the  study  and 
'  practice  of  Bach's  music,  his  enthusiasm  for  which 
i  was  very  likely  in  the  first  instance  kindled  by 
:  Mendelssohn,  who  did  so  much  to  open  the  eyes 
!  of  his  contemporaries  to  the  grandeur  of  Bach's 
I  genius.    One  result  of  this  was  a  performance  of 
the  Matthew  Passion — the  first  in  England — on 
April  6,  1854.    In  1853        director  of  the  Ge- 
wandhaus  Concerts  off'ered  him  the  conductorship 
of  those  concerts.    In  1856  Bennett  was  engaged 
as  permanent  conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  So- 
ciety, a  post  which  he  held  till  1866,  when  he 
resigned  it,  and  became  Principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music.     In  1856  he  was  elected, 
by  a  great  majority,  to  fill  the  chair  of  Musical 
Professor  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  where 
he  also  made  special  eff'orts  to  promote  the  know- 
ledge and  study  of  Bach's  music,  and  shortly 
after  his  election  received  from  the  University 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  JNIusic.   (In  1867  the 
University  further  conferred  on  him  the  degree 
of  M.A.,  and  at  the  same  time  a  salary  of  £100 
a  year  was  attached  to  his  Professorship.)  The 
year  1858  saw  the  production  of  his  cantata  the 
'  May  Queen,'  at  the  Leeds  Musical  Festival,  a 
work  full  of  beauty  in  the  chorus  writing,  the 
solos,  and  the  instrumentation,  though  hea^-ily 
weighted  by  an  absurd  and  ill-written  libretto. 
No  such  drawback  is  attached  to  his  other  im- 
portant choral  work,  '  The  Woman  of  Samaria,' 
first  produced  with  great  success  at  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  of  1867,  and  which,  though  it 
does  not  contain  the  elements  of  popularity  for 
general  audiences,  has  elicited  the  high  admiration 
of  all  who  can  appreciate  the  more  delicate  and 
recondite  forms  of  musical  expression.    For  the 
Jubilee  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  in  1862, 
he  wrote  one  of  his  most  beautiful  works,  the 
'  Paradise  and  the  Peri '  overture,  in  which  the 
'  programme '  style  of  music  (i.  e.  music  illustrative 
of  certain  verbally  stated  ideas)  is  treated  with  a 


226 


BENNETT. 


BENNETT. 


delicate  and  poetic  suggestiveness  which  charms 
alike  the  educated  and  the  uneducated  listener. 
In  1870  he  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
D.C.L.  from  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  1871 
Bennett  received  the  distinction  of  knighthood, 
an  honour  which  could  add  nothing  to  such  an 
artist's  reputation  as  his.  In  1872  a  public 
testimonial  was  presented  to  him  at  St.  James's 
Hall  in  presence  of  a  large  and  enthusiastic 
audience,  and  a  scholarship  at  the  Koyal  Aca- 
demy of  Music  was  founded  out  of  the  sub- 
scriptions. 

Bennett  died  after  a  short  illness,  almost  'in 
harness,'  as  it  might  be  said,  on  Feb.  1,  1875. 
So  quiet  and  unobtrusive  had  been  his  later 
life,  that  the  spectacle  of  the  crowd  of  distin- 
guished persons  who  assembled  at  Westminster 
Abbey  on  the  6th  to  pay  their  last  tribute  of 
respect  at  his  funeral,  conveyed  to  many,  even 
among  those  who  had  been  in  the  habit  of  meet- 
ing him  in  society,  the  first  intimation  of  the 
true  intellectual  rank  of  their  departed  country- 
man. 

In  estimating  the  position  in  his  art  of  Stem- 
dale  Bennett  (by  this  double  name  he  has  always 
been  best  known  among  writers  and  discoursers 
on  music),  it  must  be  admitted  that  his  genius 
had  not  that  irresistible  sweep  and  sway  which 
compels  the  admiration  even  of  the  crowd,  and 
utters  things  which  sink  deep  into  the  souls  of 
men.  He  can  hardly  be  reckoned  among  the 
great  musical  poets  of  the  world,  and  it  would  be 
both  unwise  and  uncritical  to  claim  that  place  for 
him.  But  what  he  wanted  in  power  is  almost 
made  up,  in  regard  to  the  artistic  enjoyment  to 
be  derived  from  his  works,  in  individuality  and 
in  finish.  He  is  in  a  special  degree  a  musician's 
composer.  His  excellences,  in  addition  to  the 
real  and  genuine  feeling  for  beauty  and  expression 
which  pervades  his  music,  belong  to  that  interest- 
ing and  delicate  type  of  art  which  illustrates  in  a 
special  degree  the  fitness  of  means  to  an  end,  the 
relation  between  the  feeling  expressed  and  the 
manner  and  medium  of  expressing  it ;  a  class  of 
artistic  production  which  always  has  a  peculiar 
interest  for  artists  and  for  those  who  study  criti- 
cally the  details  of  the  art  illustrated.  His  com- 
positions do  not  so  much  carry  us  away  in  an 
enthusiasm  of  feeling,  as  they  compel  our  de- 
liberate and  considerate  admiration  by  their 
finish  and  balance  of  form,  while  touching  our 
fancy  by  their  grace  and  suggestiveness.  But 
these  qualities  are  not  those  which  compel  the 
suffrages  of  a  general  audience,  to  whom  in  fact 
many  of  the  more  subtle  graces  of  Bennett's 
style  are  not  obvious,  demanding  as  they  do 
some  knowledge  of  the  resources  of  the  art,  as 
well  as  critical  and  discriminating  attention,  for 
their  full  appreciation.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  enjoyment  which  his  works  do  convey,  the 
language  which  they  speak,  to  those  who  rightly 
^ipprehend  it,  is  of  a  very  rare  and  subtle 
description,  and  one  to  which  there  is  no  precise 
parallel  in  the  art  of  any  other  composer. 

If  we  try  to  define  the  nature  of  Bennett's 
genius  mpre  in  detail,  we  should  describe  him  in 


the  first  place  as  being  almost,  one  might  say,  a 
born  pianist.  His  complete  sympathy  with  this 
instrument,  his  perfect  comprehension  of  its 
peculiar  power  and  limitations,  are  evident  in 
almost  everything  he  wrote  for  it;  and  his  piano- 
forte compositions  form,  numerically,  by  far  the 
larger  section  of  his  writings.  His  love  for  the 
instrument,  indeed,  might  be  said  to  have  de- 
veloped into  favouritism  in  some  instances,  for  in 
the  Sestett  for  piano  and  stringed  instruments 
the  lion's  share  of  the  labours  and  honours  of  the 
performance  is  so  completely  given  to  the  former 
that  the  work  becomes  almost  a  pianoforte  concerto 
with  accompaniments  for  strings  only.  In  his 
pianoforte  concertos,  written  as  such,  however,  the 
composer  gives  its  full  share  of  importance  to  the 
band  part,  which  is  treated  always  with  great 
beauty  and  piquancy,  and  an  equally  unerring 
perception  of  the  special  aesthetic  qualities  of  the 
various  instruments.  In  his  treatment  of  the 
pianoforte,  Bennett  depends  little  upon  cantabile 
passages,  which  are  only  by  convention  a  part  of 
the  function  of  the  piano,  and  in  his  writings  are 
mostly  ^  episodical ;  his  sources  of  effect  lie  more 
in  the  use  of  glittering  staccato  passages  and 
arpeggio  figures,  which  latter  peculiarly  charac- 
teristic pianoforte  effect  he  used,  however,  in  a 
manner  of  his  own,  often  alternating  single  with 
double  notes  in  extended  passages,  as  in  this — 


f 

^'  Allegro 

1  

y 

1  3  X 

— f=2 

etc. 

r 

from  the  short '  Capriccio  in  A  minor,'  a  very  typi- 
cal specimen  on  a  small  scale  of  his  style  of  work- 
manship ;  at  other  times  doubling  them  in  close 
passages  for  both  hands,  as  in  the  following  from 
the  finale  of  the  '  Maid  of  Orleans'  Sonata — 


»  A  curious  and  charming  exception  Is  the  now  well-known  'Sere- 
nade' from  the  '  Trio '  for  pianoforte  and  strings,  in  which  the  piano 
has  the  singinK  melody  witli  a  pizzicato  accoinpaiiitnent  for  the  violin  ; 
the  composer,  with  his  characteristic  ear  for  subtleties  of  timbre, 
havinf?  evidently  conceived  the  idea  of  RivinR  a  cantabile  effect  to  the 
percussion  sounds  of  the  piano  by  opposing  to  it  the  still  shorter  and 
sharper  sounds  of  the  pizzicato. 


BEXNETT. 


BENNETT. 


22: 


or  in  the  following  highly  characteristic  passage 
from  the  same  movement — 


Sempre  brillante 

Passages  of  this  class,  -which  abound  in  these 
compositions,  and  the  adequate  and  precise  ex- 
ecution of  •which  is  by  no  means  easy,  illustrate 
the  peculiarly  hard  bright  glitter  of  effect  which 
characterises  Bennett's  bravura  passages  for  the 
piano,  and  which  brings  out  in  such  high  relief 
the  qualities  which  are  special  to  the  instru- 
ment. Speaking  more  generally,  his  pianoforte 
works  are  characterised  by  an  entire  disdain  of 
the  more  commonplace  sources  of  effect ;  they 
are  never  noisy  or  showy,  and  there  is  not  a  care- 
less note  in  them  ;  the  strict  and  fixed  attention 
of  both  player  and  listener  is  demanded  in  order 
to  realise  the  intention  of  music  addressed 
mainly  to  the  intellect  and  the  critical  faculty, 
never  to  the  mere  sense  of  hearing.  As  a  whole, 
Bennett's  pianoforte  music  is  remarkably  difficult 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  notes  used,  from 
that  delicate  exactitude  of  writing  which  de- 
mands that  every  note  should  have  its  full  value, 
as  well  as  from  the  peculiar  way  in  which  his 
passages  often  lie  for  the  hand,  and  which  de- 
mands the  greatest  evenness  of  finger-power. 
Hence  his  works  are  not  popular  in  the  present 
day  with  amateurs,  who  prefer  what  will  enable 


them  to  produce  more  thrilling  effects  with  less 
trouble  ;  but  their  value  as  studies  and  models 
for  a  pure  style  is  hardly  to  be  surpassed.  Com- 
pared with  the  writings  of  Beethoven,  or  even 
of  lesser  composers  who,  following  in  his  steps, 
have  transferred  the  s}-mphonic  style  to  the 
piano,  such  works  as  those  of  Bennett  have  of 
course  a  very  limited  range,  nor  have  they  the 
glow  and  intensity  which  Chopin,  for  example, 
was  able  to  infuse  into  what  is  equally  a  pure 
pianoforte  style  ;  but  as  specimens  of  absolutely 
finished  productions  entirely  within  the  special 
range  of  the  piano,  they  wUl  always  have  the 
highest  artistic  interest  and  value ;  an  ap- 
preciation of  their  real  merit  being  almost  a  test 
of  true  critical  perception. 

Looking  at  the  works  of  Bennett  more  gene- 
rally, it  may  be  observed  that  they  show  remark- 
able evidence  of  his  apparently  intuitive  insight 
into  problems  and  theories  in  regard  to  musical 
construction  which  have  only  been  definitely 
recognised  and  tabulated  by  theorists  since  he 
began  to  write.  When  the  school  of  composers 
who  tumble  notes  into  our  ears  in  heaps,  any 
way,  have  had  their  day,  and  it  is  again  recog- 
nised that  musical  composition  is  a  most  subtle 
and  recondite  art,  and  not  a  mere  method  of 
jmnbling  sounds  together  to  signify  this  or  that 
arbitrarily  chosen  idea,  it  is  probable  that  Ben- 
nett will  receive  much  higher  credit  than  has  yet 
been  accorded  to  him  as  an  advanced  thinker  in 
music.  The  theorv'  which  connects  every  sound 
in  the  scale  of  a  key  with  that  key,  making  them 
all  essential  to  its  tonality,  and  the  harmonic  re- 
lations which  are  thereby  shown  to  be  logically 
consistent  though  little  practised  hitherto,  re- 
ceived continual  practical  illustration  in  the 
works  of  Bennett,  whose  peculiar  intellectually 
constructed  harmonies  and  progressions  are  among 
the  causes  alike  of  his  interest  for  musicians  and 
his  disfavour  with  the  less  instructed  amateur 
population,  whom  they  not  unnaturally  puzzle. 
A  great  English  musical  critic  has  pointed  out, 
in  a  note  on  the  'Wood  Nj-mphs'  Overture  (in 
the  Philharmonic  programme  of  March  22,  1871), 
the  passage  where  '  the  so-called  chord  of  the  di- 
minished 7th  from  F  sharp,  with  intervening  si- 
lences, is  heard  on  the  unaccented  second  and  fourth 
beats  of  the  bar,  and  then  an  unaccompanied  D, 
thrice  sounded,  asserts  itself  as  the  root  of  the 
chord,'  thus  presenting,  adds  !Mr.  ^Macfarren,  '  a 
harmonic  fact  in  an  aspect  as  unquestionable  as, 
at  the  time  of  writing,  it  was  new.'  But  Ben- 
nett's music  is  full  of  such  suggestions  of  the 
more  extended  modern  view  of  the  statics  of 
harmony,  the  rather  noteworthy  as  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  made  it  the  subject  of  any  definite 
or  deliberate  theorising,  or  was  indebted  for  his 
suggestions  of  this  kind  to  anything  more  than 
his  own  intuitive  insight  into  the  more  subtle 
harmonic  relations.  It  is  the  frequent  use  of 
what  may  be  termed  perhaps  (borrowing  an  ex- 
pression from  colour)  the  'secondary'  rather  than 
the  '  primary'  relations  of  harmony — the  constant 
appeal  to  the  logic  rather  than  the  mere  sensuous 
hearing  of  the  ear — which  gives  to  his  music  that 

Q2 


228  BENNETT. 


rather  cold  intellectual  cast  which  is  repelling  to 
the  average  listener.  In  such  a  passage  as  this — 


the  ear  of  the  uninitiated  listener  is  almost 
startled  by  the  closing  E,  like  the  sharp  blow  of 
a  hammer,  at  the  foot  of  an  arpeggio  passage 
which  seems  to  presage  a  modulation  to  C  through 
the  dominant  ninth  on  G.  Equally  significant 
passages  might  be  quoted,  such  as  this  from  the 
*  Rondeau  k  la  polonaise' — 


and  many  others  that  might  be  adduced,  in 
which  evidence  is  given  that  the  composer  had 
before  his  mind  conceptions  of  harmonic  relation 
new  or  unusual  at  the  time,  but  which  have 
since  been  accepted  and  formulated  into  theory. 

Bennett's  larger  works  for  orchestra,  and  his 
secular  and  sacred  Cantatas  already  mentioned, 
are  characterised,  like  his  piano  music,  by  great 
finish  and  perfection  of  form  and  detail,  and  by 
a  peculiarly  refined  perception  of  the  relation 
of  special  instruments  and  special  combinations 
to  the  end  in  view.  His  one  published  Sym- 
phony, that  in  G  minor,  may  be  thought  slight 
and  fragile  in  effect  in  comparison  with  the  now 
prevalent  '  stormy '  school  of  writing  ;  but  those 
who  are  alive  to  the  fact  that  power  of  sound  is 
not  power  of  conception,  who  look  to  thought  and 
feeling  rather  than  to  mere  efiect  in  music,  will  find 
no  deficiency  of  passion  and  impulse  in  parts  of 
this  beautiful  work,  while  the  grace  and  refine- 
ment both  of  composition  and  instrumentation 
are  universally  admitted.  His  cantata,  the  '  May 
Queen,'  displays  the  most  refined  and  artistic 
writing,  both  in  regard  to  the  efl'ectiveness  and 
spontaneous  character  of  the  choruses,  the  melodic 
beauty  of  the  solos,  the  strongly-marked  in- 
dividuality imparted  to  the  music  of  the  different 
personages,  and  the  charming  and  piquant  efi'ects 
of  the  orchestral  accompaniments.  Indeed,  the 
work  has  very  much  the  character  of  an  operetta 
off  the  stage,  and  one  cannot  but  regret  that  a 
composer  who  showed  in  this  work  so  much 
power  of  dramatic  characterisation  in  music 
should  not  have  enriched  the  English  lyric  stage 
(poor  enough  !)  with  an  opera.  '  The  Woman  of 
Samaria'  is  less  spontaneous  in  character,  and  in 
its  style  and  treatment  does  not  appeal  to  the 
popular  mind  ;  but  it  will  always  be  delightful 
to  musicians,  and  to  those  who  hear  considerately 
and  critically.  It  is  in  general  construction  very 
much  modelled  on  the  style  of  Bach,  whose 
peculiar  power  Bennett  has  successfully  emulated 


BENNETT. 

in  the  introductory  movement,  with  the  Chorale 
sung  simultaneously  with,  but  in  a  different 
tempo  from,  the  independent  orchestral  movement. 
Bennett's  separate  songs  (two  sets  published 
during  his  life,  and  one  in  course  of  publication 
when  he  died)  are  small  compositions  of  almost 
Greek  elegance  and  finish,  both  in  the  melodious 
and  expressive  character  of  the  voice  part,  and 
the  delicate  suggestiveness  of  the  accompaniments. 
They  illustrate  in  the  most  perfect  degree  the 
character  which  belongs  more  or  less  to  aU  his 
art ;  that  of  high  finish  of  form  and  grace  of 
expression,  not  without  deep  feeling  at  times,  but 
marked  in  general  rather  by  a  calm  and  placid 
beauty,  and  appealing  to  the  fancy,  the  senti- 
ment, and  the  intellect,  rather  than  to  the  more 
passionate  emotions. 

The  most  puzzling  fact  in  connection  with  the 
artistic  career  of  Stemdale  Bennett  is  the  com- 
parative fewness  of  his  compositions,  at  a  time 
when  his  mind  and  genius  were  still  young, 
notwithstanding  the  power  of  his  earlier  works, 
and  the  promise  which  those  who  then  knew 
him  saw  of  a  stiU  higher  development.  In  all 
probability  the  explanation  of  this  is  to  be  found 
partly  in  the  desire  to  secure  a  more  comfortable 
subsistence  from  the  regular  exercise  of  professional 
business,  and  partly  in  what  those  who  knew  him 
best  described  as  the  'shy  and  reticent'  character 
of  his  genius,  which  led  him  to  distrust  his 
capability  of  accomplishing  great  works,  and  of 
taking  his  stand  in  the  world  on  the  strength 
of  his  genius  alone.  *  He  was  not,  in  his  later 
years  at  least,'  says  one  who  knew  him,  'quick 
to  publish  his  works  ;  he  always  had  individuality 
without  a  rapid  execution,  and  took  more  time 
a  great  deal  to  finish  than  to  sketch.'  Whatever 
be  the  true  explanation,  it  is  matter  for  deep 
regret  for  all  lovers  of  what  is  best  and  purest 
in  musical  art,  that  one  so  well  fitted  to  add 
to  its  stores  should  have  condemned  himself,  for 
many  of  the  best  years  of  his  life,  mainly  to  the 
exercise  of  a  teacher's  vocation.  Of  the  brilliant 
gifts  as  a  player,  and  the  tours  de  force  of  memory, 
by  which  the  composer  astonished  and  delighted 
the  Leipzig  circle  in  his  younger  days,  there  are 
accounts  extant  which  remind  us  of  what  used  to 
be  told  of  Mozart.  When  he  sold  his  '  Capriccio 
in  E'  to  a  Leipzig  publishing  firm,  they  were 
surprised  at  receiving  only  the  MS.  of  the  orches- 
tral score,  and  on  their  inquiring  for  the  piano- 
forte part,  it  turned  out  that  this  had  never  been 
written  down,  though  the  composer  had  played 
the  work  both  in  London  and  Leipzig,  and  had 
apparently  entirely  forgotten  the  omission  in 
handing  over  the  MS.  to  the  publishers. 

By  those  who  knew  Stemdale  Bennett  he  is 
described  as  having  been  a  man  of  most  kindly 
nature,  and  exceedingly  modest  and  unassuming 
in  manner  and  character.  The  feeling  of  loyal 
and  affectionate  attachment  which  he  created 
among  the  pupils  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Mu- 
sic, by  some  of  whom  his  death  was  lamented 
almost  like  that  of  a  kind  parent,  is  a  strong 
testimony  to  the  amiability  of  his  character — an 
amiability  which  was  exercised  without  the 


BENNETT. 


BERCHEM. 


229 


slightest  derogation  from  his  strict  principles  as 
an  instructor.  A  significant  instance  is  related 
of  his  determination  to  keep  up  a  strict  ad- 
herence to  the  purest  style  of  music  in  the  Aca- 
demy. On  entering  the  building  one  morning  he 
fancied  he  detected  from  one  of  the  practising 
rooms  the  sounds  of  the  overture  to  'Zampa,' 
and  opened  door  after  door  till  he  found  the 
culprits,  two  young  ladies,  who  in  answer  to  his 
grave  enquiry  *  how  they  came  to  be  playing 
such  music  ?'  explained  that  they  were  only 
practising  sight-reading  of  piano  duets — to  which 
the  Professor  replied  by  carrying  away  the  oifend- 
ing  voliune,  returning  presently  from  the  library 
with  a  duet  of  Mozart's  which  he  placed  before 
them  in  lieu  of  it.  What  he  preached  to  his 
pupils  he  practised  himself.  In  his  whole  career 
he  never  condescended  to  write  a  single  note  for 
popular  efii'ect,  nor  can  a  bar  of  his  music  be 
quoted  which  in  style  and  aim  does  not  belong 
to  what  is  highest  in  musical  art.  Neither  this 
quality  nor  his  amiability  of  character  preserved 
him,  however,  from  attacks  and  detraction  of 
the  most  ungenerous  kind  during  his  Kfetime, 
from  those  who  had  their  own  motives  in  en- 
deavouring to  obscure  his  fame,  and  who  found 
an  unworthy  assistance  to  their  aims  from  so- 
called  'critics'  in  public  journals,  one  of  which 
for  a  long  time  conspicuously  disgraced  its  musi- 
cal columns  by  repeated  sneers  and  inuendoes 
against  a  musician  who  was  an  ornament  to  the 
ai-t  and  an  honour  to  his  country — a  process 
which,  as  might  be  expected,  only  redounded  to 
the  discredit  of  those  who  stooped  to  it. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Stemdale  Bennett's 
published  works : — 


Op.  1.  First  Concerto,  In  D  minor. 
„   2.  Capriccio  for  Piauoforte,  in 

D  minor. 
„    3.  Oyerture, '  Parisina.' 

4.  Second  Ck)ncerto,  in  £  flat. 
.,  5. 


,.    8.  Sestet  for  Pianoforte  and 

Strings. 

„  P.  Third  Concerto,  in  C  minor. 
„  10.  Three  Musical  Sketches— 

'  Lake,'  '  Millstream.'  and 

'Fountain.' 
,.  11.  Six  Studies,  in  Capriccio 

form. 

,.  12.  Three  Impromptus. 

^  13.  Pianoforte  Sonata,  dedi 
caied  to  Mendelssohn. 

„  14.  Three  Komances  for  Piano- 
forte. 

„  15.  Overture, '  The  Naiads.' 
„  16.  Fantasia  for  Fianoforte; 

dedicated  to  Schumann. 
„  17.  *  Three  Diversions.'  I'iano. 

forte  for  four  hands. 
„  18.  Allegro  Gra/ioso. 
„  19.  Fourth    Concerto,   in  F 

minor. 

„  20.  Overture,  'The  Wood- 
nymph.' 

21. 

„  22.  Caprice,  in  E  major.  Piano 
and  Orchestra. 

,.  23.  Six  Songs  (First  Set). 

„  24.  Suite  de  Pieces,  for  Piano. 

.,  25.  Rondo  piacevole  for  Piano- 
forte. 

„  '26.  Chamber  Trio. 

,.  27.  Scherzo,  for  Pianoforte. 

„  2S.  Introductione  e  Pastorale , 
Kondino ;  Capriccio,  in  A 
minor-for  Piano. 


Op.  29.  Two  Studies  —  L'Amabile 
e  L'Appassionata. 
„  30.  Four  Sacred  Duets,  for  Two 
Trebles. 

„  31.  Tenia  e  Variazionl,  for 
Piano. 

,.  32.  Sonata-duo,  Pianoforte  and 
Viuloncello. 

„  33.  Preludes  and  Lessons— 60 
pieces  in  all  the  keys,  com- 
posed for  Queen's  College, 
London. 

„  34.  Kondeau— "Fas  triste  pas 
gai." 

„  35.  Six  Songs  (Second  Set). 

„  3C.  '  Flowers  of  the  Months,'  of 
w'uich  January  and  Feb- 
ruary were  completed  and 
published,  ls;7e>. 

„  37.  Kondeau  i  la  Polonaise,  for 
Piano. 

„  S?.  Toccata,  for  ditto. 

,.  3i>.  "The  May  Queen'  — a  Pas- 
toral. 

„  40.  Ode  for  the  Opening  of  the 
International  Exhibition, 
18fi2.  Words  by  Mr. 
Tennyson. 

„  41.  Cambridge  InstallationOde, 
1*2.  Words  by  Bey.  C. 
Kingsley. 

„  42.  FantaMe-Overture.  'Para- 
dise and  the  Peri.'  1S02. 

„  43.  Symphony  in  G  minor. 

„  44.  Oratorio,  "Woman  of  Sa- 
m.iria.' 

„  45.  Music  to  Sophocles' '  Ajax.* 
„  46.  Pianoforte   Sonata,  "The 
Maid  of  Orleans.' 


The  Major,  Minor,  and  Chromatic 
Scales,  with  Remarks  on  Prac- 
tice, Fingering,  etc 


Sonatina  in  C. 

K  iraance,  'Genevieve.' 

Minuetto  espressivo. 

Pr.'vludium. 

Two  Sonjs— -The  better  land'; 
'  In  radiant  loveliness.' 

The  Chorale  Book,  1S62 :  and  Sup- 
plement to  ditto,  1S64  ;  edited 
in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Otto 
Goldschmidt,  The  Supplement 
contains  two  original  tunes  by 
W.  S.B. 


Anthems—'  Xow,  my  God,  let,  I 
beseech  Thee ' ;  '  Remember 
now  thy  Creator  ' ;  '0  that  I 
knew  • ;  '  The  fool  hath  said  in 
his  heart.' 

Four-part  Songs— '  Sweet  stream 
that  winds';  'Of  all  the  Arts 
beneath  the  Heaven ' ;  '  Come 
live  with  me.' 

Four  Songs  in  course  of  publication 
when  he  died. 

[H.  H.  S.] 


BENUCCI,  an  Italian  basso  engaged  at  Vienna 
in  1783,  appeared  in  London  in  1788  as  first 
buffo ;  but,  notwithstanding  his  fine  voice  and 
acting,  was  not  so  much  admired  as  he  deserved. 
He  sang  one  more  season  here,  appearing  as 
Bartolo  in  Paisiello's  '  Barbiere,'  and  as  Zefiro 
in  Gazzanigha's  *  Vendemmia.'  [J.  M.] 

BENVENUTO  CELLINI.  Opera  in  two 
acts,  the  words  by  Wailly  and  Barbier,  the 
music  by  Berlioz,  produced  at  the  Acadtmie 
Royale  de  Musique  Sept.  3,  1838,  and  with- 
drawn after  three  representations,  and  what  its 
author  calls  *  une  chute  eclatante.'  It  was  per- 
formed at  Covent  Garden  ('grand  semi-seria,' 
in  three  acts)  June  25,  1853. 

BERALTA,  an  Italian  soprano  singer,  en- 
gaged at  London  in  1757.  She  sang  the  part 
of  'Deceit'  in  Handel's  last  oratorio,  'The  Tri- 
umph of  Time  and  Truth,'  at  its  production  at 
Covent  Garden,  March  11,  1757,  and  at  the 
subsequent  performances  of  it.  [J.  M.] 

BERBIGUIER,  Bexoit  Teanquille,  famous 
flute-player,  bom  Dec.  21,  1782,  at  Caderousse 
in  the  Yaucluse ;  intended  for  the  law,  but  the 
love  of  music  being  too  strong  for  him,  ran  away 
from  home  and  entered  himself  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire in  Paris.  From  1813  to  1819  he  served 
in  the  army,  and  after  that  resided  in  Paris. 
As  an  adherent  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  driven 
thence  by  the  Revolution  of  1830  to  take  refuge 
at  Pont  le  Voy(?,  where  he  died  Jan.  29,  1S38. 
As  a  player  he  stood  in  the  first  rank.  His 
contemporai'ies  praise  the  softness  and  peculiar 
sweetness  of  his  tone  and  the  astonishing  per- 
fection of  his  technique.  As  a  composer  he  was 
very  fertile  in  music  for  his  instrument,  both 
solo  and  accompanied — 11  concertos,  n.any  fan- 
tasias and  vai-iations,  140  duos,  .^2  trios,  with 
quartets  and  symphonies.  But  they  are  very 
unequal  in  excellence,  generally  more  brilliant 
and  showy  than  really  good,  the  work  of  the 
virtuoso  rather  than  of  the  musician.       [A.  M.] 

BERCEL^SE,  a  cradle  song.  A  piano  piece 
consisting  of  a  melody  with  a  lulling  rocking 
accompaniment.  Chopin's  Op.  57  is  a  well- 
known  example.  Schumann  has  a  '  Wiegenlied- 
chen' — which  is  the  same  thing — in  the  Album- 
blatter  {Op.  124),  and  his  '  Schlummerlied '  is  a 
berceuse  in  all  but  the  name. 

BERCHEM,  Jacques  or  Jacket,  was  born 
in  Flanders  at  the  commencement  of  the  i6th 
century,  and  flourished  in  the  epoch  iimuediately 
preceding  that  of  Lassus  and  Palestrina.  He 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  from  IS35 
to  1565,  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua, 


230 


BERCHEM. 


BERGAMASCA. 


and  was  called  by  the  Italians  Giachetto  di 
Mantova.  He  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  two  other  composer?,  Jachet  de  Buus  and 
Jachet  de  Wert,  who  lived  in  Italy  at  the  same 
period ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  decide  which  of 
the  three  is  the  author  of  certain  pieces  which 
bear  the  name  of  Jachet  only.  His  motets, 
masses,  and  madrigals  are  to  be  found  in  the 
various  collections  printed  at  Venice  between 
the  years  1539  and  1545.  One  of  his  chief 
productions  is  a  setting  in  four-part  music  of 
ninety-three  stanzas  of  the  'Orlando  Furioso' 
of  Ariosto  (Venice,  1 561).  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

BERENSTADT,  Gaetan.  The  name  of  this 
singer,  of  whom  we  have  elsewhere  no  record, 
appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  bass  part  of 
Argante  in  Handel's  'Rinaldo,'  as  revived  in 
1 71 7,  in  which  he  took  the  place  of  the  cele- 
brated Boschi.  After  this  we  do  not  find  him 
again  in  London  till  1723,  in  which  year  he  sang 
in  Buononcini's  '  Farnace '  and  Attilio's  '  Corio- 
lano,'  as  well  as  in  the  'Flavio'  and  'Ottone'  of 
Handel.  In  the  next  year  he  performed  in  the 
'Vespasiano'  of  Attilio,  Buononcini's  'Calfumia,' 
and  Handel's  'Giulio  Cesare.'  His  name  does 
not  occur  again.  [J.  M.] 

BERG,  Adam,  a  renowned  music  printer  of 
Munich,  whose  publications  extend  from  1540 
to  about  1599.  His  great  work  was  the  'Patro- 
cinium  musices,'  published  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria,  the  first  volimie  of 
which  appeared  in  1573.  After  the  death  of 
Duke  Albrecht  V,  in  1579,  the  publication  was 
interrupted,  and  not  resumed  till  1589,  when 
the  second  series  appeared,  also  containing  five 
volumes.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  contents 
of  the  entire  work  : — 


5.  Nativitatis  Christi,  in  Ima  mis-  Veni  redemptor. 

Verbum  superbuE 


VOL.  I.  1573. 
O.  de  Lasso.  Cantiones. 

4  voices. 
.  Pater  noster. 

.  Salve  Ke^ina  misericerdise. 

.  Gau'lent  in  coelis. 

.  Nos  qui  sumus. 

.  Pulvis  et  umbra. 

.  Lauda  anima  mea. 

.  Pauper  sum  ego. 

5  voices. 
.  Exurgat  Deus. 

.  Misericordiam  Domini. 
.  Oculi  omnium  (2  parts). 
.  Dornine  clamavi  (3  do.). 
,  Quis  mihi  det  lacrimis. 
,  Martini  fe^tum  (2  pts.) 
Exaudi  Domine. 

6  voices. 
Media  In  vita  (2  pts. 
Ante  me  non  est. 
ConfitominI  (2  pt.i.). 
O  Gloriosa  Domina. 

In  Deo  salutare  (2  pts.). 
Begnum  mundi. 
Agimus  tibl  gratias. 


VOL.  n.  1574. 
O.  de  Lasso.  Masses. 

1.  Super  '  Ita  rime  dolenti.' 

2.  „  Motetam  '  Credidi  propter.' 

3.  „  do. '  Sydus  ex  claro.' 

4.  „  do. 'Credidi  propter.' 

5.  „  '  Le  Berger  et  la  Bergdre.' 

VOL.  III.  1574. 
O.  de  Lasso.  Officla. 
Vldi  aquam. 
Asperges  ma. 


Officium  Natalis  Christi. 
Do.  Resurrectionis. 
Do.  Peutecostes. 
Do.  Corporis  Christi. 

VOL.  IV.  1575. 
0.  de  Lasso. 
Passio.  5  vocum. 
Vigiliae  mortuorum.  4  voc. 
Lectionis  matutinae. 
De  Nativitate  Christi.  4  voc. 
VOL.  V.  1576. 
O.  de  Lasso.  Magnificats. 

1.  Imi  Toni,  4  voc. 

2.  5ti  Toni,  4  voc. 

3.  Imi  Toni,  5  voc. 

4.  2di  Toni,  5  voc. 

5.  4ti  Toni.  5  voc. 

6.  4ti  Torn.  6  voc. 

7.  5ti  Toni.  6  voc. 

8.  7mi  Toni.  6  voc. 

9.  6ti  Toni,  8  voc. 
10.  7mi  Toni,  8  voc. 

VOL.  VL  1589. 
0  de  Lasso.  Masses. 

1.  Super  'Dittes  Maitresse.' 

2.  „  '  Amar  Donne.' 

3.  „ 'Qual  doinia  attende.' 

4.  „  •  In  die  tribulationis.' 

5.  „  '  lo  son  ferito  Hailasso.' 

6.  Pro  defunctis. 

VOL.  vri.  1589. 
Francesco  Sale.   Officla.  Set 
vocum. 

1.  S.  Andreas  Apostoll. 

2.  Nicolai  Episcopl. 

3.  Conceptionis  Marlse. 
i.  ThomiB  Apostuli. 


6.  In  summa  miss4.  6  voc. 

7.  etephani  Proto  Mart. 

8.  Johannis  Evang. 

9.  Circumcisionis.   6  voc. 

10.  Epiphaniae.  6  voc. 

11.  Conversionis  Pauli. 

12.  Purificationis  Mariae. 

13.  Matthias  Apostoli. 

14.  Annuntiationis  Mariae. 

15.  De  Communi  S.  Mariaa,  Con- 

ceptione,  Nativitate,  Visita- 
tione  et  Presentatione  eius- 
dem  Mariae. 

VOL.  Vin.  1591. 
Blasius  Amon.  Masses.  4  voc. 

1.  Super  Ut.  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  La, 

sol,  fa,  mi,  re,  ut. 

2.  „  '  Pour  ung  plaisir.* 

3.  „  '  Surge  propera.' 

4.  „ 'Dixit  Domiuus  mulierl  Cha- 

nanese.' 

5.  Pro  Defunctis. 

VOL.  IX.  1594. 
Caesar  de  Zacchariis.  Intonationes. 
1.  Vespertina. 
Alia  intonatio. 

1.  Primus  tonus. 

2.  Secondus  do. 

3.  Tertius  do. 

4.  Quartus  do. 

5.  Quintus  do. 

6.  Sextus  do. 

7.  Septimus  do. 

8.  Octavusdo. 

9.  Mixtus  do. 

Ilymnl. 

Conditor  alme.  I 


Christe  Redemptor. 
A  solus  ortus. 
Deus  tuorum. 
Stephano  primo  mart. 
Exultet  caelum. 
Bolennis  dies  advenit. 
Salvete  flores. 
Ibid. 

Hostis  Herodes. 
O  lux  beata. 
Deus  Creator. 
Corde  natus. 
Lucis  creator. 
Dies  absoluti. 
Audi  benigne. 
Te  lucis  ante. 
Ad  preces  nostras. 
Ex  more  docti. 
Christe  qui  lux  es. 
Jam  ter  quatemis. 
Jesu  quadragenariae. 
Vexilla  regis. 
Salve  festa  dies. 
Clarum  decus  jejunii. 
Ad  ccenam  agni. 
Vita  sanctorum. 
Jesu  nostra  redemptio. 
Festum  nunc. 
Veni  creator. 
O  lux  beata. 
Pange  lingua. 
Sacris  solenniis. 
Couditor  alme  siderum. 


VOL.  X.  l.o98. 
Francesco  di  Sale. 
Missa,  Super  'Exultandi  tempus 
est.'  5  voc. 

[F.  G.] 

BERG,  George,  a  German  by  birth,  was  a 
pupil  of  Dr.  Pepusch.  In  1763  he  gained  the 
first  prize  medal  awarded  by  the  Catch  Club 
for  his  glee  '  On  softest  beds  at  leisure  laid,'  and 
obtained  two  other  prizes  in  subsequent  years. 
He  published  some  books  of  songs  sung  at  Mary- 
lebone  Gardens,  at  which  place  in  April  1765 
he  produced  an  ode  called  'The  Invitation.' 
Thirty-one  of  his  glees  and  catches  are  included 
in  Warren's  collections.  In  1 771  he  was  organist 
of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  at  Hill,  near  Billings- 
gate. He  published  several  works  for  the  organ, 
pianoforte,  flute,  horn,  etc.,  besides  those  above 
mentioned.  [W.H.H.] 

BERG,  Johann",  a  music  printer,  born  in 
Ghent,  who  set  up  a  printing  office  in  Nuremberg 
about  1550  in  conjunction  with  Ulrich  Neuber. 
After  the  death  of  Berg  (about  1556)  the  office 
was  carried  on  by  Neuber  and  Gerlach.    [F.  G.] 

BERGAMASCA— in  the  'Midsummer  Nights 
Dream,'  a  '  Bergomask.'  An  Italian  dance,  de- 
riving its  name  from  Bergamo,  the  well-known 
city  of  Tasso,  Donizetti,  and  other  eminent 
Italians.  It  is  said  to  exist  in  old  Italian  mites 
de  pieces. 

According  to  Signer  Piatti,  himself  a  native  of 
Bergamo,  the  characteristic  dance  of  that  dis- 
trict is  of  the  following  measure,  like  a  country- 
dance,  but  quicker,  with  a  strong  accent  on  the 
second  half  of  the  bar : — 


Signer  Piatti  has  himself  published  a  Berga- 
masca  for  Cello  and  Pianoforte  (op.  14)  which 
partakes  of  this  character.  Mendelssohn,  how- 
ever, in  setting  Shakspeare's  'Bergomask  dance 


BEEGAMASCA. 


between  two  of  our  company,'  has  given  the 
measure  an  entirely  different  turn  : — 


BERGER,  LuDWiG,  a  remarkable  pianoforte- 
player  and  gifted  composer,  bom  at  Berlin  April 
1 8,  1777,  and  died  there  Feb.  16,  1838.  His 
talent  showed  itself  early,  but  received  its  great 
impulse  from  the  notice  taken  of  him  by  Clementi 
at  Berlin  in  1804,  who  undertook  his  tuition, 
and  took  him  to  St.  Petersbm-g.  Here  he  met 
Steibelt  and  Field,  who  had  much  influence  on 
his  playing.  In  181 2  he  visited  London,  and 
became  widely  known  as  player  and  teacher.  In 
1815  he  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he  resided  till 
his  death,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  teachers  of 
his  time.  Mendelssohn  was  his  greatest  pupil, 
but  amongst  others  may  be  mentioned  Taubert, 
von  Herzberg,  Henselt,  and  Fanny  Hensel, 
Mendelssohn's  sister.  He  latterly  withdrew 
almost  entirely  from  active  life,  owing  to  an 
over- fastidious  hypochondriacal  temper,  which  in- 
terfered much  with  his  intercourse  with  society, 
and  hindered  the  display  of  his  remarkable  ability 
as  a  composer.  He  left  behind  him  a  mass  of 
good,  nay  even  remarkable,  music — pianoforte 
pieces,  songs,  cantatas,  and  unfinished  operas. 
Amongst  his  published  works  his  twenty-seven 
etudes  are  especially  mentionable.  These  have 
been  lately  republished  by  Breitkopf,  with  a 
preface  by  C.  Reinecke.  [A.  jM.] 

BERGGEIST,  DER,  a  romantic  opera  in  3 
acts  ;  the  story  from  Musaus' '  Rubezahl' ;  words 
by  Doring;  music  by  Spohr  (op.  73).  Produced 
at  Cassel,  March  24,  1825. 

BERGOXZI,  Benedetto,  a  remarkable  horn- 
player,  born  at  Cremona,  1790,  and  died  Oct. 
1840.  On  Oct.  7,  1824,  he  received  a  silver 
medal  from  the  Accademia  of  Milan  for  a  valve- 
horn.  [F.  G.] 

BERGOXZI,  Caklo,  a  celebrated  violin- 
maker  of  Cremona.  Bom  towards  the  end  of 
the  17th  century,  he  worked  from  about  1716 
to  1755.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Antonio  Stradivari, 
whom  he  imitated  very  closely  in  his  early 
efforts,  while  his  later  instruments  shew  much 
originality  and  character.  Their  form  and  tone 
are  equally  beautiful,  and  they  may  justly  be 
ranked  immediately  after  those  of  Stradivari 
and  Joseph  Guarneri.  He  made  not  only  violins, 
but  also  violas  and  cellos,  which  however  are  now 
very  rare.  His  son,  Michel  Angela,  was  but  an 
indifferent  violin-maker.  [P.  D.] 

BERIOT,  Charles  Auguste  de,  celebrated 
violinist.  Bom  of  a  noble  Belgian  family,  Feb. 
20,  1802,  at  Louvain.  He  had  his  first  instruction 
in  the  violin  from  a  local  teacher,  named  Tiby, 
who  was  his  guardian  after  the  death  of  his 
parents;  and  made  such  rapid  progress,  that, 


BERIOT.  231 

when  only  nine  years  of  age,  he  successfully  per- 
formed in  public  a  concerto  of  Viotti.  He  him- 
self ascribed  great  infiuence  on  the  formation  of 
his  character  and  the  development  of  his  talent  to 
the  well-known  scholar  and  philosopher  Jacotot, 
who,  though  himself  no  musician,  imbued  his 
young  friend  wdth  principles  of  perseverance  and 
self-reliance,  which  he  never  lost  sight  of  through- 
out life,  and  which,  more  than  anything  else, 
contributed  to  make  him  attain  that  proficiency 
in  his  art  on  which  his  fame  rests. 

When  nineteen  years  of  age  he  went  to  Paris 
and  pursued  his  studies  there  for  some  time  under 
the  advice  of  Viotti  and  Baillot,  without  actually 
being  the  pupil  of  either.  After  a  short  time  he 
made  his  appearance  in  public  with  great  success. 
From  Paris  he  repeatedly  visited  England,  where 
he  met  with  a  most  brilliant  reception.  His  first 
appearance  at  the  Philharmonic  Society  took 
place  on  May  i,  1826,  when  he  was  announced 
as  'Violon  de  la  chambre  de  sa  Majeste  le  Roi 
de  France.'  On  his  retum  to  Belgium  he  was 
nominated  Solo  -Violinist  to  the  King  of  the 
Netherlands,  which  appointment  he  lost  by  the 
Revolution  of  1830.  For  the  next  five  years  he 
travelled  and  gave  concerts  in  England,  France, 
Belgium,  and  Italy,  together  with  the  famous 
singer  Maria  INIaUbran,  whom  he  married  in 
1835.  At  this  time  De  Beriot  was  universally 
recognised  as  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  living 
violinists.  After  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife  he 
retired  to  Brussels  in  1836,  and  did  not  appear 
in  public  till  1840,  when  he  undertook  a  tour 
through  Germany.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  vioHn-playing  at  the  Brussels  Con- 
servatoire, and  remained  there  tiU  1852,  when 
the  loss  of  his  eyesight  caused  him  to  retire.  He 
died  at  Louvain,  April  20,  1870. 

De  Beriot  may  justly  be  considered  the  founder 
of  the  modem  Franco-Belgian  school  of  violin - 
playing,  as  distinguished  from  the  classical  Paris 
school,  represented  by  Viotti,  Kjreutzer,  Rode, 
and  Baillot.  He  was  the  first  after  Paganini 
to  adopt  a  great  variety  of  brilliant  effects  in 
the  way  of  harmonics,  arpeggios,  pizzicatos,  etc., 
sacrificing  to  a  certain  extent  the  severity  of 
style  and  breadth  of  tone,  in  which  the  old 
French  school  excelled.  His  plajdng  was  dis- 
tinguished by  unfailing  accuracy  of  intonation, 
great  neatness  and  facility  of  bowing,  grace, 
elegance  and  piquancy.  His  compositions, 
which  for  a  considerable  time  enjoyed  general 
popvilarity,  although  not  of  much  value  as  works 
of  art,  abound  in  pleasing  melodies,  have  a 
certain  easy,  natural  flow,  and  are  such  as  to 
bring  out  the  characteristic  effects  of  the  instru- 
ment in  the  most  brilliant  manner.  The  in- 
fluence of  Donizetti  and  Bellini  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Auber  on  the  other,  are  cleai-ly  visible. 

De  Beriot  published  seven  concertos,  eleven 
airs  varies,  several  books  of  studies,  four  trios  for 
piano,  violin  and  violoncello,  and  together  with 
Osborne,  Thalberg  and  other  pianists,  a  number 
of  duos  brilliants  for  piano  and  violin.  He 
also  wrote  a  rather  diffuse  book  of  instruction, 
*  Ecole  transcendentale  de  Violon.' 


232 


BEEIOT. 


BEELIOZ. 


Henri  Vieuxtemps  is  tlie  most  distinguished 
of  his  numerous  pupils.  His  son,  Charles  de 
Beriot,  is  a  good  pianist.  [P.  D.] 

BERLIOZ,  Hector,  born  Dec.  ii,  1803,  at 
La  Cote  Saint-Andre,  near  Grenoble,  France ; 
died  March  9,  1869,  at  Paris. 

He  stands  alone — a  colossus  with  few  friends 
and  no  direct  followers ;  a  marked  individuality, 
original,  puissant,  bizarre,  violently  one-sided ; 
whose  influence  has  been  and  will  again  be  felt 
far  and  wide,  for  good  and  for  bad,  but  cannot 
rear  disciples  nor  form  a  school.  His  views 
of  music  are  practically  if  not  theoretically  ad- 
hered to  by  all  eminent  composers  and  executants 
since  Beethoven ;  and  if  interpreted  cum  grano 
salis  his  very  words  could  be  used  as  watchwords 
which  few  musicians  would  hesitate  to  adopt. 
Take,  for  example,  the  following  sentences,  written 
at  long  intervals,  yet  forming  a  sort  of  profession 
of  faith,  to  which  Berlioz  clung  without  flinch- 
ing throughout  the  whole  of  his  long  career : 
'  Musique,  art  d'emouvoir  par  des  combinaisons 
de  sons  les  hommes  intelligents  et  doues  d'organea 
Bpeciaux  et  exerces.  .  .  .  La  musique,  en  s'asso- 
ciant  a  des  idees  qu'elle  a  mille  moyens  de  faire 
naitre,  augmente  I'intensite  de  son  action  de  toute 
la  puissance  de  ce  qu'on  appelle  la  poesie  ,  .  . 
reunissant  a  la  fois  toutes  ses  forces  sur  I'oreille 
qu'elle  charme,  et  qu'elle  offense  habilement, 
sur  le  systeme  nerveux  qu'elle  surexcite,  sur  la 
circulation  du  sang  qu'elle  accelfere,  sur  le 
cerveau  qu'elle  embrase,  sur  le  coeur  qu'elle 
gonfle  et  fait  battre  h.  coups  redoubles,  sur  la 
pensee  qu'elle  agrandit  demesurement  et  lance 
dans  les  regions  de  I'infini  :  elle  agit  dans  la 
sphere  qui  lui  est  propre,  c'est-k-dire  sur  des 
etres  chez  lesquels  le  sens  musical  existe  re- 
ellement.'   (*  A  travers  chants,'  p.  i.) 

Berlioz's  startling  originality  as  a  musician 
rests  upon  a  physical  and  mental  organisation 
very  different  from,  and  in  some  respects  superior 
to,  that  of  other  eminent  masters  ;  a  most  ardent 
nervous  temperament ;  a  gorgeous  imagination 
incessantly  active,  heated  at  times  to  the  verge 
of  insanity ;  an  abnormally  subtle  and  acute 
sense  of  hearing ;  the  keenest  intellect,  of  a 
dissecting  analysing  turn ;  the  most  violent  will, 
manifesting  itself  in  a  spirit  of  enterprise  and 
daring  equalled  only  by  its  tenacity  of  purpose 
and  indefatigable  perseverance. 

From  first  to  last,  from  the  'Ouverture  des 
Francs  Juges'  and  the  'Symphonic  fantastique' 
to  '  Les  Troyens,'  Berlioz  strove  to  widen  the  do- 
mains of  his  art ;  in  the  portrayal  of  varied  and 
intense  passions,  and  the  suggestion  of  distinct 
dramatic  scenes  and  situations,  he  tried  to  attain 
a  more  intimate  connection  between  instrumental 
music  and  the  highest  poetry.  Starting,  as  he 
did,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  no  one  need  be 
surprised  that  he  occasionally,  nay  perhaps  fre- 
quently, sailed  beyond  his  mark ;  and  that  he 
now  and  then  made  violent  efforts  to  compel 
music  to  say  something  which  lies  beyond  its 
proper  sphere.  But,  be  this  as  it  may,  his 
occasional  failures  do  not  render  his  works  less 
interesting,  nor  less  astonishing. 


Berlioz  was  one  of  the  most  uncompromising 
champions  of  what,  for  want  of  a  better  name, 
has  been  dubbed  'programme  music'  In  his 
'Symphonic  fantastique'  with  its  sequel  ' Lelio,' 
and  in  '  Romeo  et  Juliette,'  elaborate  efforts  are 
made,  by  means  of  programmes  and  superscrip- 
tions, to  force  the  hearers'  imagination  to  dwell 
on  certain  exterior  scenes  and  situations  during 
the  progress  of  the  music ;  and  these  efforts, 
it  must  be  confessed,  are  not  always  successful. 
One  either  loses  the  musical  tbjead  and  has  to 
fly  to  the  programme  for  explanation,  or  one 
dreams  of  the  programme  and  misses  the  music. 
The  really  perfect  specimens  of  Berlioz's  instru- 
mental works  are  in  truth  those  in  which  the 
music  speaks  for  itself,  and  the  programme  or 
superscription  may  be  dispensed  with.  Such  are, 
for  instance,  the  'Sc^ne  aux  champs'  and  the 
'Marche  au  supplice'  in  the  'Symphonic  fan- 
tastique,' the  '  Marche  des  Pelerinp '  in  '  Harold,' 
the  Overtures  to  'King  Lear,'  'Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini,' 'Carnaval  Remain,'  '  Le  Corsaire,'  etc. 

From  a  technical  point  of  view  certain  of  Ber- 
lioz's attainments  are  phenomenal.  The  gigantic 
proportions,  the  grandiose  style,  the  imposing 
weight  of  those  long  and  broad  harmonic  and 
rhythmical  progressions  towards  some  end  afar  off, 
the  exceptional  means  employed  for  exceptional 
ends — in  a  word,  the  colossal,  cyclopean  aspect  of 
certain  movements,  such  as  the  'Judex  crederis' 
of  his  '  Te  Deum,'  or  the  '  Lacrymosa '  and  '  Dies 
ir«'  of  his  'Requiem,'  are  without  parallel  in 
musical  art.  The  originality  and  inexhaustible 
variety  of  rhythms,  and  the  surpassing  perfection 
of  his  instrumentation,  are  points  willingly  con- 
ceded even  by  Berlioz's  staunchest  opponents. 
As  far  as  the  technique  of  instrumentation  is 
concerned  it  may  truly  be  asserted  that  he  treats 
the  orchestra  with  the  same  supreme  daring  and 
absolute  mastery  with  which  Paganini  treated 
the  violin,  or  Liszt  the  pianoforte.  No  one 
before  him  had  so  clearly  realised  the  individuality 
of  each  particular  instrument,  its  resources  and 
capabilities.  In  his  works  the  equation  between 
a  particular  phrase  and  a  particular  instrument 
is  invariably  perfect;  and  over  and  above  this, 
his  experiments  in  orchestral  colour,  his  com- 
bination of  single  instruments  with  others  so 
as  to  form  groups,  and  again  his  combination 
of  several  separate  groups  of  instruments  with 
one  another,  are  as  novel  and  as  beautiful  as 
they  are  uniformly  successful. 

French  art  can  show  nothing  more  tender  and 
delicately  graceful,  more  perfect  in  shape  and 
diction  than  certain  of  his  songs  and  choral 
pieces — the  duet  between  Hero  and  Ursule, 
'Vous  soupirez  Madame,'  from  'Beatrice  et 
Benedict,'  and  single  numbers  among  his  'Nuits 
d'et^'  and  'Irlande.'  Nothing  more  touching 
in  its  simplicity  than  '  L'adieu  des  bergers '  and 
'Le  repos  de  la  Sainte  Famille,'  from  '  L'Enfance 
du  Christ.' 

But  there  is  a  portion  of  Berlioz's  works  from 
which  many  of  his  admirers,  who  are  certainly 
not  open  to  the  charge  of  being  musical  milksops, 
recoil  with  instinctive  aversion.    One  must  draw 


BEKLIOZ. 


BERLIOZ. 


233 


the  line  somewhere,  and  the  writer  would  draw 
it  on  the  hitherside  of  such  movements  as  the 
•  Orgies,'  which  form  the  finales  of  the  '  La  Sym- 
phonie  fantastique '  and  '  Harold  en  Italie,'  or  the 
chorus  of  devils  in  the  '  Damnation  de  Faust.' 
Bloodthirsty  delirious  passion  such  as  is  here 
depicted  may  have  been  excited  by  gladiator  and 
wild  beast  shows  in  Roman  arenas  ;  but  its  rites, 
whether  reflected  through  the  medium  of  poetry, 
painting,  or  music,  are  assuredly  more  honoured 
in  the  breach  than  the  observance.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  cannot  be  overlooked  that  these 
same  reprehensible  pieces  contain  some  of  their 
author's  most  astonishing  technical  achievements. 

No  musician,  unless  he  writes  for  the  stage, 
can  hope  to  live  by  his  compositions  in  France  ; 
accordingly  Berlioz  was  driven  to  the  dubious 
'metier'  of  beneficiaire — to  conducting  concerts 
of  his  own  music  whenever  and  wherever  he  could 
get  a  chance,  and  to  journalism,  *  feuilletonism.' 
A  note  of  bitter  complaint  at  the  tortures  hardly 
to  be  borne  which  the  *  compte  rendu '  on  matters 
musical  he  furnished  weekly  during  a  space  of 
twenty  years  for  the  'Journal  des  Debats'  en- 
tailed on  him,  runs  through  all  his  prose.  These 
newspaper  scraps  made  a  name  for  their  author 
as  the  foremost  musical  critic  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  of  Fr'ench  journalists;  whilst  the  per- 
fection of  style  and  graphic  narrative  of  his 
Memoires,  have  proved  him  the  equal  of  the 
best  modem  prosateurs.  Frenchmen  only  can  say 
whether  or  not  his  verse  is  likely  to  live  by  its 
own  merits,  apart  from  the  music  to  which  he 
wedded  it,  in  'L'Enfance  du  Christ,'  'Beatrice 
et  Benedict,'  and  '  Les  Troyens.' 

Berlioz  knew  the  principal  works  of  Beethoven, 
Weber,  Spontini,  Mozart,  in  every  respect,  down 
to  the  smallest  details,  by  heart,  and  he  has 
always  and  very  frequently  spoken  of  them  with 
contagious  enthusiasm  and  convincing  eloquence. 
Yet  he  was  by  no  means  an  erudite  musician, 
his  knowledge  being  restricted,  like  that  of  most 
men  of  genius,  to  the  range  of  his  personal 
sympathies.  Of  Handel,  Bach,  Palestrina,  he 
knew  little,  and  at  times  spoke  in  a  manner  to 
lay  bare  his  ignorance. 

Berlioz's  father,  a  physician,  wished  him  to  fol- 
low the  same  career.  At  eighteen  years  of  age,  and 
much  against  his  will,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  as  a 
student  of  medicine ;  music  however  so  engrossed 
him  that,  though  he  attended  lectures  and  tried 
hard  to  overcome  his  repugnance  to  the  dissecting 
room,  his  anatomical  studies  came  to  nothing, 
and  he  entered  the  Conservatoire  as  a  pupil 
of  Lesueur,  after  a  violent  quarrel  with  his 
parents,  who  stopped  supplies  and  forced  him  to 
earn  a  scanty  subsistence  by  singing  in  the  chorus 
of  an  obscure  theatre,  Le  Gymnase  Dramatique. 
At  the  Conservatoire,  which  he  once  left  in  a 
huff  and  re-entered  as  a  member  of  Reicha's 
'  classe  de  contrepoint,'  he  met  with  little  encou- 
ragement from  the  dons,  to  whom  his  sentiments 
and  beliefs,  his  ways  and  works  were  more  or 
less  antipathetic ;  and  he  was  ])Ositively  hated 
by  the.director,  Cherubini.  So  that,  in  spite  of 
his  most  remarkable  attainments  (the  '  Ouverture 


des  Francs  Juges '  and  the  *  Symphonie  fantas- 
tique,' which  he  wrote  whilst  a  pupil  at  the  Con- 
servatoire, are  more  than  sufficient  to  show  that 
he  was  then  already  the  master  of  his  masters, 
Cherubini  of  course  excepted)  it  was  only  after 
having  been  repeatedly  plucked  that  he  was 
permitted,  on  the  fourth  trial,  to  take  a  prize  for 
composition.  In  1828  he  took  the  second,  and 
at  last,  in  1830,  with  the  cantata  '  Sardanapale,' 
the  first  prize — the  'Prix  de  Rome' — to  which 
is  attached  a  government  pension,  supporting  the 
winner  three  years  at  Rome.  On  his  ret'om 
to  Paris,  finding  it  difficult  to  live  by  com- 
posing, he  was  driven  to  earn  a  livelihood  by 
contributions  to  newspapers,  and  by  occasional 
concerts  and  musical  festivals,  which  he  organised 
on  a  large  scale.  The  story  of  his  violent  and 
eccentric  passion  for  Miss  Smithson — an  Irish 
actress  who  came  to  Paris  with  an  English 
troupe,  and  made  a  sensation  as  Ophelia  and 
Juliet,  whilst  the  enthusiasm  for  Shakspeare, 
kindled  by  Victor  Hugo,  was  at  its  height — is 
minutely  told  in  his  '  Memoires,'  published  after 
his  death.  That  sad  book  contains  many  a  hint 
of  the  misery  he  .subsequently  endured  with 
her  as  his  wife,  the  prolonged  fits  of  ill  health, 
bad  temper  and  ungovernable  jealousy  she  was 
subject  to ;  it  tells  how  disgracefully  she  was 
treated  by  the  very  audience  who  had  lauded 
her  to  the  skies  when  she  reappeared  as  Ophelia 
after  the  pseudo-enthusiasm  for  Shakspeare  had 
blown  over ;  how  she  fell  from  her  carriage,  broke 
a  leg,  and  could  act  no  more ;  how  her  losses 
as  the  manageress  of  an  unsuccessful  theatrical 
venture  crushed  him,  and  how  they  ultimately 
separated ;  Berlioz,  with  scrupulous  fidelity,  sup- 
plying her  wants  out  of  his  poor  pittance  as  a 
contributor  to  newspapers  up  to  her  melancholy 
death  and  interment. 

Admired  occasionally  with  an  enthusiasm  akin 
to  adoration  (for  instance  by  Paganini,  who, 
after  hearing  the  'Symphonic  fantastique'  at  the 
Conservatoire,  fell  on  his  knees  before  Berlioz, 
kissed  his  hands,  and  on  the  following  morning 
sent  him  a  cheque  for  twenty  thousand  francs), 
always  much  talked  of,  but  generally  misunder- 
stood and  shamefully  abused,  Berlioz  was  not 
a  popular  man  in  France,  and  Parisians  were 
curiously  surprised  at  the  success  of  his  long 
'Voyage  musical,'  when  he  produced  his  works 
in  the  principal  cities  of  Germany  and  Russia. 
In  1852  Berlioz  conducted  the  first  series  of  the 
'New  Philharmonic  Concerts'  at  Exeter  Hall, 
and  in  the  following  year,  on  June  25,  he  con- 
ducted his  opera  '  Benvenuto  Cellini'  at  Covent 
Garden. 

He  tried  in  vain  to  get  a  professorship  at  the 
Conservatoire.  The  modest  appointment  of 
librarian  to  that  institute  in  1839  and  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  d'Honneur  were  the  sole  distinctions 
that  fell  to  his  lot. 

His  published  works,  few  in  number  but  co- 
lossal in  their  proportions,  are  as  follows : — 

Op.  1.  Ouverture  de  '  Waverley.'     Op.  3.  Ouverture  des  '  Francs 

Op.  2.  Irlande ;  9  melodies  pour  Juges.' 
une  et  deux  voix  sur  des  traUuc-    Op.  4.  Ouverture  du  '  Koi  Lear.' 
tiuus  de  Thomas  Moore. 


234 


BERLIOZ. 


BEHNASCONI. 


Op.  5.  '  Grande  Messe  des  Morts 
(Kequiem). 

Op.  6.  '  Le  5  Mai.'  Chant  sur  la 
mort  de  I'empereur  Napoleon,  pour 
voix  de  basse  avec  cbceurs  et  or- 
chestre.  ,  ^ 

Op.  7.  '  Les  nuits  d'ete.'  Six  me- 
lodies pour  une  voix  avec  orchestre 
ou  piano. 

Op.  8.  'Keverie  et  caprice.'  Eo- 
mance  pour  le  violon  avec  orches- 
tre ou  piano. 

Op.  9.  Le  Carnaval  Komain,  Ou- 
verture  Caracteristique. 

Op.  10.  Grand  Traite  d'instru- 
mentaticn  et  d'orcliestration  mo- 
dernes.  Avec  supplement '  Le  chef 
d'orchestre.' 

Op.  11.  'Sarah  la  Baigneuse.' 
Ballade  i  trois  choeurs  avec  or- 
chestre. 

Op.  12.  'La  Captive.'  Reverie 
pour  mezzo  soprano  avec  orchestre. 

Op.  13.  '  Fleurs  des  Landes.'  Cinq 
melodies  pour  une  voix  aveo  piano. 

Op.  14.  '  Episode  de  la  vie  d'un 
artiste.'  Symphonie  fantastique 
en  cinq  parties. 

Op.  14  bis.  Lelio.ouLeretourala 
Vie.'  Monodrame  lyrique,  2"  partie 
de  I'episode. 

Op.  15.  Grande  symphonie  fun^- 
bre  et  triomphale  pour  grande 
harmonie  militaire,  avec  un  or- 
chestre d'instruments  a  cordes  et 
un  choeur  ad  libit. 

Op.  16.  '  Harold  en  Italia '  Sym- 
phonie en  4  parties,  avec  un  alto 
principal. 

Op.  17.  'Romeo  et  Juliette.' 
Symphonie  dramatique  avec 
choeurs,  solos  de  chant  et  prologue 
en  recitatif  choral. 

Op.  18. '  Tristia.'  3  Choeurs  avec 
orchestre.  (Meditation  religieuse, 
Ballade  sur  la  Mort  d'Ophelie, 
Marche  fun^bre.') 


Op.' 19,  'Feuillets  d' Album.'  3 

morceaux  de  chant  avec  piano. 

Op.  20.  'Vox  populi.'  Deux 
grands  choeurs  avec  orchestre.  (La 
menace  des  Francs,  Hymaie  a  la 
France.) 

Op.  21.  Ouverture  du  '  Corsaire.* 

Op.  22.  'Te  Deum,'  a  trois 
choeurs  avec  orchestre  et  orgue 
concertants. 

Op.  23.  'Benvenuto  Cellini.' 
Opera  en  trois  actes.  Paroles  de 
Leon  de  Wailly  et  August  Barbier. 
(Partition  de  piano.  Paris,  Chou- 
dens.) 

Op.  24.  '  La  Damnation  de  Faust.' 
Legende  dramatique  en  quatre 
parties. 

Op.  25.  'L'Enfance  du  Christ.' 
Trilogie  Sacree.  1. '  Le  songe  d'He- 
rode.'  2.  'La  fuite  en  Egypte.' 
3.  '  L'arrivee  si  Sais. 

Op.  26.  '  L'Imperiale,'  cantate  si 
deux  cbceurs  et  orchestre. 

'  Le  Temple  universel.'  Chceur  i 
quatre  voix  et  piano. 

'  Priere  du  Matin.'  Choeur  a  deux 
voix  et  piano. 

'La  belle  Isabeau.'  Conte  pen- 
dant I'orage,  avec  choeur. 

Le  Chasseur  danois.'  Pour  voix 
de  basse  avec  piano. 

L'Invitation  k  la  valse  de  Weber.' 
Orchestration. 

Marche  Marocaine'  de  L.  de 
Meyer.  Orchestration. 

Recitatives'  pour  '  le  Frei- 
schutz.' 

Beatrice  et  Benedict.'  Opera 
en  deux  actes  imite  de  Shakespeare. 
Paroles  de  Hector  Berlioz.  (Parti- 
tion de  piano.  Paris,  Brandus.) 

Les  Troyens."  Po^me  lyrique 
en  deux  parties :  (1)  '  La  prise  de 
Troie.'  (MS.)  (2)  'Les  Troyens  a 
Carthage'  (Partition  de  piano. 
Paris,  Choudens.) 


Besides  the  'Traite  (^'instrumentation,'  with 
its  sequel  'Le  chef  d'orchestre/  included  above 
amongst  his  musical  works  as  op.  lo,  the  sub- 
joined literary  productions  have  been  issued  in 
iDOok-form : — 


Voyage  Musical .  .  .  etudes  sur 
Beethoven,  Gluck  et  Weber,  2  vols. 
Paris,  1844. 

Les  soirees  de  I'orchestre,  1853. 

Les  grotesques  de  la  musique  ; 
1859. 

A  travers  chants;  1862. 


Memo!  res,  comprenant  ses  voy- 
ages, etc.,  1803-1865.  Paris,  1870. 
Historiettes  et  Scenes  musicales  ; 
Les  musiciens  et  la  musique. 
Advertised  by  M.  Levy  freres  in 
1872,  but  not  yet  published. 


[E.  D.] 

BERMUDO,  Juan,  born  near  Astorga  in 
Spain  about  1510,  a  Franciscan  monk,  author 
of  'Libro  de  la  declaracion  de  instrumentos.' 
Volume  I.  only  has  been  printed  (Ossuna,  1549). 
Soriano- Fuertes  ('Historia  de  la  Musica  espa- 
nola')  states  that  the  original  in  four  volumes 
is  among  the  MSS.  in  the  National  Library  at 
Madrid. 

BERNACCHI,  Antonio,  born  at  Bologna 
about  1690,  is  equally  celebrated  as  a  singer 
and  as  a  master.  During  several  years  he 
received  the  instruction  of  Pistocchi,  then  the 
first  singing-master  in  Italy,  where  there  were 
at  that  time  not  a  few ;  and  to  his  care  and 
skill,  as  well  as  to  his  own  application,  genius, 
and  splendid  soprano  voice,  the  young  Bernacchi 
owed  his  early  superiority  over  all  the  other 
singers  of  his  day,  and  the  title  which  he  gained 
of  '  II  Re  dei  cantatori.'  Fotis  says  that  he 
made  his  first  appearance  in  1722;  but  it  is 
much  more  likely  that  he  did  this  ten  years 
earlier,  for  he  was  singing  in  London  in  1716 
in  the  opera  'Clearte,'  and  in  Handel's  'Ri- 


naldo'  in  I7i7>  when  he  sang  the  part  of 
GofFredo,  which  had  previously  been  sung  by 
Vanini  Boschi  and  Galerati,  two  female  contralti. 
While  in  England,  his  voice  was  thought  to  be 
weak  and  defective ;  but  he  covered  these  faults 
with  so  much  skill  that  his  singing  was  always 
much  more  admired  by  musicians  than  by  the 
public.  He  remained  here  at  first  only  for 
one  season,  after  which  he  returned  to  Italy. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  subsequently  that 
of  the  Emperor.  Bernacchi  now  altered  his 
style,  making  use  of  an  embroidery  of  roulades, — 
a  great  innovation  upon  the  old  simple  method  of 
singing.  This  novelty  had  an  immense  success ; 
and  was  immediately  adopted  by  all  the  other 
singers,  in  spite  of  the  outcry  raised  by  the  pur- 
ists of  the  old  school.  Martinelli  and  Algarotti 
agree  in  blaming  him  for  sacrificing  expression 
to  execution,  and  for  '  opening  the  door  to  all 
the  innovations  which  have  debased  the  art,' 
Rousseau  relates  that  Pistocchi,  on  hearing  his 
former  pupil,  exclaimed  '  Ah !  woe  is  me !  I 
taught  thee  to  sing,  and  now  thou  wilt  "play"  ! ' 
The  'Daily  Courant'  of  July  2,  1729,  announced 
that  *Mr.  Handel,  who  is  just  returned  fi-om 
Italy,  has  contracted  with  the  following  persons 
to  perform  in  the  Italian  Opera :  Sig.  Bernacchi, 
who  is  esteemed  the  best  singer  in  Italy ;'  etc. 
The  new  company  disembarked  at  Dover  at  the 
end  of  September ;  and  the  Opera,  which  had  been 
closed  for  eighteen  months,  re- opened  December  2 
with  'Lotario,'  and  a  revival  of  'Tolomeo,'  in 
both  of  which  Bernacchi  played  the  principal 
character,  formerly  sustained  by  Senesino.  In  the 
season  of  1730  he  sang  in  Handel's  'Partenope,' 
after  which  he  returned  once  more  to  Italy,  with 
the  desire  of  founding  there  a  school  for  teach- 
ing his  own  method.  RafF,  Amadori,  Mancini, 
Guarducci,  and  many  more,  were  his  scholars. 
The  objection  of  the  purists  to  Bernacchi' s  fiori- 
ture  as  new,  has  no  foundation  ;  for  these  em- 
bellishments were  as  old  as  the  i6th  century, 
and  were  only  developed  by  him  and  employed 
more  after  the  manner  of  instrumental  music. 
He  was  also  a  good  composer,  having  learnt 
composition  from  G.  A.  Bernabei ;  the  Conserva- 
toire at  Paris  possesses  some  songs  and  duets  of 
his.  He  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
Societk  Philarm.  of  Bologna  in  1722,  of  which 
he  became  Princeps  in  1748  and  49.  He  died 
March  1756.    (See  Fakinelli.)  [J.  M.] 

BERNARD,  surnamed  IL  tedesco,  'the 
German,'  is  said  to  have  been  organist  at  the 
church  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice  in  the  last  half  of 
the  15th  century,  and  to  have  invented  organ 
pedals.  The  catalogue  of  the  organists  of  St. 
Mark — given  in  von  Winterfeld's  'Giibrieli' — 
contains  the  name  of  'Bernardo  di  Stefanino 
Murer,'  as  having  held  the  post  from  April  15, 
1445,  to  Sept.  22,  1459. 

BERNARDI.    (See  Senesino.) 

BERNASCONI,  Antonia,  was  the  daughter 
of  a  valet-de-chambre  of  the  Prince  of  Wiirtem- 
burg,  whose  widow  married  Andrea  Bernasconi, 


BERNASCONI. 


BERNSDORF. 


235 


a  mil  sic -master  and  composer.  From  him  Antonia 
received  such  instruction  as  sufficed  to  develope 
her  remarkable  talents.  She  made  her  first 
appearance  at  Vienna,  1764,  in  '  Alceste,'  which 
Gluck  had  written  expressly  for  her.  She  after- 
wards sang  at  various  Italian  theatres,  and  in 
1778  she  appeared  with  Pacchierotti  in  'Derno- 
foonte,'  a  pasticcio,  at  the  Opera  in  London. 
She  was  then  a  good  musician  and  a  correct  and 
skilful  singer ;  but  her  voice  was  not  powerful, 
and  she  was  past  her  prime.  She  was  a  good 
actress,  with  but  an  indifferent  figure.  In  the 
next  season  she  remained,  condescending,  as  it 
was  then  esteemed,  to  take  the  part  of  'first 
woman'  in  the  comic  opera,  which  she  performed 
admirably.  In  1770-71  she  had  sung  at  Milan 
the  part  of  Aspasia  in  Mozart's  early  opera 
'Mitridate.'  She  distrusted  the  powers  of  the 
boy  to  compose  the  airs  for  her,  and  requested  to 
see  what  she  was  to  sing,  to  which  he  instantly 
acceded.  She  made  trial  of  a  piece,  and  was 
charmed  with  it.  Mozart  then,  piqued  at  her 
want  of  confidence,  gave  her  another,  and  a 
third,  leaving  Bernasconi  quite  confounded  with 
so  rare  a  talent  and  so  rich  an  imagination 
at  years  so  tender.  Shortly  afterwai'ds  an 
enemy  (Gasparini  of  Turin)  called  on  her  with 
the  words  of  the  libretto  set  to  difierent  music, 
and  endeavoured  to  persuade  her  not  to  sing  the 
music  of  the  young  Mozart.  'She  absolutely 
refused  this  wicked  person,  being  quite  over- 
joyed at  the  airs  the  young  maestro  had  written 
for  her,  in  which  he  consulted  her  incKnation.'^ 
The  opera  had  a  prodigious  success. 

In  1783  Bernasconi  was  at  Vienna,  where  she 
had  settled,  though  not  engaged  at  the  Opera ; 
but  she  gave  a  few  performances  of  the  '  Alceste ' 
and  '  Ifigenia  in  Tauride '  of  Gluck,  and  of  a 
comic  opera  'La  Contadina  in  Corte,'  which 
she  had  sung  with  success  in  London.      [J.  INI.] 

BERNER,  I'RiEDRiCH  WiLHELM,  bom  at 
Breslau,  March  16,  1780;  pupil  of  his  father 
the  organist  of  the  Elisabeth  Church  there, 
under  whose  tuition  he  made  such  rapid  progress 
as  to  be  appointed  his  assistant  at  thirteen  years 
of  age.  Counterpoint  and  composition  he  learnt 
from  Gehimie,  director  of  the  choir  at  the 
Matthaus  Church,  and  at  the  same  time  from 
Reichardt  the  cello,  horn,  bassoon,  and  clarinet, 
which  last  instrument  he  played  in  the  orchestra 
of  the  theatre.  The  arrival  of  C.  M.  von  Weber 
in  Breslau  to  take  the  post  of  capellmeister  roused 
Berner  to  fresh  exertions.  Weber  valued  him 
as  an  excellent  pianoforte  and  clarinet  player. 
In  1 81 1  he  and  Schnabel  were  summoned  to 
Berlin  by  Zelter  to  master  the  system  of  the 
Singakademie,  with  the  view  of  establishing 
similar  institutions  in  Breslau  and  the  rest  of 
Silesia,  such  being  the  wish  of  the  Prussian 
government.  Berner  was  also  entrusted  with 
the  task  of  cataloguing  the  musical  treasures 
of  the  suppressed  monasteries.  In  the  middle 
of  all  this  activity  he  was  seized  with  a  long 
and  serious  illness  which  removed  him  on  May 

1  Leopold  Mozart's  Letter. 


9,  1827.  More  details  of  his  life  will  be  found 
in  the  'Hausfreund'  for  1827,  No.  15.  Among 
his  numerous  pupils,  Adolph  Hesse  the  celebrated 
organist,  himself  also  departed,  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable.  He  left  many  compositions 
both  for  voices  and  instruments,  but  his  didactic 
writings  are  more  valuable — '  Grundregeln  des 
Gesanges'  (1815),  *  Theorie  der  Choral-zwis- 
chenspiel'  (1819),  'Lehre  von  den  musikalischen 
Interpunktion'  (1821).  Some  of  his  songs  are 
even  now  very  popular,  e.  g.  *  Deutsches  Herz 
verzage  nicht.'  [F.  G.] 

BERNHARD,  Christoph,  capeUmeister  at 
Dresden  ;  son  of  a  poor  sailor ;  bom  at  Dantzic, 
161 2.  He  was  so  poor  as  to  sing  from  door  to 
door  to  keep  himself  from  starving.  By  a  Dr. 
Strauch  he  was  placed  in  the  Gymnasium,  where 
he  studied  music  under  Balthazar  Erben,  and 
the  organ  under  Paul  Syfert.  By  the  aid  of 
the  same  benevolent  individual  he  was  enabled 
to  visit  Dresden  with  letters  of  recommendation 
to  H.  ScHUTZ  the  capellmeister.  There  his 
fine  tenor  voice  so  far  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  Kurfiirst  as  to  induce  him  to  send  Bemhard 
to  Italy  with  the  view  of  perfecting  his  singing. 
In  Rome  he  became  intimate  with  Carissimi, 
and  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Italians  by 
his  compositions,  amongst  others  a  mass  for  ten 
voices.  After  returning  with  a  party  of  young 
Italians  to  Dresden,  he  was  enabled  by  the 
Kurfiirst  to  make  a  second  journey  to  Italy. 
The  Italians  who  had  returned  with  him  however 
intrigued  against  their  benefactor,  and  at  length 
compelled  Bernhard  to  resign  his  post  and  take 
a  cantorship  at  Hamburg :  ten  years  later  he 
was  recalled  by  the  Kurfiirst  Johann  George  III, 
and  remained  in  Dresden  as  capellmeister  till  his 
death,  Nov.  14,  1692.  His  facility  in  counter- 
'  point  was  very  remarkable,  and  some  extraor- 
dinary instances  of  his  ability  in  this  direction 
may  be  found  in  his  setting  of  the  Latin  hymn 
t  'Prudentia  Prudentiana'  (Hamburg,  1669)  in 
]  triple  counterpoint,  as  well  as  in  other  of  his 
I  works.  [F.  G.] 

BERNHARD,  Wilhelm  Christoph,  remark- 
j  able  as  a  first-rate  player  of  the  works  of  J.  S. 
1  Bach,  both  for  organ  and  piano.  Bom  at  Saal- 
1  feld  about  1760;  died  at  Moscow  at  the  early 
I  age  of  twenty-seven  in  the  year  1787.      [F.  G.] 

BERNSDORF,   Eduard,   bom   at  Dessau 
March  25,  1825,  a  pupil  of  F.  Schneider  at 
Dessau  and  of  A.  B.  Marx  at  Berlin ;  has  lived 
:  for  many  years  at  Leipsic.    He  has  published 
i  various  songs  and  pieces  for  the  piano,  but  is 
j  chiefly  known  as  editor  of  the  '  Universal  Lexi- 
!  kon  der  Tonkunst'  (3  vols,,  with  supplement, 
1856),  begun  by  von  Schladebach — and  also  as 
a  critic  in  the  well-known  musical  periodical, 
the  'Signale,'     Bernsdorf  is  a  thorough  con- 
servative, with  a  strong  antipathy  to  all  modem 
efforts  in  music.    Within  his  own  predilections 
however  he  is  a  keen  and  intelligent  critic, 
though  a  certain  severity  of  expression  in  his 
reports  of  the  Leipsic  concerts  has  brought  on 
him  the  dislike  of  many  musicians.         [A.  M,] 


236 


BERSELLI. 


BERTOLLI, 


BERSELLI,  Matteo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
tenor,  who  came  to  England  with  Senesino  ;  and 
with  him  made  his  first  appearance  in  London 
in  Buononcini's  'Astartus,'  Nov.  19,  1720.  He 
sang  next  in  December  of  the  same  year,  with 
Senesino  again,  in  the  'Radamisto'  (revival)  of 
Handel;  and  in  1721  he  appeared  in  'Muzio 
Scsevola,'  joint  work  of  Attilio,  Buononcini,  and 
Handel ;  in  the  *  Arsace'  of  Orlandini  and  Ama- 
dei ;  and  in  the  anonymous  'L'Odio  e  L'Amore.' 
After  that  we  lose  sight  of  him.  [J.  M.] 

BERTA,  0R  The  Gnome  of  the  Hartzberg, 
a  romantic  opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by  Edward 
Fitzball ;  music  by  Henry  Smart.  Produced  at 
the  Hayniarket  Theatre,  May  26,  1855. 

BERTIN,  Louise  Angelique,  bom  near  Paris 
1805,  contralto  singer,  pianist,  and  composer. 
*Le  Loup  Garou'  (Paris,  1827)  and  'Faust' 
(1831)  were  her  most  successful  operas,  though 
Victor  Hugo  himself  adapted  the  Kbretto  for  her 
*La  Esmeralda'  (1836).  MUe.  Bertin's  imper- 
fect studies  account  for  the  crudities  and  irregu- 
larities to  be  found  in  her  writings  among  many 
evidences  of  genius.    She  died  Ap.  26,  1877. 

BERTINI,  Giuseppe,  son  of  Salvatore  Ber- 
tini,  a  musician  at  Palermo,  born  there  about 
1756;  a  composer  of  church  music,  and  author 
of  'Dizionario  .  .  .  degli  scrittori  di  musica'  (Pa- 
lermo, 18 14),  which,  although  largely  borrowed 
from  Choron  and  Fayolles,  contains  interesting 
original  articles  on  Italian  musicians. 

BERTINI,  Henri,  born  in  London  1798,  a 
pianist,  the  last  member  of  a  musical  family, 
which  included  the  father,  born  at  Tours  1750, 
and  an  elder  brother  Benoit  Auguste,  who  was 
a  pupil  of  Clementi,  and  trained  Henri  after 
that  master's  method.  At  the  age  of  twelve  his 
father  took  him  for  a  successful  concert-tour  in 
Holland,  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany.  He 
was  for  some  time  in  England  and  Scotland, 
but  in  18  2 1  settled  finally  in  Paris.  As  a 
performer  he  excelled  alike  in  phrasing  and 
execution.  His  compositions  (of  which  Fetis 
gives  a  complete  list)  were  excellent  for  their 
time,  but  his  chief  work  is  an  admirable  course 
of  studies.    He  died  at  Meylan,  Oct.  i,  1876. 

BERTINOTTI,  Teresa,  born  at  Savigliano, 
Piedmont,  in  1776.  When  she  was  only  two 
years  old  her  parents  went  to  live  at  Naples. 
Here,  at  the  age  of  four,  she  began  the  study  of 
music,  under  the  instruction  of  La  Barbiera,  a 
very  original  artist,  of  a  type  that  is  now  nearly 
lost,  even  at  Naples.  At  twelve  the  little  Teresa 
made  her  first  appearance,  with  other  children, 
at  the  San  Carlino  theatre,  with  great  eclat. 
As  she  grew  older,  she  showed  the  promise  of 
great  beauty,  and  developed  a  fine  style  of  sing- 
ing. Obtaining  engagements  only  too  easily  she 
sang  at  Florence,  Venice,  Milan,  and  Turin  with 
prodigious  success.  In  the  latter  town  she  mar- 
ried Felice  Radicati,  a  violinist  and  composer  of 
instrumental  music  ;  but  she  still  kept  to  her 
maiden  name  on  the  stage.  In  1805  she  sang 
with  brilliant  success  at  Vienna  for  six  months ; 


but  she  then  left  that  city,  on  account  of  political 
events.  In  1807  she  went  to  Munich,  and  sang 
before  the  court ;  and  then  visited  Vienna  a 
second  time,  where  she  found  the  same  welcome 
as  before.  An  engagement  from  Louis  Buona- 
parte, king  of  Holland,  now  reached  her :  she 
accepted  it,  and  went  to  the  Hague.  Receiving 
proposals  from  London  and  Paris,  she  preferred 
the  former,  whither  she  came  about  1810-11. 
Here  she  was  thought  to  have  a  pleasing  voice 
and  a  good  manner ;  but  after  giving  satisfaction 
in  one  serious  opera,  '  Zaira,'  in  which  her  songs 
were  written  for  her  by  her  husband,  she  was  less 
successful  in  a  second ;  upon  which  she  took  to 
comic  opera,  and  performed  extremely  well  in 
Mozart's  '  Cosi  fan  tutte,'  which  was  admirably 
acted  in  every  part,  the  other  characters  being 
filled  by  Collini,  Cauvini,  Tramezzani,  and  Naldi. 
She  also  sang  in  the  'Flauto  Magico'  and  a  revi- 
val of  Guglielmi's  beautiful  'Sidagero.'  Catalani, 
however,  could  not  endure  to  be  surrounded  by 
so  many  good  performers ;  and  the  situation  con- 
sequently became  so  unpleasant  that  half  the 
company,  including  Bertinotti,  seceded  to  the 
Pantheon,  taking  with  them,  as  *  best  woman,' 
the  celebrated  Miss  Stephens,  who  there  made  her 
debut.  The  licence  being  only  for  intermezzos, 
operas  of  one  act,  and  dancing  without  ballets 
d'action,  the  performances  were  not  very  attract- 
ive, and  soon  ceased.  The  house  then  closed,  and 
most  of  the  troupe,  among  whom  was  Bertinotti, 
left  this  country.  She  now  returned  to  Italy, 
visited  Genoa,  and  was  next  engaged  at  the  end 
of  181 2  for  the  opera  at  Lisbon.  In  181 4  she  re- 
turned to  Bologna,  being  called  thither  on  family 
matters,  and  while  there  received  an  ofier  from 
the  Italian  opera  at  Paris,  which  she  accepted 
but  was  prevented  from  fulfilling  by  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba.  She  therefore  settled  at 
Bologna,  where  her  husband,  who  had  obtained 
a  place  as  first  violin  and  professor,  was  killed  in 
1823  by  an  accident,  being  thro\vn  from  a  car- 
riage. She  now  retired  from  the  stage,  but 
continued  to  teach  singing,  and  formed  several 
admirable  pupils.  She  died  at  Bologna,  Feb.  1 2, 
1854.  [J.M.] 

BERTOLDI,  Signora,  announced  July  2, 
1729,  among  Handel's  new  company,  as  having 
•  a  very  fine  treble  voice,'  was  in  reality  the  con- 
tralto Bertolli.  [J.  M.] 

BERTOLLI,  Francesca,  who  arrived  in  Eng- 
land about  the  end  of  September  1729,  was  a 
splendid  contralto,  and  *  also  a  very  genteel 
actress,  both  in  men  and  women's  parts.'  She 
was  one  of  the  new  company  with  which  Handel 
opened  the  season  of  1729-30,  and  appeared  in 
'Lotario'  and  the  revival  of  'Tolomeo,'  and  in 
'Partenope,'  Feb.  24,  1730.  She  sang  again  in 
'Poro,'  Feb.  2,  1731,  with  Senesino:  this  opera 
had  a  run  of  fifteen  nights,  at  that  time  a  great 
success.  Bertolli  took  in  it  the  part  formerly 
sung  by  Merighi.  She  took  part  in  the  revivals 
of  'Rodelinda'  and  'Rinaldo'  in  the  same  season, 
and  in  the  new  operas,  'Ezio'  and  'Sosarme,'  at 
the  beginning  of  1732.    In  this  season  she  sang. 


BERTOLLI. 


BERTON. 


237 


in  English,  the  contralto  music  of  '  Esther,'  then 
performed  first  in  public  (April  20),  and  repeated 
six  times  during  May ;  and  she  appeared  in '  Acis 
and  Galatea,'  sung  partly  in  English  and  partly 
in  Italian.  In  this  same  year  she  also  performed 
in  'Flavio'  and  '  Alessandro'  by  Handel,  and  in 
Attilio's  'Coriolano.'  In  1733  she  played  in 
'Ottone,'  'Tolomeo,'  and  'Orlando,'  and  in  'De- 
borah,' Handel's  second  English  oratorio.  She 
followed  Senesino^  however,  when  that  singer  left 
Handel,  and  joined  the  opposition  at  the  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Theatre  :  she  sang  in  *  Onorio'  in  1734. 
and  in  Veracini's  'Adriano  in  Siria'  in  1735,  as 
well  as  in  other  pieces.  In  1737  she  returned  to 
Handel,  and  sang  in  his  'Arminio,'  Jan.  12,  at 
Co  vent  Garden  ;  '  Giustino,' Feb.  16;  'Berenice,' 
May  1 2  ;  and  a  revival  of  '  Partenope.'  Her 
name  never  occurs  again  in  the  libretti  of  the 
time,  and  her  after-history  is  unknown.  [J.  M.] 
BERTON,  Henri  Montan,  one  of  those  not 
unfrequent  instances  in  the  history  of  art  where 
a  distinguished  father  is  succeeded  by  a  more 
distinguished  son.  Pierre  Montan  Berton,  the 
father,  composed  and  adapted  several  operas, 
and  was  known  as  an  excellent  conductor.  He 
held  the  position  of  chef  d'orchestre  at  the  opera 
in  Paris  when  the  feud  of  the  Gluckists  and 
Piccinists  began  to  rage,  and  is  said  to  have 
acted  as  peacemaker  between  the  hostile  parties. 
His  son  Henri  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1767.  His 
talent  seems  to  have  been  precocious ;  at  six  he 
could  read  music  at  sight,  and  became  a  vio- 
linist in  the  orchestra  of  the  opera  when  only 
fifteen.  His  teachers  of  composition  were  Rey, 
a  firm  believer  in  Rameau's  theoretical  principles, 
and  Sacchini,  a  prolific  composer  of  Italian 
operas.  But  this  instruction  was  never  sys- 
tematic, a  defect  but  too  distinctly  visible  even 
in  the  maturest  scores  of  our  composer.  His 
musical  knowledge,  and  particularly  his  expe- 
rience of  dramatic  effect,  he  mainly  derived  from 
the  performances  he  witnessed.  Hence  the  want 
of  independent  features  in  his  style,  which  makes 
it  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  his  work- 
manship from  that  of  other  masters  of  the  French 
school.  In  1783  he  became  deeply  enamoured 
of  Mdlle.  Maiilard,  a  celebrated  singer,  by  whom 
he  had  an  illegitimate  son  Francois  Berton, 
also  a  composer  of  some  note,  who  died  in 
1832.  This  passionate  attachment  seems  to 
have  awakened  his  latent  creativeness.  His  first 
work  was  a  comic  opera,  'La  dame  invisible,' 
written  about  the  time  referred  to,  but  not 
performed  till  four  years  later  (Dec.  1787).  It 
is  said  that  the  young  composer  being  too  shy 
to  produce  his  work  it  was  shown  by  Mdlle. 
Maillard  to  Sacchini,  w^ho  at  once  recognised 
Berton' s  talent.  This  led  to  the  connection 
between  the  two  musicians  already  alluded  to. 
Berton  made  his  public  debut  as  a  composer 
at  the  Concerts  Spirituels,  for  which  he  wrote 
several  oratorios.  One  of  these,  '  Absalon,'  was 
first  performed  with  considerable  success  in 
1786.  Bu.  he  soon  abandoned  sacred  music  for 
the  more  congenial  sphere  of  comic  opera.  In 
1787  two  dramatic  works — 'Les  promesses  de 


manage '  and  the  above  -  named  *  Dame  in- 
visible'— saw  the  light  of  the  stage,  and  were 
favourably  received. 

The  excitement  of  the  revolutionary  period 
did  not  fdl  to  leave  its  traces  on  Berton'a 
works.  His  opera  'Les  rigueurs  du  cloltre' 
owes  its  existence  to  this  period.  In  it  the 
individual  merits  and  demerits  of  his  style 
become  noticeable  for  the  first  time — easy  and 
natural  melody,  great  simplicity  and  clearness 
of  harmonic  combinations,  and  skilful  handling 
of  stage  effects ;  but  a  want  of  grandeur  and  true 
dramatic  depth,  and  frequent  slipshod  structure 
of  the  ensembles.  Amongst  the  masters  of  French 
comic  opera  Berton  holds  a  respectable  but 
not  pre-eminent  position.  His  power  was  not 
sufficient  to  inspire  a  whole  organism  with  the 
breath  of  dramatic  life.  Hence  his  works  have 
disappeared  from  the  stage,  although  separate 
pieces  retain  their  popularity. 

During  the  Reign  of  Terror  Berton  had  a  hard 
struggle  for  existence.  He  even  found  diffi- 
culty in  procuring  a  libretto  from  one  of  the 
ordinary  manufacturers  of  that  article,  and  to 
supply  the  want  had  to  turn  poet  himself, 
although  his  literary  culture  was  of  the  slightest 
order.  The  result  was  the  opera  *  Ponce  de 
Leon,'  first  performed  with  great  success  in 
1 794.  Five  years  later  (April  1 5,  1 799)  he  pro- 
duced his  chef  d'oeuvre,  '  Montano  et  Stephanie,' 
a  romantic  opera,  with  words  by  Dejaure,  the 
librettist  of  Kreutzer's  'Lodoiska'  and  many 
other  pieces.  It  is  by  far  the  most  ambitious 
piece  of  its  composer,  and  the  numerous  ensembles 
were  at  first  considered  so  foi-midable  as  to  make 
the  possibility  of  execution  doubtful.  Some 
of  the  songs — for  instance,  the  beautiful  air  of 
Stephanie,  'Oui,  c'est  demain  que  I'hymenee' — are 
still  heard  with  delight.  Edouard  Monnais,  in 
his  sketch  entitled  'Histoire  d'un  chef  d'oeuvre,' 
has  given  a  full  account  of  the  history  of  the 
work,  founded  partly  on  autobiographical  frag- 
ments by  the  composer.  Its  success  greatly 
advanced  Berton's  reputation,  and  freed  him 
from  the  difficulties  of  the  moment.  It  must 
suffice  to  add  the  titles  of  a  few  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  his  numerous  compositions: — *  Le 
Delire'  (1799),  'Aline,  ou  la  Reine  deGolconde' 
(1803),  '  Ninon chez  Madame  de  Sevign^'  (1807), 
and  'Fran9oise  de  Foix'  (1809).  He  also  wrote 
numerous  operas  in  co-operation  with  Mehul, 
Spontini,  Kreutzer,  Boieldieu,  and  other  con- 
temporary composers,  besides  several  baUets. 

Berton  was  for  a  long  time  Professor  of  Har- 
mony at  the  Conservatoire;  in  1807  he  became 
conductor  at  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris,  and  in 
1815  was  made  a  member  of  the  Institut. 
French  and  foreign  decorations  were  not  want- 
ing ;  but  he  survived  his  fame,  and  the  evening 
of  his  life  was  darkened.  In  1828  he  suffered 
by  the  bankruptcy  of  the  Op^ra  Comique,  to 
which  he  had  sold  the  right  of  performing  his 
works  for  an  annuity  of  3000  francs.  Moreover 
he  could  not  reconcile  himself  to  the  new 
currents  of  public  taste.  Rossini's  success  filled 
him  with  anger — a  feeling  which  he  vented  in 


238 


BERTON. 


BESSEMS. 


two  pamphlets,  'De  la  Musique  m^canique  et 
de  la  Musique  philosophique '  (1822),  and  '  Epitre 
a  un  celebre  compositeur  Frangais,  prdcedee  de 
quelques  obserrations  sur  la  Musique  mecani- 
que  et  la  Musique  philosophique'  (1829).  The 
celebrated  composer  is  Boieldieu,  who  was  by- 
no  means  pleased  with  the  dedication  of  a  book 
so  little  in  accordance  with  his  own  views. 
Berton  survived  all  his  children,  and  died  as  late 
as  1842.  [F.  H.] 

BEETONI,  Ferdtnaxdo  Giuseppe,  bom  at 
Salo  near  Venice  1727,  died  at  Desenzano  near 
Brescia  18 10,  pupil  of  Padre  Martini,  and  a 
celebrated  composer  in  his  time.  In  1750  was 
appointed  organist  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  and 
seven  years  later  choir-master  at  the  Conservato- 
rio  '  dei  Mendicanti,'  which  post  he  held  till  the 
suppression  of  the  Conservatoires  on  the  fall  of 
the  Eepublic  in  1797.  His  fiirst  opera,  'Orazio 
6  Curazio,'  appeared  in  Venice  (1746),  but  it 
was  not  till  the  production  of  'Orfeo'  (1776) 
that  he  attracted  attention.  He  composed  it  to 
the  libretto  which  Gluck  had  set,  and  the  same 
singer,  Guadagni,  took  the  part  of  Orfeo  in  both 
operas.  In  1778  Bertoni  was  summoned  to 
London  with  his  friend  Pacchierotti,  and  brought 
out  his  'Quinto  Fabio,'  which  had  been  suc- 
cessfully produced  at  Padua  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  equally  well  received  here,  owing  in 
great  part  to  Pacchierotti's  performance  of  the 
part  of  Fabio.  Bertoni  visited  London  again 
with  Pacchierotti,  but  the  rage  for  Sacchini 
made  it  difficult  for  any  one  else  to  gain  a 
hearing,  and  he  returned  finally  to  Venice  in 
1784.  In  the  following  year,  on  the  death  of 
Galuppi,  he  succeeded  him  as  conductor  at  St. 
Mark's,  the  most  honourable  and  lucrative  post 
then  open  to  a  musician  in  Italy.  Burney  (Hist, 
iv.  514,  541)  describes  him  as  a  man  of  ability 
and  taste,  but  no  genius.  His  works  (of  which 
Fetis  gives  a  list)  comprise  33  operas  and  ora- 
torios, besides  instrumental  compositions.  Little 
of  his  music  has  been  published.         [M.  C.  C.] 

BEPtTRAND,  Gustave,  bom  at  Paris  Dec. 
24,  1834,  educated  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ancient 
music  and  history  of  the  organ.  This  learned 
and  clever  writer  has  contributed  to  Didot's 
*  Complement  de  I'Encyclopedie,'  and  has  pub- 
lished many  articles  on  music  in  *Les  Debats,' 
'  La  Revue  modeme,' '  Le  Xord,'  '  Le  M^nestrel,' 
etc.  His  chief  works  are  a  pamphlet  on  Ancient 
Music  (Didot,  1862);  'Les  Nationalit^s  musi- 
cales,  ^tudiees  dans  le  drame  lyrique'  (1872); 
and  '  De  la  reforme  des  Etudes  du  Chant 
au  Conservatoire'  (187 1).  M.  Bertrand  has 
original  views  as  a  critic,  and  fills  the  depart- 
ment of  musical  archaeology  in  the  *  Commissions 
dea  Travaux  historiques.'  [G.  C] 

BERWALD,  JoHANN  Friedrich,  a  violinist, 
Bon  of  one  of  the  chamber  musicians  of  the  King 
of  Sweden,  bom  at  Stockholm  July  23,  1796, 
travelled  as  an  infant  prodigy,  composed  a  sym- 
phony, and  was  famous  in  Russia,  Poland,  Austria, 
and  Germany  before  he  was  ten  years  old.  His 


second  symphony  was  finished  in  Leipsic  in  1 799. 
In  181 7  he  again  travelled,  but  in  18 19  returned 
to  Stockholm,  and  remained  there  as  capell- 
meister  till  his  death,  April  3,  1868.  His  three 
daughters  were  singers  of  some  repute.    [F.  G.] 

BERWILLIBALD,  Giorgio  Giacomo,  a  Ger- 
man singer  in  the  service  of  His  Serene  Highness 
the  Margrave  of  Brandenburgh-Anspach,  was  in 
London  in  1 716,  singing  in  Nicolini's  opera 
'Clearte,'  with  Bemacchi,  Nicolini,  Schiavonetti, 
and  other  great  artists.  [J.  M.] 

BESLER,  Samuel,  bom  at  Brieg-on-the- 
Oder,  Dec.  15,  1574;  was  in  1605  rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  *zum  heiligen  Geist'  at  Breslau,  and 
died  there,  during  an  epidemic,  July  19,  1625. 
The  library  of  St.  Bernhardinus  at  Breslau  con- 
tains a  vast  collection  of  his  compositions  for  the 
chvurch,  in  which  he  was  very  prolific.  Amongst 
them  is  a  Passion  after  St.  John,  printed  by 
Baumann  at  Breslau,  1621.  [F.  G.] 

BESOZZI,  an  Italian  family  of  distinguished 
wind-instrument  players.  (i)  Alessandro,  a 
very  remarkable  oboist ;  born  at  Parma  in  1 700, 
and  died  in  the  service  of  the  King  of  Sardinia, 
at  Turin,  1775.  (2)  His  brother,  Antonio,  also 
a  celebrated  oboist;  bom  at  Parma  1707,  and 
afterwards  resided  at  Dresden.  On  the  death  of 
Alessandro  he  took  his  post  at  Turin,  and  died 
there  in  1781.  (3)  Antonio's  son  Carlo,  bom 
at  Dresden  1745,  was  also  a  renowned  oboist. 
It  is  he,  according  to  Fetis,  whom  Burney  heard 
at  Dresden,  and  of  whom  (ii.  27,  45)  he  gives  so 
detailed  and  favourable  an  account,  comparing 
him  with  Fischer.  (4)  A  third  brother,  HiE- 
RONIMO,  a  famous  bassoon  player,  bom  at  Parma 
1 713,  was  the  special  associate  of  Alessandro. 
Bumey's  account  of  the  two  brothers,  and  his 
criticism  on  their  remarkable  duet  performances, 
will  always  be  read  with  interest  (Present  State, 
iii.  69).  He  died  at  Turin  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Antonio.  (5)  Gaetano,  the  youngest 
of  the  four  brothers,  bom  at  Parma  1727,  also  an 
oboist,  first  at  the  Neapolitan  and  then  at  the 
French  court,  and  lastly  in  London  in  1 793,  where, 
notwithstanding  his  age,  he  was  much  admired 
for  the  certainty  of  his  playing  and  its  exquisite 
finish.  (6)  His  son,  Hieronimo,  played  the 
same  instrument  as  his  father ;  Burney  (iii.  24) 
heard  him  at  the  Concert  Spirituel  at  Paris  in 
1770.  He  died  in  Paris  as  early  as  1785,  leaving 
however  (7)  a  son  who  was  flautist  at  the  Opera 
Comique.  (8)  His  son,  Louis  Desire,  bom  at 
Versailles  April  3,  18 14,  carried  off  many  prizes 
of  the  Conservatoire,  and  in  1837  the  Grand  Prix 
de  Rome.  [F.  G.] 

BESSEMS,  Antoine,  violinist,  bom  April  4, 
1 806 ;  in  his  sixteenth  year  composed  motets  and 
church  music,  and  in  1826  was  a  scholar  of 
Baillot's  at  the  Conservatoire,  Paris;  in  1829 
one  of  the  first  violins  at  the  Thefitre  Italien. 
After  this  he  travelled,  returned  to  Antwerp 
for  a  time,  and  finally  settled  in  Paris  as  a 
j  teacher.  He  composed  much  for  the  voice  (both 
1  solo  and  chorus)  and  for. the  violin.         [F.  G.] 


BEST. 


BEYER. 


239 


BEST,  William  Thomas,  was  born  at  Car- 
lisle (where  his  father  was  a  solicitor),  August  13, 
1826.  He  received  his  first  instruction  in  music 
from  Young,  organist  of  Carlisle  Cathedral.  He 
intended  to  follow  the  profession  of  a  civil 
engineer  and  architect,  but  that  pursuit  proving 
distasteful  he  (when  in  Liverpool  in  1840) 
determined  to  renew  his  musical  studies,  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  organ  and  pianoforte 
plajring.  The  study  of  the  organ  was  at  that 
time  greatly  hindered  by  its  defective  construction, 
the  unsuitable  pedal  compass,  and  the  mode  of 
tuning  then  in  vogue,  which  rendered  the  per- 
formance of  the  works  of  the  great  organ 
composers  almost  an  impossibility,  whilst  the 
nvunber  of  professors  practically  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  Bach  was  then  extremely  small. 
Having  determined  on  a  rigid  course  of  self- 
study,  and  fortunately  obtaining  the  use  of  an 
organ  of  ameliorated  construction.  Best  spent 
many  years  in  perfecting  himself  in  the  art  of 
organ-playing  in  all  its  branches.  His  first 
organ  appointment  was  at  Pembroke  Chapel, 
Liverpool,  in  1840;  in  1847  he  became  organist 
of  the  church  for  the  blind  in  that  town,  and 
in  the  following  year  organist  to  the  Liverpool 
Philharmonic  Society.  In  1852  he  came  to 
London  as  organist  of  the  Panopticon  of  Science 
and  Art  in  Leicester  Square,  and  of  the  church 
of  St.  Martin-in-the -Fields,  and  in  1854  was 
appointed  organist  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel,  He 
returned  to  Liverpool  in  1855  on  receiving  the 
appointment  of  organist  to  St.  George's  Hall. 
In  i860  he  became  organist  of  the  parish  church 
of  Wallasey,  Birkenhead,  and  in  1863  organist 
of  Holy  Trinity  Church  near  Liverpool.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Musical 
Society  of  Liverpool,  and  in  1872  was  re- 
appointed organist  to  the  Liverpool  Philharmonic 
Society.  These  last  two  appointments  and  that 
at  St.  George's  Hall  he  still  holds.  Best  has 
composed  several  church  services,  anthems,  and 
hymns,  many  fugues,  sonatas,  and  other  pieces 
for  the  organ ;  ten  pianoforte  pieces,  two  over- 
tures, and  a  march  for  orchestra.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  '  The  Modern  School  for  the 
Organ,'  1853,  all  the  examples  and  studies  in 
which  are  original,  and  '  The  Art  of  Organ 
Playing,'  the  first  and  second  parts  published 
in  1870,  but  the  third  and  fourth  yet  in  MS. 
Best's  arrangements  for  the  organ  are  exceeding- 
ly numerous.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BEUTLER,  Benjamin,  bom  at  Miihlhausen 
near  Erfurt  1792;  died  there  1837;  a  friend  of 
Forkel,  organist  of  the  Marienkirche,  and  founder 
of  a  choral  society  for  men's  voices  at  Mtihl- 
hausen  (1830).  He  organised  musical  festivals 
in  his  native  town,  and  established  choral  practice 
in  the  schools,  publishing  for  their  use  a  collection 
of  *  Choral-melodieen  ftir  das  Mtihlhausen  Ge- 
Bangbuch'  (Miihlhausen,  1834). 

BEVIN,  Elway,  an  eminent  theoretical  and 
practical  musician,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is 
unknown.  He  was  of  Welsh  extraction,  and  re- 
ceived his  musical  education  imder  Tallis.  Ac- 


cording to  Wood  (Ashmole  MS.  8568,  106)  he 
was  organist  of  Bristol  Cathedral  in  1589.  Haw- 
kins says  it  was  upon  Tallis's  reconamendation 
that  he  was  admitted  a  gentleman  extraordinary 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  June  3,  1589.  But  this  is 
an  error — he  was  not  admitted  until  June  3, 
1605,  at  which  period  Tallis  had  been  dead  just 
upon  twenty  years.  In  1637,  on  the  discovery 
that  Bevin  was  of  the  Romish  persuasion,  he 
was  expelled  the  chapel.  At  the  same  time  he 
forfeited  his  situation  at  Bristol.  Wood,  who 
states  this,  refers  to  the  chapter  books  of  Bristol 
as  his  authority.  His  Service  in  D  minor  is 
printed  in  Barnard's  *  Selected  Church  Musick,' 
and  in  Boyce's  'Cathedral  Music,'  and  several 
anthems  of  his  are  extant  in  MS.  But  the  work 
by  which  he  is  best  known  is  his  *  Brief  and 
Short  Introduction  to  the  Art  of  Musicke,  to 
teach  how  to  make  Discant  of  all  proportions  that 
are  in  use  :  very  necessary  for  all  such  as  are  de- 
sirous to  attaine  knowledge  in  the  art,  and  may 
by  practice,  if  they  can  sing,  soone  be  able  to 
compose  three,  four,  and  five  parts,  and  also  to 
compose  all  sorts  of  canons  that  are  usuall,  by 
these  directions,  of  .  two  or  three  parts  in  one 
upon  the  plain  Song.'  London,  1631,  4to.  This 
treatise  is  dedicated  to  Dr.  Goodman,  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  to  whom  the  author  says  he  is 
'bound  for  many  favours.'  What  became  of 
Bevin  after  his  expulsion  from  his  situations,  we 
have  not  ascertained.  {Cheque  Book  of  Chapel 
Royal,  Camd.  Soc.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BEXFIELD,  William  Richard,  Mus.  Doc, 
bom  at  Norwich  April  27,  1824,  and  became  a 
chorister  of  the  cathedral  under  Dr.  Buck. 
After  leaving  the  choir  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  music,  in  which,  although  almost 
self-taught,  he  attained  to  considerable  skill. 
He  obtained  the  situation  of  organist  at  Boston, 
Lincolnshire,  and  in  1846  graduated  as  Bachelor 
of  Music  at  Oxford.  He  lectured  on  music, 
and  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Crotch  in  1847  became 
a  candidate  for  the  professor.-hip  of  music  at 
Oxford.  In  February  1848  he  left  Boston  for 
London  on  being  appointed  organist  of  St. 
Helen's,  Bishopsgate  Street.  He  proceeded 
Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge  in  1849. 

On  Sept.  22,  1852,  his  oratorio  'Israel 
restored'  was  performed  at  Norwich  Musical 
Festival.  Dr.  Bexfield  died  Oct.  29,  1853,  at 
the  early  age  of  twenty-nine.  A  set  of  organ 
fugues  and  a  collection  of  anthems  by  him  were 
published,  besides  his  Oratorio.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BEYER,  Ferdinand,  bora  1803.  A  fair 
pianist  and  tolerable  musician,  whose  reputation 
rests  upon  an  enormous  number  of  easy  arrange- 
ments, transcriptions,  potpourris,  fantasias,  di- 
vertissements, and  the  like,  such  as  second-rate 
dillettanti  and  music-masters  at  ladies'  schools 
are  pleased  to  call  amusing  and  instructive. 
Like  publishers  of  books,  music  publishers  too 
keep  their  'hacks,'  and  in  such  capacity  Beyer 
was  for  many  years  attached  to  the  firm  of 
Schott  and  Co.  at  Mayence,  where  he  died  on 
May  14,  1863.  [E.  D.] 


240 


BIANCA. 


EIBEE. 


BIANCA,  OR  The  Bravo's  Bride,  a  '  grand 
legendary  opera'  in  4  acts;  words  by  Pal  grave 
Simpson ;  music  by  Balfe.  Produced  at  Covent 
Garden,  Thursday,  Dec.  6,  i860. 

BIANCA  E  FALIERO,  an  opera  by  Eossini, 
produced  at  the  Scala  at  Milan  Dec.  26,  1819; 
one  of  Rossini's  few  failures.  The  subject  is 
the  same  with  that  of  Manzoni's  'Conte  di 
Carmagnola.' 

BIANCHI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  singer  en- 
gaged at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket 
in  1748,  who  sang  in  the  'Comedia  in  Comedia' 
of  Rinaldo  da  Capua,  and  other  operas.    [J.  M.] 

BIANCHI,  Francesco,  bom  at  Cremona 
1752.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  'Maestro  al 
Cembalo'  to  the  Italian  Opera  in  Paris  under 
Piccinni,  and  there  composed  his  first  opera, 

*  La  Reduction  de  Paris.'    In  1780  he  produced 

*  Ca  store  e  PoUuce '  at  Florence,  with  the 
English  Storace  as  the  prima  donna.  This 
Bucc?ssful  opera  was  rapidly  followed  by  many 
others.  In  1784  he  was  made  vice-conductor 
at  tS.  Ambrogio  in  Milan,  and  held  an  im- 
portant post  at  the  Scala.  A  curious  story 
is  told  of  his  'Desertore  Francese.'  The  hero 
(Pacchierotti)  appeared  in  the  uniform  of  a 
French  soldier,  which  so  scandalised  the  classic 
Venetians  that  they  hissed  the  opera  off  the 
stage.  Fortunately  however  the  Duchess  of 
Courland  passing  through  Venice  expressed  a 
desire  to  hear  it,  and  courtesy  having  compelled 
the  audience  to  keep  silence,  the  music  so  en- 
chanted them  that  the  objectionable  costume 
was  forgotten,  and  the  opera  obtained  an  ex- 
ceptional success.  Some  years  later,  Joseph  II 
ofiered  to  take  Bianchi  into  his  service,  but  died 
(i  790)  before  the  latter  could  reach  Vienna.  In 
1 793  Bianchi  came  to  London,  having  been  offered 
an  engagement  at  the  King's  Theatre  on  account 
of  the  success  of  his  '  Semiramide,'  in  which  the 
famous  B.inti  was  prima  donna.  This  engage- 
ment lasted  for  seven  years.  In  the  intervals 
of  the  London  season  he  made  short  tours  abroad, 
and  in  one  of  these  composed  his  '  Inez  de  Castro' 
at  Naples  (1794)  for  Mrs.  Billington's  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  Italian  stage.  Haydn's  diary 
contains  a  favourable  account  of  Bianchi's  '  Acige 
e  Galatea,'  which  he  heard  in  London  in  1794, 
but  he  considered  the  accompaniments  too  power- 
ful for  the  voices.  Haydn  is  also  said  to  have 
kept  one  page  in  Bianchi's  compositions  turned 
down  for  reference  when  anything  had  rufiled 
his  temper.  In  1800  he  married  Miss  Jackson, 
a  singer,  best  known  as  Mrs.  Bianchi  Lacy — 
her  name  by  her  second  marriage.  From  this 
time  he  was  chiefly  occupied  in  teaching  till 
his  death,  by  his  own  hand,  at  his  house  in 
Hammersmith  (1810).  His  tombstone  is  in 
Kensington  churchyard.  Bianchi  composed  above 
fifty  operas  and  oratorios,  besides  instrumental 
music.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  work  on 
the  theory  of  music,  portions  of  which  are 
printed  in  Bacon's  '  Musical  Quarterly  Review' 
(ii.  22).  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the 
estimation  of  Bianchi  by  his  contemporaries. 


His  chief  value  to  us  resides  in  the  fact  that  he 
was  the  master  of  Sir  Henry  Bishop.  Bianchi 
has  been  sometimes  confounded  with  Bertoni, 
perhaps  because  of  the  connection  of  both  with 
Pacchierotti.  [M.  C.  C] 

BIANCHI,  SiGNORA,  a  good  Italian  singer 
who  came  over  with  Tramezzani,  and  appeared 
at  the  same  time  in  Guglielmi's  '  Sidagero.'  She 
remained  for  some  time  as  'a  respectable  se- 
cond.' [J.  M.] 

BIBER,  Heinrich  Johann  Franz  von,  a 
celebrated  German  violin-player  and  composer, 
bom  at  Warthenberg  in  Bohemia  about  1638, 
and  died  in  1698  at  Salzburg,  where  he  occupied 
the  double  post  of  high  steward  and  conductor 
of  music  at  the  court  of  the  Prince- Archbishop. 
His  reputation  as  a  performer  and  composer  was 
very  great,  and  the  Emperor  Leopold  was  so 
delighted  with  him  that  he  not  only  presented 
him  with  a  gold  chain  and  a  considerable  sum 
of  money,  but  also  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
nobleman.  We,  who  have  to  form  our  estimate 
of  Biber's  merits  and  of  his  place  in  the  history 
of  violin-playing  from  those  of  his  compositions 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  may  well  contend 
that  his  is  the  first  German  violin  music  of  any 
artistic  worth  at  all.  At  that  period  the  art  of 
violin-playing  and  the  style  of  composing  for 
the  instmment  in  Germany  were  entirely  under 
the  influence  of  Italy.  Unfortunately  the  earliest 
German  violinists  appear  to  be  more  connected 
with  Farina  and  his  school  than  with  Vitali, 
Torelli,  and  Veracini.  Thus  we  find  the  works  of 
J.  J.  Walther  (see  that  name),  a  contemporary 
of  Biber,  who  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  Ger- 
many, chiefly  consisting,  like  those  of  Farina,  of 
unconnected  phrases,  equally  void  of  musical  ideas 
and  form,  apparently  invented  to  show  off  the  per- 
former's skill  in  execution,  and  often  only  devoted 
to  crude  and  childish  imitation  of  natural  sounds. 
Although  Biber  can  not  be  pronounced  fi:ee  from 
the  faults  of  his  German  contemporaries — since 
his  forms  are  often  vague  and  his  ideas  some- 
what aphoristic — still  his  sonatas  contain  some 
pieces  which  not  only  exhibit  a  well-defined 
form,  but  also  contain  fine  and  deeply-felt  ideas, 
and  a  style  which,  though  nearly  related  to  that 
of  the  best  Italians  of  his  time,  has  something 
characteristically  German  in  its  grave  and  pa- 
thetic severity.  Altogether  Biber  represents  an 
immense  progress  in  the  art  of  violin-playing  in 
Germany.  That  his  powers  of  execution  were 
very  considerable  we  must  conclude  from  his 
mode  of  writing  for  the  violin,  which  presupposes 
great  proficiency  in  the  playing  of  double  stops 
as  well  as  dexterity  in  bowing.  It  is  also  worth 
notice  that  he  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
occasionally  to  modify  the  usual  way  of  tuning 
the  instrument.  In  two  of  his  sonatas  the  violin 
must  be  tuned  thus  : — 


and  thus 


The  following  compositions  of  his  have  been 
published: — (i)  Six  sonatas  for  violin  with  figured 


BIBER. 


BILHON. 


241 


bass  ;  Salzburg,  1681.  (The  sixth  of  these  was 
recently  edited  by  F.  David  in  his  '  Hohe  Schule 
des Violinspiels.')  (2)  Fidicinium  sacro-profanum, 
a  set  of  twelve  sonatas  in  four  and  five  parts ; 
Niimberg  no  date.  (3)  Harmonia  artificiosa,  a 
collection  of  seven  partitas  or  suites  for  three 
instruments  ;  Niimberg,  no  date.  (4)  A  set  of 
sonatas ;  Salzburg,  1676.  ( 5 )  Vesperae  longiores 
ac  breviores  for  4  voices,  2  violins,  2  violas,  and 
3  trombones  ad  libitum  ;  Salzburg,  1693.  There 
is  also  a  'Dramma  Musicals'  of  his  in  MS.  in 
the  museum  at  Salzburg. 

An  engraved  portrait  of  him  at  the  age  of 
thirty-six  is  extant.  [P.  D.] 

BIBL,  Andreas,  bom  at  Vienna  April  8, 
1797;  and  from  1818  organist  at  S.Stephen's. 
He  came  to  the  cathedral  in  Albrechtsberger  s 
time  as  a  singing  boy,  and  leamed  organ- playing 
and  composition  from  Josef  Preindl.  His  style 
of  playing  was  noble,  and  his  compositions  are 
clear  and  thoroughly  church-like  in  character. 
He  published  preludes  and  fugues  for  the  organ 
(Diabelli  and  Haslinger).  His  son  Rudolph, 
bom  Jan.  6,  1832,  studied  under  Sechter,  and 
became  organist  at  the  cathedral  1859  and  at 
the  imperial  chapel  1863.  His  playing  was  that 
of  a  sound  musician,  and  his  compositions  for 
church  and  chamber,  many  of  them  still  in 
MS.,  show  that  he  knew  how  to  keep  pace 
with  the  times.  [C.  F.  P.] 

BIEREY,  GoTTLOB  Benedict,  bom  at  Dres- 
den July  25,  1772,  and  instructed  in  music  by 
Weinlig.  His  opera  'Wladimir'  was  produced 
at  Vienna  in  1807  with  much  applause.  This 
success  procured  him  the  post  of  capellmeister  in 
Breslau,  vacated  by  C.  M,  von  Webeb,  and  in 
1824  the  direction  of  the  theatre  itself.  On  May 
5,  1840,  he  died  of  a  chest  complaint  at  his 
country  house  near  Breslau.  Comic  opera,  or 
rather  the  'Singspiel,'  was  the  sphere  in  which 
he  mostly  distinguished  himself.  Forty  of  his 
operas,  great  and  small,  are  extant,  and  of  these 
the  following  are  printed  with  pianoforte  arrange- 
ment : — '  Blumenmadchen'  (1802)  ;  'Wladimir' 
(1807);  'Der  Betrogene  Betrtiger';  'DieSchwei- 
zer  Schaferin' ;  'Der  Zufall,'  'Elias  Ripsraps' 
(Breslau,  1810,  much  success);  *Die  PantofFeln' 
(Vienna,  1810) ;  'Der  Zank.'  [F.  G.] 

BIFARIA.  A  name  affixed  to  a  quick  move- 
ment in  3-bar  rhythm  in  an  'Invention'  or  suite 
ascribed  to  J.  S.  Bach.  (See  Peters'  '  Thematic 
Catalogue,'  Anhang  i.  series  3).  The  name 
suggests  the  Pifara,  but  there  is  nothing  in  the 
piece  itself  like  pipe-music. 


BIGONSI,  or  BIGONZI,  an  Italian  contralto, 
who  sang  in  London  in  1724  in  Attilio's  'Vespa- 
siano.'  Buononciui's  'Calfurnia,'  and  the  first 


performances  of  Handel's  'Giulio  Cesare.'  He 
only  remained  here  one  year.  [J.  M.] 

BIGOT,*  Marie  {nee  Kiene\  born  at  Colmar, 
Alsace,  March  3,  1786;  in  1804  married  Mr. 
Bigot,  librarian  to  Count  Rasumoffsky,  and 
accompanied  him  to  Vienna.  Here  she  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Haydn,  Salieri,  and  Bee- 
thoven, and  found  much  enjoyment  in  their 
society.  The  first  time  she  played  to  Haydn 
(then  72  or  73)  the  old  man  was  so  delighted 
as  to  embrace  her,  and  to  say  '  My  dear  child, 
that  music  is  not  mine ;  it  is  yours ! '  and  on 
the  book  from  which  she  had  been  playing  he 
wrote  '20th  Feb.  1805:  this  day  has  Joseph 
Haydn  been  happy.'  Beethoven  also,  after  she 
had  played  to  him  a  sonata  of  his  own,  is  reported 
to  have  said  '  that  is  not  exactly  the  reading  I 
should  have  given  ;  but  go  on,  if  it  is  not  quite 
myself,  it  is  something  better.'  These  anecdotes 
are  given  by  Fetis,  who  may  be  presumed  to 
have  heard  them  from  Madame  Bigot  herself.  On 
May  I,  1805,  she  played  at  the  opening  concert 
of  the  Augarten,  and  the  report  of  the  '  Allg. 
musik.  Zeitung'  characterises  her  playing  as 
pleasing  and  often  delicate  and  refined— a  ver- 
dict which  hardly  bears  out  the  expressions 
attributed  to  Haydn  and  Beethoven.  A  letter 
of  Beethoven's,  however,  first  published  by  Otto 
Jahn  and  reprinted  by  Thayer  ('Beethoven,' 
ii-  337)>  puts  his  relations  to  her  family  beyond 
doubt ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  disbelieve  the 
picturesque  anecdote  related  by  Nohl  (Beethoven, 
ii.  246)  of  her  having  played  the  'Sonata  ap- 
passionata'  at  sight  from  the  autograph. 

In  1809  the  Bigots  went  to  Paris.  Here  she 
became  intimate  with  Baillot,  Lamarre,  Cheru- 
bini,  and  aU  the  great  musical  characters.  She 
played  the  music  of  Beethoven  and  Mozart  with 
the  two  former  both  in  public  and  private,  and 
was  highly  valued  by  Cramer,  Dussek,  and  de- 
menti. The  war  of  18 12,  however,  put  a  rude 
stop  to  this  happiness  ;  Bigot  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Milan,  lost  his  post  at  Count  Rasumofisky's, 
and  his  wife  was  thrown  on  her  own  resources. 
She  accordingly  began  to  give  lessons,  but  the 
exertion  interfered  with  her  health.  She  died 
at  Paris  Sept.  16,  1820.  Before  her  death 
however  she  had  the  honour  of  giving  pianoforte 
lessons  to  Felix  Mendelssohn  during  a  short 
visit  to  Paris  in  1816  (his  7th  year).  He  refers 
to  her  in  a  letter  of  Dec.  20,  18  31,  and  the 
warmth  of  his  attachjnent  to  her  family  may  be 
seen  from  another  letter  of  Feb.  24,  1838,  to 
Madame  Kiene  ('Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,'  2nd 
ed.  p.  136),  which  shews  that  Mr.  Bigot  was 
still  alive,  and  that  the  relations  between  Madame 
Bigot's  family  and  the  great  French  musicians 
were  still  maintained.  [F.  G.] 

BILHON,  Jean  de,  a  French  composer, 
contemporary  with  Josquin  des  Pres.  Some 
of  his  masses,  founded,  as  usual  at  the  time, 
upon  the  themes  of  old  French  chansons,  are 
preserved  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  where  he  was 

I  According  to  the  AUg.  musik.  Zeitung,  Bigot  de  Morognes. 


242 


BILHON. 


BIND. 


for  some  time  a  singer.  Other  compositions  of 
his  are  to  be  found  in  various  collections  of 
ch\irch  music  published  between  the  years  1534 
and  1544  at  Paris  and  Leyden.  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 
BILLINGTON,  Mrs.  Elizabeth,  was  the 
daughter  of  Carl  Weichsel,  a  native  of  Freiberg 
in  Saxony,  and  principal  clarinet  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  Her  mother  was  for  several  years  a 
favourite  singer  at  Vauxhall  Gardens  and  else- 
where. The  date  of  Mrs.  Billington's  birth  is 
variously  stated,  but  it  was  most  probably  1768. 
She  and  her  brother  Carl  were  from  the  earliest 
possible  moment  trained  to  music,  and  on  March 
10,  1774,  performed  on  the  pianoforte  and  violin 
at  their  mother's  benefit  concert  at  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre.  Such  was  Miss  Weichsel's 
progress  that  before  she  had  completed  her 
eleventh  year  two  sets  of  pianoforte  sonatas 
from  her  pen  had  been  given  to  the  world. 
At  fourteen  years  old  she  appeared  as  a  singer 
at  Oxford,  and  at  sixteen  became  the  wife  of 
James  Billington,  a  double-bass  player.  Imme- 
diately after  their  marriage  they  went  to  Dublin, 
where  Mrs.  Billington  commenced  her  career  as 
a  stage  singer  in  the  opera  of  'Orpheus  and 
Eurydice.'  On  her  return  to  London  she  ob- 
tained a  trial  engagement  of  twelve  nights  at 
Covent  Garden,  where  she  appeared  Feb.  13, 
1786,  as  Rosetta  in  'Love  in  a  Village.'  Her 
success  was  such  that  the  managers  immediately 
engaged  her  for  the  remainder  of  the  season  at 
a  large  salary.  She  speedily  attained  a  position 
at  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  where  she 
disputed  with  Mara  for  supremacy.  Mrs. 
Billington  remained  in  England  until  1794, 
when  she  went  with  her  husband  and  brother 
to  Italy.  Their  intention  was  to  travel  solely 
for  amusement,  but  at  Naples  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  the  English  ambassador,  induced 
Mrs.  Billington  and  her  brother  to  perform  in 
private  before  the  king,  who  immediately  pre- 
vailed on  Mrs.  Billington  to  sing  in  public  at 
the  San  Carlo  Theatre.  Accordingly  in  May, 
1 794,  she  made  her  appearance  there  in  Francesco 
Bianchi's  opera  'Inez  di  Castro,'  written  ex- 
pressly for  her.  Her  success  was  complete,  but 
her  triumph  was  suddenly  interrupted  by  the 
melancholy  death  of  her  husband,  who,  as  they 
were  about  to  set  out  for  the  theatre  for  her 
second  performance,  was  stricken  by  apoplexy, 
and  almost  immediately  expired.  An  eruption 
of  Mount  Vesuvius  occurring  about  the  same 
time  was  by  the  superstitious  Neapolitans  at- 
tributed to  permission  having  been  given  to  a 
heretic  to  perform  at  the  San  Carlo,  and  fears 
were  entertained  for  Mrs.  Billington's  safety. 
However,  on  renewing  her  performances  she 
experienced  the  most  favourable  reception,  and 
Bung  successively  in  operas  composed  for  her 
by  Paisiello,  Paer,  and  Himmel.  In  1796  she 
went  to  Venice,  where,  being  attacked  by 
illness,  she  performed  only  once.  She  and  her 
brother  next  visited  Rome,  and  all  the  principal 
places  in  Italy.  In  1798  she  married  a  M. 
Felissent,  from  whom  however  she  soon  separated. 
In  1 801   she  returned  to  England,  and  the 


managers  of  Drury  Lane  and  Covent  Garden 
competing  for  her  services  it  was  arranged  that 
she  should  perform  at  each  house  alternately, 
and  she  accordingly  appeared  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  on  Oct.  3,  1 801.  as  Mandane  in  Ame's 
*Artaxerxes,'  still  retaining  the  name  of  Billing- 
ton. From  this  time  her  services  were  in  constant 
request  at  the  Italian  Opera,  the  theatres,  the 
Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  the  Vocal  Concerts, 
the  provincial  festivals,  etc.,  until  1809,  when 
she  retired  from  public  life.  During  this  part 
of  her  career  two  memorable  events  took  place, 
viz.  her  singing  with  Banti  in  Nasolini's  opera 
'Merope,'  and  her  performance  in  a  duet  with 
Mara  on  the  latter' s  last  appearance.  Once  after- 
wards Mrs.  Billington  quitted  her  retirement  to 
perform  at  a  concert  given  in  AVhitehall  Chapel 
on  June  28,  1814,  in  aid  of  the  sufferers  by  the 
war  in  Germany.  In  1 81 7  she  was  reconciled  to 
her  husband,  and  quitted  England  with  him  for 
her  estate  of  St.  Artien  near  Venice,  where  she 
died  after  a  week's  illness  August  28, 181 8.  Mrs. 
Billington's  compass  was  extensive  (three  octaves 
from  A  to  A  in  altissimo),  the  upper  notes  being 
exquisitely  beautiful.  She  excelled  in  passages 
of  execution,  but  her  powers  of  expression  were 
limited.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  painted  a  fine 
portrait  of  her  as  St.  Cecilia.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BILLINGTON,  Thomas  (who  is  sometimes 
erroneously  called  the  husband,  but  was  probably 
the  brother-in-law,  of  Elizabeth  Billington),  was 
a  harpigt,  pianist,  and  composer  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  1 8th  century.  He  published  a  church 
service  for  three  voices  ;  Pope's  '  Elegy  to  the 
Memory  of  an  Unfortunate  Lady ' ;  Pope's 
'  Eloisa  to  Abelard'  (partly  compiled)  ;  twenty- 
four  ballads  to  Shenstone's  Pastorals;  Prior's 
'Garland';  Petrarch's  'Laura';  and  'Laura's 
Wedding-day,'  besides  other  pieces.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BINCHOIS,  Egidius,  contemporary  with  Du- 
fay  and  our  own  Dunstable  in  the  first  half  of  the 
1 5th  century.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly  upon 
the  honour  in  which  his  name  was  held  by  his 
successors,  but  of  late  years  two  manuscripts 
have  been  brought  to  light  containing  chansons 
and  motets  of  his  composition.        [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

BIND  (Ger.  Bindebogen  ;  Fr.  Liaison  ;  Ital. 
Legatura).  A  curved  line  (also  called  tie)  placed 
between  two  notes  of  the  same  degree,  to  denote 
the  continuance  of  the  sound  during  the  value  of 
both,  instead  of  the  repercussion  of  the  second 
note.  The  employment  of  the  bind  is  a  necessity 
whenever  a  sound  is  required  to  be  of  a  duration 
which  cannot  be  expressed  by  any  single  note,  as 
for  example  five  or  seven  quavers  (Ex.  i),  and  it 
is  also  convenient,  and  in  modern  music  invariably 
adopted,  when  the  duration  of  a  note  extends 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  bar  (Ex.  2).  This  is, 
however,  an  improvement  of  comparatively  recent 
date,  such  passages  having  been  formerly  written 
in  the  inconvenient  form  shown  in  Ex.  3. 


I. 


tJ 


BIXD. 


BIEMINGHAM  FESTIVAL.  243 


It  is  diflBcult  to  ascertain  with  anything  like 
certainty  the  precise  date  of  the  invention  of  the 
bind,  but  it  appears  probable  that  it  had  its 
origin  in  the  endeavours  which  were  continually 
made  by  the  earlier  composers  (before  the  15th 
century)  to  give  rh\i,hmic  variety  to  their 
counterpoint.  Morley  (Practical  Music,  1597) 
describes  two  kinda  of  counterpoint,  which  he 
caUa  'long  and  short'  and  'short  and  long,'  in 
each  of  which  a  single  note  alternates  with  two 
notes  bound  together,  the  sign  of  the  bind  being 

formed  thus   ,  as  in  Ex.  4;  and  the  fourth 

of  the  five  orders  of  counterpoint  established  by 
Fux  (1725),  and  adopted  by  all  his  successors, 
consists  of  syncopation — that  is,  of  a  non-accented 
note  bound  to  the  accented  note  of  the  next  bar 
(Ex.  5). 

4.  Short  and  long. 


A  curved  line  similar  to  the  bind,  but  placed 
between  two  notes  of  different  names,  denotes 
the  slur  or  legato,  and  the  possibility  of  con- 
fusion resulting  from  this  resemblance  induced 
Sir  Stemdale  Bennett  to  introduce  a  new  sign 
for  the  bind,  consisting  of  a  rectilinear  bracket, 

thus   I  1  ;    he  appears,  however,  to  have 

thought  the  innovation  not  worth  preserving, 
as  he  only  employed  it  for  a  time  in  his  op.  33 
to  37,  recurring  afterwards  to  the  usual  curved 
Hne.  [F.  T.] 

BIXI,  Pasqualino,  violinist.  Bom  at  Pesaro 
(Rossini's  native  place)  aVjout  1720.  He  was  a 
favourite  pupil  of  Tartini,  to  whom  he  was 
recommended  at  the  age  of  fifteen  by  Cardinal 
Olivieri.  Under  Tartini  he  practised  with  such 
diligence  that  in  three  or  four  years  time  he 
overcame  the  chief  difficulties  of  his  master's 
music,  and  played  it  with  greater  force  than  the 
composer  himself.    On  returning  to  Rome,  under 


the  protection  of  Cardinal  Olivieri,  he  astonished 
the  violinists  by  his  performance,  especially 
Montanari,  the  chief  violin-player  of  the  time 
at  Rome,  who  was  generally  believed  to  have 
died  of  mortification  at  the  superiority  of  Bini's 
talents.  Hearing  that  Tartini  had  changed  his 
style  of  plaj-ing,  he  returned  to  Padua  and  placed 
himself  for  another  year  imder  his  old  master ; 
at  the  end  of  which  time  he  is  said  to  have 
played  with  wonderful  certainty  and  expression. 
After  his  return  to  Rome  Tartini  recommended 
Mr.  Wiseman,  his  English  friend,  to  Bini  in  the 
following  words,  which  speak  as  highly  for 
master  as  for  scholar  : — '  lo  lo  mando  a  un  mio 
scolare  che  suona  piii  di  me,  e  me  ne  glorio  per 
essere  un  angelo  di  costume  e  religiose' — 'I 
recommend  him  to  a  scholar  who  plays  better 
than  myself,  and  I  am  proud  of  it,  as  he  is  an 
angel  in  religion  and  morals '.  [E.  H.  D.] 

BIOXI,  Antonio,  bom  in  "Venice  1700,  a 
dramatic  composer,  pupil  of  Giovanni  Porta, 
produced  his  first  opera  'Climene'  in  1721,  his 
next,  'Udine,'  1722,  and  during  the  next  nine 
years  24  more,  of  which  'Endimione'  (1727) 
had  the  highest  reputation.  In  1730  he  became 
director  of  the  Italian  theatre  at  Breslau,  in 
1 731  the  Elector  of  Mayence  appointed  him  his 
chamber  -  composer,  and  in  1733  he  probably 
returned  to  Italy.  He  conducted  the  performance 
of  his  'Girita'  at  Vienna  in  1738,  which  is  the 
last  fact  known  of  him.  Fetis  gives  a  list  of  his 
works.  [M.  C.  C] 

BIRCHALL,  RoEEET,  music-publisher,  etc., 
said  to  have  been  apprenticed  to  Randall,  the 
successor  of  ^Yalsh,  established  a  musical  cir- 
culating librar}^  about  1784,  prior  to  which  he 
had  been  associated  in  business  with  Beardmore 
and  also  with  Andre wes,  successively  at  129, 
133  &  140  Xew  Bond  Street.  He  managed  the 
celebrated  series  of  Antient  Concerts  and  most 
of  the  Benefit  Concerts  of  those  golden  days. 
Birchall  published  many  of  Beethoven's  works, 
including  the  original  English  editions  of  '  The 
Battle  Symphony,'  dedicated  to  the  Prince  Regent, 
in  1 8 16,  the  Sonata  op.  96,  the  Trio  op.  97,  an 
adaptation  for  the  Pianoforte  of  Symphony  Xo. 
7 — the  copyrights  of  which  he  purchased  from 
the  composer.  Beethoven's  letters  arranging  for 
these,  in  queer  English,  and  stiU  queerer  French, 
will  be  found  in  Xohl's  two  collections,  Brief e, 
and  ismt  Brief  e.  After  amassing  a  large  fortune 
Birchall  died  in  1 819,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Lomdale  &  Mills.  5lr.  Samuel  Chappell,  the 
founder  of  the  well-known  firm  at  50  Xew 
Bond  Street,  was  originally  at  Birchall's.  The 
catalogue  of  the  house  contains  the  celebrated 
collections  formed  by  Latrobe,  Mozart's  operas, 
and  an  immense  collection  of  standard  works  by 
the  greatest  composers  and  performers  of  the 
day.  [R.  E.  L.] 

BIRMIXGHAM  FESTIVAL.  This  Trien- 
nial Festival,  which  is  now  acknowledged  to 
be  the  most  important  'music  meeting'  in  the 
provinces,  was  commenced  in  1 768  with  a  series 
of  performances  in  St.  Philip's  Church  and  in  the 

E2 


244       BIRMINGHAM  FESTIVAL. 


BISCHOFF. 


theatre  in  King  Street,  in  aid  of  the  funds  of  the 
General  Hospital.  The  first  programme  was  ex- 
clusively Handelian,  with  a  band  of  twenty-five 
and  a  chorus  of  forty,  conducted  by  Mr.  Capel 
Bond  of  Coventry,  but  since  1802  the  programmes 
have  been  drawn  from  all  sources.  In  1778  a 
second  festival  was  held,  and  in  1 784  Lord  Dud- 
ley and  Ward  was  the  president  of  the  third 
festival,  at  which,  for  the  first  time,  a  body  of 
noblemen  and  gentlemen  assisted  as  stewards. 
In  1787  and  1790  the  band  was  drawn  from  the 
King's  Theatre  in  London,  and  with  the  chorus 
numbered  100  performers.  In  1793  no  festival 
was  held,  owing  to  the  burning  of  the  theatre, 
but  from  1796  to  1829  there  was  a  triennial 
festival.  The  next  festival  was  in  1834,  the  first 
held  in  the  New  ToAvn  Hall,  where  the  concerts 
have  since  taken  place  every  third  year.  At  the 
earlier  festivals  the  male  singers  were  members 
of  the  Worcester  and  Lichfield  Cathedral  choirs, 
the  sopranos  being  selected  from  several  Lanca- 
shire choral  societies,  famed  then  as  now  for  the 
excellence  of  their  voices.  The  members  of  a 
local  Gentlemen's  Musical  Association  also  as- 
sisted in  the  chorus,  which  now  consists  of  a  local 
choral  society,  reinforced  by  members  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  London.  In  1805  the 
number  of  performers  was  increased  to  120,  in 
1808  to  188,  in  1811  to  204,  in  1820  to  231,  in 
1834  (in  the  Town  Hall)  to  386,  and  at  the  last 
Festival  in  1876  the  band  numbered  130  and  the 
chorus  390.  At  first  the  duties  of  organist  and 
conductor  were  combined,  but  in  1832  they  were 
divided.  The  conductors  included  Capel  Bond 
(1768),  Dr.  Crotch  (1808),  S.  Wesley  (1811),  T. 
Greatorex  (1820),  W.  Knyvett  (1834-43),  Men- 
delssohn and  Moscheles  (1846),  Costa  (1849  to 
the  present  time).  The  band  included  the  most 
eminent  orchestral  players  of  the  time.  The 
sclo  instrumentalists  and  principal  singers  in- 
clude almost  every  artist  of  note  of  the  past  and 
present  century,  many  of  whom  have  here  made 
their  first  appearances. 

The  scheme  of  the  first  festival  (1768)  included 
the  Dettingen  'Te  Deum,'  the  Utrecht  'Jubi- 
late,' the  '  Coronation  Anthem '  and  the  '  Mes- 
siah' (sung  in  the  church),  and  *L' Allegro'  and 
'Alexander's  Feast'  in  the  theatre.  In  1778  an 
organ  concerto  was  introduced  at  the  church 
performance.  In  1784  Purcell's  'Te  Deum'  was 
sung,  and  a  new  oratorio,  'Goliath,'  by  Attei'- 
bury,  produced.  Year  by  year  Handel's  music, 
although  still  forming  the  major  part  of  the 
programmes,  was  more  and  more  varied  by  the 
music  of  other  masters. 

Among  the  most  noteworthy  events  in  the 
history  of  the  festival  may  be  mentioned  : — the 
introduction  of  Haydn's  '  Creation '  in  the  place 
of  one  of  Handel's  oratorios  in  1802  ;  the  en- 
gagement of  Mr.  Greatorex,  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  in  1 805,  previous  to  which  year 
the  organists  had  been  local  performers  ;  the  use 
of  Mozart's  accompaniments  to  the  'Messiah' 
for  tho  first  time  in  1808  ;  the  withdrawal  of  the 
orchestral  accompaniment  at  the  church  service, 
and  the  use  of  additional  wind  parts  for  the 


'Messiah,*  by  Greatorex,  in  1820;  the  intro- 
duction of  nine  trombones  in  addition  to  the 
organ  at  the  church  service  in  1823;  the  last 
performance  in  church  in  1829,  the  year  in  which 
operatic  performances  in  character  were  intro- 
duced, and  in  which  Signer  Costa  was  compelled 
to  appear  as  a  vocalist  as  a  condition  of  the  pay- 
ment of  his  expenses  by  the  committee,  who  re- 
fused to  allow  him  to  conduct  Zingarelli's  can- 
tata; the  appearance  of  Mendelssohn  as  the 
conductor  of  '  St.  Paul,'  and  as  solo  organist  in 
1837;  the  production  of  'Elijah'  in  1846;  the 
appointment  of  Signer  Costa  as  conductor,  and 
the  rearrangement  of  the  plan  of  the  orchestra, 
in  1 849 ;  and  the  formation  of  the  Birmingham 
Amateur  Harmonic  Association,  to  form  the  local 
contingent  of  the  chorus,  in  1855.  Sir  Michael 
Costa  wrote  his  'Eli'  and  'Naaman'  for  per- 
formance at  the  festivals  of  1855  and  1864.  The 
receipts  at  the  festivals  have  gradually  risen,  and 
the  actual  profit,  which  is  handed  over  to  the 
treasurer  of  the  General  Hospital,  stood  at  up- 
wards of  £7500  in  1873,  as  compared  with  £299 
in  1768.  The  number  of  persons  present  on  the 
four  days  of  the  festival  in  1876  reached  a  total 
of  14,916,  and  the  gross  receipts  were  £15,180. 
Since  their  foundation,  the  festivals  have  yielded 
a  grand  total  of  upwards  of  £100,000  to  the 
hospital  funds.  [C.  M.] 

BIS  (Fr.),  that  is,  '  twice,'  a  cry  more  in  use 
abroad  than  here,  and  equivalent  to  Encore. 
The  French  even  have  a  verb,  bisser,  to  repeat. 

When  written,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  MS. 
music,  over  a  phrase  or  passage,  it  signifies  that 
the  notes  are  to  be  repeated  ;  the  same  thing 
would  be  efi'ected  by  dots  of  repetition  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  phrase. 

BISCHOFF,  Dr.  Ludwig  Frtedrich  Chris- 
TOPH,  born  at  Dessau  Nov.  27, 1794.  His  father 
was  a  cello-player  in  the  Duke's  band,  and  the 
boy  was  early  initiated  into  music,  though  (like 
so  many  musicians)  intended  for  science.  In 
181 2  he  entered  the  university  of  Berlin,  and 
attended  the  philological  lectures  of  Boeckh.  But 
the  war  of  freedom  put  a  stop  to  study  ;  Bischofi" 
volunteered,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
French.  After  the  treaty  of  Paris  he  resumed 
his  studies  and  took  his  degree.  He  filled  various 
posts  in  Switzerland,  was  professor  at  Berlin,  and 
director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Wesel  from  1823 
to  1849.  Here  he  was  remarkably  active  in 
musical  matters,  founding  societies,  assisting  per- 
formances, and  making  his  house  in  every  sense  a 
home  for  music.  After  twenty-five  years  he  took 
his  leave,  and  settled  first  in  Bonn  and  then  in 
Cologne.  There  he  founded  the  'Rheinische 
Musikzeitung'  (1850)  and  the  'Nieder-Rheinische 
Musikzeitung *  (1853),  and  edited  them  to  the 
day  of  his  death  (Feb.  24,  1867),  acting  also  as 
reporter  to  the  'Colnische  Zeitung,'  and  acquiring 
great  influence  throughout  the  Lower  Rhine 
districts.  The  tendency  of  his  papers  was  dead 
against  that  of  the  'Neue  Zeitschrift'  of  Schu- 
mann and  Brendel,  in  regard  to  Wagner  and 
Liszt.    Bischoff's  worship  for  Haydn,  Mozart, 


BISCHOFF. 


BISHOP. 


245 


and  Beethoven,  with  whom  he  afterwards  as- 
sociated Mendelssohn,  was  so  exclusive  as  to 
preclude  his  appreciating  even  Schumann,  essen- 
tial as  he  is  in  the  development  of  modern  music. 
On  the  other  hand  his  influence  on  music  in  the 
Lower  Rhine  was  both  good  and  great.  He  was 
the  musical  centre  of  the  energy  and  devotion 
which  kept  up  the  festivals  of  Cologne,  Aix  la- 
Chapelle,  and  Diisseldorf,  and  through  them  acted 
so  beneficially  on  the  whole  of  Germany,  With 
Bischoff 's  death  his  papers  came  to  an  end,  nor 
have  they  been  yet  replaced.  [A.  M.] 

BISHOP,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  was  bom  in 
London,  Nov.  i8,  1786,  and  learned  music  under 
Francesco  Bianchi.  His  bias  for  dramatic  com- 
position soon  developed  itself  in  a  remarkable 
degree.  In  1 804  he  wrote  the  music  to  a  little 
piece  entitled  'Angelina,'  performed  at  Margate, 
and  followed  it  by  the  music  to  a  ballet,  'Tamerlan 
et  Bajazet,'  produced  at  the  King's  Theatre  in 
1806.  This  led  to  his  writing,  in  the  same  year, 
two  other  ballets,  performed  at  the  Opera,  and 
also  the  music  for  two  operatic  pieces  produced  at 
Driu-y  Lane  Theatre.  In  1809  his  music  to  the 
'Circassian  Bride' was  received  with  enthusiasm. 
It  was  performed  at  Drury  Lane  on  Feb.  23,  and 
on  the  following  night  the  theatre  was  burnt  to 
the  ground,  and  the  composer's  score  consumed 
in  the  flames.  The  merits  of  the  young  musician 
were  so  apparent  that  the  proprietors  of  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  engaged  him  for  three  years  to 
compose  and  direct  the  music.  He  entered  on 
this  important  ofl&ce  in  the  season  1810-11. 
The  first  piece  upon  which  Bishop's  talents  were 
employed,  in  consequence  of  this  arrangement, 
was  a  musical  drama  founded  upon  Sir  W,  Scott's 
poem  'The  Lady  of  the  Lake,'  and  produced  as 
'  The  Knight  of  Snowdoun.'  In  the  music  Bishop 
displayed  an  amount  of  talent  seldom  surpassed 
by  British  composers.  Before  the  expiration  of 
the  engagement,  the  'Virgin  of  the  Sun,'  the 
'^thiop,'  and  the  'Renegade'  were  produced. 
A  fresh  engagement  for  five  years  was  now  con- 
cluded and  when  we  say  that  Bishop  signalised 
it  immediately  by  'The  Miller  and  his  Men,' 
no  ampler  proof  can  be  given  of  the  indications 
with  which  it  commenced. 

The  Philharmonic  Society  was  established  in 
1813,  and  Bishop  was  one  of  its  original  members, 
and  took  his  turn  as  conductor.  In  the  following 
year  he  produced  portions  of  the  opera  of  'The 
Farmer's  Wife,'  the  melodrama  of  '  The  Forest  of 
Bondy, '  and  other  musical  pieces.  In  this  year  he 
adapted  the  first  of  a  series  of  foreign  operas — 
Boieldieu's  'Jean  de  Paris' — which  was  followed 
in  successive  years  by  'Don  Giovanni,'  'Figaro,' 
'  II  Barbiere,'  and  'Guillaume  Tell.'  A  number 
of  operatic  pieces  were  produced  in  1 8 1 5,  including 
additional  music  for  Dr.  Arne's  '  Comus,'  and  for 
Michael  Ame's  '  Cymon.'  Two  of  his  well-known 
works,  'Guy  Mannering'  (of  which  Whittaker 
■wrote  a  portion)  and  '  The  Slave,'  gave  interest  to 
the  following  year,  in  which  also  he  wrote  the 
musical  interpolations  in  'A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,'  the  &-st  of  a  series  of  Shakesperian  spolia- 
tions which,  as  Mr.  Macfarren  remarks, '  even  the 


beauty  of  some  of  his  introduced  pieces  has  happily 
not  preserved  upon  the  stage.'  It  is  impossible  in 
our  space  to  go  through  in  detail  all  Bishop  s  pro- 
ductions for  Covent  Garden ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that 
among  them  were  'The  Law  of  Java.'  with  its 
universally  popular '  Mjmheer  Vandunck ' ;  'Clari,' 
v/ith  its  household  melody  of  '  Home,  sweet 
home'  ;  and  'Maid  Marian,'  full  of  charming 
English  music.  In  1825  Bishop  accepted  an  en- 
gagement under  EUiston,  at  Drury  Lane,  and  the 
opera  of  'The  Fall  of  Algiers'  was  the  first  fruit 
of  his  new  appointm.ent.  'The  engagement  of 
Weber  to  write  'Oberon'  for  Covent  Garden, 
induced  the  rival  management  to  set  Bishop  to 
work  upon  an  opera  that  should  oppose  it ;  and 
impressed  with  the  magnitude  of  the  competition, 
he  occupied  more  than  a  year  in  the  extremely 
careful  composition  of  '  Aladdin,'  which  was  pro- 
duced in  1826,  some  weeks  after  Weber's  opera. 
It  had  the  misfortune  of  being  allied  to  an  even 
worse  constructed  drama  than  '  Oberon,'  without 
the  elegant  writing  which  characterises  that 
libretto  ;  and  lacking  the  individuality  of  Bishop 
without  having  the  merit  of  Weber,  it  met  with 
no  success.  In  1830  Bishop  was  appointed  musi- 
cal director  at  Vauxhall.  In  this  capacity  he 
wrote  several  operettas,  and  many  songs,  some 
of  which  acquired  great  popularity,  '  My  pretty 
Jane '  being  perhaps  the  best  known  at  the 
present  day.  In  the  season  of  1 840-1  he  was 
engaged  by  Madame  Vestris  as  musical  director 
of  Covent  Garden,  where  he  produced  '  The  For- 
tunate Isles,'  to  celebrate  the  Queen's  wedding. 
This  was  his  last  dramatic  composition. 

We  must  now  notice  a  few  other  events  of 
Bishop's  life.  In  1819,  in  partnership  with  the 
proprietor  of  Covent  Garden,  he  commenced  the 
direction  of  the  extraordinary  performances,  then 
miscalled  Oratorios  ;  and  in  the  following  season 
undertook  the  speculation  on  his  own  account, 
which  he  relinquished  however  before  the  com- 
mencement of  another  year.  In  the  autumn 
of  1820,  he  visited  Dublin,  and  received  the 
freedom  of  that  city  by  cordial  and  unanimous 
sufii-age.  In  1833  the  Philharmonic  Society 
commissioned  him  to  write  a  work  for  their  con- 
certs, and  the  sacred  cantata  of  '  The  Seventh 
Day'  was  the  result.  It  is  a  clever  and  masterly 
work,  but  made  no  lasting  impression,  belonging 
as  it  did  to  a  class  of  music  entirely  different 
from  that  in  which  he  had  achieved  his  fame. 
In  1839  he  received  his  degree  as  Bachelor  in 
Music  at  Oxford,  and  his  exercise  was  performed 
at  the  triennial  festival,  of  which  he  was  conductor. 
In  November  1S41  he  was  elected  to  the  musical 
professorship  at  Edinburgh,  which  he  resigned  in 
December,  1843.  The  distinction  of  km'ghthood 
was  conferred  upon  him  in  1S42  ;  and  on  the 
death  of  Dr.  Crotch  in  1848  he  was  appointed 
to  the  musical  chair  at  Oxford.  On  the  retire- 
ment of  Mr.  W.  Kn}n'ett  in  1840,  he  was  for  three 
years  occasionally,  and  in  1843  permanently,  ap- 
pointed conductor  of  the  Antient  Concerts,  which 
office  he  held  until  the  discontinuance  of  the 
performances  in  1848.  His  last  composition  of 
importance  was  the  ode  for  the  installation  of  the 


246 


BISHOP. 


BLAGRO\"E. 


Earl  of  Derby  as  Chancellor  of  Oxford,  in  1853. 
On  this  occasion  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor 
in  Music,  the  Ode  being  considered  as  his  proba- 
tional  exercise. 

Besides  his  dramatic  productions,  and  the 
*  Seventh  Day,'  Bishop  composed  an  oratorio,  'The 
Fallen  Angel,'  which  has  never  been  performed  ; 
music  for  three  tragedies,  'The  Apostate,'  'Ketri- 
bution,'  and  'MLrandola' ;  and  a  'Triumphal  Ode,* 
performed  at  the  Oratorios.  He  also  arranged  the 
first  volume  of  'Melodies  of  Various  Nations'; 
three  volumes  of  'National  Melodies,'  to  which 
;Moore  wrote  the  poetry ;  and  a  number  of  Eng- 
lish melodies  with  Dr.  iJackay's  verses.  He 
edited  the  'Messiah,'  a  large  collection  of  Handel's 
songs,  and  many  other  works  of  importance. 

He  died  April  30,  1855,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cemetery  at  Finchley,  where  a  monument  to  his 
memory  has  been  erected  by  subscription. 

The  following  chronological  list  of  his  pro- 
ductions for  the  stage  includes  the  works  which 
he  altered  or  adapted  : — 


Angelina,  ;  Tamerlan  et 
Bijazet.  iiO^  ;  XarcLy*  e:  les 
Graces.1506 :  Caractacus,  vm :  Love 
in  a  Tub,  1806;  The  Mysterioxis 
Bride,  1*0S ;  The  Circassian  Bride, 
1809;  Mora's  Love,  1S09;  The  Vint- 
agers, 1S09;  The  Maniac,  1810; 
Knight  of  Snowdon,  1811;  Virgin 
of  the  Sun.  1*12;  The  .Ethiop, 
1812 ;  The  Renegade,  1^12  :  Harouu 
Alraschid,  1*13;  The  Brazen  Bust, 
1813  :  Harrj  le  Koy,  1813  ;  The  Mil- 
ler and  his  Men.  1813 ;  For  England, 
ho :  1S13 :  The  Farmer's  Wife  (with 
Davy,  Eeeve,  etc.),  1814;  The  Wan- 
dering Boys,  1814 :  Sadak  and  Kalas- 
rade,  1814;  The  Grand  Alliance, 
l'*14 ;  Doctor  Sar.grado,  1814  ;  The 
Forest  of  Boniy.  1814 ;  The  Maid  of  i 
the  Mill  (adaitions  ,  1814  ;  John  of' 
Paris  (compiled  from  Boieldieu). , 
1814;  Brotiier  and  Sister  (with 
Beeve),  1815;  The  Soble  Outlaw,  I 
1813:  Telemachus,  1815;  Magpie  or| 
the  Maid.  181.T :  John  du  Bart,  1515 ;  I 
Cymon  (a'iditions),  1815;  ComuS| 
iadditions),  1815;  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,  1816;  Guy  3Ian- 
nering  (with  Whittaker.  etc),  1816 : 
Who  wants  a  Wife,  1816;  Heir  of 
Verona  (with  Whittaker),  1817  ;j 
Humorous  Lieutenant,  1817;  The' 
Libertine  (adapted  from  Don  Gio-| 
Tanni),  1817;  Duke  of  Savoy.  1817;' 
Father  and  his  Children,  1817;' 
Zuma  (with  Braham;,  1818;  Dlus-! 


trious  Traveller,  1818:  December 
and  Slay,  ISi-;  Barber  of  fevHle 
(adapted  from  Bosi  nif,  1818:  The 
Marriage  of  Figaro  (adapted  from 
Mozan;,  1519:  Fortunatus,  1819; 
The  Heart  of  Mid-Lothian,  1819 : 
A  Bowland  for  an  OUver,  1819; 
Swedish  PatriotUm,  1819;  The 
Gnome  King,  1819 ;  The  Comedy  of 
Errors,  1819 ;  The  Antiquary,  182Ci ; 
Battle  of  Bothwell  Brig.  1820; 
Henri  Quatre.  182':' :  Twelfth  Night, 
1820 ;  Don  John,  1821 ;  Two  Gentle- 
men of  Verona.  1821 ;  Montrose. 
im :  The  Law  of  Java,  1822 ;  Maid 
Marian,  1822;  Clari.  1823;  The 
Beacon  of  Liberty,  1823;  Cortez, 
1823;  Native  Land.  1^24;  Charles 
the  S«cond,  1824 ;  The  Fall  of  Al- 
giers, 182i;  Hofer  (compiled  from 
B  issini),  l^SC';  AngeUna  (panly  re- 
written', 1825;  Edward  the  Black 
Prince.  1825 ;  Coronation  of  Charles 
X.  18^ ;  Aladdin.  1826 ;  The  Knights 
of  the  Cross,  1826 ;  £nglis!iman  in 
India.  1?26;  Under  the  Oak,  1830, 
Adelaide.  1830 ;  The  Tyrolese  Pea- 
sant, 1-32:  Home  sweet  Home. 
1'32;  The  Magic  Fan.  1^32;  The 
Sedan  Chair,  1832;  The  Battle  of 
Charapame.  1832:  The  Bomance 
of  a  Day.  1832 :  Yelva.  It33 ;  The 
Rencontre,  1833 ;  Rural  Felicity. 
1834 ;  The  Doom  Kiss,  1836  ;  Man- 
fred, 1836;  The  Fortunate  Isles. 
1841. 


{Imp.  Diet,  of  Biog.;  Gentlemaris  Nag.;  Pri- 
vate Sources.)  [E.  F.  E.] 

BISHOP,  John,  was  bom  at  Cheltenham 
July  31,  181 7.  \Yhen  about  six  years  of  age 
he  was  placed  at  a  boarding-school  at  Oxford, 
where  he  remained  two  j'ears  and  a  half,  and 
learned  music  from  Daniel  Feldon,  organist  of 
St.  Peter's-in-the-East  in  that  city.  His  next 
master  was  Arnold  Merrick,  organist  of  the 
parish  church  of  Cirencester,  and  translator  of 
the  theoretical  works  of  Albrechtsberger,  and 
several  other  valuable  treatises.  Returning  to 
Cheltenham  Bishop  became  a  pupil  of  Thomas 
Woodward,  organist  of  the  parish  church  there, 
under  whom  he  studied  for  alx)ut  five  or  six 
years.  On  the  opening  of  the  new  church  of 
St.  Paul,  Cheltenham,  in  1831  Bishop,  then 
fourteen  years  of  age,  was  appointed  its  organist. 


He  subsequently  completed  his  musical  education 
under  Migliorucci,  a  favourite  pupil  of  Zingarelli. 
In  183S  he  became  organist  at  Blackburn,  Lanca- 
shire, but  in  the  following  year  returned  to 
Cheltenham,  where  he  has  since  resided,  and 
where  he  has  filled  successively  the  post  of 
organist  at  St.  James's  Church,  the  Eoman 
Catholic  Chapel,  and  St.  John's  Church,  from 
the  latter  of  which  he  withdrew  at  the  end  of 
1852.  Bishop  has  directed  his  attention  much 
to  the  study  of  the  theory  and  history  of  music, 
and  has  translated  and  edited  many  valuable 
theoretical  and  other  works,  besides  arranging 
and  editing  a  large  number  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  great  classical  composers.        [AV.  H.  H.] 

BIZET,  Georges,  bom  at  Paris  Oct.  25, 1838, 
was  a  brilliant  pupil  and  laureate  at  the  Con- 
servatoire from  1848  to  1857.  studied  com- 
position imder  Halevy,  whose  daughter  he  after- 
wards married.  Before  winning  his  'prix  de 
Eome,'  he  gave  an  insignificant  operetta  '  Docteur 
Miracle'  (Boufies  Parisiens,  April,  1857)  ;  and, 
after  his  return  from  Italy,  composed  '  Vasco  de 
Gama'  (1863),  which  did  not  gain  him  much 
credit.  At  the  Theatre  Lyrique  were  performed 
*  Les  Pecheurs  de  perles,'  in  3  acts  (Sept.  30,  63), 
and  'La  jolie  Fille  de  Perth,'  in  4  acts  (Dec.  26, 
67).  'Djamileh'  (May  22,  72)  was  not  success- 
ful, but  the  interludes  to  '  I'Arlesienne'  (Sept.  30, 
72),  and  his  Overture  'Patrie'  were  received 
with  applause.  Bizet's  last  effort  was  '  Carmen,' 
in  4  acts,  a  sombre  libretto,  but  a  fine  score, 
which  was  heard  at  the  Opera  Comique  on 
March  3,  75.  This  highly  gifted  composer  and 
very  talented  pianist  died  almost  suddenly  on 
June  3,  75.  Much  was  expected  from  him.  He 
was  a  musician  of  superior  abilities,  though  his 
vocal  style  is  deficient  in  ease.  [G.  C] 

BLACK  DOMIXO,  THE,  the  English  ver- 
sion  of  Auber's  Doiiuro  XoiP. ;  translated  by 
H.  F.  C^orley.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden 
(Pyne  &  Harrison)  Feb.  20,  1861. 

BLAES,  Arnold  Joseph,  a  great  clarinet- 
player,  born  at  Brussels  1814;  pupil  of  Bach- 
mann  in  the  Conservatoire  there,  where  he 
obtained  the  second  prize  in  1829  and  the  first  in 
1834.  He  visited  Holland,  Germany,  and  Eussia, 
and  in  39  was  awarded  a  medal  for  his  perform- 
ance before  the  Society  des  Concerts  in  Paris  : 
was  solo  clarinet  to  the  King  of  the  Belgians ; 
and  in  42  succeeded  Bachmann  as  Professor  in 
the  Brussels  Conservatoire.  [M.  C.  C] 

BLAES,  Mme.  Elisa,  whose  maiden  name 
was  Meerti,  bom  in  Antwerp  about  1820,  a 
distinguished  singer,  and  wife  of  the  foregoing. 
She  was  engaged  by  Mendelssohn  to  sing  at  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipsic  (Oct.  6,  1839, 
and  onwards),  where  her  cultivated  style,  8\-m- 
pathetic  voice,  and  great  personal  gifts,  were 
long  and  highly  appreciated.  She  has  been 
heard  in  most  of  the  European  capitals,  is  now 
(1875)  a  teacher  in  Brussels.  [M.  C.  C] 

BLAGEOVE,  Hexrt  Gamble,  was  the  son 
of  a  professor  of  music  at  Nottingham,  where 


BLAGROVE. 


BLANGINI. 


247 


he  was  born  in  October  1811.  At  four  years 
old  he  was  taught  by  his  father  to  play  on  a 
small  violin  which  he  had  made  for  him,  and 
at  five  years  old  he  performed  in  public.  His 
father  bringing  him  to  London  he  played  in 
1 81 7  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  in  a  performance 
called '  The  Lilliputians,'  and  subsequently  played 
in  public  daily  at  the  Exhibition  Rooms  in  Spring 
Gardens.  In  1821  he  was  placed  under  the 
tuition  of  Spagnoletti,  and  on  the  opening  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  1823  he  became 
one  of  its  first  pupils,  Fran9ois  Cramer  being 
his  instructor.  In  1824  he  was  awarded  a 
silver  prize  medal  for  his  proficiency.  On  the 
formation  of  Queen  Adelaide's  private  band  in 
1830  Blagrove  was  appointed  a  member,  and 
continued  so  imtil  1837.  In  1833  he  went  to 
Germany  for  the  purpose  of  studying  his  instru- 
ment under  Spohr,  and  remained  there  until 
November  1834.  Blagrove  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  English  violinists,  and  for  up- 
wards of  thirty  years  occupied  the  position  of 
concerto  player  and  leader  in  all  the  best 
orchestras.  He  died,  after  a  lingering  illness, 
December  15,  1872.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BLAHETKA,  Leopoldine,  bom  Nov.  15, 
1 81 1  (not  1809),  at  Guntramsdorf,  Baden, 
Austria;  an  able  performer  on  the  piano  and 
physharmonika ;  daughter  of  J.  L.  Blahetka  and 
Babette  Traeg,  At  five  years  of  age  she  was  so 
good  a  player  that  by  Beethoven's  ad\'ice  she 
was  placed  under  Jos.  Czemy  for  education  as 
a  musician.  She  afterwards  had  instruction 
from.  Kalkbrenner  and  Moscheles.  Her  progress 
was  so  rapid  that  she  was  able  to  undertake 
concert  tours  in  company  ^vith  her  mother,  from 
which  she  obtained  much  reputation,  though  they 
exposed  her  to  many  calumnious  attacks.  In 
1832  she  published  as  op.  25  a  concert -piece  for 
piano  and  orchestra  which  deserves  notice.  In 
1830  a  romantic  piece  of  hers,  'Die  Rauber  und 
die  Sanger,'  was  produced  at  the  Karnthnerthor 
theatre,  Vienna,  with  applause.  A  few  years 
later  she  made  another  tour  in  France,  and  in 
]  840  settled  in  Boulogne,  where  she  still  resides 
(1876).  A  few  words  in  Schumann' s  Gesammelte 
Schnften,  ii.  45,  testify  to  her  excellence  as  a 
player.  [F.  G.] 

BLAKE,  Rev.  Edward,  D.D.,  prebendary  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  rector  of  St.  Thomas's 
Church  in  that  city,  was  composer  of  the  admired 
anthem  'I  have  set  God  always  before  me,'  and 
of  some  duets  for  violin  and  viola.  He  died 
June  II,  1765.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BLANCHARD,  Henri  Louis,  born  at  Bour- 
deaux  1778,  died  in  Paris  1858,  studied  the  vio- 
lin imder  Rodolphe  Kreutzer,  and  composition 
under  Beck,  M^hul,  and  Reicha.  From  181 8  to 
1829  he  was  musical  director  at  the  Varietes,  and 
composed  a  number  of  vaudeville  airs  which  at- 
tained popularity,  and  also  trios  and  quartets 
for  strings.  These  more  solid  works  exhibit  con- 
siderable talent.  In  1830  he  became  director  of 
the  Theatre  Moli^re,  where  two  of  his  plays 
were  produced.    A  third  had  a  great  run  at  the 


Theatre  Franfais  in  1831.  His  opera  of  Diane 
de  Vernon  was  produced  at  the  Nouveautes  on 
April  4  in  the  same  year.  As  a  musical  critic 
Blanchard  was  able  and  impartial.  He  contri- 
buted articles  to  'L' Europe  litteraire  et  musicale' 
(1833),  '  Le  Foyer,' '  Le  Monde  Dramatique,'  and 
*  La  Revue  et  Gazette.'  His  biographies  of  Beck, 
Berton,  Cherubini,  Garat,  and  others,  which 
originally  appeared  in  these  journals,  have  been 
published  separately.  [M.  C.  C] 

BLANCHE,  i.  e.  *  white/  is  the  ordinary 
French  word  for  the  note  ^  which  we  call  a 
minim.  In  the  same  manner  the  French  call 
a  crotchet,  ,* ,  noire. 

BLANCHE  DE  NEVERS,  an  opera  in  five 
acts,  founded  on  the  'Duke's  Motto.'  Libretto 
by  John  Brougham  ;  music  by  Balfe.  Produced 
at  Covent  Garden  by  Pyne  and  Harrison  Nov. 
21,  1863. 

BLANCKENBURGH,  Gerbeandt  van,  or- 
ganist at  Gouda,  probably  father  of  Q.  v.  Blank- 
enburg,  author  of  a  work  of  historical  importance, 
'  Onderwyzinge  hoemen  alle  de  Toonen  en  halve 
Toonen,  die  meest  gebryckelyck  zyn,  op  de  Handt- 
Fluyt  zel  konnen  t'  eenemal  zuyverblaezen '  (Am- 
sterdam, P.  Matthysz,  1654).  A  reprint  of  this 
interesting  work  has  been  published  at  the 
Hague.  [F.  G.] 

BLANCKS,  Edward,  whom  Francis  Meres, 
in  his  'Palladis  Tamia,  Wits  Treasury,'  1598, 
classes  among  the  'famous  English  musicians' 
of  the  time,  was  one  of  the  ten  composers  who 
harmonised  the  tunes  for  'The  Whole  Booke 
of  Psalmes,  with  their  wonted  Tunes  as  they 
are  song  in  Churches,  composed  into  foure  parts,' 
published  by  Thomas  Este  in  1592,  and  re- 
printed by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society. 
Nothing  more  is  known  of  him.        [W.  H.  H.] 

BLANGINI,  Giuseppe  Marco  Maria  Felice, 
celebrated  tenor-singer,  teacher  of  singing,  and 
composer,  was  born  Nov.  18,  1781.  At  the  age 
of  9  he  was  admitted  into  the  choristers'  school 
of  Turin  Cathedral.  He  made  rapid  progress  in 
music  under  the  Abbate  Ottani,  a  pupil  of  Padre 
Martini.  By  the  time  he  was  1 2  he  composed  a 
motet  and  a  Kjrrie.  His  favourite  instrument 
was  the  violoncello.  His  singing  was  so  exquisite 
that  he  is  said  by  it  to  have  revived  Baron  Stack- 
elberg  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Turin  after  he 
had  been  given  up  by  the  physicians.  When  the 
war  broke  out  in  1797  his  family  took  refuge  in 
France,  but  it  was  not  till  1799  that  Blangini 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  became  the  fashion- 
able composer  of  songs  (Romances  et  nocturnes), 
and  teacher  of  singing.  In  1802  he  was  com- 
missioned to  complete  Delia  Maria's  unfinished 
opera  '  La  fausse  Du^gne,'  which  was  followed  in 
1803  by  'Chimbre  et  Realitd,'  both  for  the 
Theatre  Feydeau,  and  in  1806  by  'Nephtali  ou 
les  Ammonites,'  for  the  Grand  Opera.  In  1S05 
he  was  called  to  Munich,  where  he  produced 
' Encore  un  tour  de  Caliphe,'  and  composed  'Inez 
de  Castro,'  and  'Les  Fetes  Lacddemoniennes,' 
which  were  not  performed.    In  1S06  Napoleon's 


248 


BLANGINI. 


BLAZE. 


sister,  Princess  Borghese,  appointed  him  her 
chapel -master,  and  in  1809  King  Jerome  made 
him  his  '  General  Musik-director '  at  Cassel.  In 
181 1  Blangini  produced  at  Cassel  'Le  Sacrifice 
d' Abraham,'  and  '  L'Amour  philosophe,'  and  at 
the  Feydeau  in  Paris  'Les  Femmes  veng^es.' 
In  1814  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was  appointed 
*  Surintendant  de  la  musique  du  Roi.'  The 
whole  fashionable  world,  particularly  the  Fau- 
bourg St.  Germain,  thronged  to  him  for  lessons. 
He  drew  up  a  list  of  his  pupils  which  reads  like 
Leporello's  catalogue  in  Don  Giovanni,  as  it 
includes  3  Queens,  12  Princesses,  25  Countesses, 
etc.  Blangini  was  an  indefatigable  composer 
of  operas,  though  none  of  much  interest  were 
performed  in  Paris  before  *La  Marquise  de 
Brinvilliers '  (1831),  in  which  Cherubini  and 
CarafFa  worked  with  him.  One  of  the  songs 
from  Nephtali  is  still  occasionally  heard  at  a 
concert.  His  '  Romances,'  in  34  numbers,  con- 
tinued in  favour  long  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  Dec.  18,  1841.  His  friend  Maxime  de 
Villemarest  published  his  autobiography  under 
the  title  'Souvenirs  de  Blangini,  maitre  de 
chapelle  du  Eoi  de  Bavifere,  etc'  (Paris,  1834). 
The  book  is  interesting,  and  gives  an  excellent 
picture  of  an  artist's  footing  in  society  at  that 
period.  [F.  G.] 

BLANKENBURG,  Quiein  van,  born  1654 
at  Gouda,  Licentiate  in  philosophy  and  medicine, 
and  organist  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  the 
Hague,  well  known  for  his  '  Clavicymbel  en  Or- 
gelboek  der  Psalmen  en  Kirkgezangen'  (1732; 
3rd  ed.  1772).  The  inscription  on  his  portrait 
compares  him  to  Orpheus.  In  honour  of  the 
betrothal  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  he  composed 
a  collection  of  pieces  in  two  parts,  which  might 
be  performed  either  upright  or  upside  down, 
forwards  or  backwards.  His  'Elementa  Musica' 
has  some  value  as  a  theoretical  work.  Blanken- 
burg  died  after  1739,  but  the  precise  date  is  not 
known.  [F.  G.] 

BLAZE,  FEAN901S  Henri  Joseph,  calling 
himself  Castil-Blaze,  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  on  music  and  the  drama  France  has 
produced,  was  born  at  Cavaillon  in  1784.  His 
father,  a  lawyer  by  profession,  was  a  good  musi- 
cian, friend  of  Grdtry  and  Mehul,  and  com- 
poser of  masses,  operas,  and  chamber  music. 
Blaze  was  sent  to  Paris  in  1799  to  study 
the  law,  but  the  love  of  music  soon  began  to 
show  itself.  He  became  a  pupil  at  the  Con- 
servatoire, and  took  private  lessons  in  harmony. 
In  the  meantime  his  professional  career  pro- 
mised to  be  a  prosperous  one.  He  obtained 
the  position  of  sous-prdfet  in  the  Department 
of  Vaucluse,  and  other  appointments.  But  to 
one  used  to  the  excitement  of  Parisian  society, 
and  longing  for  literary  and  artistic  distinction, 
official  life  in  southern  France  could  not  but  be 
tedious  and  uninteresting.  At  the  age  of  thirty- 
six  he  threw  up  his  post  and  set  out  with  his 
family  for  the  metropolis,  chiefly  with  a  view- 
to  publishing  a  book  compiled  during  his  leisure 
hours.     It  appeared  in  1820,  in  two  volumes, 


with  the  title  *De  I'op^ra  en  France,'  and  is  the 
work  on  which  his  claims  to  remembrance  are 
chiefly  founded.  The  subjects  treated  com- 
prise a  much  wider  circle  of  observation  than 
the  title  would  imply.  The  first  volume  con- 
tains an  elaborate  though  popular  treat- 
ment of  the  various  elements  of  music,  in- 
cluding hints  as  to  the  choice  of  libretti,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  verse  and  diction  best  adapted 
for  musical  treatment.  The  second  volume  is  de- 
voted to  the  opera  proper,  describing  at  consider- 
able length  its  various  components,  the  overture, 
recitative,  aria,  ensemble,  etc.  The  style  is 
lucid  and  terse,  and  the  book  may  be  recom- 
mended to  the  amateur,  although  the  student 
will  look  in  vain  for  new  material  or  originality 
of  treatment.  But  even  to  the  latter  the  fre- 
quent references  to  contemporary  operas,  a  sub- 
ject in  which  Castil-Blaze  was  thoroughly  at 
home,  will  not  be  without  interest.  The  chapter 
on  the  opera  in  the  provinces  is  particularly 
valuable  from  an  historic  point  of  view.  His 
remarks  on  the  overture,  in  which  he  defends 
a  broader  and  simpler  conception  of  that  form 
of  art  against  those  who  expect  from  it  an  an- 
ticipatory reproduction  of  the  drama  itself,  with 
all  its  complicated  characters  and  situations,  are 
excellent,  and  would  be  worth  quotation  if  ou» 
space  permitted  it. 

A  considerable  part  of  his  book  is  polemical. 
He  attacks  the  various  uses  and  abuses  of 
theatrical  managers,  the  arrogance  of  ignorant 
critics,  and  the  miserable  translations  supplied 
by  literary  hacks  for  the  masterpieces  of  foreign 
composers.  On  the  latter  point  he  was  entitled 
to  speak,  having  himself  reproduced  more  or  less 
felicitously  the  libretti  of  numerous  Italian  and 
German  operas.  Amongst  these  we  mention 
'Figaro,'  'Don  Juan,'  and  ' Zauberflote ' ;  'II 
Barbiere,'  'Gazza  Ladra,'  'Otello,'  'Anna  Bo- 
lena' ;  '  Der  Freischiitz,'  '  Oberon,'  '  Euryanthe 
and  many  others.  These  reproductions  were 
chiefly  for  the  use  of  provincial  theatres  where 
Italian  opera  was  unattainable,  and  may  have 
contributed  much  to  popularise  good  music  in 
France.  Unfortunately  Blaze  frequently  made 
bold  to  meddle  with  the  scores,  and  even  to  in- 
troduce surreptitiously  pieces  of  his  own  compo- 
sition into  the  works  of  great  masters.  He  used 
to  tell  with  delight  how  one  of  his  choral  pieces 
fathered  upon  Weber  was  frequently  played  and 
applauded  by  unsuspecting  audiences  at  the  con- 
certs of  the  Paris  Conservatoire.  Our  author's 
own  compositions  do  not  call  for  notice.  They 
are  of  an  ephemeral  nature,  and  are  justly  for- 
gotten. Amongst  his  romances  '  King  Rdnd '  is 
pretty,  and  was  deservedly  popular.  He  wrote 
several  pieces  of  sacred  and  chamber  music,  one 
serious  and  two  comic  operas,  none  of  which  was 
successful  to  any  considerable  extent.  More  valu- 
able is  a  collection  of  songs  of  southern  France 
called  '  Chants  de  Provence.' 

The  merits  of  Blaze's  literary  work  having 
been  discussed  above,  it  will  suffice  to  men- 
tion the  titles  of  some  of  his  works,  mostly  com- 
pilations, similar  in  character,  although  hardly 


BLAZE. 


BLOW. 


249 


equal  to  *De  Topera  en  France.'  We  name 
'Chapelle  musique  des  Rois  de  France'  (1832); 
•  La  Danse  et  les  Ballets  depuis  Bacchus  jusqu'k 
mademoiselle  Taglioni'  (1832) ;  and  the  works 
on  the  Tht^atres  lyriques  de  Paris,  viz,  'L'Aca- 
demie  imperiale'  (formerly  'royale' ;  a  history  of 
that  theatre  published  in  1855),  and  'L'opera 
Italian  de  1548  a  1856'  (1856). 

For  ten  years  previously  to  1832  Blaze  was 
musical  critic  of  the  'Journal  des  Debats/  an 
important  literary  position  afterwards  held  by 
Berlioz.  He  also  wrote  numerous  articles  for 
the  '  Constitutionel,'  the  *  Revue  et  Gazette 
Musicale,'  *Le  Menestrel,'  etc.,  partly  repub- 
lished in  book  form. 

Castil- Blaze  died  in  1857,  after  a  few  days' 
illness.  A  life  like  his,  spent  laboriously  in  the 
byevvays  of  art,  can  hardly  be  called  a  thing 
sublime,  but  it  is  not  without  its  uses  and  merits. 
The  ideal  truths  emanating  from  creative  genius 
stand  in  need  of  an  intermediate  stage  of  re- 
ceptivity between  their  own  elevation  and  the 
level  of  ordinaiy  intellects.  Blaze  has  occupied 
the  position  of  an  interpreter,  thus  indicated, 
not  without  credit.  His  knowledge  of  music  and 
musical  history  was  good,  and  his  taste  sound  and 
comprehensive  up  to  a  certain  point.  But  the 
wear  and  tear  of  journalistic  routine  could  not 
but  blunt  his  feeling  for  the  subtler  touches  of 
beauty,  and  it  would  be  unsafe  to  give  implicit 
confidence  to  his  opinion  on  questions  of  high 
art.  [F.  H.] 

BLAZE  DE  BURY,  Baron  Henrt,  born  in 
1813,  the  son  of  the  foregoing,  is  too  much  like 
him  in  all  essential  points  to  require  detailed 
notice.  In  literary  skill  he  surpasses  his  father ; 
in  musical  knowledge  he  is  decidedly  his  inferior. 
Blaze  de  Bury  is  indeed  the  prototype  of  the  ac- 
complished litterateur  of  the  second  empire.  He 
is  able  to  write  well  on  most  topics,  and  excellently 
on  many.  His  style  is  refined  and  pleasing,  but 
his  attempts  at  depth  are  strangely  mingled  with 
the  flippancy  of  the  feailletoniste.  Amongst  his 
works  on  music,  which  alone  concern  us  here, 
the  most  remarkable  are  'La  Vie  de  Rossini' 
(1854) ;  'Musiciens  contemporains' — short  essays 
on  leading  musicians,  such  as  Weber,  Mendels- 
sohn, Verdi,  and  many  others  (1856)  ;  and  '  Mey- 
erbeer et  son  temps'  (1865).  All  these  are  re- 
prints of  articles  contributed  to  the  'Revue  des 
deux  Mondes'  and  other  periodicals.  Another 
connection  of  Blaze  de  Bury  with  the  history 
of  music  may  be  seen  in  the  following  circum- 
stance. He  wrote  a  comedy  called  '  La  jeunesse 
de  Goethe,'  for  which  Meyerbeer  supplied  the 
incidental  music.  The  score  was  unpublished 
when  the  master  died,  and  will  remain  so,  along 
with,  other  MSS.,  till  thirty  years  after  his  de- 
cease, in  accordance  with  his  own  arrangement. 
In  1868  Blaze  de  Bury  attempted  to  set  aside 
the  portion  of  the  will  referring  to  the  MS. 
in  question,  but  the  action  brought  against  the 
family  was  unsuccessful.  [F.  H.] 

BLEWITT,  Jonas,  a  celebrated  organist  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  i8th  century,  author  of 


'A  Treatise  on  the  Organ,  with  explanatory 
Voluntaries ' ;  '  Ten  Voluntaries,  or  pieces  for 
the  Organ,'  etc.  ;  '  Twelve  easy  and  familiar 
movements  for  the  Organ, 'etc.  He  died  in  1805. 
His  son,  Jonathan  Blewitt,  was  bom  in  London 
in  1782,  received  the  rudiments  of  his  musical 
education  from  his  father,  and  was  afterwards 
placed  under  his  godfather,  Jonathan  Battishill. 
At  eleven  years  old  he  was  appointed  deputy 
organist  to  his  father.  After  holding  several 
appointments  as  organist,  he  left  London  for 
Haverhill,  Suffolk  ;  and '  subsequently  became 
organist  of  Brecon,  where  he  remained  three 
years.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  returned 
to  London,  with  the  intention  of  bringing  out  an 
opera  he  had  composed  for  Drury  Lane,  but  the 
burning  of  that  theatre  destroyed  his  hopes.  He 
next  went  to  Sheffield  as  organist.  In  181 1  he 
took  up  his  abode  in  Ireland,  in  the  family  of 
Lord  Cahir.  He  was  appointed  organist  of  St. 
Andrew's  Church,  Dublin,  and  composer  and 
director  of  the  music  to  the  Theatre  Royal 
in  that  city.  The  Duke  of  Leinster  appointed 
him  grand  organist  to  the  masonic  body  of 
Ireland,  and  he  became  the  conductor  of  the 
principal  concerts  in  Dublin.  When  Logier 
commenced  his  system  of  musical  instruction  in 
Ireland,  Blewitt  was  the  first  who  joined  him  ; 
and  being  an  able  lecturer,  and  possessing  sound 
musical  knowledge,  he  soon  procured  the  great 
majority  of  teaching  in  Dublin. 

Before  1826  Blewitt  was  again  in  London,  and 
wrote  the  music  for  a  pantomime,  '  The  Man  in 
the  Moon,  or,  Harlequin  Dog  Star,'  produced  at 
Drury  Lane  with  great  success.  In  1828  and  29 
he  was  director  of  the  music  at  Sadler's  Wells, 
and  wrote  several  clever  works — '  The  Talisman 
of  the  Elements,'  'Auld  Robin  Gray,'  'My  old 
woman'  (adapted  from  Fdtis),  etc.  He  was  also 
the  composer  of  the  operas  of  '  The  Corsair,'  '  The 
Magician,' '  The  Island  of  Saints,' '  Rory  O'More.' 
'Mischief  Making,'  etc.,  and  of  a  number  of 
ballads,  particularly  in  the  Irish  style,  which 
enjoyed  considerable  popularity.  Blewitt  was 
a  good  singer,  and  possessed  a  fund  of  humour, 
qualifications  which  sometimes  led  him  into 
questionable  company.  In  his  latter  years  he 
was  connected  with  the  Tivoli  Gardens,  Margate. 
He  died  September  4,  1853.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BLOW,  John,  Mus.  Doc,  born  at  Xorth 
Collingham,  Nottinghamshire,  in  1648,  was  one 
of  the  first  set  of  Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
on  its  re-establishn)ent  in  1660,  his  master  being 
Captain  Henry  Cooke.  Whilst  yet  a  chorister 
he  commenced  composition  ;  the  words  of  three 
anthems  produced  by  'John  Blow,  one  of  the 
Children  of  His  Majesty's  Chapel,'  are  contained 
in  Clifford's  'Divine  Hymns  and  Anthems,' 
1663,  and  an  anthem  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ments composed  by  him  in  conjunction  with 
Pelham  Humfrey  and  William  Turner,  two 
of  his  fellow  choristers,  is  still  extant.  On 
leaving  the  choir  Blow  became  a  pupil  of  John 
Hingeston,  and  subsequently  of  Dr.  Christopher 
Gibbons.  That  he  soon  rose  to  great  eminence 
is  evidenced  by  the  fact  of  his  being  chosen  in 


250 


BLOW. 


BOCCHERINI. 


1669,  at  twenty-one  years  of  age,  organist  of 
Westminster  Abbey  (a  post  not  then  a  life 
appointment),  but  in  1680  he  was  displaced  to 
make  room  for  Henry  Purcell.  On  the  death 
of  Purcell,  in  1695,  Blow  was  reappointed,  and 
held  the  place  until  his  death.  On  March  16, 
1674,  he  was  sworn  in  one  of  the  gentlemen 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  room  of  the  Eev. 
Roger  Hill,  deceased,  and  on  July  21,  1674,  was 
appointed  master  of  the  children  of  the  chapel 
in  succession  to  Pelham  Humfrey,  who  died  a 
week  previously.  Some  years  later  he  became 
one  of  the  organists  of  the  chapel.  In  1685  he 
was  appointed  as  one  of  the  king's  private  music, 
and  to  the  honorary  office  of  Composer  to  the 
King.  In  1687  he  succeeded  Michael  Wise  as 
almoner  and  master  of  the  choristers  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  which  offices  he  resigned  in 
1693  in  favour  of  his  pupil,  Jeremiah  Clarke. 
In  1699,  on  the  establishment  of  the  office  of 
Composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  Blow  was  installed 
in  it.  Dr.  Blow  was  not  a  graduate  of  either 
university,  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  having 
been  conferred  on  him  by  Sancroft,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  married  Elizabeth,  only 
daughter  of  Edward  Braddock,  Gentleman  and 
Clerk  of  the  Cheque  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and 
master  of  the  choristers  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
She  died  in  childbirth  Oct,  29, 1683,  aged  thirty, 
leaving  one  son  and  three  daughters ;  the  son, 
a  boy  of  great  promise,  died  June  2,  1693,  aged 
fifteen ;  the  daughters  survived  many  years. 
Dr.  Blow  died  Oct.  i,  1708,  in  the  sixtieth  year 
of  his  age,  and  was  buried  under  the  organ  in 
the  north  aisle  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where 
a  monument  is  erected  to  his  memory.  Dr. 
Blow  was  a  very  voluminous  composer ;  his 
works  comprise  fourteen  church-services,  and 
upwards  of  one  hundred  anthems,  nearly  the 
whole  of  which  are  still  extant,  although  but 
few  are  in  print ;  sacred  songs,  duets,  etc.  (many 
of  which  are  printed  in  Play  ford's  'Harmonia 
Sacra,'  1688  and  1714);  odes  for  New  Year's 
day,  1682,  1683,  1686,  1687,  1688,  1689,  1693 
(?),  1694,  and  1700;  odes  for  St.  Cecilia's  day, 
1684  (pi'inted),  169 1,  and  1700,  besides  two 
which  cannot  be  assigned  to  any  particular  year ; 
ode  by  Dry  den  on  the  death  of  Purcell,  1695; 
Bongs,  with  which  the  various  collections  of  the 
period  abound ;  catches,  many  of  them  printed 
in  'The  Catch  Club,'  'The  Pleasant  Musical 
Companion,'  1724,  and  other  collections;  organ 
pieces ;  '  Lessons  for  the  Harjjsichord,'  1698 
(printed),  and  1705  (printed  with  some  by 
Purcell).  In  1700  Blow  published  by  sub- 
Bcription  a  collection  of  his  songs,  etc.,  under 
the  title  of  *  Amphion  Anglicus,'  with  his  portrait 
prefixed.  In  the  preface  to  this  work  he  ex- 
pressed his  intention  of  publishing  his  church 
music,  but  unfortunately  never  accomplished  his 
purpose,  a  circumstance  much  to  be  regretted, 
since  it  is  upon  those  productions  that  his  fame 
chiefly  rests.  Three  services  and  eleven  anthems 
of  his  are  printed  by  Boyce.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BLUETHNER,  Julius  Ferdinand,  a  piano- 
forte maker  in  Leipsic,  whose  instruments  are 


much  used  in  Germany ;  a  native  of  Falken- 
berg  near  Zeitz.  Herr  Bliithner  began  business 
in  Leipsic  in  1853.  Three  years  later  he  took 
out  a  patent  for  an  action  that  has  been  much 
praised,  and  by  the  adoption  of  foreign  improve- 
ments in  iron  framing  and  a  systematised  divi- 
sion of  labour  hitherto  less  practised  in  Germany 
than  England,  Herr  Bliithner  has  succeeded  in 
establishing  his  reputation  on  a  sure  basis,  and 
competes  on  even  ground  with  the  best  makers 
of  his  country.  [A.  J.  H.] 

BLUMENTHAL,  Jacob,  bom  at  Hamburg 
Oct.  4,  1829,  pupil  of  F.  W.  Grund  there,  and  of 
C.  M.  von  Booklet  and  Sechter  in  Vienna.  His 
proficiency  in  pianoforte  playing  was  attained 
under  Herz  at  the  Conservatoire  in  Paris,  which 
he  entered  in  1846.  In  1848  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  London,  where  be  became  pianist  to 
the  Queen,  and  a  very  fashionable  teacher.  As 
a  composer  he  is  known  for  a  large  number  of 
brilliant,  effective,  and  pretty  pianoforte  pieces, 
and  for  many  songs,  some  of  which,  such  as  '  The 
Message,'  have  become  widely  and  justly  popular. 
Besides  his  residence  in  London,  Blumenthal  has 
now  a  house  at  Montreux.  [A.  M.] 

BOB  is  a  term  used  by  change-ringers  to  de- 
note certain  changes  in  the  working  of  the  methods 
by  which  long  peals  of  changes  are  produced. 
[See  Change-Ringing.]  [C.  A.  W.  T.] 

BOCCABADATI,  Luigia,  was  bom  at 
Parma,  where  she  received  her  musical  educa- 
tion in  a  convent,  and  made  a  brilliant  debut 
in  181 7.  After  singing  at  several  theatres  in 
Italy,  she  visited  Munich,  where  her  fine  voice 
and  good  method  were  fully  appreciated.  She 
appeared  at  Venice  in  1823,  at  Rome  in  1824, 
at  Milan  in  1826,  and  again  at  Rome  in  1827  ; 
and  she  met  everywhere  with  the  same  success, 
especially  in  opera  bufiFa,  for  which  style  of 
piece  she  was  much  in  request.  On  this  account 
she  was  persuaded  to  sing  at  Naples  during  the 
years  1829,  1830,  and  1831.  Despreaux,  the 
composer,  writing  from  Naples,  Feb.  17,  1830 
('Revue  Musicale,'  vol.  vii.  p.  172),  describes 
her  as  *  a  little  dry,  dark  woman,  who  is  neither 
young  nor  old.  She  executes  difficult  passages 
well ;  but  she  has  no  elegance,  grace,  or  charm 
about  her.  Her  voice,  although  extensive,  is 
harsh  at  the  top,  but  otherwise  she  sings  in 
tune.'  Berlioz  says  in  the  same  Revue  (xii. 
75)  in  1832,  'she  is  a  fort  beau  talent,  who 
deserves,  perhaps,  more  than  her  reputation.' 
She  appeared  in  London  on  Feb.  18,  1833,  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  in  '  Cenerentola.'  She  was 
not  successful  here,  and  did  not  return  another 
year.  She  sang  at  Turin  for  three  seasons,  and 
at  Lisbon  in  1840,  1841,  and  1842.  She  returned 
to  Turin  in  1843,  and  sang  at  Genoa  in  1844, 
and  in  the  next  year  at  Palermo.  She  was 
married  to  a  M.  Gazzuoli,  by  whom  she  had  a 
son,  and  a  daughter,  Augustine,  who  was  also 
a  singer.  Luigia  Boccabadati  died  at  Turin 
Oct.  12,  1850.  [J.  M.] 

BOCCHERINI,  LuiGi,  a  highly  gifted  com- 
poser, bom  at  Lucca,  Jan.  14,  1740.    The  first 


EOCCHEEIXI. 


BOCCHEKIXL 


•251 


rudiments  of  music  and  the  cello  were  taught 
him  by  his  father,  an  able  bass  player,  and  the 
Abbe  Vannecci,  Chapel-master  to  the  Archbishop. 
The  boy's  ability  was  so  great  as  to  induce  them 
to  send  hnn  to  Eome,  where  he  rapidly  made  j 
himself  famous  both  as  composer  and  player. 
Returning  to   Lucca  he  joined   Manfredi,  a  I 
scholar  of  Tartini's,  in  a  tour  through  Lom-  | 
bardy.  Piedmont,  and  the  south  of  France,  and  ; 
even  as  far  as  Paris,  which  they  reached  in  176S. 
Here  they  foimd  a  brilliant  reception  from  ' 
Gossec,  Capon,  and  Dupont  sen.,  and  their  ap-  | 
pearance  at  the  Concerts  Spiiituels  confirmed  i 
the  favourable  judgment  of  their  friends.  Boc- 
cherini  became  the  rage;  Ve'nier  and  La  Che-  I 
vardiere,  the  publishers,  contended  for  his  first 
trios  and  quartets,  the  eminent  Mme.  Brilloa  j 
de  Jouy  {to  whom  Boccherini  dedicated  six  j 
sonatas)  attached  herself  to  the  two  artists,  1 
and  the  Spanish  ambassador,  a  keen  amateur,  I 
pressed  them  to  visit  Madrid,  promising  them  the  ! 
warmest  reception  from  the  Prince  of  Asturias,  I 
afterwards  Chai-les  IV.    Accordingly,  in  the  end  i 
of  176S  or  beginning  of  69  they  stai-ted  for  j 
Mjidiid,  but  their  reception  was  disappointing.  [ 
Brunetti  the  violinist  was  then  in  favour,  and 
neither  King  nor  Prince  ofi^ered  the  strangers 
any  ci%'ility.    They  were  however  patronised  | 
by  the  Infanta  Don  Luis,  brother  of  the  King,  | 
whom  Boccherini  has  commemorated  on   the  j 
title-page  of  his  six  quartets  (^op.  6),  calling  ! 
himself  '  Compositore  e  virtuoso  di  camera  di  j 
S.  A.  R.  Don  Luigi  infante  d'Ispagnia,'  a  title  | 
which  he  retained  until  the  death  of  the  Infanta  | 
in  17S5.     After  that  event  he  dedicated  a  ; 
composition  to  Friedrich  Wilhelm  II,  King  of 
Prussia,  which  procm-ed  him  a  valuable  present, 
and  the  post  of  Chamber-composer  to  the  Eling, 
with  an  annual  salary,  but  burdened  with  the 
condition  that  he  should  compose  for  the  King 
alone.    With  the  death  of  Friedrich  in  1797  the 
salary  ceased,  and  Boccherini  found  himself 
unknown  except  to  a  small  circle  of  friends. 
He  obtained  a  patron,  however,  in  the  Marquis 
Benavente,  in  whose  palace  he  was  able  to  hear 
his  music  performed  by  his  former  comi-ades  of 
the  Villa  Arenas — whither  his  old  protector  Don 
Luis  had  retired  after  his  mesalliance — and  to 
become  once  again  known.    Meantime  ill  health 
obliged  him  to  drop  the  cello ;  he  was  often  in 
want,  and  suffered  severe  domestic  calamities. 
With  the  advent  of  Lucien  Buonaparte,  however, 
as  ambassador  of  the  French  Republic  at  Madrid, 
better  times  arrived.    Lucien  appreciated  Boc- 
cherini, and  his  productive  talent  revived.  In 
1 799  he  wrote  six  pianoforte  quintets,  and  dedi- 
cated them  to  the  French  nation  and  Republic, 
but  they  were  not  published  till  after  his  death, 
and  then  appeared  with  the  name  of  the  Duchesse 
de  Berri  on  the  title-page.    In  iSoi  and  1802 
he  dedicated  twelve  string  quintets  (op.  60  and 
62)  'per  il  Cittadino  Luciano  Bonaparte,'  and 
in  1 80 1  a  '  Stabat  Mater'  for  three  voices  (op. 
60),  presented  to  the  same,  and  published  by 
Sieber  of  Paris.    After  this  Boccheriui's  star 
sank  rapidly,  and  his  poverty  was  so  great  that 


he  was  glad  to  make  arrangements  of  his  works 
for  the  guitar  for  the  use  of  the  Marquis  Bena- 
vente and  other  wealthy  amateurs,  till  at  length 
death  released  him  from  his  troubles  on  May  28, 
1S05.  The  last  of  his  sons,  Don  Jose,  died  in 
Dec.  1847,  as  librarian  to  the  Marqui^^  Seralbo, 
leaving  a  son  Fernando,  professor  at  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Madrid  (1S51),  the  last  re- 
presentative of  the  name  of  Boccherini. 

The  ability  in  Boccherini"  s  chamber-music, 
which  is  generally  contemporary  with  Haydn's, 
is  obvious  and  unquestionable.  He  is  certainly 
wanting  to  some  extent  in  force  and  contrast, 
but  pleasant  method,  expressive  melody,  good 
treatment  of  ideas,  and  dignified  style  are  never 
absent  in  his  music.  His  originality  was  great, 
and  had  its  influence  on  the  progress  ?f  the  art. 
To  our  practised  ears  his  pieces  may  seem  flat, 
tedious,  wanting  in  variety  of  key,  and  too 
simple  in  execution,  and  doubtless  these  qualities 
have  contributed  to  make  them  forgotten  in  Ger- 
many, though  in  England,  Italy,  and  France  his 
best  works  are  still  played  and  enjoyed.  His 
quintets  and  cello  sonatas  (especially  one  of  the 
latter  in  A)  are  often  given  at  the  Monday 
Popular  Concerts. 

Boccherini  and  Haydn  are  often  named  together 
in  respect  of  chamber-music.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  characterise  the  relation  between  them  better 
than  in  the  sapng  of  Puppo  the  violinist,  that 
'  Boccherini  is  the  wife  of  Haydn.'  It  is  usually 
assumed  that  these  two  great  composers  knew  and 
esteemed  each  other's  works,  and  that  they  even 
corresponded.  Xo  evidence  of  this  is  brought 
forward  by  Picquot,  the  earnest  and  accurate 
biographer  of  Boccherini,  but  it  is  nevertheless 
a  fact.  In  a  letter  to  Artaiia  ('Arenas,  Feb. 
17S1')  Boccherini  sends  his  respects  to  Haydn, 
and  begs  him  to  understand  that  he  is  an 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  his  genius.  Haydn,  on 
his  side,  in  two  letters  to  Artaria,  mentions 
his  intention  of  writing  to  Boccherini,  and  in 
the  meantime  returns  a  complimentaiy  message. 
Artaria  at  that  time  had  published  several  string 
trios  and  quartets  of  Boccherini' s,  and  had  for 
long  been  in  business  relations  with  him. 

Boccherini 's  facility  was  so  great  that  he  has 
been  described  as  a  fountain,  of  which  it  was 
only  necessaiy  to  turn  the  cock  to  produce  or 
suspend  the  stream  of  music.  That  he  was 
remarkably  industrious  is  evident  from  the  de- 
tailed catalogue  of  his  works  made  by  Baillot, 
and  given  by  Picquot.  His  first  6  trios  date 
in  1760,  and  were  followed  in  the  next  year 
by  6  quartets,  published  in  Paris  in  1768. 
The  total  number  of  his  instrumental  works 
amounts  to  366,  of  which  74  are  unpublished. 
The  printed  ones  are  as  follows  : — 6  Sonatas  for 
Piano  and  Violin  ;  6  ditto  for  Violin  and  Bass ; 
6  Duets  for  two  Violins  ;  42  Trios  for  two  Violins 
and  Cello ;  1 2  ditto  for  Violin,  Viola  and  Cello  ; 
91  String  Quartets;  18  Quintets  for  Flute  or 
Oboe,  two  Violins,  Viola,  and  Cello  ;  i  2  ditto  for 
Piano,  two  Violins,  Viola,  and  Cello;  113  ditto 
for  two  Violins,  Viola,  and  two  Cellos  ;  1 2  ditto 
for  two  VioHns,  two  Violas,  and  Cello ;  16  Sextets 


252 


BOCCHERINI. 


BODENSCHATZ. 


for  various  instruments;  2  Octets  for  ditto;  i 
Suite  for  Full  orchestra ;  20  Symphonies,  in- 
cluding 8  Concertante  ;  i  Cello  Concerto.  In 
addition  to  the  above  his  vocal  works  are : — A 
Stabat  Mater  for  three  voices,  with  quintet 
string  accompaniment;  a  Mass  for  four  voices 
and  instruments ;  a  Christmas  Cantata  for  four 
Solo  voices,  Chorus,  and  Orchestra ;  Villancicos 
or  Motets  for  Christmas -time  for  four  Voices 
and  Orchestra ;  an  Opera  or  Melodrama,  La 
Clementina ;  14  Concert  airs  and  Duets,  with 
Orchestra.  Of  the  vocal  works  the  Stabat  Mater 
alone  is  published  (Paris,  Sieber,  op.  61). 

There  are  also  many  other  pieces  which  are 
either  spurious  or  mere  arrangements  by  Boccherini 
of  his  own  works.  See  'Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les 
ouvrages  de  Luigi  Boccherini,  suivie  du  catalogue 
raisonne  de  toutes  ses  oeuvres,  tant  publiees 
qu'inedites,  par  L.  Picquot,'  8vo.  Paris,  Philipp, 
1 85 1,  with  two  portraits.  (Printed  at  Bar  le 
due.)  [C.  F.  P.] 

BOCHSA,  Egbert  Nicolas  Charles,  com- 
poser and  eminent  harpist,  bom  at  Montmedi 
1789,  was  the  son  of  Karl  Bochsa,  a  flute  and 
clarinet-player.  He  played  the  piano  and  flute 
in  public  at  an  early  age,  and  composed  airs  de 
ballet  for  the  theatre  while  yet  a  child.  Before 
he  was  sixteen  his  opera  'Trajan'  was  produced 
at  Lyons  in  honour  of  the  Emperor's  visit.  His 
family  having  removed  to  Bourdeaux  he  became 
a  pupil  of  Franz  Beck,  under  whom  he  wrote 
a  ballet,  and  an  oratorio,  'Le  Deluge  Universel.' 
In  1806  he  entered  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris 
as  a  pupil  first  of  Catel  and  then  of  Mehul.  He 
studied  the  harp  under  Nadermann  and  Marin, 
but  soon  formed  a  style  of  his  own.  He  was 
continually  discovering  new  effects,  even  to  the 
close  of  his  Hfe,  and  may  fairly  be  said  to  have 
revolutionised  harp -playing.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  harpist  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  and 
three  years  later  to  Louis  XVIII  and  the  Due 
de  Berri.  Eight  operas  from  his  pen  were 
performed  at  the  Opera  Comique  between  181 3 
and  1 816.  He  composed  a  requiem  to  the 
memory  of  Louis  XVI,  which  was  performed 
with  great  solemnity  in  Jan.  18 16,  but  a  year 
later  he  was  detected  in  extensive  forgeries,  and 
fled  from  France  never  to  return.  He  was 
tried  in  his  absence,  and  condemned  to  12  years 
imprisonment,  with  a  fine  of  4,000  francs.  He 
took  refuge  in  London,  where  his  fine  playing 
was  universally  admired,  and  so  popular  did  the 
harp  become  that  he  was  unable  to  satisfy  all 
the  applicants  for  lessons.  Parish  -  Alvars  and 
J.  B.  Chatterton  were  both  pupils  of  Bochsa. 
In  1822  he  undertook  the  joint  management, 
with  Sir  George  Smart,  of  the  Lent  oratorios, 
and  in  1823  the  entire  direction  of  them.  Here 
he  produced  Stadler's  *  Jerusalem,'  oratorios  by 
Wade  and  Sir  John  Stevenson,  and  his  own 
*  Deluge  Universel.'  On  the  institution  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  Bochsa  was  appointed 
professor  of  the  harp  and  general  secretary,  but 
in  1827  was  dismissed  on  account  of  public 
attacks  upon  his  character  which  he  was  unable 
to  deny.    In  1826  he  succeeded  Coccia  as  con- 


ductor at  the  King's  Theatre,  and  six  years 
later  was  himself  succeeded  by  Costa.  Rossini's 
'Comte  Ory '  was  produced  under  his  management. 
Bochsa  gave  annual  concerts,  the  programme  of 
which  always  contained  some  striking  novelty, 
though  not  always  in  the  best  taste.  For 
instance,  at  one  of  them  Beethoven's  'Pastoral 
Symphony'  was  accompanied  by  acted  illustra- 
tions. In  1839  he  ran  away  with  the  wife  of 
Sir  Henry  Bishop  and  undertook  a  concert  tour, 
visiting  every  country  of  Europe  (except  France), 
America,  and  Australia,  where  he  died  of  dropsy 
at  Sydney  in  1855.  Immediately  before  his 
death  he  composed  a  requiem,  which  was  per- 
formed at  his  funeral. 

Asa  composer  Boclisa  was  too  prolific  for  his 
own  fame.  Some  of  his  many  compositions 
for  the  harp,  including  a  'Method'  for  that 
instrument,  are  still  known  to  harp-players.  As 
a  man  he  was  irregular  and  dissipated  to  the  last 
degree.  [M.  C.  C] 

BOOKLET,  Carl  Maria  von,  pianoforte- 
player,  born  at  Prague,  1801  ;  learned  the  piano- 
forte from  Zawora,  the  violin  from  Pixis,  and 
composition  from  D.  Weber.  In  1820  he  settled 
in  Vienna  as  first  violin  in  the  Theatre  '  an  der 
Wien,'  but  shortly  after  resigned  the  violin  and 
gave  his  whole  attention  to  the  piano.  Beethoven 
took  much  interest  in  him,  and  at  different  times 
wrote  him  three  letters  of  recommendation  (Nohl, 
*  Beethovens  Briefs,'  Nos.  175,1 76,  324).  He  was 
very  intimate  with  Franz  Schubert,  whose  piano 
compositions  he  was  the  first  to  bring  into  public 
notice,  and  for  whom  he  had  a  romantic  attach- 
ment. His  great  object  in  performance  was  to 
catch  the  spirit  of  the  composition.  Meeting  with 
great  success  as  a  teacher  he  gradually  withdrew 
himself  from  all  public  appearance  ;  but  in  1866, 
after  a  long  interval,  appeared  once  more  to 
introduce  his  son  Heinrich  to  notice.  [F.  G.] 
BOCKSHORN,  Samuel,  born  1629,  was 
originally  director  of  the  music  at  the  Drei- 
faltigkeits  Church  in  Pressburg,  and  in  1657 
Capellmeister  to  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg  in 
Stuttgart.  Died  not  later  than  1669.  Amongst 
other  compositions  may  be  named  a  dramatic 
cantata  'Raptus  Proserpinse,'  1662.  His  works 
were  largely  published,  and  even  as  late  as  1 708 
a  new  edition  of  his  Sonatas,  Cappricci,  Alle- 
mandes,  etc.,  was  published  in  Vienna.  [F.  G.] 
BODE,  JoHANN  Joachim  Christoph,  bom  at 
Barum  in  Brunswick  1730.  He  had  a  strange 
and  varied  life  as  bassoon  and  oboe-player,  com- 
poser, newspaper  editor  ('  Hamburger  Corre- 
spondent '),  printer  (Lessing's  '  Hamburgische 
Dramaturgic'),  and  translator  (Burney's  'Present 
State  of  Music  in  Germany.')  He  died  at  Weimar 
Dec.13,  1793.  [M.C.C.] 
BODENSCHATZ,  Erhard,  born  at  Lichten- 
berg  in  the  Erzgebirge  about  1570,  studied 
theology  and  music  at  Leipsic,  in  1600  became 
Cantor  at  Schulpforta,  in  1603  Pastor  at  Re- 
hausen,  and  in  1608  Pastor  at  Gross-Osterhausen, 
near  Querfurt,  where  he  died  in  1638.  Bo- 
denschatz's  Magnificat  (1599)  and  his  'General- 


BODEXSCHATZ. 


BODENSCHATZ. 


253 


bass'  show  him  to  have  been  an  able  con- 
trapuntist ;  but  his  real  value  arises  from  the 
collections  of  music  which  he  brought  out — 
'Psalterium  Davidis,'  4  voc.  (Leipsic,  1605); 
'Florilegium  hymnorum,'  4  voc.  (Leipsic,  i6o6)  ; 
'Harmonia  angelica,'  a  collection  of  Luther's 
h}-mns  (160S)  ;  '  Bicinia  XC  (1615);  and 
especially  'Florilegium  Portense,'  in  2  parts. 
Of  Part  I  the  first  edition  was  printed  by  Lam- 
berg  of  Leipsic  in  1603,  and  contains  89  motets — 
increased  in  the  2nd  edition  (161 8)  to  120. 
Part  2  appeared  in  1 621,  and  contained  150 
motets.  There  is  no  score  of  the  work.  It  was 
published,  like  our  own  'Barnard,'  in  separate 
parts,  small  4to — 8  of  the  first  Part,  and  9  of  the 
second — including  in  the  latter  case  a  Basso  con- 
tinuo  part.  A  copy  of  the  work  is  in  the  British 
Museum.    Its  contents  are  as  follows  : — 


L  Paternoster.  Ii.Hasler.  8  voices. 

2.  Exultat  cor  meom.  Anon.  8  t- 

3.  Benedicam.  A.  Gabriel.  8  v. 

4.  Deus  meus.  Erbach.  8  v. 

5.  Man  vrird  zu  Zion.  Hausman. 

8  V. 

6.  Quaerite.  Calvisias.  8  v. 

7.  Audi  hymnum.  Bodenschatz. 

8t. 

8.  Laudatepueri.  Orlandus.  T  v. 

9.  Laudate  Dominum.  Hasler.  Sr. 
Repleatar  os  meum.  Gailus.  5  v. 
Confitetor.  Orlandus.  8  v. 
>'i5i  Dominus.  Anon.  8  t. 
Beatus  rir.   Gailus.  8  v. 
Deus  adiutor.   Eremita.  8 
Exultate.  GabrieL  S  v. 
Laudate  Dominum.  Anon.  8  v. 
Deus  ranticum.  Fabricius.  6  v. 
Cantate Domino.  Ammonis.  Sr. 
Eiultate.  Dulichius.  8  v. 
Sacerdotes  stabant.  Anon.  8  y. 
Cantate  Domip.o.  Anon.  8  v. 

22-  Eiaudiat  te  Dominus.  Fabri- 
cius. 6  v. 

23.  Sis  praesens  Deus,  Fabritius.  6v. 

24.  Ego  sum  panis.  Gailus.  5  v. 

25.  Domine  quid.  Orlandus.  6  y. 

26.  Cor  mundum.  Anon.  6  v. 

27.  Media  vita.   Gailus.  8  v. 
2S.  Cibavit  nos.  Bassanus.  8  y. 
29.  Oquammetuendus.  Gailus.  8  y. 
3>\  Jubilate.  Giovanelli.  8  y. 

31.  Domine  Dominus  noster.  Er- 

bach. Sv. 

32.  Jubilate.  Marentius.  8  y. 

33.  Cantate.  Horologius.  8  v. 

34.  Laudate  Dominum.  Cantoni. 

Sv. 

35.  Laudate  Dominum.  Tenturus. 

8y. 

36.  Veniet  tempos.  Gailus.  8  v. 
3".  Audi  tellus,  Gailus.  8  y. 

38.  Xon  vos  relinquam.  Fabricius. 

6y. 

39.  Hymnum  cantate.  llaAsainus. 

8y. 

40.  In  convertendo.  Orlandus.  8y. 
4L  0  Domine  Jesu  Christe.  A. 

GabrieL  8  y. 
4Z  Levavi  oculos.    Orlandus.   8  y. 

43.  Deus  misereatur.  Bischoff.  8  y. 

44.  Confitemini.  Orlandus.  5  v. 

45.  Domine  quis  habitabit.  Er- 

bach. 6  y. 

46.  Deus  in  adiutor.  Orlandus  6  y. 

47.  Domine,  quando  veneris.  Gai- 

lus. 6  y. 

48.  Jubilate.  F.  Weissensee.  8y. 

49.  Cantate  Domino.  Gailus.  8  y. 

50.  Angelus  ad  pastores,  Orlandus. 

5y. 

6L  Xesciens  mater.  Erbach.  5y. 

52.  Angelus  ad  pastores.  H.  Prae- 

torius.  8  y. 

53.  Quem  vidistis  pastores.  A.  Ga- 

briel. 8y. 

54.  DasalteJahr.  Calvisius.  8y. 
So.  Sur?e  illuminare.   H.  Praeto- 

rius,  8  T. 


PABT  I  (1618). 

56.  Nunc  dimittis.  Anon.  5  T. 
57  A  Domino  factum.  Hasler.  8  y. 
58.  Surge  propera.  BL  Praetorius. 


^3.  Quam  pulchra  es,  Bodens- 
chatz. 5  v. 

60.  Tristls  est  anima.  Orlandus, 

5t. 

61.  Adoramus  te.  GaUus.  6  y. 

62.  FOiae  Jerusalem.  Gailus.  8  y. 

63.  Dominus  Jesus.  Gailus.  8  y. 

64.  Ecce  quomodo.  Gailus.  4  y. 

65.  Alleluia.  Gailus.  8  y. 

66.  Tulenmt  Dominum.  Mas- 

sainus.  8  y. 

67.  Tulerunt  Dominiun.  H.  Prae- 

torius. 8  y. 

68.  Angelus  DomlnL  C.  Erbach. 

6y. 

69.  0  viri,  0  GalilaeL  Boschettos. 

8v. 

70.  Veni  Sancte.  Gailus.  8  y. 

71.  Hodiecompleti.  A.GabrieL  7y. 

72.  Hodie  completL  Gailus.  8  v.' 

73.  Adesto  imus  Dens.  Seander. 

8  y. 

74.  Duo  seraphim.  Ingieneru*.  8  y. 

75.  Te  Deum  patrem.  H.  Praeto- 

rius. 8  V. 

76.  Te  Deum  patrem.  Erbach.  8  y. 

77.  Factum  est.    H.  Praetorius. 

8y. 

7?.  Jam  non  dicam.  Gailus.  6  y. 

79.  Gaudent  in  coelis.  Fabricius. 

6  y. 

80.  Jam  non  dicam.  Phinot.  8  y. 

81.  Ingrediente  Domino.  Zala- 

mella.   5  y. 

82.  Hierusalem  gaude.  Gailus.  6y. 
S3.  Non  auferetur  scept.  Meiland. 

8y. 

84.  Veni  DominL  Gailus.  8  y. 

85.  Praeter  rerum.  Calvisius.  6  y. 

86.  Von  Himel  hoch.  Calvisius. 

6y, 

87.  Freut  ench.  Calvlsins.  6  y. 

88.  Gloria  in  excelsis.  Calvisius. 

89.  Joseph,  lieber  Joseph.  Calvi- 

sius. 6  y. 
Finis  [of  the  edition  of  1603]. 

85.  Gloria  tibi  Domine.   H.  Prae- 
torius. 7  v. 

8fl.  yon  auferetur.  Rothins.  7  y. 

87.  Hosiauna.  Maurititis  Landgr. 

Haisiae.  8  v. 

88.  Hierusalem  gaade.  Zangius. 

8  y. 

89.  Cum  natus  esset  Jestis.  Wal- 

liser.  8  y. 

90.  Hodie  Christus.  Anon.  8  y. 

91.  Das  alte  Jahr.  M.  Praetorius. 

8  V. 

92.  Herre  nun  lestn.  Demantius. 

6y. 

93.  Ave  gratia  plena.  Bianciardu 

6y. 

94.  Surrexit  Christua.  Zangius. 

8  V. 

95.  .\pparuemnt  Apoftolii.  Vin- 

centiu5.  Sr. 


96.  Ca!itate.  H.  Praetorius.  8  y. 

97.  Venite  eiultemus.    H.  Prae- 

torius. 8.  y. 

98.  JubUate.   A.  Berger.  8  y.  \ 

99.  Cantate.   A.  Berber.  8  y. 

100.  Laudate  Dominum.    A.  Ber- 

ger. 8  y. 

101.  Super  flumina.  Vulpius.  8  y. 

102.  Domine  Jesus.  Walllser.  8  y. 

103.  Gaudent  in  coelis.  Walliser. 

8y. 

104.  Omnesgentes.  Steuccius.  8y. 

105.  Benedicam.  M.  Praetorius.  6y. 

106.  Benedicam.  Francos.  8  y. 


107.  1st  nicht  Ephraim.  Hart- 

mann.  8  v. 

108.  Lobet  den  Herm.  J.  Gross. 

8y. 

109.  Ich    habe    den  Gottlosen. 

Anon.  8  y. 

110.  Benedict*  sit  sancta.  Gum- 

pelzheim.  8  y. 

111.  Hodie  nobis,  L.  Viadana.  8  y 
nz  Hodie Christus.  G.Gabriel.  8y. 

113.  Maffnum  haeredidatis.  Me- 

rulus.   8  y. 

114.  Corde  natus,  Vulpius.  8  y. 

115.  Deus  spes  nostra.  Vulpius.  Sy. 


PART  n  0621). 


Alleln  zu  dlr  Herr.  M.  Both. 
8  voices. 

Anima  mea  exspectat.  F.  Weis- 
sensee. S  V. 

An  Wasserfliissen  Babylons.  C. 
F.  Walliser.  8  v. 

Benedicat  te  Deus.  M.  Both. 
8  y. 

Beati  omnes.  Anon.  8  y. 
Benedictus  es  Dom.  F.  C.  Ga- 

butius.  8  y. 
Congregati  sunt.  M.  Roth.  8  v. 
Confitemini.   C.  Vincentius(vel 

Capilupus).  8  y. 
Confitebor  tibi  in  Organis.  M. 

Vulpius.  8y. 
Cantate  Domino.  A.  Pacellus. 


ft 

10 

IL  Dominus  regnavit    M.  Both- 


1%  Der  Herr  wird  dich.  Do.  8  y. 

13.  Domine  quis  habitabit.  Gabu- 

tius.  7  y. 

14.  Domine  Jesu.    Lujton.  6y. 

15.  Deus  misereatur  nostri.  Palla- 

vicinus.  8  v. 

16.  Domine  quis  habitabit.  Anon. 

8  V. 

17.  De  profundis  clamavL  T.  Ric- 

cius.  8  y. 

18.  Deus  meus  ad  te.  Hasler.  6  y. 

19.  Domini  est  terra.  Capilupus. 

8  y. 

20.  Deus  in  adiutorium.  Anon.  8  v. 

21.  Domine     quid  multiplicati. 

Anon.  8  y. 

22.  Ecce  nunc  benedicite.  Anon. 

8  y. 

23.  Ecce  quam  bonum.  Anon.  8  y. 

24.  Exultate  Deo.    G.  Znchinius. 

8  V. 

25.  Factum  est,  dum  iret.  M.  Vul- 

pius. 10  V. 

26.  Felix  o  ter.  Anon.  8  y. 

27.  Foedera  coniugiL    Anoiu  8  y. 

28.  Gemmula  carbvmculi.  Anon. 

6  V. 

29.  Homo  quidam.  M.  Vulpius.  8  v. 

30.  Herr,  wenn  ich  nur.  M.Franck. 

8  y. 

31.  Ich  hab's  gewagt.  M.Roth.  8y. 

32.  In  Domino  gaudeblmus.  M. 

Both.  8  y. 

33.  Ich  beschwere  euch.  F.  Weis- 

sensee. 8  y. 

34.  Jubilate  Deo.  Anon.  8  y. 

35.  Iniquos  odio  h&bui.  L.  Maren- 

tius. 8  y. 

36.  Lieblich  und  schon.  M.  Both. 

7y. 

37.  Lobe  den  Herm.  Anon.  8  y. 
3«.  Levavi  oculos.  Anon.  8  y. 

39.  Lobe  den  Herm.     Hart  man. 

8y. 

40.  Moribus  insanctis.  Anon.  8  y. 

41.  Xun  lob  meln.  C.  T.  Walliser 

5v. 

42.  Kon  est  bonum.  M.  Roth.  8  v. 

43.  Obsecro  vos  fratrea.  S.  Gailus. 

8y. 

44.  Populi  omnes.  M.  Both.  8  y. 

45.  Pater  peccavi.  J.  B.  Pinnellus. 

8  V. 

46.  Quemadmodum  desiderat.  L. 

Balbus.  8y. 

47.  Queritc  primum.  Zangitis.  6y. 

48.  Quam  dilecta.  A.  Patartus.  6  y. 

49.  Quam  in  coelo.  M.  Franek.  6y. 

50.  Qui  habitat  in.  Viaflana..  8y. 

51.  Si  quis  dilicit  me.  M.  Both.  8y. 
ffL  Surge  proper*.  M.  Both.  3  y. 
S3.  Si  bona  suscepimiu.  L.  Hasler. 

St. 


54.  Sanctificavit  Dominus.  C.  Er- 

bach. 8  v. 

55.  Tribularer,  si.  L.  Leonius.  8  y. 

56.  Super  flumina  Babylonis.  A. 

Savetta.  8  y. 

57.  Si  acuero,  ut  fulgur.  Viadana. 

^  V. 

58.  Tota  pulcra  es.  L.  Balbus.  8  y. 
I  59.  Veni  in  hortiun.  C.  Vincentius. 
'  6y. 

i  60.  Veni  inhortum.  M.Both.  8y. 
'  61.  Venite  ad  me  omnes.  V.  Ber- 
tholusius.  8  v. 
62,  Unser  Leben.  S.  Calvisius.  8  y. 
I  63.  Ich  danke  Dir.  E.  Bodenschatz. 
I  8y. 

I  64.  Zionspricht  S.  Calvisius.  8y. 

65.  Oremus  praeceptis.  C.  J.  Wal- 

liser. 8  y. 

66.  Jubilate  Deo.  J.  GabrieL  8  y. 

67.  Jubilate.  L.  Marentius.  8  y. 

68.  Cibavit  nos.  J.  Bellus.  8  y. 

69.  In  te  Domine  speravL  Palla- 
vicinus.   8  v. 

70.  Canite  tuba  in  Sicn.  B.  Palia- 
yicinus.  8  v. 

7L  Hosanna  in  excelsis.  F.  Weis- 
sensee. 8  V. 
72.  Jerasalem  gaude.    C.  Deman- 
tius. 8  V. 
78.  Alleluia  Cantate.  J.  L.  Hasler. 
8y. 

74.  Angelus  ad  pastores.  N.  Zang. 
6  V. 

75.  Hodie  Christus.  L.  Balbus.  7  y. 

76.  Hodie  Christus.  C.  Erbach.  8  v. 

77.  Quem  vidistis.  F.Osculatus.  8y. 

78.  Surgite  pastores.  Bianciardus. 
8y. 

79.  Claritas  Domini,  C.Vincentius, 
8  v. 

80.  Jam  platistis.  C.  Demantius. 
8y. 

8L  Quid  concinunt.  F.  Bianciar- 
dus. 5  V. 

82.  Osculetur  me.  V.  Bertholu- 
sius.  7  V. 

83.  Gloria  tibi  Domine.    C.  Vin- 
centius. 8  V. 

84.  Sit  nomen  DominL  Borsarus. 
8y. 

85.  Stellam  quam  viderant  P.  de 
Monte.  7  v. 

86.  Nunc  dimittis.  H.  Stabilis.  8  T. 

87.  Senex  puerum.  Valcampus, 
6y. 

88.  Plaudat  nunc  organis.  L.  Bal- 
bus.   J.  V. 

89.  Beata  es.  Steffaninus,  7  v. 

90.  Ecce  tu  pulchra  es.  A3orsartu 
8y. 

9L  Angelus  Domini  nuntiavit.  N. 
I'arma.  8  v. 

92.  Ave  rex.  F.  Bianciardus.  8y. 

93,  0  Domine  Jesu.  L.  Leonius. 
8  V. 

M.  Trtstis  est  anima.  Agazzarins. 
8y. 

95.  Pouam  inimicitias.   M.  Both. 
8y. 

96.  Christns  resnrgens.  Steffiani- 
nus.   5  y. 

97.  Alleluia  surrexit.    H.  Balll- 
onus.  6  y. 

98.  Quemquaeris.  Orph.  Vecchna. 
6y. 

99.  Expurgate  vetus.  C.  Bnel.  6  r 

100.  Cognovemnt  discipuU.  L.  Cn- 
salius.  8  y. 

101.  Eunrite  populi.    H.  Vecchua. 

102.  Tulorunt  Dominum.     A-  t«* 
yetta.  8y. 


254  BODENSCHATZ. 


BOESENDOEFER. 


103.  Angelus  Domini  descendit.  L, 

Leonius.  8  v. 

104.  Alleluia.  H.  Steuccius.  8  v. 

105.  Singet  dem  Herrn.    M.  Both. 

8  V. 

106.  Maria  Magdalena.  Anon.  8  v. 

107.  Dum  rex  gloriae.   Anon.   8  v. 

108.  Exurgat  Deus.    A.  Pacellus. 

8v. 

109.  Exivi  a  patre.  F.  B.  Dulcinus. 

8  V. 

110.  Jam  non  dicam.    F,  Gabriel. 

8  V. 

111.  O  viri,  o  GaUlaei.  J.  Croce.  8  v. 

112.  In  nomine  Jesu.  Stefifaninus. 

8  V. 

113.  Hodie  completi  sunt.  L.  Val- 

campus.  6  v. 

114.  Hodie  completi  sunt.  O.  Cata- 

lanus.  8  v. 
J15.  Dum  complerentur.  Pallavi- 
cinus.  8  V. 

116.  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus.  N.  Zan- 

gius.  8  V. 

117.  Intonuit  de  coelo.  Aichinger. 

6  V. 

118.  Invocamus  te.   Anon.  8  v. 

119.  Duo  Seraphim.  F.  Croatius.  8v. 

120.  O  altitude.  F.  Osculatus.  8  v. 
321.  Te  Deum  patrem.     C.  Val- 

campus.  6  y. 

122.  Tres  sunt,  qui.    A.  Pacellus. 

8  V. 

123.  Tibi  laus,  tibi  sloria.  Anerius. 

8v. 

124.  Te  Deum  patrem.  V.  Bertho- 

lusius.  8  T. 


128.  Fuithomo.  H.  Praetorius.  5  v. 

129.  Tu  es  Petrus.  M.  Franck.  8  v. 

130.  Petre,  amas  me  ?  L.  Leonius. 

8v. 

131.  Audivi  vocem  de  coelo.  J. 

Bellus.  6  V. 

132.  Factum  est  praelium.  J,  T. 

Tribiolus.  6  v. 

133.  Factum  est  praelium,  L.  Bal- 

bus.  8v. 

134.  Factum   est  silentium.  C. 

Porta.   8  V. 

135.  Venit  Michael.    Anon,   8  v. 

136.  Cantabant  sancti.  B.  Regius. 

8  V. 

137.  Hisunt.quivenerunt.  H.  Sta- 

bilis.  8  V. 

138.  Hie  est  yere.  A.  Agazzarius. 

8  V. 

139.  Sanctis  Apostolis.  G.  Zuchini. 

7  V. 

140.  Audivi  vocem  Angelorum.  L. 

Leonius.   8  v. 

141.  Gaudent  in  coelis.  Deman- 

tius.  8  y. 

142.  Isti  sunt  Triumphatores.  C. 
Bertus  vel  Demantius.    v.  8. 

143.  Exultemus  Domino.  B.  Bag- 

144.  Laudate  Dominum,  H.  Peri- 
lus.  7  v. 

145  Jubilate  Deo.  B.  Pallavicinus. 

8  v. 

146.  Exultavit  cor  meum.  N,  Par- 
ma. 8  v. 

147.  ExultateDeo.  A  Savetta.  8  v. 

148.  VespereautemSabbathi.Anon. 


125.  Puer,  qui  natus  est,  C,  Val-  8  v. 

campus.  6  v.  149.  Laudate  nomen  Domini.  J. 

126.  Puer,  qui  natus  est.  H.  Prae-  Gabriel.  8  v. 

torius.  8  v.  150.  Laudate  Dominum,  J,  Croce. 

127.  Et  tu  puer.  C,  Vincentius.  8  v.  I  8  v, 

[G.] 

BOEHM,  organist  at  Wehlan  in  East  Prussia 
about  177O)  one  of  the  latest  composers  whose 
chorales  are  included  in  the  choral-books,  [F.  G.] 

BOEHM,  Elizabeth,  singer,  born  at  Riga 
1756,  made  her  first  appearance  1783;  after- 
wards married  the  tenor  Cartellieri  at  Strelitz, 
from  whom  she  separated,  and  married  again 
Boehm  the  actor,  under  whose  name  she  became 
one  of  the  most  favourite  actresses  of  the  Berlin 
national  theatre.  She  was  the  first  to  play  Donna 
Elvira  in  Berlin  (1790).    She  died  1797.  [F,  G.] 

BOEHM,  Heinrich,  born  1836  at  Blasria  in 
Bohemia,  where  his  father  was  leader  of  the 
choir  and  composer  of  the  opera  of  'Krathonos' 
(Riibezahl).  Heinrich  himself  has  composed  35 
operas  and  operettas  in  Bohemian,  and  his  name  is 
well  known  on  the  stage  of  that  country.  [F.  G.] 

BOEHM,  Joseph,  a  violinist  of  repute,  born 
at  Pesth  in  1798.  He  was  a  pupil  first  of  his 
father,  and  then  of  Rode,  who  took  a  lively 
interest  in  his  talent.  After  having  played  with 
much  success  at  Vienna  in  1815  he  travelled  for 
several  years  in  Italy,  giving  concerts  in  most  of 
the  principal  towns.  On  his  return  to  Vienna 
in  1 819  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  violin 
at  the  Conservatorium,  which  post  he  occupied 
till  1848.  In  1 82 1  he  became  a  member  of  the 
imperial  band,  and  retired  in  1868,  From  1823 
to  1825  he  tiavelled  in  Germany  and  France, 
earning  applause  everywhere  for  the  soundness 
of  his  tone,  his  irreproachable  teclmique,  and  his 
healthy  musical  style.  But  it  is  as  a  teacher 
that  Boehm's  name  has  won  a  permanent  place 
in  the  history  of  modern  violin-playing.  For  50 
years  he  resided  at  Vienna — (where  he  died, 
March  23,  1876) — devoting  his  powers  to  the  in- 


struction of  his  numerous  pupils,  among  whom 
it  will  suffice  to  name  Ernst,  Joachim,  L.  Straus, 
Helmesberger,  and  Singer.  In  fact  all  the 
excellent  violinists  who  during  the  last  thirty 
years  have  come  from  Vienna  were  pupils  either 
of  Boehm  or  Mayseder,.  or  both.  These  two 
masters  appear  to  have  supplemented  each  other 
by  the  different  bent  of  their  talents  :  Mayseder 
excelling  chiefly  by  brilliant  technique,  while 
breadth  of  tone  and  thorough  musical  style  were 
the  prominent  features  of  Boehm's  playing. 

He  has  published  a  number  of  compositions 
for  the  violin,  polonaises,  variations,  a  concertino, 
also  a  string-quartet,  which  however  are  of  no 
importance.  [P.  D.] 

BOEHM,  Theobald,  a  flute-player  of  dis- 
tinction, and  Kammer-musicus  at  Munich,  bom 
about  the  commencement  of  the  present  century. 
Besides  composing  many  brilliant  works  for  his 
instrument,  he  introduced  several  notable  im- 
provements in  its  mechanism;  especially  a  new 
fingering  which  bears  his  name,  and  was  in- 
troduced in  London  about  the  year  1834.  It  has 
been  found  applicable  also  to  the  oboe  and  bassoon, 
and  has  been  adapted  by  Klose  to  the  clarinet, 
though  with  less  success  than  in  the  other  cases, 
owing  to  the  foundation  of  the  latter  scale  on  the 
interval  of  a  twelfth. 

Its  principal  peculiarity  is  the  avoidance  of 
what  are  termed  'cross-fingered'  notes ;  viz,  those 
which  are  produced  by  closing  a  hole  below  that 
through  which  the  instrument  is  speaking.  For 
this  purpose  the  semitone  is  obtained  by  pressing 
down  the  middle  finger  of  either  hand,  and  the 
corresponding  whole  tone,  by  doing  the  same  with 
the  forefinger,  A  large  number  of  duplicate 
fingerings  is  also  introduced,  which  facilitate  pass- 
ages previously  impracticable.  On  the  flute  the 
system  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  different  keys 
more  on  a  level  as  regards  difficulty  :  E  major, 
for  instance,  which  on  the  old  eight -keyed  instru- 
ment was  false,  uneven  in  tone,  and  mechanically 
difficult,  is  materially  simplified.  On  the  other 
hand  it  to  a  certain  extent  alters  the  quality  of 
the  tone,  making  it  coarser  and  less  characteristic. 
It  also  complicates  the  mechanism,  rendering  the 
instrument  heavier,  and  more  liable  to  leakage. 

Boehm's  method  has  been  generally  adopted 
by  flute-players  both  in  this  country  and  abroad. 
Klose's  modification  applied  to  the  clarinet  is 
used  in  France  for  military  bands ;  many  of 
Bohm's  contrivances  are  incorporated  in  the 
oboes  of  M.  Barret  as  made  by  Triebert  of  Paris, 
and  are  figured  under  the  heading  CoR  Anglais. 
Bassoons  on  this  system  are  rarely  to  be  met 
with.    [See  Flute  ;  Gordon.]  [W.H.S,] 

BOESENDORFER,  Ludwig,  a  pianoforte - 
maker  in  Vienna.  Ignaz  Bosendorfer  founded 
the  firm  in  1828.  His  son  Ludwig  succeeded  him 
in  1859,  and  soon  abandoning  the  cheaper  build 
and  mechanism  identified  with  Vienna,  that  had 
influenced  the  technique  of  the  Viennese  school 
of  pianists  from  the  days  of  Mozart,  adopted 
modern  notions  of  tension  and  framing  and  an 
action  of  his  own,  grafting  English  principles 


BOESENDORFER. 


BOIELDIETJ. 


255 


upon  Viennese.  By  these  changes  he  has  raised 
his  instruments  to  a  place  beside  those  of  other 
acknowledged  leading  pianoforte-makers  in  Aus- 
tria and  Germany.  [A.  J.  H.] 

BOESSET,  AxTOiNE,  bom  about  1585,  died 
1643,  'conseiller  du  roi'  and  '  surintendant  de  la 
musique  des  chambres  du  roi  et  de  la  reine' 
under  Louis  XIII ;  composer  of  court  ballets, 
24  in  number,  and  ten  books  of  airs  in  four  and 
five  parts,  which  attained  immense  popularity  in 
their  day.  An  English  translation  of  the  first 
book  of  his  airs  appeared  with  the  title  '  Court 
Ayres  with  their  Ditties  Englished'  (London, 
1629).  He  was  succeeded  in  his  posts  and  titles 
at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV  by  his  son  Jean 
Baptiste,  bom  161 2,  died  1685,  and  he,  in  1667, 
by  his  son  Claude  Jeax  Baptiste,  bom  about 
1636,  who  composed,  in  addition  to  ballets  for 
the  court,  a  series  of  duets  called  *  Fruits  d' Au- 
tomne'  (Paris,  1684).  [M.  C.  C] 

BOHEMLVX  GIRL,  THE,  a  grand  opera  in 
three  acts ;  the  libretto  adapted  by  Buim  from 
Fanny  Ellsler's  ballet  of  'The  Gipsy'  (not  the 
'Gitana');  the  music  by  Balfe.  Produced  at 
Drury  Lane  Xov.  27,  1843,  also  at  Her  Majesty's 
Feb.  6,  58,  as  *La  Zingara'  (Piccolomini  as 
Arline)  ;  and  in  December,  69,  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  Paris,  as  'La  Bohemienne,'  with 
additions  by  the  composer. 

BOHRER,  the  name  of  a  family  of  musicians, 
(i)  Caspar,  bom  1744  at  Mannheim,  triunpeter 
in  the  court  band,  and  remarkable  performer 
on  the  double-bass;  called  to  Munich  in  1778, 
and  died  there  Xov.  4,  1809.  (2)  Sis  son  and 
pupil  AxTOX,  bom  at  Munich,  1783,  leamed 
the  violin  from  Kreutzer,  and  composition  from 
Winter  and  Danzi.  and  became  violin-player  in 
the  court  orchestra  at  Munich.  With  his  brother 
Max  (born  17S5)  he  undertook  in  iSio  an  ex- 
tensive tour,  ending  in  Russia,  where  they  narrowly 
escaped  transportation  to  Siberia  as  employes  of 
the  King  of  Bavaria,  Xapoleon's  ally.  In  1823 
the  brothers  were  appointed  to  the  royal  orches- 
tra in  Berlin,  but  quarrelling  with  Spontini 
lost  their  posts.  Anton  then  resided  in  Paris 
till  1834,  when  he  wa«  made  Concertmeister  at 
Hanover.  Max  obtained  a  similar  position  at 
Stuttgart.  The  brothers  married  two  sisters 
of  Ferdinand  David  and  of  Madame  Dulcken, 
Anton's  daughter,  Sophie,  a  girl  of  much  promise 
as  a  piano-player,  died  in  1849  at  Petersburg, 
aged  21.  [F.  G.j 

BOIELDIETJ,  FRAN9013  Adriex,!  was  bom 
December  16  (not  1^),  1775,  at  Rouen,  where 
his  father  held  the  position  of  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Larochefoucauld.  His  mother  kept  a 
milliner's  shop  in  the  same  city.  The  union 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  happy  one.  We 
know  at  least  that  during  the  Revolution  the 
elder  Boieldieu  availed  himself  of  the  law  of 
divorce  passed  at  that  time  to  separate  from 
his  first  wife  and  contract  a  second  marriage. 

1  An  important  work  by  A.  Pougin,  'Boieldieu :  sa  vie,  ses  ceuvres, 
son  caract^re,  sa  correspontLmce,'  published  in  1375,  has  thrown  new 
li^ht  on  the  composer's  career,  and  corrected  many  erroneous  statements 
made  by  F^tis  and  other  biographers. 


Domestic  dissensions  were  perhaps  the  reason 
why  our  composer,  when  his  talent  for  music 
began  to  show  itself,  exchanged  the  house  of  his 
parents  for  that  of  his  master,  the  organist  of 
the  cathedral,  Broche,  who,  although  an  excellent 
musician  and  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Padre  Mar- 
tini, was  known  as  a  drunkard,  and  occasionally 
treated  Boieldieu  with  brutality.  On  one  occa- 
sion, it  is  said,  the  boy  had  stained  one  of  his 
master's  books  with  ink,  and  in  order  to  evade 
the  cruel  punishment  in  store  for  him  escaped 
from  Broche's  house  and  went  on  foot  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  found  after  much  trouble  by  his 
family.  Whether  he  returned  to  Broche  seems 
uncertain.  Xeither  are  we  informed  of  any 
other  master  to  whom  the  composer  owed  the 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  his  art.  This  know- 
ledge, however  acquired,  was  put  to  the  test 
for  the  first  time  in  1793,  when  an  opera  by 
Boieldieu,  called  *La  fille  coupable'  (words  by 
his  father)  was  performed  at  Rouen  with  con- 
siderable success.  It  has  hitherto  been  believed 
that  Boieldieu  left  Rouen  for  Paris  immediately, 
or  at  least  very  soon  after,  this  first  attempt. 
This  however  must  be  a  mistake,  unless  we 
accept  the  improbable  conjecture  of  a  second 
temporary  sojoum  in  the  capital.  Certain  it  is 
that  Boieldieu  was  again  in  Rouen  October  28, 
1795,  when  another  opera  by  him,  'Rosalie  et 
M}Tza,'  was  performed  at  the  theatre  of  that 
city.  The  success  of  this  second  venture  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  brilliant,  to  judge  at  least 
by  the  '  Joumal  de  Rouen,'  which  after  briefly 
noticing  the  book  observes  silence  with  regard 
to  the  music.  Many  of  Boieldieu's  charming 
ballads  and  chansons  owe  their  origin  to  this 
period,  and  added  considerably  to  the  local  repu- 
tation of  the  young  composer.  Much  pecuniary 
advantage  he  does  not  seem  to  have  derived 
from  them,  for  Cochet,  the  Paris  publisher  of 
these  minor  compositions,  told  Fetis  that  Boiel- 
dieu was  glad  to  part  with  the  copyright  for  the 
moderate  remuneration  of  twelve  francs  apiece. 
Soon  after  the  appearance  of  his  second  opera 
Boieldieu  left  Rouen  for  good.  Ambition  and 
the  consciousness  of  power  caused  him  to  be 
dissatisfied  with  the  narrow  sphere  of  his  native 
city,  particularly  after  the  plan  (advocated  by 
him  in  an  article  in  the  '  Joumal  de  Rouen,' 
entitled  '  Reflexions  patriotiques  sur  I'utilite  de 
I'etude  de  la  musique')  of  starting  a  music  school 
on  the  model  of  the  newly-founded  Conservatoire 
had  failed. 

To  Paris  therefore  Boieldieu  went  for  a  second 
time,  with  an  introduction  from  Garat  the  singer 
to  Jadin  (a  descendant  of  the  well-known  Belgian 
family  of  musicians),  at  whose  house  he  found 
a  hospitable  reception,  and  became  acquainted 
with  the  leading  composers  of  the  day,  Cherubini 
amongst  the  number.  Boieldieu  made  his  d^but 
as  an  operatic  composer  in  the  capital  with  the 
'Famille  Suisse,'  which  was  performed  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau  in  1 797,  and  had  a  run  of  thirty 
nights  alternately  with  Cherubini's  '  Medee.' 
Other  operas  followed  in  rapid  succession,  amongst 
which  we  mention  'Zoraime  et  Zulnare'  (written 


256 


BOIELDIEU. 


BOIELDIEU. 


before  1 796,  but  not  performed  till  1 798),  '  La 
Dot  de  Suzette'  (same  year),  '  Beniowski '  (after 
a  drama  by  Kotzebue ;  performed  in  1 800  at  the 
Theatre  Favart),  and  '  Le  Calife  de  Bagdad' 
(performed  in  September  of  the  same  year  with 
enormous  success).  To  these  operatic  works 
ought  to  be  added  some  pieces  of  chamber  music, 
which  we  mention  less  for  their  intrinsic  value 
than  for  the  sake  of  completeness.  They  are, 
according  to  Fetis,  a  concerto  and  six  sonatas  for 
pianoforte,  a  concerto  for  harp,  a  duo  for  harp 
and  pianoforte,  and  three  trios  for  pianoforte, 
harp,  and  violoncello.  To  the  success  of  these 
minor  compositions  Boieldieu  owed  his  appoint- 
ment as  professor  of  the  pianoforte  at  the  Con- 
servatoire in  1800.  With  the  same  year  we  may 
close  the  first  period  of  Boieldieu' s  artistic  career. 
The  'Calife  de  Bagdad'  is  the  last  and  highest 
effort  of  this  period.  If  Boieldieu  had  died  after 
finishing  it  he  would  be  remembered  as  a  charm- 
ing composer  of  pretty  tunes  cleverly  harmonised 
and  tolerably  instrumented,  in  short  as  an  average 
member  of  that  French  school  of  dramatic  music 
of  which  he  is  now  the  acknowledged  leader. 
Boieldieu's  first  manner  is  chiefly  chara<;terised 
by  an  absence  of  stjde — of  individual  style  at 
least.  Like  most  men  of  great  creative  power 
and  of  autodidactic  training,  like  Wagner  for  in- 
stance, Boieldieu  began  by  unconsciously  adopt- 
ing, and  reproducing  with  great  vigour,  the  pecu- 
liarities of  other  composers.  But  every  new 
advance  of  technical  ability  implied  with  him  a 
commensurate  step  towards  original  conception, 
and  his  perfect  master^'  of  the  technical  resources 
of  his  art  coincided  with  the  fullest  growth  of  his 
genius.  During  this  earlier  period  matter  and 
manner  were  as  yet  equally  far  from  maturity. 
This  want  of  formal  certainty  was  felt  by  the 
composer  himself,  if  we  may  believe  a  story  told 
by  Fetis,  which,  although  somewhat  doubtful  on 
chronological  grounds,  is  at  any  rate  plausibly 
invented.  He  relates  that,  during  the  composition 
of  the  'Calif  of  Bagdad,'  Boieldieu  used  to  submit 
every  new  piece  as  he  wrote  it  to  the  criticism 
of  his  pupils  at  the  Conservatoire.  When,  as 
happened  frequently,  these  young  purists  took 
exception  at  their  master  s  harmonic  peccadilloes, 
the  case  was  referred  to  Mehul,  to  whose  decision, 
favourable  or  unfavourable,  Boieldieu  meekly  sub- 
mitted. Considering  that  at  the  time  Boieldieu 
•was  already  a  successful  composer  of  established 
reputation,  his  modesty  cannot  be  praised  too 
highly.  But  such  diffidence  in  his  own  judgment 
is  incompatible  with  the  consciousness  of  perfect 
formal  mastership. 

After  one  of  the  successful  performances  of  the 
'Calife'  Cherubini  accosted  the  elated  composer 
in  the  lobby  of  the  theatre  with  the  words 
'  Malheureux  !  are  you  not  ashamed  of  such  un- 
deserved success?'  Boieldieu's  answer  to  this 
brusque  a<lmonition  was  a  request  for  further 
musical  instruction,  a  request  immediately  granted 
by  Cherubini,  and  leading  to  a  severe  course  of 
contrapuntal  training  under  the  great  Italian 
master.  The  anecdote  rests  on  good  evidence, 
and  IB  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  characters  of 


the  two  men.  Fetis  strongly  denies  the  fact  of 
Boieldieu  having  received  any  kind  of  instruction 
or  even  advice  from  Cherubini — on  what  grounds 
it  is  not  easy  to  perceive.  Intrinsic  evidence  goes 
far  to  confirm  the  story.  For  after  the  *  Calif  of 
Bagdad'  Boieldieu  did  not  produce  another  opera 
for  three  years,  and  the  first  work  brought  out  by 
him  after  this  interval  shows  an  enormous  pro- 
gress upon  the  compositions  of  his  earlier  period. 
This  work,  caUed  'Ma  tante  Aurore,'  was  first 
performed  at  the  Theatre  Feydeau  January 
1803,  and  met  with  great  success.  In  June  of 
the  same  year  the  composer  left  France  for  St. 
Petersburg.  His  reasons  for  this  somewhat  sud- 
den step  have  been  stated  in  various  ways. 
Kussia  at  that  time  was  the  El  Dorado  of  French 
artists,  and  several  of  Boieldieu's  friends  had 
already  found  lucrative  employment  in  the  Em- 
peror's service.  But  Boieldieu  leA  Paris  without 
any  engagement  or  even  invitation  from  the 
Russian  court,  and  only  on  his  reaching  the 
Russian  frontier  was  agreeably  surprised  by  his 
appointment  as  conductor  of  the  Imperial  Opera, 
with  a  liberal  salary.  It  is  very  improbable  that 
he  should  have  abandoned  his  chances  of  further 
success  in  France,  together  with  his  professorship 
at  the  Conservatoire,  without  some  cause  sufficient 
to  make  change  at  any  price  desirable.  Do- 
mestic troubles  are  named  by  most  biographers 
as  this  additional  reason.  Boieldieu  had  in  1802 
contracted  an  ill-advised  marriage  with  Clotilde 
Mafleuray,  a  dancer  ;  the  union  proved  anything 
but  happy,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  Boiel- 
dieu in  has  despair  took  to  sudden  flight.  This 
anecdote  however  is  sufficiently  disproved  by  the 
fact  recently  discovered  of  his  impending  de- 
parture being  duly  annoimced  in  a  theatrical 
journal  of  the  time.  Most  likely  domestic  misery 
and  the  hope  of  fame  and  gain  conjointly  drove 
the  composer  to  a  step  which,  all  things  con- 
sidered, one  cannot  but  deplore.  Artistically 
speaking  the  eight  years  spent  by  Boieldieu  in 
Russia  must  be  called  all  but  total  eclipse.  By 
his  agreement  he  was  bound  to  compose  three 
operas  a  year,  besides  marches  for  military  bands, 
the  libretti  for  the  former  to  be  found  by  the 
Emperor.  But  these  were  not  forthcoming,  and 
Boieldieu  was  'obliged  to  take  recourse  to  books 
already  set  to  music  by  other  composers.  The 
titles  of  numerous  vaudevilles  and  operas  be- 
longing to  the  Russian  period  might  be  cited, 
such  as  'Rien  de  trop,'  *La  jeune  femme  colere,' 
'Les  voitures  versees,'  'Aline,  reine  de  Gol- 
conde'  (to  words  previously  set  by  Berton),  and 
'Telemaque' ;  also  the  choral  portions  of  Racine's 
'Athalie.'  Onlv  the  three  first -mentioned  works 
were  reproduced  by  Boieldieu  in  Paris  ;  the  others 
he  assigned  to  oblivion.  'Telemaque'  ought  to  be 
mentioned  as  containing  the  channing  air  to  the 
words  'Quel  plaisir  d'etre  en  voyage,'  afterwards 
transferred  to  '  Jean  de  Paris.' 

In  1 8 1  r  Boieldieu  returned  to  Paris,  where 
great  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  meantime. 
DalajTac  was  dead  ;  Mehul  and  Cherubini,  dis- 
gusted with  the  fickleness  of  public  taste,  kept 
silence ;  Nicole  Isouard  was  the  only  aival  to  be 


BOIELDIEU. 


BOIELDIEU. 


257 


feared.  But  Boieldieu  had  not  been  forgotten 
by  his  old  admirers.  The  revival  of  '  Ma  tante 
Aurore'  and  the  first  performance  in  Paris  of  an 
improved  version  of  '  Rien  de  trop'  were  received 
with  applause,  which  increased  to  a  storm  of 
enthusiasm  when  in  1812  one  of  the  composer's 
most  charming  operas,  'Jean  de  Paris,'  saw  the 
light.  This  is  one  of  the  two  masterpieces  on 
which  Boieldieu's  claim  to  immortality  must 
mainly  rest.  As  regards  refined  humour  and 
the  gift  of  musically  delineating  a  character  in 
a  few  masterly  touches,  this  work  remains  un- 
surpassed even  by  Boieldieu  himself ;  in  abundance 
of  charming  melodies  it  is  perhaps  inferior,  and 
inferior  only,  to  the  *  Dame  Blanche.'  No  other 
production  of  the  French  school  can  rival  either 
of  the  two  in  the  sustained  development  of  the 
excellences  most  characteristic  of  that  school. 
The  Princess  of  Navarre,  the  Page,  the  Seneschal, 
are  indestructible  types  of  loveliness,  grace,  and 
humour.  After  the  effort  in  'Jean  de  Paris' 
Boieldieu's  genius  seemed  to  be  exhausted:  nearly 
fourteen  years  elapsed  before  he  showed  in  the 
'Dame  Blanche'  that  his  dormant  power  was 
capable  of  still  higher  flights.  We  will  not 
encumber  the  reader's  memory  with  a  list  of 
names  belonging  to  the  intervening  period, 
which  would  have  to  remain  names  only.  Many 
of  these  operas  were  composed  in  collaboration 
with  Cherubini,  Catel,  Isouard,  and  others ;  only 
*Le  nouveau  seigneur  de  village'  (18 13)  and 
'Le  petit  Chaperon  rouge'  (1818),  both  by 
Boieldieu  alone,  may  be  mentioned  here.  After 
the  successful  production  of  the  last-named 
opera,  Boieldieu  did  not  bring  out  a  new  entire 
work  for  seven  years.  In  December  1825  the 
long  expected  'Dajne  Blanche'  saw  the  light, 
and  was  received  wuth  unprecedented  applause. 
Boieldieu  modestly  ascribes  part  of  this  success 
to  the  national  reaction  against  the  Rossini- 
worship  of  the  preceding  years.  Other  temporary 
causes  have  been  cited,  but  the  first  verdict  has 
been  confirmed  by  many  subsequent  audiences. 
Up  till  June  1875  the  opera  has  been  performed 
at  one  and  the  same  theatre  1340  times,  and 
yet  its  melodies  sound  as  fresh  and  are  received 
with  as  much  enthusiasm  as  on  that  eventful 
night  of  December  10,  1825,  so  graphically 
described  by  Boieldieu's  pupil  Adam.  Such 
pieces  as  the  cavatina  'Viens  gentille  dame,' 
the  song  'D'ici  voyez  ce  beau  domaine,'  or  the 
trio  at  the  end  of  the  first  act.  will  never  fail 
of  their  effect  as  long  as  the  feeling  for  true 
grace  remains. 

The  *  Dame  Blanche'  is  the  finest  work  of 
Boieldieu,  and  Boieldieu  the  greatest  master 
of  the  French  school  of  comic  opera.  It  is 
therefore  difficult  to  speak  of  the  composer,  and 
of  the  work  most  characteristic  of  his  style,  with- 
out repeating  to  some  extent,  in  a  higher  key  of 
eulogy,  what  has  already  been  said  in  these 
pages  of  other  masters  of  the  same  school. 
With  Auber,  Boieldieu  shares  verve  of  dramatic 
utterance,  with  Adam  piquancy  of  rhythmical 
structure,  while  he  avoids  almost  entirely  that 
bane  of  modem  music,  the  dance -rhythm, 
(c.)  ' 


which  in  the  two  other  composers  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  school. 
Peculiar  to  Boieldieu  is  a  certain  homely  sweet- 
ness of  melody,  which  proves  its  kinship  to 
that  source  of  all  truly  national  music,  the 
popular  song.  The  'Dame  Blanche'  might 
indeed  be  considered  as  the  artistic  continuation 
of  the  chanson,  in  the  same  sense  as  Weber's 
*  Der  Freischiitz '  has  been  called  a  dramatised 
Volkslied.  With  regard  to  Boieldieu's  work 
this  remark  indicates  at  the  same  time  a  strong 
development  of  what  in  a  previous  article  has 
been  described  as  the  'amalgamating  force  of 
French  art  and  culture' ;  for  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  subject  treated  is  Scotch. 
The  plot  is  a  compound  of  two  of  Scott's  novels, 
the  '  Monastery'  and  '  Guy  Mannering.'  Julian, 
(alias  George  Brown),  comes  to  his  paternal 
castle  unknown  to  himself.  He  hears  the  songs 
of  his  childhood,  which  awaken  old  memories  in 
him ;  but  he  seems  doomed  to  misery  and  dis- 
appointment, for  on  the  day  of  his  return  his 
hall  and  his  broad  acres  are  to  become  the 
property  of  a  villain,  the  unfaithful  steward  of 
his  own  family.  Here  is  a  situation  full  of 
gloom  and  sad  foreboding.  But  Scribe  and 
Boieldieu  knew  better.  Their  hero  is  a  dashing 
cavalry  officer,  who  makes  love  to  every  pretty 
woman  he  comes  across,  the  'White  Lady  of 
Avenel'  amongst  the  number.  Yet  nobody  who 
has  witnessed  the  impersonation  of  George 
Brown  by  the  great  Roger  can  have  failed  to 
be  impressed  with  the  grace  and  noble  gallantry 
of  the  character. 

The  Scotch  airs,  also,  introduced  by  Boieldieu, 
although  correctly  transcribed,  appear,  in  their 
harmonic  and  rhythmical  treatment,  thoroughly 
French.  The  tune  of  '  Robin  Adair,'  described 
as  'le  chant  ordinaire  de  la  tribu  d' Avenel,' 
would  perhaps  hardly  be  recognised  by  a  genuine 
North  Briton ;  but  what  it  has  lost  in  raciness 
it  has  gained  in  sweetness. 

So  much  about  the  qualities  which  Boieldieu 
has  in  common  with  all  the  good  composers  of 
his  school;  in  one  point  however  he  remains 
unrivalled  by  any  of  them,  viz.  in  the  masterly 
and  thoroughly  organic  structure  of  his  ensembles. 
Rousseau,  in  giving  vent  to  his  whimsical  aver- 
sion to  polyphony,  says  that  it  is  as  impossible 
to  listen  to  two  different  tunes  played  at  the 
same  time  as  to  two  persons  speaking  simul- 
taneously. True  in  a  certain  sense ;  unless 
these  tunes  represent  at  once  unity  and  di- 
vergence—  oneness,,  that  is,  of  situation,  and 
diversity  of  feelings  excited  by  this  one  situation 
in  various  minds.  We  here  touch  upon  one  of 
the  deepest  problems  of  dramatic  music,  a 
problem  triumphantly  solved  in  the  second  act 
of  the  'Dame  Blanche.'  In  the  finale  of  that 
act  we  have  a  large  ensemble  of  seven  solo  voices 
and  chorus.  All  these  comment  upon  one  and 
the  same  event  with  sentiments  as  widely 
different  as  can  well  be  imagined.  We  hear 
the  disappointed  growl  of  baffled  vice,  the 
triumph  of  loyal  attachment,  and  the  subdued 
note  of  tender  love — all  mingling  with  each 

S 


258  BOIELDIEU. 

other  and  yet  arranged  in  separate  groups  of 
graphic  distinctness.  This  ensemble,  and  indeed 
the  whole  auction  scene,  deserve  the  appellation 
*  classical '  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word. 

The  remainder  of  Boieldieu's  life  is  sad  to 
relate.  He  produced  another  opera,  called  '  Les 
Deux  Nuits,'  in  1829,  but  it  proved  a  failure, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  dull  libretto  by  Bouilly, 
which  the  composer  had  accepted  from  good 
nature.  This  disappointment  may  have  fostered 
the  pulmonary  disease,  the  germs  of  which 
Boieldieu  had  brought  back  from  Russia.  In 
vain  he  sought  recovery  in  the  mild  climate  of 
Southern  France.  Pecuniary  difficulties  increased 
the  discomforts  of  his  failing  health.  The  bank- 
ruptcy of  the  Op^ra  Comique  and  the  expulsion 
of  Charles  X,  from  whom  he  had  received  a 
pension,  deprived  Boieldieu  of  his  chief  sources 
of  income.  At  last  M.  Thiers,  the  minister  of 
Louis  Philippe,  relieved  the  master's  anxieties 
by  a  government  pension  of  6000  francs.  Boiel- 
dieu died  October  8,  1834,  at  Jarcy,  his  country 
house,  near  Paris.  The  troubles  of  his  last 
years  were  shared  and  softened  by  his  second 
wife,  to  whom  the  composer  was  united  in  1827 
after  a  long  and  tender  attachment.  By  her  he 
had  a  son,  Adkien,  bom  in  181 6,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  Conservatoire  under  his  father. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  comic  operas,  some 
of  which  have  been  successfully  performed  at  the 
Opera  Comique  and  other  theatres.  It  is  perhaps 
chiefly  the  burden  of  his  name  which  prevents 
him  from  taking  a  more  distinguished  position 
amongst  contemporary  French  composers.  At 
the  centenary  celebration  of  his  father's  birth- 
day at  Rouen  a  comic  opera  by  the  younger 
Boieldieu,  called  'La  Halte  du  Roi'  was  per- 
formed with  great  success.  [F.  H.] 

BOLERO.  A  brisk  Spanish  dance  in  3-4 
time.    The  earliest  form  of  its  rhythm  was 

1 1  rrr  I  rm  \ 

which  later  became 

I  1  UUJ  I  ^'ILT I 

while  to  the  longer  notes  of  the  accompaniment 
shorter  melody  notes  were  given,  and  vice  versa. 
Gradually  the  rhj^hm  of  the  castanets,  which 
were  used  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  dance  by 
the  dancers  themselves,  was  introduced  into  the 
music,  which  now  assumed  this  form 

I     C£r;  I  or  I      [£r;  I 

The  bolero  usually  consists  of  two  chief  parts, 
each  repeated,  and  a  trio.  The  castanet  rhythm 
above  referred  to  mostly  commences  at  least  one 
bar  before  the  melody.  Good  examples  of  the 
bolero  may  be  found  in  Mchul's  'Les  deux 
Aveugles,'  Weber's  'Preciosa'  (gipsy-ballet),  and 
Auber's  *  Masaniello.'  We  give  the  opening  of 
the  last  as  an  illustration 


BOLLA. 


Allegretto. 


[E.  P.] 

BOLLA,  SiGNOKA,  an  Italian  prima  buffa, 
who  sang  in  London  at  the  opera  in  1 794.  She 
was  a  very  pretty  woman,  and  a  '  pleasing,  genteel 
actress,'  who  with  a  better  voice  would  have 
been  an  excellent  singer.  She  was  very  success- 
ful in  Paisiello's  'Zingari,'  and  in  'Nina,'  which 
latter  she  chose  for  her  benefit,  with  spoken 
dialogue  instead  of  recitative  ;  but  this  was  con- 
sidered an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  the 
English  theatres,  and  after  a  few  nights  it  was 
stopped  'by  authority.'  In  1802  she  was  singing 
at  Paris  in  opera  buffa  with  Lazzarini  and 
Strinasacchi.  [J.  M.] 


BOLOGNA. 


BOMTEMPO. 


259 


BOLOGNA.  The  first  school  for  instruction 
in  music  in  Italy  was  founded  at  Bologna 
in  1482  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  when  Bartolom- 
meo  Ramis  Pereja,  a  Spaniard,  was  summoned 
from  Salamanca  to  preside  over  it.  Spataro 
(so  called  because  he  was  by  trade  a  maker 
of  scabbards),  one  of  the  early  Italian  writers 
on  music  in  the  15th  century,  was  a  disciple 
of  Pereja. 

In  the  1 6th  and  17th  centuries  Bologna  had 
as  many  as  thirty  academies  for  the  promotion 
of  various  sciences  and  arts.  Four  out  of  this 
number  were  musical,  not  including  that  of  the 
'Gelati'  (founded  1588)  which  comprehended 
every  science  and  art,  and  flourished  throughout 
the  1 6th  century.  One  of  its  members,  Girolamo 
Desideri,  wrote  a  valuable  treatise  on  music. 
The  four  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  ' Dei  Concordi,'  founded  in  161 5.  The  arms 
chosen  by  this  institution  were — three  time- 
pieces, a  clock,  an  hour  glass,  and  a  dial.  The 
motto — '  Tendimus  una.' 

2.  *  Dei  Filomusi,'  founded  in  162  2  by  Girolamo 
Giacobbi,  a  learned  classical  composer  of  the 
Bolognese  school  and  'Maestro  di  Capella'  of 
San  Petronio.  This  academy  was  entirely  devoted 
to  the  study  of  musical  science.  Device— a  bush 
of  reeds,  with  the  motto  *  Vocis  dulcedine 
captant.' 

3.  '  Dei  Filaschici,'  opened  in  1633.  Device — 
David's  harp ;  motto — *  Orbem  demulcet  attactu.' 
The  object  of  this  institution  was  to  inquire  into 
the  science  of  sound. 

4.  '  Dei  Filarmonici,'  instituted  in  1675  by  Vin- 
cenzo  Carrati  entirely  for  music.  Bumey,  in  his 
'Tour'  of  1773  (p.  230),  speaks  of  this  academy 
as  still  in  existence.  He  was  present  at  a  kind 
of  trial  of  skill  amongst  the  academicians  which 
took  place  annually  in  the  church  of  San 
Giovanni  in  Monte,  The  members  of  this 
society  each  composed  portions  of  the  service, 
and  Bumey,  w^hose  opinion  of  the  performance 
was  asked,  praises  highly  the  variety  of  style 
and  masterly  compositions  of  the  members. 
'At  this  performance,'  he  says,  'were  present 
Mr.  Mozart  and  his  son,  the  little  German  whose 
premature  and  almost  supernatural  talents  so 
much  astonished  us  in  London  a  few  years  ago 
when  he  had  scarce  quitted  his  infant  state. 
He  has  been  much  admired  at  Rome  and  Naples, 
and  has  been  honoured  with  the  order  of  the 
Speron  d'Oro  by  His  Holiness,  and  was  en- 
gaged to  compose  an  opera  at  Milan  for  the 
next  carnival.' 

Orlov  ('Traite  de  Musique,'  1822),  speaks  of 
the  performance  of  the  sixteen  hundred  members 
of  the  philharmonic  society  at  Bologna,  in  the 
cathedral  of  San  Petronio,  to  celebrate  the  festi- 
val of  the  patron  saint.  But  there  is  no  mention 
of  this  society  in  the  report  of  1866  as  to  the 
state  of  musical  education  in  Italy. 

In  the  1 6th  century  there  were  but  few 
practical  musicians  of  the  Bolognese  school, 
though  in  the  next,  owing  to  these  musical 
academies,  the  masters  of  the  cathedral  of  San 
Petronio  and  other  professors  of  the  city  were 


equal  to  those  of  the  first  class  in  any  other  part 
of  Europe, 

The  result  of  these  societies  also  appears 
in  the  series  of  musical  dramas  performed  in 
Bologna  since  the  year  1600,  There  seems  to 
have  been  no  public  theatre  in  this  city  till  1680, 
when  four  operas  were  performed  there  *nel 
Teatro  Publico.'  After  this  the  music,  which  had 
previously  been  written  by  Venetian  masters  was 
supplied  by  members  of  the  Bolognese  academies. 
Among  these  were  Petronio  Franceschelli,  who  set 
the  prologue  to  the  opera  of  *  Caligula ';  Giuseppe 
Felice  Tosi,  who  composed  ten  operas  between 
the  years  1679  and  1691  ;  Giacomo  Antonio 
Perti,  a  composer  of  church  music,  but  also 
employed  in  operas  for  Bologna  and  Venice ; 
Giovanni  Paolo  Colonna,  Maestro  di  Cappella  di 
San  Petronio  ;  Aldobrandini  Albergati ;  Pistocchi, 
who  founded  a  famous  Bolognese  school  of 
singing  ;  and  the  renowned  Padre  Martini. 

The  above  list  of  names  contains  only  a  few 
of  the  famous  composers  and  practical  musicians 
which  were  formed  in  the  great  Bolognese 
school.  [C.  M.  P.] 

BOLSETTI,  an  Italian  prime  buflfo  caricato, 
who  with  his  wife,  also  a  singer,  played  prin- 
cipal parts  in  the  comic  operas  in  London  in 
1789 ;  such  as  Cimarosa's  '  Villana  Eiconosciuta,' 
etc.  [J,  M.] 

BOMBARDON,  BOMBARD,  BASS-POM - 
MER  OR  BRUMMER,  were  originally  names 
of  the  deeper  varieties  of  the  oboe  or  bassoon 
family;  the  bombardon,  or  largest  instrument, 
reaching  to  contra  F,  From  these  the  name  was 
transferred  to  a  bass  reed-stop  on  the  organ,  with 
16-foot  tone.  In  the  'Traite  de  I'Orgue'  by  D. 
Bedos,  it  appears  that  the  stop  was  sometimes 
carried  down  to  3  2 -foot  F.  It  was  mainly  em- 
ployed in  accompanying  plain-chant. 

The  name  has  more  recently  been  given  to  the 
lowest  of  the  saxhorns.  It  is  usually  tuned  in 
E  flat,  for  the  convenience  of  military  players, 
but  a  larger  instrument  in  B  flat  is  occasionally 
employed.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  instru- 
ment ;  the  one  like  the  euphonium  in  shape,  but 
larger ;  the  other  circular,  passing  over  the  per- 
former's shoulder,  and  with  the  bell  directed  for- 
wards. The  fundamental  note  of  the  first  is  the 
E  flat  of  the  16-foot  octave  ;  that  of  the  second 
the  B  flat  in  the  32-foot  scale.  [W.  H.  S.] 

BOMTEMPO,  JoAO  Domingos,  important 
Portuguese  musician  and  composer,  born  1775 
(not  1 781)  at  Lisbon,  settled  in  Paris  1795, 
visited  London,  returned  to  Paris,  and  finally 
went  back  to  Lisbon  in  1820  and  became  head 
of  the  Conservatoire.  As  instructor  of  the 
royal  family  he  was  made  Knight  of  the  Order 
of  Christ,  and  chief  director  of  the  court  band. 
He  died  Aug.  13,  1842.  Amongst  his  works  the 
following  deserve  mention — Vari^oes  sobre  o 
fandango ;  '  Messe  de  Requiem  k  la  mdmoire  de 
Camoens';  Responsorii  for  Queen  Carlotta  Joa- 
quina  (1822);  Missa  solenne  for  the  jiromulga- 
tion  of  the  Constitution  (1821)  ;  Requiems  for 
Maria  I.  and  Pedro  IV.:  Methodo  de  Piano 

S'2 


260 


BOMTEMPO. 


BOKGHI. 


(London,  iSi6)  ;  Alessandro  nell  Indie,  opera 
seria.  His  style  is  clear  and  dignified,  obviously 
formed  on  Handel  and  Haydn.  [F.  G.] 

BOXD,  Hugh,  appointed  lay-vicar  of  Exeter 
Cathedral  in  1762,  was  also  organist  of  the 
church  of  St.  iNIary  Arches  in  that  city.  He 
published  '  Twelve 'Hvmns  and  Four  Anthems 
for  four  voices'  of  has  composition.  Many  of 
his  pupils  rose  to  eminence  in  the  profession. 
He  died  in  1792.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BOXXO  or  BONO,  Giuseppe,  son  of  one  of  the 
imperial  running  footmen,  bom  at  Vienna  1710. 
Studied  composition  at  Naples  at  the  Emperor" s 
cost,  and  in  1738  was  taken  into  the  Imperial 
Hof-kapelle  as  Hof-scholar,  from  which  he  rose 
to  be  Hof-compositeur  (i73q\  and,  on  Gass- 
mann's  death,  Hof-kapeUmeister  (1774).  He 
-was  essentially  a  court-musician.  His  oratorios 
were  executed  after  Lent  at  the  court  chapel, 
and  his  'festi  teatraU,'  or  occasional  cantatas, 
•were  mostly  performed  by  archduchesses  before 
their  imperial  parents.  Bonno  was  for  many 
years  vice-president  of  the  Ton-kiinstler  Societal, 
and  the  society  executed  his  oratorio  of  '  H 
Giuseppe  ricognosciuto.'  His  Scores  are  pre- 
served in  the  Imperial  Library  and  the  Musik- 
Verein  at  Vienna,  and  they  show  a  very  moderate 
amount  of  invention,  sufficient  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  time  and  the  society  in  which  he  lived, 
but  no  more.  He  must  however  have  had  some 
qualities  to  make  up  for  these  defects,  for  Mozart 
(writing  April  11,  1781,  of  the  performances 
of  one  of  his  symphonies  under  Bonno's  direction) 
calls  him  'der  alte  ehrliche  brave  Mann.'  He 
died  April  15,  1786.  A  fine  Amen  by  him.  in 
the  grand  Italian  style,  is  engraved  in  the  Fitz- 
william  music.  [C.  F.  P.] 

BONNY  BOOTS.  The  nickname  of  a  man 
who  appears  to  have  been  both  a  singer  and 
dancer  of  unequalled  ability  at  the  court  of  Eliza- 
beth, a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Queen,  and — as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  style  in  which  he  is 
mentioned  in  verses  published  during  her  life- 
time— a  personal  favourite  of  hers.  He  is  men- 
tioned in  the  9th  and  25th  Madrigals  of  the 
'  Triumphs  of  Oriana,'  a  collection  of  pieces  in 
honour  of  Elizabeth,  published  in  1601  : — 

9.  'Th  is  Bonny  Boots  the  birthday  celebrated 
Of  her  his  lady  deerest. 
Fair  Oriana  which  to  his  hart  was  nearest.' 
25.  '  For  Bonny  Boots  that  so  aloft  could  fetch  it, 
Oh  he  is  dead,  and  none  of  us  can  reach  it.' 

Also  in  the  ist  and  9th  of  Morley's  Canzonets 

published  in  1607  : — 

I .  '  Fly  Love  that  are  so  sprightly 

To  Bonny  Boots  uprightly  ; 

And  when  in  Heaven  thou  meet  him 

Say  that  I  kindly  greet  him. 

And  that  his  Oriana 

True  widow-maid  still  followeth  Diana.' 
9.  'Our  Bonny  Boots  could  toot  it, 
Yea  and  foot  it ; 

Say  lustie  lads  who  now  shall  Bonny  Boot  it.' 


From  three  of  these  quotations  it  is  evident 
that  Bonny  Boots  was  dead  at  the  time. 

Various  conjectures  have  been  made  as  to  his 
identity.  He  has  been  supp>osed  by  Hawkins 
(Hist,  chap.  106)  to  have  been  a  Mr.  Hale  or 
Hales,  whose  singing  had  pleased  the  Queen. 
Also  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who  was  beheaded  Feb. 
I  25,  1601.  But  neither  ideutification  is  anything 
more  than  conjecture. 

BONPOETI,  Francesco  Ayroyio,  bom  about 
1660  at  Trient,  was  an  Imperial  Counsellor  of 
Austria,  and  occupied  himself  with  music,  in 
which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  instrumental 
composers  of  importance.  His  first  work — So- 
natas for  2  Violins  and  Bass — appeared  in  1696 
at  Venice.  These  were  followed  by  many  others, 
among  which  the  most  remarkable  are  '  Le  tri- 
omphe  de  la  grande  Alliance,'  op.  8,  and  100 
minuets  for  Violins  and  Bass.  His  '  Dodici  Con- 
certini  e  Serenate,'  etc.,  were  printed  at  Augs- 
burg in  1 741.  [F.  G.] 

BOOM,  Jan  van,  flute-player,  bom  at  Eot- 
terdam  1773,  belonged  to  the  band  of  King 
Louis  Bonaparte,  settled  at  Ltrecht  and  made 
many  successful  tours  in  Germany.  His  works 
chiefly  consist  of  bravura  pieces  for  the  flute, 
j  His  son  Jax,  bora  at  Utrecht  Oct.  15,  1S09,  was 
brought  up  as  a  pianist,  and  after  a  tour  in 
Sweden  and  Denmark  in  1825  settled  at  Stock- 
holm, where  in  1856  he  became  Professor  in  the 
Academy  and  Music  School.  In  1862  he  %"isited 
the  chief  capitals  of  Europe  to  examine  the  sys- 
tems of  musical  education.  He  has  composed 
Symphonies,  Quartets,  Trios,  and  Pianoforte 
pieces  of  every  description.  [F.  G.] 

BOOSEY  &  CO.,  music  publishers.  This 
house  was  established  about  60  years  ago  by 
Thomas  Boose}*.  He  commenced  business  as  an 
importer  of  foreign  music,  and  was  one  of  the 
very  few  persons  then  engaged  in  that  trade. 
Subsequently  he  became  the  English  publisher 
for  Hummel,  Eomberg,  De  Beriot,  Rossini, 
Vaccaj,  Mercadante,  and  other  well-known 
composers.  The  house  was  afterwards  identified 
with  the  Italian  operas  of  Bellini,  Donizetti  and 
Verdi,  until  1854.  when  a  decision  of  the  House 
of  Lords  deprived  it  of  all  its  foreign  copyrights. 
This  judgment  caused  the  firm  to  lose  'La 
Sonnambuia,'  'La  Traviata,'  'H  Trovatore,'  and 
'Eigoletto,'  four  of  the  most  valuable  properties 
that  have  existed  in  the  music  trade. 

This  serious  loss  of  copyrights  caused  the  firm 
to  change  its  character,  and  it  has  since  devoted 
its  attention  to  the  publication  of  popular  Eng- 
lish music,  and  to  the  production  of  cheap  and 
standard  musical  works.  [G.] 

BOEDONI,  Faustln-a.    [See  Hasse.] 

BOEGHI,  LuiGi,  a  violinist  and  composer; 
pupil  of  Pugnani ;  lived  from  about  1780  in 
London,  where  we  find  him  leader  of  the  second 
^-ioHns  at  the  Handel  Commemoration  in  1784. 
He  published  violin  solos ;  duos  for  violins,  vio- 
lin  and  alto,  violin  and  cello  ;  violin-concertos  ; 
symphonies  for  orchestra,  and  a  set  of  Italian 
canzonets.  [P.  D.] 


BORJON. 


BOSCHI. 


2C1 


BORJON,  Charles  Emmanuel  (incorrectly 
Bourgeon),  advocate  in  the  Parlement  of  Paris, 
author  of  many  law-books,  and  an  eminent 
amateur,  born  1633,  died  in  Paris  1 69 1.  He 
was  a  remarkable  performer  on  the  musette,  and 
author  of  a  'Traite  de  la  Musette'  (Lyons, 
1672),  which  contains  a  method  of  instruction, 
plates,  and  airs  collected  by  him  in  various  parts 
of  France.  Borjon  was  evidently  a  man  of 
culture.  He  excelled  in  cutting  out  figures  in 
parchment,  some  of  which  were  noticed  and 
valued  by  Louis  XIV.  [M.  C.  C] 

BOROSINI,  Francesco.  This  admirable 
tenor  singer  was  bom  at  Bologna,  according  to 
Fetis,  about  1695  ;  and  in  1723  was  one  of  the 
principal  singers  at  the  Grand  Opera  at  Prague. 
Very  little  more  of  his  history  is  known  ;  but 
we  have  evidence  that  he  came,  with  his  wife, 
to  London  in  1724,  and  sang  in  operas  :  as  in 
'Artaserse'  by  Ariosti,  and  Handel's  'Tamer- 
lane.' In  1725  he  appeared  in  'Rodelinda'  and 
'Giulio  Cesare'  by  Handel,  in  Ariosti's  'Dario,' 
and  the  pasticcio  *  Elpidia '  given  by  the  former 
master,  with  recitatives  of  his  own.  The  names 
of  Borosini  and  his  wife  are  not  found  again  in 
England  after  1725.  His  wife,  Leonora,  nee 
D'Ambreville,  was  originally  French,  and  was 
a  very  remarkable  contralto  singer.  In  1714, 
according  to  Fetis,  she  sang  at  the  Palatine 
Court,  and  was  engaged  in  1723  for  the  Grand 
Opera  at  Prague,  with  her  husband.  When 
they  were  married  is  not  known,  but  that  they 
came  to  England  together  in  1724  is  certain, 
for  her  name  is  found  in  the  casts  of  the  same 
operas  in  which  he  also  performed.  In  'Dario' 
and  'Elpidia'  she  is  called  Signora  Sorosini,  but 
this  is  a  mere  misprint.  It  is  only  curious  that 
it  should  occur  in  two  diflFerent  works.     [J.  M.] 

BORSELLI,  an  Italian  singer  who,  with  his 
wife  Elisabetta,  performed  in  comic  operas  in 
London  in  1789  and  90;  such  as  Martini's  'Cosa 
Rara,'  Gazzaniga's  'Vendemmia,'  Paisiello's  'Bar- 
biere,'  Cimarosa's'Ninetta,'  and  operas  of  Tarchi, 
Fabrizi,  Bianchi,  Nasolini,  and  Federici.  [J.  M.] 

BORTNIANSKY  (acc.  BARTNANSKY), 
Dimitri,  called  the  Russian  Palestrina,  was  bom 
at  GloukofF,  a  village  of  the  Ukraine,  in  1752,  and 
early  showed  remarkable  ability.  He  studied 
in  Moscow  and  in  Petersburg  under  Galuppi,  at 
that  time  Capellmeister  there.  Galuppi  soon  left 
Russia,  but  the  Empress  Catherine  supplied 
Bortniansky  with  funds  to  follow  him  to  Venice 
(i  768).  He  afterwards  studied  in  Bologna,  Rome, 
and  Naples.  The  motets  he  composed  at  this 
period  are  not  remarkable  except  for  richness  of 
harmony.  Palschlich  counts  him  among  the 
opera-composers  then  in  Italy.  In  1779  he  re- 
turned to  Russia,  and  became  director  of  the 
Empress's  church-choir  (later — 1796 — called  the 
'Imperial  Kapelle'),  which  he  thoroughly  re- 
formed, and  for  which  he  composed  35  sacred 
concertos  in  4  parts,  10  concertos  for  double  choir, 
and  a  mass  for  3  voices.  It  was  this  choir  which 
was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Boieldieu  when,  as 
chapel-master  at  Petersburg,  he  was  commissioned 


to  compose  the  music  for  Racine's  'Athalie.' 
Bortniansky  has  the  merit  of  reducing  Russian 
church  music  to  a  system.  He  died  Sept.  28 
(Oct.  9),  1825.  [F.  G.] 

BOSCHETTI,  Signora,  a  talented  soprano 
who  sang  in  London  in  comic  operas  about  the 
year  1772.  She  acted  Rosalba  in  Piccinni's  '  Schi- 
ava'  in  that  year  at  the  King's  Theatre.  [J,  M.] 
BOSCHI,  Giuseppe,  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Viterbo,  was  the  most  celebrated  basso 
of  the  18th  century.     Of  his  early  life,  his 
teacher,  or  of  his  first  appearance,  absolutely 
nothing  is  known.    To  F^tis  his  very  name  is 
unknown.    Chrysander  (Handel,  i.  244)  believes 
him  to  be  the  singer  of  the  extraordinary  part 
of  Polifeme  in  Handel's  early  cantata  at  Naples 
in  1709,  a  portion  of  which  was  transferred  to 
'  Rinaldo.'     It  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  on 
Feb.  24,  1 71 1,  he  sang  for  the  first  time  in 
London  the  part  of  Argante  in   that  opera 
(Handel's  first  in  London)  at  the  Haymarket 
Theatre.     It  is  strange  enough  that  Argante 
was  afterwards  sung  in  171 7  by  Berenstadt,  a 
German  alto,  and  in  1 731  by  Francesca  Bertolli, 
a  contralto.     After  this  there  is  a  blank  in 
Boschi's  history  until  Handel's  return  to  London. 
In  1720  we  find  him  again  supporting  with  his 
magnificent  voice  the  'Radamisto'  of  Handel, 
and  Buononcini's  'Astartus.'     It  is  very  pro- 
bable, but  not  certain,  that  he  was  the  original 
Polyphemus  of  'Acis  and  Galatea,'  performed 
privately  at  Cannons,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Chandos  ;  there  was  then  no  other  basso  here 
capable  of  singing  that  part,  and  Boschi  was 
already  singing  for  Handel.    In  the  same  year 
he  was  in  the  cast  of  '  Muzio  Scsevola,'  the 
third  act  of  which  was  Handel's,  as  also  in 
those  of  'Arsace'  by  Orlandini  and  Amadei, 
'  L'Odio  e  I'Amore'   (anonymous),  and  Buo- 
noncini's 'Crispo.'     On  Dec.  9,  1721,  he  took 
part  in  the  first  representation  of  Handel's 
'Floridante,'  and  on  Jan.  12,  1723,  in  that  of 
'Ottone,'  and  of  'Flavio'  on  May  14;  besides 
which  he  sang  in  the  'Coriolano'  of  Ariosti,  and 
'  Farnace '  of  Buononcini,  and  in  1 724  in  Handel's 
'  Giulio  Cesare '  and  *  Tamerlane,' Ariosti's  *Ar- 
taserse '  and   '  Vespasiano,'  and  Buononcini's 
'  Calfurnia.'    From  this  date  he  sang  for  Handel 
in  all  the  operas  during  1725,  6,  7,  and  8.  In 
1728  he  sang  in  '  Siroe,'  '  Tolomeo,'  and  a  revival 
of  'Radamisto.'    Then  came  the  break-up  of 
the  company,  and  Boschi's  name  appears  no 
more.    Whether  he  died,  or  retired  to  his  native 
country,  he  was  succeeded  in  1729  by  J.  G. 
Riemschneider.    It  was  unfortunate  for  Boschi, 
with  his  fine  voice  and  execution,  that  he 
appeared   in  Handel's  early  time,  when  the 
operas  were  written  chiefly  for  w^omen  and 
evirati ;   when  tenors  were  rarely  employed, 
and  the  basso  only  recognised  as  a  disagreeable 
necessity.     Towards   the   end  of  this  period 
Handel  began  to  write  more  freely  for  basses, 
and  some  fine  airs  fell  to  the  share  of  Boschi, 
such,  for  example,  as  '  Finche  lo  strale'  in 
'  Floridante,'    '  No,    non   temere '   and    '  Del 
minacciar'  in  'Ottone,'  'Tu  di  pieta'  in  'Siroe,' 


262 


BOSCHI. 


BOTTLE  DE  TOULMON. 


and  '  Eespira  almen '  in  '  Tolomeo.'  His  voice 
was  very  powerful,  and  he  could  hold  his  own 
against  Handel's  accompaniments,  which  ap- 
peared very  noisy  to  critics  of  those  days.  In 
a  satire  called  'Harlequin  Horace,  or  the  Art 
of  Modem  Poetry,'  1735,  this  line  occurs, — 
'  And  Boschi-like  be  always  in  a  rage,' 

to  which  the  following  note  is  appended  :   '  A 
useful  performer  for  several  years  in  the  Italian 
operas,  for  if  any  of  the  audience  chanced  un- 
happily to  be  lulled  to  sleep  by  these  s-oothing 
entertainments,  he  never  failed  of  rousing  them  ; 
up  again,  and  by  the  extraordinary  fury  both  [ 
of  his  voice  and  action,  made  it  manifest  tliat, 
though  only  a  tailor  by  profession,  he  was  nine  | 
times  more  a  man   than   any  of  his  fellow- 
warblers.*   His  wife,  Fbancesca  Vanini,  a  con-  j 
tralto,  had  been  a  great  singer,  but  came  to  1 
London  when  much  past  her  prime  and  her 
voice  failing.    She  sang  in  1 711  as  GofFredo  in 
Handel's  '  Rinaldo'  ;  but  in  1 71 2  this  was  given  ' 
to  Margarita  de  I'Epine,  and  Boschi's  wife  ap- 
peared no  more.  [J.  M.] 

BOSIO,  Angiolina,  bom  at  Turin  August 
22,  1830,  belonged  to  a  family  of  artists,  both 
musical  and  dramatic.  She  was  educated  at 
Milan,  and  learned  singing  under  Cataneo.  She 
made  her  first  appearance  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
July  1846,  in  'I  Due  Foscari'  at  Milan.  After 
a  short  time  she  went  to  Verona,  and  thence  to 
Copenhagen,  confirming  at  each  place  the  promise 
of  excellence  which  she  had  already  given.  At 
Copenhagen  no  effort  was  spared  to  retain  her 
for  a  prolonged  engagement,  but  the  climate  was 
intolerable  to  her.  She  next  appeared  at  Madrid, 
where  she  was  enthusiastically  applauded,  and 
her  re-engagement  demanded  unanimously.  In 
1848  she  appeared  in  Paris  in  'I  Due  Foscari,' 
but  this  time  without  effect.  She  went  immedi- 
ately to  the  Havana,  and  thence  to  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Boston.  At  all  these  places 
she  was  much  admired.  In  1851  she  retumed 
to  Europe,  and  married  a  Greek  gentleman  named 
Xindavelonis.  She  was  engaged  for  the  next 
season  by  Mr.  Gye  at  Covent  Garden,  and  made 
her  debut  in  'L'Elisir  d'Amore,'  July  15,  1852. 
Of  her  person  all  could  judge  ;  but  her  voice 
seemed  wiry,  strange,  perpetually  out  of  tune,  , 
and  her  execution  wild  and  ambitious.  Never 
was  a  first  appearance  more  scant  in  musical 
promise  of  one  who  was  destined  during  her 
short  career  to  become  so  deservedly  great  a 
favourite.  But  Madame  Bosio  was  curiously 
made  up  of  contradictions.  Her  features  were 
irregular  and  ill- formed  ;  yet  on  the  stage  she 
was  so  pleasing  as  to  be  known  by  the  sobriquet  of 
•'  Beaux  yeux.'  '  Next  to  Madame  Sontag,  she  { 
was  the  most  ladylike  person  whom  I,'  says  Mr.  I 
Chorley,  'have  seen  on  the  stage  of  the  Italian  [ 
Opera.  She  had  a  certain  condescending  grace- 
fulness, which  made  up  for  coldness.  This 
demeanour,  and  her  happy  taste  in  dress,  had 
no  small  influence  on  the  rapid  growth  of  her 
popularity,  which  grew  to  exceed  that  of  Madame  ! 
Persiani,  whom  she  replaced,  and  whom  by 


j  many  she  was  thought  to  surpass,  though  in  no 
I  respect  her  equal  as  a  singer.'  At  the  end  of  this 
season  she  made  her  first  hit  in  'I  Puritani,' 
taking  the  place  of  Grisi,  who  had  declined  to  sing. 
This  was  the  turning  point  of  Bosio's  fortune. 
During  the  wdnter  she  was  the  prima  donna  at 
Paris,  and  reappeared  in  the  next  spring  in  London 
in  'Matilda  di  Shabran,'  '  Jessonda,'  and  'Rigo- 
letto.'  The  latter  was  produced  May  14.  'Her 
j  gay  handsome  face,  her  winning  mezzosoprano 
j  voice,  not  without  a  Cremona  tone  in  it,  redeeming 
I  the  voice  from  lusciousness,  and  her  neat,  lively 
;  execution,  were  all  displayed  in  this  part,  short 
I  as  it  is.'  From  this  date  Bosio  met  with  nothing 
,  but  most  brilliant  success.  In  1854  she  re- 
I  appeared  in  'II  Barbiere,'  and  the  critics  had 
I  no  words  too  glowing  to  express  their  admiration, 
j  In  'I  Puritani'  she  was,  with  the  exception  of 
'  course  of  Grisi,  the  best  Elvira  that  had  been 
seen.  The  winter  seas^^on  found  her  again  in 
Paris,  and  the  spring  of  1855  in  London  at  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera, — in  'Eraani'  and  'Le 
Comte  Ory.'  She  sang  at  the  Norwich  Festi- 
val,  receiving  £300  for  four  days.  That  same  year 
she  accepted  an  engagement  at  St.  Petersburg, 
the  terms  being  ioo»ooo  francs  for  four  months, 
with  a  guaranteed  benefit  of  1 5,000  francs  and 
a  permission  to  sing  at  privace  concerts.  Her 
success  was  extraordinary.  Thence  she  went 
to  Moscow.  In  1856  she  retumed  to  Covent 
Garden.  Her  most  remarkable  performance  was 
in  '  La  Traviata,'  in  which  she  presented  a  very 
different  reading  of  the  character  to  that  of  Mile. 
Piccolomini  at  the  other  house.  In  1857  she  re- 
appeared in  'La  Traviata,'  and  in  'Era  Diavolo' 
with  Gardoni  and  Ronconi.  In  1858,  after  again 
singing  at  St.  Petersburg  with  the  greatest 
success,  she  retumed  to  London  in  May  and 
reappeared  at  the  new  theatre,  Covent  Garden. 
Returning  again  to  St.  Petersburg  she  was 
nominated  premiere  cantatrice,  an  honour  never 
bestowed  before.  On  April  12,  1859,  she  sud- 
denly died.  Her  delicate  constitution  could  not 
endure  the  rigorous  climate  of  Russia.  Never 
was  the  loss  of  an  admired  singer  and  charming 
artist  more  acutely  felt  by  the  whole  musical 
public.  She  was  buried  with  public  ceremonial, 
April  1 5,  in  the  cathedral  vaults  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. [J.  M.] 
BOTTEE  DE  TOULMON,  an  amateur,  who 
was  Librarian  to  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris  from 
Aug.  1 831  till  his  death  ;  bom  at  Paris  May  15, 
1797,  died  there,  from  an  attack  brought  on  by 
the  Revolution  of  1848,  March  22,  1850.  His 
merits  appear  to  have  been  chiefly  those  of  de- 
votion and  perseverance.  According  to  Fetis' 
account  (Biogr.  Univ.)  he  was  incompetent  and 
inaccurate,  and  his  works — treatises  on  musical 
history  and  archaeology,  of  which  F^tis  gives  a 
list — appear  not  to  be  trustworthy.  But  he  de- 
serves the  gratitude  of  all  students  of  music  for 
having  published  the  catalogue  of  the  compo- 
sitions of  Cherubini,  which  was  kept  up  year  by 
year  by  that  master,  and  published  after  his  death 
under  the  title  of  '  Notice  des  Manuscrits  Auto- 
graphes  de  Musique  compos^e  par  feu  M.  L.  C.  Z 


BOTTLE  DE  TOULMOX. 


BOURGEOIS. 


263 


S.  Cherubim,  exsurintendant  de  la  musique  du  roi, 
Directeur  du  Conservatoire  de  musique,  Com- 
mauJeur  de  Tordre  royale  de  la  legion  d'honneur, 
Membre  de  I'lnstitut  de  France,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 
Paris,  chez  les  principaux  editeurs  de  musique, 
I S43.'  It  is  an  8vo.  pamphlet  of  36  pages,  with 
a  short  preface  by  M.  Bottee  de  Toulmon,  and 
a  notice  to  intending  purchasers,  for  whom  it  was 
made  public.  It  is  now  very  rare.  [G.] 
BOTTOMLEY,  Joseph,  bom  at  Halifax, 
Yorkshire,  in  1 786,  at  a  very  early  age  evinced 
a  strong  predilection  for  music,  and  so  quickly 
profited  by  the  instruction  he  received  as  to  be 
able  at  seven  years  of  age  to  perform  a  ^-iolin 
concerto  in  public.  At  twelve  years  of  age  he 
was  removed  to  Manchester,  where  he  studied 
under  Grimshaw,  organist  of  St.  .T ohn's  Church, 
and  Watts,  leader  of  the  concerts.  By  the  advice 
of  the  latter  he  took  lessons  on  the  violin  from 
Yaniewicz,  then  in  Manchester.  At  fifteen  he 
was  articled  to  Lawton,  organist  of  St.  Peter's, 
Leeds.    On  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  went 

London,  and  studied  pianoforte  playing  under  i 
Woelfl.  In  1807  he  was  appointed  organist  of  1 
the  parish  church  of  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  but  j 
resided  and  taught  chiefly  in  Halifax.  In  1S20  j 
he  was  chosen  organist  of  the  parish  church,  | 
Sheflield.  Bottomley  published  several  of  his 
compositions  for  the  pianoforte,  and,  in  1S16,  a 
small  dictionary  of  music.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BOUCHE  FEEMEE,   X  — i.e.  with  shut  | 
mouth — vocalisation  without  words,  with  the  | 
teeth  closed  and  the  lips  nearly  so ;   a  trick 
occasionally-  adopted  by  composei-s.     Examples  1 
may  be  found  amongst  the  German  part-songs,  | 
and  also  in  Gk)miod's  works.    There  have  been  i 
singing  masters  who  recommended  the  practice  ' 
to  their  pupils,  imder  an  idea  that  it  strengthened 
the  breathing   power  without  distressing  the 
vocaI  organs.    Beethoven  never  wrote  anything  | 
a  houche  fermee,  but  he  alludes  to  the  practice 
in  a  droU  letter  (Sept.  23,  1S24)  to  Hauschka, 
conferring  on  him  the  '  Intendanz '  of  all  '  Sing-  : 
und-Brvunm-Vereine.'  [W.  H.  C]  1 

BOUCHER.  Alexandre  Jean,  a  well-known  ! 
violinist,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1 770.   It  is  related  1 
that  he  played  at  the  court  when  only  six,  and 
at  the  Concert  Spiritual  when  eight  years  of  age.  ' 
In  17S7  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed solo-violinist  to  the  king,  and  associated 
as  a  quartet -player  with  Boccherini.    In  1S06  j 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  in  1820  began  to  ' 
travel  over  Europe,  exciting  everywhere,  if  not 
the  imoonditionail  approbation  of  artists  and  , 
critics,  at  any  rate  the  admiration  and  curiosity  ' 
of  the  general  public  by  his  extraordinary-  per- 
formances.    In  1S44  he  returned  to  France, 
settled  at  Orleans,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1S61. 

Possessed  undoubtedly  of  an  exceptional  talent  ' 
for  execution,  Boucher  was  not  a  little  of  a 
musical  charlatan.  Spohr  made  his  personal 
acquaintance  at  Brussels  in  I  Si  9,  and  speaks  of 
him  as  follows :  '  His  face  bore  a  remarkable 
likeness  to  Xapoleon  Bonaparte's,  and  he  had 
e^-idently  carefully  studied  the  banished  emperor's 


'  way  of  bearing  himself,  lifting  his  hat,  taking 
:  snufF,'  etc.  (Selbstbiog.  ii.  73).     As  soon  as  he 
!  came  to  a  to^-n  where  he  intended  giving  a 
I  concert,  he  practised  these  -tricks  on  the  public 
[  walks  and  in  the  theatre,  in  order  to  attract  the 
I  curiosity  of  the  public ;  he  even  managed  to 
I  spread  a  rumour  that  he  was  persecuted  by 
!  existing  governments  on  account  of  his  likeness 
I  to  Xapoleon,  because  his  appearance  was  likely  to 
I  revive  the  s\-mpathies  of  the  masses  for  that  great 
man.    He  certainly  advertised  a  concert  at  Lille 
1  in  these  terms  :  *  Une  malheureuse  ressemblance 
me  force  de  m'expatrier ;  je  donnerai  done  avant 
de  quitter  ma  belle  patrie,  un  concert  d'adieux,' 
etc.     He  also  styled  himself  'L' Alexandre  des 
Violons.' 

In  his  proficiency  in  the  execution  of  double 
stops,  the  staccato,  and  other  technical  diffi- 
culties, he  appears  to  have  been  only  surpassed  by 
Paganini,  and  we  are  assured  by  competent  con- 
temporary critics  that  he  now  and  then  played 
a  slow  movement  with  ravishing,  if  somewhat 
extravagant,  expression.  But  whatever  powers 
of  execution  his  performances  may  have  shown, 
if,  as  Spohr  states,  he  altogether  spoiled  a  quar- 
tet of  Haydn  by  tasteless  additions,  we  must  con- 
clude that  he  was  but  an  indifferent  musician. 
AJfter  what  we  know  of  his  general  character 
as  an  artist,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  he 
not  unfrequently  wound  up  a  furious  passage  by 
intentionally  upsetting  the  bridge  of  his  violin 
as  a  climax,  and  that  he  used  to  perform  quite 
as  much  by  the  action  of  the  face  and  legs  as  of 
the  bow. 

Boucher  s  wife  was  a  clever  player  on  the 
harp,  but  seems  to  have  adopted  her  husband's 
doubtful  means  of  winning  the  applause  of  the 
public.  She  used  to  play  duets  for  piano  and 
harp,  with  one  hand  on  each  instrument.  [P.  D.] 

BOULAXGER,  Mme.  Makte  Julie  (nee 
Halligner\  bom  17S6,  died  1850;  a  dramatic 
singer.  She  studied  in  the  Conservatoire  under 
Plantade  and  Garat,  and  made  her  debut  with 
immense  success  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  iSii. 
Her  voice  was  fine,  her  execution  brilliant,  and 
her  acting  fuU  of  character  and  intelligence. 
Her  most  successful  rules  were  those  of  soubrettes 
and  maid-servants.  She  remained  on  the  stage 
tiU  184=,  but  her  voice  had  failed  some  time 
previously.  [^L  G.  C] 

BOURGEOIS.  Louis,  writer  on  the  theory  of 
music,  bom  in  Paris  in  the  beginning  of  the 
1 6th  century.  He  followed  Calvin  in  1541  to 
Geneva,  where  he  was  cantor  of  one  of  the 
churches,  but  quarrelled  with  the  presbytery, 
who  would  not  allow  him  to  introduce  a  har- 
monised version  of  the  Psalms  in  public  worship. 
He  threw  up  his  post,  and  returned  in  1557  ^ 
Paris,  where  he  was  stiU  living  in  1561,  but 
after  that  date  aU  trace  of  him  is  lost.  His 
great  work  is  *Le  droict  chemin  de  musique, 
etc.  (Geneva,  1550).  In  this  he  proposed  a  new 
Bvstem  of  notation,  which  was  accepted  not  only 
bv  the  Protestants!  but  by  all  French  musicians' 
and  not  finally  abandoned  till  the  beginning  of 


264 


BOURGEOIS. 


BOW. 


the  iQtli  century.  Bourgeois  published  ieveral 
Eets  of  Psalms  iu  four  parts.  [F.  G.] 

BOUEGEOIS,  Louis  Thomas,  dramatic  com- 
poser, bom  at  Fontaine  I'Eveque  in  1676.  He  j 
■was  counter-tenor  at  the  Grand  Opera  in  Paris 
in  1708,  but  in  1 71 1  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
composing.  In  1 71 3  he  produced  *Les  Amours 
deguises,'  and  in  1 715  'Les  plaisirs  de  la  paix.' 
He  was  chapel-master  at  Toul  in  17 16,  and  after- 
wards at  Strasbourg.  He  died  in  Paris  in  great 
poverty,  Jan.  1 750.  He  composed  sixteen  operas 
{ioT  list  see  Fetis)  and  many  cantatas.      [F.  G.] 

BOUEGES,  Clemextdte  de,  eminent  com-  ! 
poser  of  the  i6th  century.    Her  husband  was  ; 
killed  fighting  against  the  Huguenots  in  1560,  ' 
and  she  died  of  grief  Sept.  30  in  the  following 
year.    Her  compositions  deserve  to  be  ranked 
with  those  of  the  great  composers  of  her  time. 
A  four-part  chorus,  'Da  bei  rami,'  by  her  is  in- 
cluded in  Paix's  '  Orgel-tabulatur-Buch.'  [F.  G.] 

BOUEGES,  Jean  Maurice,  distinguished 
musical  critic,  bom  at  Bordeaux  Dec.  2,  1S12; 
came  early  to  Paris,  and  studied  composition 
■under  Barbereau.  Ini839  he  became  joint-editor 
of  the  'Eevue  et  Gazette  musicale,'  the  high 
reputation  of  which  paper  is  in  great  measure 
owing  to  him.  In  1846  'Sultana,'  an  opera  of 
his,  was  successfully  produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique.  He  made  an  excellent  translation  of 
the  words  of  Mendelssohn's  '  Elijah.'  He  died 
in  1868,  after  an  illness  of  many  years.    [F.  G.] 

BOUEEEE.   A  dance  of  French  origin,  which 
is  said  to  have  come  from  the  province  of  Au- 
vergne.    According  to  other  authorities,  how- 
ever, it  is  a  Spanish  dance,  from  Biscay,  where  it 
is  said  to  be  still  practised.    The  bourree  is  often 
to  be  found  in  the  older  suites,  especially  in.  those 
of  Bach,  and  is  of  a  rapid  tempo,  in  common 
(allabreve)  time.     In  its  general  character  it 
presents  some  features  of  analogy  -with  the  Ga- 
votte, from  which,  however,  it  may  readily  be 
distinguished  ;  first,  because  it  is  in  allabreve 
time,  that  is,  with  only  two  beats  in  the  bar, 
whereas  the  gavotte  has  four ;   and  secondly,  | 
that  the  latter  begins  on  the  third  crotchet  in  the  1 
bar,  while  the  bourree  always  commences  on  the  j 
fourth.   Like  most  of  the  older  dance- movements,  ' 
it  consists  of  two  parts,  each  of  which  is  repeated.  [ 
In  Bach's  suites,  a  second  bourree  frequently  j 
follows  the  first,  in  the  same  way  as  in  a  svm-  I 
phony  or  sonata,  a  trio  follows  a  minuet,  after  j 
which  the  first  bourree  is  repeated.    There  is  a 
good  modem  example  in  Sullivan's  music  to  the  j 
*  Merchant  of  Venice,'  [E.  P.] 

BOUSQUET,  Georges,  composer  and  critic, 
bom  at  Perpignan  1818,  died  at  St.  Cloud  1854  ; 
entered  the  Conservatoire  as  violin  pupU ;  won 
the  Grand  Prix  in  1838;  and  his  compositions 
while  he  held  the  prize,  particularly  two  masses 
(Eome,  1839-40),  excited  hopes  of  a  brilliant 
career.  But  his  first  opera,  '  Le  Mousquetaire,' 
produced  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  1844,  was  a 
failure.  'Taburin'  (1852)  met  with  better  suc- 
cess.    For  three  seasons  Bousquet  conducted 


the  orchestra  at  the  Theatre  Italien.  He  con- 
tributed articles  to  the  'Eevue  et  Gazette  mu- 
sicale.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BOW.  The  strings  of  the  various  instruments 
of  the  ■violin  tribe  are  made  to  ■vibrate  by  friction 
■with  the  hair  of  the  bow.  Like  the  violin, 
the  bow  went  through  many  progressive  phases, 
till,  at  the  end  of  last  century,  it  acquired  its 
present  shape,  which  seems  to  leave  no  room  for 
improvement.  The  bow  with  which  the  Eebec 
(the  oldest  stringed  instmment  played  with  the 
bow  ■with  which  we  are  acquainted)  was  played, 
had  the  form  of  the  weapon  from  which  it  derived 
its  name.  The  stick  was  much  bent,  and  a  cord 
or  string  was  tied  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
(Fig.  I.) 


Fig.  I.        Fig.  2.       Fig.  3.        Fig.  4. 

(1620.)  (164c.)  (i66c.) 

In  pictures  of  the  13th  century  we  notice 
something  like  a  nut  and  head,  and  hair  ■was 
possibly  used  in  place  of  the  cord.  The  bow 
now  gradually  loses  more  and  more  the  actual 
bow-shape  (Figs.  2,  3,  4)  ;  the  head  is  distinct 
from  the  stick,  and  the  nut  is  no  longer  a  portion 
of  the  stick,  but  is  attached  to  it  by  a  wire. 
On  the  top  of  the  stick  a  narrow  piece  of  in- 
dented iron  is  fixed,  on  which  the  wire  is  hooked, 
and  thus  the  hair  made  tighter  or  looser  at  plea- 
sure. (Fig.  5.)  The  next  step  consisted  in  the 
substitution  of  a  screw  for  the  ■wire  and  in- 
dented iron,  by  which  the  tension  of  the  hair 
could  be  perfectly  regulated.  This  was  CoreUi's 
bow.  (Fig.  6.)  It  was  made  of  light  wood,  the 
stick  perfectly  straight,  hardly  if  at  all  elastic, 
and  very  short.  Tartini's  bow  (Fig.  7)  was  con- 
siderably longer,  the  wood  thinner,  and  more 
elastic. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  iSth  century  Francois 
TouRTE  brought  the  art  of  bow-making  to  per- 
fection, and  created  a  model  on  which  no  im- 
provement has  been  yet  made.    In  fact  his  bow 


BOW. 


BOWING. 


265 


combines  all  the  qualities  required  to  enable  the 
player  to  follow  out  every  conceivable  nuance  of 
tone  and  movement  —  lightness,  firmness,  and 
elasticity.  The  stick  of  the  modern  violin  bow 
(Fig.  8)  is  made  of  Brazilian  lance-wood  {Dio- 
guetia  quitarensis)  or  of  Snake-wood  {Brosimmn 
aiiUetii) ;  it  is  cut  straight,  following  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  and  afterwards  slightly  bent  by  ex- 
posure to  heat.   Although  many  trials  have  been 


lig.  5.       Fig.  6.  Fig.  7.         Fig.  8. 

(1700.)  (1740-) 


made  no  wood  has  been  found  to  possess  the 
necessary  qualities  in  the  same  degree  as  those 
mentioned. 

The  nut  (c,  Fig.  9)  is  made  either  of  ebony 
or  tortoise-shell.  For  violin,  tenor,  and  violon- 
cello bows  white  horse-hair  is  used ;  for  double- 
bass  bows  (which  are  made  of  beech  wood)  black. 


Fig.  9. 

The  hair  {h)  is  inserted  in  the  head  (e)  and  the 
nut  of  the  bow,  and  can  be  made  tighter  or  looser 
by  turning  the  screw  {d). 

The  hair  from  the  tail  of  stallions  is  preferred, 
as  being  stronger,  more  even,  and  free  from 
greasiness.  The  friction  on  the  string  is  increased 
by  the  application  of  rosin.  From  175  to  250 
hairs  are  put  into  a  violin  bow.  Tourte  fixed 
the  length  of  a  violin-bow  to  29-29^  inches. 


of  a  tenor  bow  to  29,  and  of  a  violoncello  bow  to 
28.^-28-^.  The  bows  of  Tourte's  own  make  are 
still  considered  the  best,  and  command  a  high 
price  ;  though  not  a  few  modern  bow-makera 
have  turned  out  very  good  bows,  which  frequently 
go  under  his  name.  [P.  D.] 

BOWING.  This  term  is  used  in  a  twofold 
sense,  corresponding  to  the  German  terms  *Bo- 
genfiihrung'  and  'Strichart'  respectively.  In  the 
first  it  designates  in  a  general  way  the  action  of 
the  bow  on  stringed  instruments,  and  in  that 
sense  we  speak  of  a  style  and  method  of  bow- 
ing, or  of  the  bowing  of  a  player.  In  the  second 
it  means  the  particular  manner  in  which  a  phrase 
or  passage  is  to  be  executed,  and  the  signs  by 
which  such  a  manner  is  usually  marked  ;  and  in 
that  sense  we  speak  of  the  bowing  of  a  phrase 
or  passage. 

I.  Bowing  {Bogenfiihrung) .  While  the  left 
hand  of  the  violin-player  fixes  the  tone,  and 
thereby  does  that  which  for  the  piano-player  is 
ah-eady  done  by  the  mechanism  of  the  instru- 
ment,— and  while  his  correctness  of  intonation 
(supposing  his  ear  to  be  accurate)  depends  on  the 
proficiency  of  his  left  hand,  as  with  the  piano- 
player  it  depends  on  the  tuners  proficiency, — it 
is  the  action  of  the  violinist's  right  hand,  hia 
bowing,  which,  analogous  to  the  pianist's  touch, 
makes  the  sound  spring  into  life ;  it  is  through 
the  medium  of  the  bow  that  the  player  realises 
his  ideas  and  feelings.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  'bowing'  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
difficult  parts  of  the  art  of  violin-playing,  and 
that  the  excellence  of  a  player,  and  even  of  a 
whole  school  of  violin-playing,  to  a  great  extent 
depends  on  its  method  of  bowing.  The  progress 
of  the  art  of  bowing  closely  followed  the  gradual 
perfection  of  the  bow  itself.  As  long  as  the  stick 
of  the  bow  was  stiff  and  unpliable  and  the  hair 
could  not  be  made  tighter  or  looser  at  pleasure, 
we  can  hardly  speak  of  an  art  of  bowing ;  for 
that  art  can  only  be  practised  with  an  elastic 
bow,  which  yields  to  the  slightest  pressure  of 
tlie  fingers.  As  long  as  the  violin-player  had 
merely  to  double  the  singers'  part,  no  other 
nuances  but  piano  and  forte  were  required  from 
him.  These  the  stiff  bow  could  produce,  but 
nothing  more.  When  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 8th  century  the  violin  began  to  emancipate 
itself  from  the  position  of  a  mere  accompanyist, 
and  entered  on  its  glorious  career  of  a  solo- 
instrument,  under  such  masters  as  Corelli  and 
Vivaldi,  it  was  only  by  the  use  of  an  elastic  bow 
that  it  could  acquire  the  faculty  of  producing 
various  nuances  and  shades  of  tone.  Tartini  was 
the  first  to  make  the  stick  at  all  elastic,  and  must 
therefore  be  considered  the  next  great  advancer 
of  the  art  of  bowing.  His  work,  'L'Arte  dell' 
Arco,'  probably  gives  us  a  correct  idea  of  the 
bowing  of  his  time.  A  full  broad  tone,  a  variety 
of  combinations  of  tied  and  detached  notes,  ar- 
peggios with  firm  bow  (no  'springing  bow'  as 
yet), — are  the  main  features  of  his  bowing.  The 
full  development,  however,  of  all  the  powers  of 
the  violin  was  only  possible  with  the  modern 
bow,  as  first  made  by  Tourte  of  Paris.  Th^ 


266 


BOWING. 


BOWLEY. 


thin,  bent,  elastic  stick  of  his  bow  enables  the 
player  to  follow  out  the  slightest  gradations  of 
tone  from  the  fullest  forte  to  the  softest  piano,  to 
mark  all  kinds  of  strong  and  gentle  accents,  to 
execute  staccato,  legato,  saltato,  and  arpeggio  pas- 
sages. It  cannot  be  said  that  the  classical  Paris 
school  of  violin-playing  availed  itself  of  all  these 
advantages  of  Tourte's  invention;  their  bowing 
does  not  show  very  great  progress  beyond  Tartini 
and  his  school,  and  even  Spohr  does  not  ad- 
vance materially  upon  them.  But  with  Paganini 
a  new  era  opened  in  the  art.  He  uses  freely 
almost  every  imaginable  movement  of  the  bow — 
he  adds  to  the  firm  slow  staccato  the  quick  stac- 
cato of  many  notes — he  develops  the  movement 
of  the  wrist  to  the  highest  perfection,  enabling 
him  to  execute  all  kinds  of  bowing  with  the 
utmost  celerity.  But  it  cannot  be  said  that  this 
method  of  bowing  was  altogether  favourable  to  a 
good  musical  style  of  playing,  which  requires  as 
its  first  essential  breadth  of  tone.  Now  this  can 
only  be  produced  by  a  perfectly  quiet  manage- 
ment of  the  bow,  hardly  compatible  with  Paga- 
nini's  style  of  bowing. 

It  is  the  merit  of  the  modem  German  school, 
represented  chiefly  at  the  Vienna  and  Leipzig 
Conservatoires,  and  by  the  greatest  of  modern 
violinists,  Joacliim,  to  have  combined  the  funda- 
mental qualities  of  all  good  bowing  with  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  Paganini's  style, 
without  following  onesidedly,  as  the  modem 
French  school  has  done,  his  brilliant  but  ex- 
travagant example,  and  thereby  losing  the  true 
dignity  of  style  handed  down  from  Corelli  and 
Tartini  to  Viotti,  Rode,  Spohr,  and  our  day. 

2,  Bowing  (Strichart).  To  the  correct  and 
truthful  rendering  of  a  musical  phrase  or  passage 
on  a  stringed  instrument,  it  is  essential  that  an 
appropriate  bowing  should  be  chosen,  or,  if 
already  given  by  the  composer,  be  strictly  ad- 
hered to.  This  appears  self-evident,  if  we  con- 
sider how  one  and  the  same  passage,  bowed  in 
two  different  ways,  may  produce  two  entirely 
different  effects.  A  succession  of  notes,  intended 
by  the  composer  to  be  played  as  a  legato  passage, 
and  therefore  with  as  little  changing  of  bow  as 
possible,  would,  if  played  with  detached  strokes 
of  the  bow,  entirely  lose  its  character.  And 
again,  to  give  a  well-known  example,  what  would 
become  of  the  light  and  sparkling  passages  of  one 
of  Mendelssohn's  Scherzi,  if  the  staccato  notes 
were  played  legato  ?  Its  character  would  be 
destroyed  so  as  to  become  almost  irrecognisable. 
True,  the  old  masters  left  it  more  or  less  to  the 
discretion  of  the  performer  to  choose  an  appro- 
priate bowing  for  the  different  parts  of  their 
compositions,  and  trusted  to  their  artistic  feeling 
and  tact  in  this  respect.  Nay,  if  we  go  back  to 
Handel  and  Bach,  we  often  find  what  can  only  be 
called  a  mere  sketch  of  a  passage.  Bach,  in  his 
celebrated  Violin  Solos  repeatedly  gives  long  suc- 
cessions of  chords  in  three  and  four  parts,  merely 
adding  the  word  '  arpeggio,'  and  leaving  it  to  the 
player  to  execute  them  with  a  variety  of  bowings 
of  his  own  choice  and  invention.  However,  the 
modern  masters — partly  since  Mozart  and  Haydn. 


and  absolutely  since  Beethoven— have  given  up 
this  imperfect  way  of  notation,  just  as  they  gave 
up  writing  figured  basses  instead  of  explicit  ac- 
companiments, and  at  the  present  time  a  com- 
poser very  rarely  omits  to  indicate  the  bowing 
with  which  he  intends  each  passage  to  be  exe- 
cuted. With  the  tendency  of  all  modem  com- 
posers since  Beethoven  and  Schubert  to  bring 
the  characteristic  and  descriptive  power  of  music 
more  and  more  into  the  foreground,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  advanced  technique  of  modern 
violin -playing  should  have  developed  a  great 
number  of  new  varieties  of  bowing,  in  order  to 
do  justice  to  all  the  subtle  nuances  which  were  to 
be  rendered. 

In  orchestral  performances  and  in  the  playing 
of  chamber-music  it  is  chiefly  uniformity  of 
bowing  which  is  to  be  aimed  at,  and  which 
alone  ensures  a  well-balanced  unanimous  effect. 
The  undeniable  excellency  of  the  orchestral 
performances  at  the  concerts  of  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  at  the  Gewandhaus- concerts  in 
Leipzig,  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Saturday  Concerts, 
and  similar  institutions  elsewhere,  is  owing  at 
least  as  much  to  the  enforcement  of  uniform 
bowing  on  the  part  of  the  conductors  and  leaders 
of  the  bands  as  to  the  careful  observance  of 
the  pianos,  fortes,  and  other  dynamic  signs. 

A  number  of  signs  are  used  in  musical  notation 
to  indicate  various  ways  of  bowing:  (i)  a  slur 
— ^  indicates  that  all  the  notes  under  the  slur 
are  to  be  played  in  one  stroke  of  the  bow ; 
legato.  (2)  A  slur  with  dots,  7~,  means  either 
staccato  or  saltato  in  one  stroke ;  while  the  ab- 
sence of  a  slur  indicates  that  every  note  is  to  be 
done  by  a  separate  stroke.  (3)  Dots  or  dashes 
over  the  notes  ( •  •  •  or  '  '  ' )  mean  sharp  short 
strokes,  either  with  firm  bow  (martelle)  or  with 
springing  bows  (spicato  or  saltato).  (4)  U  H 
means  a  downstroke,  from  the  nut  of  the  bow  to- 
wards the  head ;  y  or  A  an  upstroke.      [P.  D.] 

BOWLEY,  Egbert  Kanzow,  the  son  of  a 
boot -maker  at  Charing  Cross,  was  born  May  13, 
1 8 13.  He  was  bred  to  his  father's  business, 
and  succeeded  him  in  it.  His  first  knowledge 
of  music  was  acquired  by  association  with  the 
choristers  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Ardent  and 
enthusiastic,  he  pursued  his  studies  vigorously. 
Whilst  still  a  youth  he  joined  a  small  society 
called  '  The  Benevolent  Society  of  Musical  Ama- 
teurs,' of  which  he  afterwards  became  conductor. 
In  1834  he  was  one  of  the  committee  who 
promoted  and  carried  out  the  '  Amateur  Musical 
Festival'  at  Exeter  Hall.  About  the  same  time 
he  became  organist  of  the  Independent  Chapel  in 
Orange  Street,  Leicester  Square,  and  continued 
so  for  several  years.  In  October,  1834,  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  then  in  its  infancy,  and  was  soon 
afterwards  elected  a  member  of  its  committee. 
On  the  foundation  of  the  society's  now  mag- 
nificent musical  library  in  1837  Mr.  Bowley  was 
appointed  its  librarian,  an  office  which  he  held 
until  1854,  when  he  was  chosen  treasurer,  which 
post  he  occupied  until  his  death.  During  the 
entire  period  of  his  connection  with  the  society 


BOWLEY. 


BOYCE. 


267 


he  laboured  incessantly  to  promote  its  welfare 
and  advance  its  reputation,  and  instigated  most 
of  the  steps  which  have  tended  to  place  it  in 
its  present  high  position.  The  scheme  of  cele- 
brating the  centenary  of  the  death  of  Handel 
by  performances  of  his  music  on  a  scale  of 
unprecedented  magnitude,  and  which  event- 
ually led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Handel 
Festivals  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  was  originated 
by  him.  In  1858  he  was  appointed  General 
manager  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  in  which  post 
he  proved  himself  to  be  undoubtedly  '  the  right 
man  in  the  right  place,'  and  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  August  25,  1870.  The  energetic 
and  self-devoted  manner  in  which  he  discharged 
his  duties  will  be  long  remembered  by  all  who 
were  associated  with  him.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BOWMAN,  Henry,  published  at  Oxford  in 
1677  a  thin  folio  volume  bearing  the  title  of 

*  Songs  for  one,  two,  and  three  voyces  to  the 
Thorow-Bass.  With  some  Short  Siraphonies. 
Collected  out  of  some  of  the  Select  Poems  of 
the  incomparable  Mr.  Cowley,  and  others,  and 
composed  by  Henry  Bowman,  Philo  -  Musi- 
cus.'  A  second  edition  appeared  at  Oxford  in 
1679.  [W.H.  H.] 

BOYCE,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  was  born  at 
Joiners'  Hall,  Upper  Thames  Street  (of  which 
company  his  father,  a  cabinet  maker,  was 
beadle),  in  1710.  He  became  a  chorister  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  under  Charles  King,  and,  on 
quitting  the  choir,  an  articled  pupil  of  Maurice 
Greene,  then  organist  of  the  cathedral.  On  the 
expiration  of  his  articles  he  obtained  the  situa- 
tion of  organist  of  Oxford  Chapel,  Vere  Street, 
Cavendish  Square,  and  pursued  his  studies  under 
Dr.  Pepusch,  While  yet  a  young  man  Boyce's 
hearing  became  much  impaired,  a  calamity  the 
greatest  that  can  befal  a  musician,  but  which,  in 
his  case,  did  not  lessen  the  ardour  with  which  he 
pursued  his  studies.  In  1736  he  gave  up  his 
appointment  at  Oxford  Chapel  upon  obtaining 
the  post  of  organist  at  St.  Michael's,  Cornhill, 
which  had  become  vacant  by  the  removal  of 
Joseph  Kelway  to  St.  Martin' s-in-the-Fields. 
On  June  21  in  the  same  year  he  was  sworn  into 
the  place  of  Composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the 
room  of  John  Weldon,  then  lately  deceased.  He 
most  ably  discliarged  the  duties  of  this  office 
by  the  composition  of  many  fine  anthems  and 
services,  several  of  which  are  still,  and  will  long 
continue  to  be,  in  use  'in  quires  and  places 
where  they  sing.'  In  1737  was  appointed 
conductor  of  the  meetings  of  the  Three  Choirs 
of  Gloucester,  W'orcester,  and  Hereford,  which 
office  he  held  for  several  years.  In  1740  he 
composed  the  music  for  John  Lockman's  oratorio 

*  ])avid's  Lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jonathan,' 
and  had  it  performed  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre. 
About  the  same  time  he  set  two  odes  for  St. 
Cecilia' .s  day,  one  written  by  Lockman,  the  other 
by  the  Kev.  Mr.  Vidal,  undermaster  of  West- 
minster School.  In  1743  he  produced  the 
sei-enata  of  *  Solomon,'  written  by  Edward 
Moore,  which  was  eminently  successful,  and  one 


song  in  which  (' Softly  rise,  0  southern  breeze,' 
for  tenor  voice  with  bassoon  obligate)  retained 
its  popularity  for  upwards  of  a  century,  and  is 
still  occasionally  heard.  In  1749,  on  the  erection 
of  an  organ  in  the  church  of  AUhallows  the 
Great  and  Less,  Thames  Street,  Boyce  was 
chosen  organist.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
selected  to  compose  the  music  for  the  ode 
written  by  William  Mason  for  the  installation 
of  Henry  Pelham,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  as  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  The 
ode,  with  Boyce's  music,  was  performed  in  the 
Senate  House,  July  i,  1749,  ^"^^  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  being  Commencement  Sunday,  an 
anthem  with  orchestral  accomi)animents,  by 
Boyce,  was  performed  in  Great  St,  Mary's 
Church,  as  an  exercise  for  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Music,  which  the  University  then  conferred 
on  him.  Both  these  compositions  were  soon 
afterwards  published  together.  In  the  same 
year  Boyce  appe;ired  as  a  composer  for  the 
theatre  by  setting  Lord  Lansdowne's  masque 
of  'Peleus  and  Thetis'  (introduced  into  his 
lordship's  alteration  of  'The  Merchant  of 
Venice,'  entitled  'The  Jew  of  Venice')  and 
Moses  Mendez's  musical  entertainment,  'The 
Chaplet' ;  the  latter  of  which  met  with  great 
success.  In  1750  he  set  another  piece  of  the 
same  kind,  also  written  by  Mendez,  called 
■'The  Shepherd's  Lottery.'  On  the  death  of 
Dr.  Greene,  in  1675,  Dr.  Boyce  was  appointed 
his  successor  as  master  of  the  king's  band 
of  music,  and  conductor  of  the  annual  festi- 
vals of  the  Sons  of  the  Clergy  at  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  In  the  former  capacity  he  was 
required  to  compose  music  for  the  new-year 
and  birth-day  odes  of  the  poet-laureate  ;  in  the 
latter  he  voluntarily  composed  two  fine  anthems 
with  orchestral  accompaniments,  besides  addi- 
tional accompaniments  and  choruses  for  Purcell's 
Te  Deum  and  J ubilate,  written  for  St.  Cecilia's 
day,  1694.  In  1758,  on  the  death  of  John 
Travers,  Boyce  was  appointed  one  of  the  or- 
ganists of  the  Chapel  Royal,  upon  which  he 
resigned  his  places  at  St.  Michael's,  Cornhill, 
and  AUhallows,  Thames  Street,  and,  his  deafness 
still  increasing,  he  gave  up  teaching,  and  re- 
moved to  Kensington,  where  he  employed  him- 
self principally  in  the  collection  and  editing  of 
the  materials  for  the  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known — 'Cathedral  Music,  being  a  collection  in 
score  of  the  most  valuable  and  useful  composi- 
sitions  for  that  service  by  the  several  Englis^h 
masters  of  the  last  two  hundred  years.'  This 
work  was  projected  by  Dr.  Greene,  who  had 
commenced  collections  for  it,  but,  finding  his 
health  failing,  bequeathed  all  his  materials  to 
Dr.  Boyce,  with  a  request  that  he  would  com- 
plete the  work.  The  'Cathedral  Music'  was 
published  in  three  volumes,  the  first  of  which 
appeared  in  1760  and  the  last  in  1778.  This 
valuable  publication,  which  redounds  so  much 
to  the  credit  of  its  editor  for  diligence,  judgment 
and  scholarship,  produced  him  little  else  than 
fame,  its  sale  yielding  but  little  beyond  the  ex- 
penses of  production.    On  Feb.  7,  I779» 


268 


BOYCE. 


BRACE. 


gout,  from  which  Boyce  had  long  suffered,  termi- 
nated the  blameless  life  of  this  most  amiable 
man  and  excellent  musician.  He  was  buried  on 
February  i6  with  uncommon  marks  of  respect, 
in  the  vault  under  the  centre  of  the  dome  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  In  the  year  following  his 
death  his  widow  published  a  volume  containing 
'Fifteen  Anthems  and  a  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate' 
of  her  husband's  composition  ;  and  in  1790 
another  volume  containing  twelve  anthems  and 
a  service  was  published,  under  the  editorship  of 
Dr.  Philip  Hayes.  These  anthems  and  services 
(with  others,  to  the  extent  in  all  of  forty-six 
anthems  and  five  services)  were  afterwards  pub- 
lished in  four  volumes  under  the  editorship  of 
Vincent  Novello,  In  1788  John  Ashley,  who 
had  purchased  the  plates  of  the  'Cathedral 
Music,'  issued  a  reprint  of  it,  with  a  memoir  (by 
Sir  John  Hawkins)  and  a  portrait  (finely  en- 
graved by  Sherwin)  of  Boyce  prefixed.  In  1849 
a  new  edition,  with  additional  services  and 
anthems  and  new  lives  of  the  composers  was 
issued  under  the  care  of  Joseph  Warren.  Be- 
sides the  compositions  above  mentioned,  Boyce 
produced  the  following  :  —  Drydeu's  *  Secular 
Masque,'  1745;  twelve  sonatas  for  two  violins 
and  bass,  1 747  ;  a  concerto ;  eight  symphonies ; 
*  Ode  to  Charity,'  composed  for  the  Leicester  In- 
firmary, containing  the  duet  for  tenor  and  bass, 
'  Here  shall  soft  Charity  repair,'  which  long  re- 
mained an  indispensable  part  of  the  programme 
of  every  concert  given  in  aid  of  a  charity ;  Bev. 
Walter  Harte's  paraphrase  of  part  of  Pindar's 
first  Pythian  ode,  i  749  ;  Masque  in  '  The  Tem- 
pest';  dirge  in  'Cymbeline';  dirge  in  -  Romeo 
and  Juliet';  trio  in  'The  Winter's  Tale';  two 
odes  in  Home's  tragedy,  'Agis,'  1758;  besides 
many  songs  which  appeared  in  'The  British 
Orpheus,'  'The  Vocal  Musical  Mask,'  etc.  A 
collection  of  Dr.  Boyce's  songs,  duets,  and 
cantatas,  entitled  'Lyra  Britannica,'  appeared 
from  time  to  time  in  several  books.  Boyce's  only 
son  long  filled  a  respectable  position  in  the  best 
orchestras  as  a  double-bass  player. 

The  following  are  the  contents  of  the  Cathedral 
Music ; — 


Child. 

llogers, 

Jiiow, 

Aldrich. 

Blow, 


VOL.  I. 
Tallis,  Preces,  M.  and  E.  Serv. 
Morley,  Burial  Serv.  ii  minor. 
Farrant,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  G  minor. 
Bevin,     Do.  D  minor. 
Gibbons,  Do.  V. 

Do.  E  minor. 
Do.  D. 
Do.  A. 
Do.  G. 
Do.  G. 

Do.  Kyrie  and  Creed  (triple  mea- 
sure) G. 
14  Chants. 

VOL.  n. 
Eenry  VIII,  Full  Anth.,  0  Lord  the 

maker.  4  voices. 
Tallis,  F.  A.  I  call  and  cry.  5  v. 
Tye,  F.  A.  I  will  exalt  Thee.  4  v. 
Do.  (2nd  pt.)  King  unto  the  Lord. 

4  V. 

Farrant,  F.  A.  Call  to  remem- 
brance. 4  v. 

Do.  F.  A.  Hide  not  Thou.  4  v. 

Bird,  F.  A.  O  Lord,  turn.  5  v. 

Do.  F.  A.  (2nd  pt.)  Bow  Thine 
ear,  O  Lord.  5  v. 

Do.  F.  A.  Sing  joyfully.  6  v. 


Gibbons,  F.  A.  Hosanna.  6  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  Lift  up  your  heads.  6  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  Almighty  and  everlasting. 
4  V. 

Do.  F.  A.  0  clap  your  hands.  8  v. 
Do.  (2nd  pt.)  God  is  gone  up.  8  v. 
Batten,  F.  A.  Hear  my  prayer.  5  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  O  praise  the  Lord.  4  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  Deliver  us,  0  Lord.  4  v. 
Child.  F.  A.  Braise  the  Lord.  4  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  0  Lord,  grant  the  King. 
4  V. 

Do.  F.  A.  Sing  we  merrily.  7  v. 
Kogers,  F.  A.  Behold  now.  4  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  Teach  me.  O  Lord  4  v. 
Blow,  V.  A.  God  is  our  hope  8  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  0  God,  wherefore  art 

Thou  absent.  5  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Save  me,  O  God.  4  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  The  Lord  hear  thee.  4  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  My  God,  my  God.  4  v. 
Aldrich,  V.  A.  Out  of  the  deep.  4.  v. 
Do.  F.  A.  O  give  thanks.  6  v. 
Creyghton,  F.  A.  I  will  arise.  4  v. 
I'urcell,  V.  A.  OGod,  Thou  art.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  O  God,  Thou  hast.  6  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  O  Lord  God  of  Hosts.  8  v. 
Goldwin,  V.  A.  I  have  set  God.  4  v. 
Clarke,  F.  A.  Praise  the  Lord,  0 

Jerusalem.  4  r. 


Croft,  V.  A.  God  is  gone  up.  4.  v. 

Do.  V.  A.  Put  me  not  to  rebuke.  4  v. 

Weldon,  V.  A.  In  Thee,  0  Lord.  4  v. 

Do.  V.  A.  Hear  my  crying.  6  v. 

Lawes  (Wm.),  V.  A.  The  Lord  is 
my  light.  4  v. 

Lock,  V.  A.  Lord  let  me  know 
mine  end.  5  v. 

Humphreys,  V.  A.  Have  mercy  up- 
on me.  3  V. 

Do.  V.  A.  O  Lord  my  God.  3  v. 

Blow,  V.  A.  I  was  in  the  Spirit. 
4  v. 

AVise,  V.  A.  Prepare  ye  the  way  of 

the  Lord.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Awake,  put  on  thy 

strength.  3  v. 
Purcell,  V.  A.  Thy  way,  O  God.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Be  merciful.  3  v. 
Clarke,  V.  A.  How  long  wilt  Thou. 

Iv. 

Croft,  V.  A.  O  praise  the  Lord.  3  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Give  the  King.  5  v. 
5  Chants. 

VOL  III. 
Bird,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  D  min. 
Child,  Do.  D. 
Blow,  Do.  E  min. 

Purcell,  M.  and  E.  Serv.  (double), 
B  flat. 


Bull,  V.  A.  0  Lord  my  God.  5  v. 
Humphrey,  V.  A.  Thou  art  ray 

King.  4  V. 
Do.  V.  A.  Like  as  the  hart.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Hear.  O  Leavens.  3  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Rejoice  in  the  Lord.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Haste  Thee,  0  God.  4  v. 
Wise,  V.  A.  The  ways  of  Zion.  2  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Thy  beauty,  0  Israel.  4  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Awake  up,  my  glory.  3  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Blessed  is  he.  3  v. 
Blow,  V.  A.  O  Lord,  I  have  sinned. 
4  V. 

Do.  V.  A.  O  sing  unto  God.  3  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  O  Lord,  Thou  hast 

searched  me  out.  2  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  I  beheld  and  lo '.  4  v. 
Turner,  V.  A.  Lord,  Thou  hastbeen 

our  refuge.  3  v. 
Purcell,  V.  A.  Behold,  I  bring  you. 
3  V. 

Do.  V,  A.  They  that  go  down.  2  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  Thy  word  is  a  lantern.  3  v. 
Do.  V.  A.  O  give  thanks.  4  v. 
Clarke,  V.  A.  I  will  love  Thee.  2  r. 
Gibbons,  Sanctus.  4  v.  in  F. 
Child,  Sanctus.  4  v.  in  E  minor. 
Rogers,  fanctus.  4  v.  in  D. 
Creyghton,  Sanctus.  4  v.  in  E  fiat. 

[W.  H.  H.] 

BRABANgONNE,  LA,  the  national  air  of 
the  Belgians,  dating  from  the  revolution  of  1830, 
when  Belgium  became  an  independent  country. 
Both  words  and  music  were  composed  during  the 
struggle  ;  the  former  by  a  certain  Jenneval,  who 
was  killed  in  one  of  the  actions  near  Antwerp, 
the  latter  by  Campenhout.  The  air  is  cer- 
tainly unlike  other  'national  airs,'  but  it  has 
taken  a  very  firm  hold  in  the  country.  The 
melody,  and  the  words  of  the  first  stanza  are 
subjoined : — 


Qui  I'aurait  cru?  de 


crant  les  affreux  pro  -  jets. 


Sur  nous  de  I'ai-rain  sanpii- 


re,       Un  prince  a  Ian  -  ce  les  bou  -  lets.       C'en  est 


fait !  oui  Beiges  tout  chan  -  ge.  A  -  vec  Nas-sau  plus  d'indig  -  ne  trai- 

/7\ 


I'ar  -  brede  la  li-ber  -  16.       Sur  -  lar-brede  la  li-ber-tt 


BRACE  (Ger.  lUammer ;  Fr.  Accolade ;  Ital. 
Accolada).  A  vertical  line,  usually  a  double 
curve,  used  to  couple  together  two  or»more  staves, 
thus  indicating  that  the  music  written 
therein  is  to  be  performed  simultane- 
ously, either  by  various  instruments,  or 
voices,  or,  in  pianoforte,  harp,  or  organ-  j 
music,  by  the  two  hands  of  the  performer.  \ 


BRACE. 


BRAHAM. 


269 


In  orchestral  scores  the  whcle  of  the  staves 
forming  the  score  are  braced  together  by  a  verti- 
cal straight  Hue,  and  curved  braces  are  added  to 
show  the  position  in  the  score  of  certain  instru- 
ments or  groups  of  instruments,  and  so  to  facili- 
tate the  reading.  These  curved  braces  are  usually 
employed  to  couple  together  the  parts  for  the  first 
and  second  violins,  pianoforte  or  organ  (if  any), 
the  violoncello  and  double-bass,  and  the  three 
trombones. 

In  organ  music  with  pedal  obligato  three  staves 
are  required,  the  lowest  being  for  the  pedals ;  these 
three  are  braced  by  means  of  a  straight  line,  with 
a  curved  brace  in  addition,  to  indicate  the  two 
staves  which  belong  to  the  manuals.        [F.  T.] 

BRADE,"WiLLTAM,  an  English  musicianresident 
at  Hamburg  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th 
century.  He  was  esteemed  a  good  performer  on 
the  viol,  and  published  'Paduanen,  Galliarden, 
Canzonetten,'  etc.  (Hamburg,  1609,  4to)  ;  'Neue 
Paduanen  and  Gagliarden  mit  stimmen'  (Ham- 
burg, 1 61 4,  4to) ;  *Neue  lustige  Volten,  Cou- 
ranten,  Balletten,  etc.,  mit  5  stimmen'  (Frank- 
fort, 162 1,  4to).  These  publications  are  of  more 
than  ordinary  interest,  as  'containing  English 
airs,  some  mentioned  by  Shakespeare.  He  died 
at  Frankfort  in  1647.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BRAHAM,  John,  bom  in  London  of  Jewish 
parents  in  1774,  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early 
age,  and  in  such  humble  circumstances  that  he  is 
said  to  have  sold  pencils  about  the  streets  for  a 
living.  He  was  still  very  young  when  he  became 
the  pupil  of  Leoni,  an  Italian  singer  of  celebrity  ; 
and  his  first  appearance  in  public  was  at  Co  vent 
Garden  Theatre,  April  21,  1787,  for  the  benefit 
of  his  master.  In  the  bill  it  is  announced — 'At 
the  end  of  Act  i,  'The  soldier  tired  of  war's 
alarms,'  by  Master  Braham,  being  his  first  ap- 
pearance on  any  stage.'  After  the  first  act  of  the 
farce,  he  sang  the  favourite  song  of  '  Ma  chere 
amie.'  At  the  opening  of  the  Royalty  Theatre 
in  Wellclose  Square,  on  June  20  in  the  same 
year,  between  the  acts  of  the  play,  '  The  soldier 
tired  of  war's  alarms '  '  was  sung  with  great  suc- 
cess by  a  little  boy,  Master  Ahram,  the  pupil  of 
Leoni';  and  another  paper  said  'Yesterday  even- 
ing we  were  surprised  by  a  Master  Abraham,  a 
young  pupil  of  Mr.  Leoni.  He  promises  fair  to 
attain  perfection;  possessing  every  requisite  ne- 
cessary to  form  a  capital  singer.'  When  he  lost 
his  boyish  voice  the  future  prospects  of  young 
Braham  appeared  doubtful ;  Leoni  had  fallen  into 
difiiculties,  and  about  that  time  left  England  ; 
but  he  found  a  generous  patron  in  Abraham 
Goldsmith,  and  became  a  professor  of  the  piano. 
On  his  voice  regaining  its  power  he  went  to  Bath, 
and  in  1 794  made  his  appearance  at  some  con- 
certs there  under  the  direction  of  Rauzzini,  who, 
appreciating  his  talent,  gave  him  musical  in- 
struction for  three  years.  In  1796  he  was  en- 
gaged by  Storace  for  Drury  Lane,  and  his  ddbut 
(_in  an  opera  called 'Mahmoud')  was  so  successful 
that  in  the  year  following  he  was  engaged  for 
the  Italian  opera-house.  Hoping,  however,  to 
achieve  a  more  permanent  reputation  than  could 


be  obtained  by  any  other  course,  he  resolved  to 
visit  Italy,  and  there  complete  his  musical  edu- 
cation. Florence  was  the  first  city  at  which  he 
appeared  in  public  ;  then  he  visited  Milan,  and 
afterwards  Genoa,  where  he  studied  composition 
under  Isola. 

Taking  leave  of  Italy  in  consequence  of  nu- 
merous solicitations  from  his  own  country,  he 
reappeared  at  Covent  Garden  in  i8oi.  From 
this  point  may  be  dated  that  triumphant  career 
during  which  he  created  a  constant  furore,  the 
effect  of  which  has  hardly  yet  passed  away.  The 
opera  in  which  he  made  his  first  appearance  was 
a  work  by  Mazzinghi  and  Reeve,  entitled  'The 
Chains  of  the  Heart.'  The  music,  however,  was 
so  feeble  in  the  serious,  and  so  commonplace  and 
vulgar  in  the  comic  parts,  that  it  lived  only  a 
few  nights,  and  was  succeeded  by  '  The  Cabinet.' 
In  this  opera  Braham  was  the  composer  of  all 
the  music  of  his  own  part,  a  custom  to  which 
he  continued  for  several  years  to  adhere,  and 
seldom  has  music  been  more  universally  popular. 
Among  the  operas  with  which  he  was  thus 
connected  we  may  name  '  Family  Quarrels,'  1802  ; 
'The  English  Fleet,'  1802;  'Thirty  Thousand,' 
1804;  'Out  of  Place,'  1805;  'False  Alarms.' 
1807;  'Kais,  or  Love  in  a  Desert,'  1808;  and 
'The  Devil's  Bridge,'  181 2.  To  follow  Braham 
in  all  his  engagements  would  exceed  the  limits 
of  this  notice  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in  the 
theatre,  concert-room,  or  church,  he  had  scarcely 
a  rival.  Non  ce  in  Italia  tenore  come  Braham 
was  the  frequent  exclamation  of  foreigners.  His 
compass  extended  to  about  nineteen  notes  ;  and 
his  falsetto,  fi:om  D  to  A,  was  so  entirely  within 
his  control  that  it  was  hardly  possible  to  distin- 
guish where  his  natural  voice  began  and  ended. 
After  his  voice  had  lost  its  natural  power  he  was 
successively  engaged  at  several  theatres,  on  the 
mere  strength  of  a  reputation  which  seemed  im- 
mortal ;  and  his  proficiency  in  singing  Handel 
was  universally  acknowledged  when  his  career  as 
a  popular  vocalist  had  reached  its  termination. 
When  Weber  composed  his  opera  *  Oberon '  for 
the  English  stage  (1826),  Braham  was  the  ori- 
ginal Sir  Huon. 

In  1831  however  the  tide  of  fortune  changed. 
In  that  year  he  purchased,  jointly  with  Yates, 
the  Colosseum  in  the  Regent's  Park  for  the  large 
sum  of  £40,000.  Five  years  afterwards  he  opened 
the  St.  James'  Theatre,  which  he  had  erected  at 
a  cost  of  £26,000.  The  large  fortune  which  his 
genius  and  energy  had  gained  him  was  lost  by 
these  unfortunate  speculations.  He  died  Feb. 
17,  1856. 

In  private  life  Braham  was  much  respected. 
He  moved  in  good  society ;  and  among  his 
acquaintance  his  fame  as  a  man  of  information,  a 
humourist,  and  a  raconteur,  was  scarcely  inferior 
to  his  reputation  as  a  vocalist.  As  a  composer 
he  completely  attained  the  object  he  aimed  at 
in  his  numerous  songs,  duets,  etc.,  many  of 
which  attained  the  highest  popularity.  As  a 
national  song  his  'Death  of  Nelson'  has  pleased 
and  continues  to  please  a  vast  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles ;  it  has  therefore 


270 


BRAHMS. 


accomplished  its  purpose,  (Dramatic  Biogra- 
phy; Gentleman's  Magazine  ;  etc.).     [E.  F.  R.] 

BRAHMS,  Johannes,  one  of  the  greatest 
living  German  composers,  and  in  the  departments 
of  choral  and  chamber  music  without  a  rival,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  on  May  7,  1833.  Being  the 
son  of  a  musician,  he  began  his  musical  educa- 
tion in  very  early  years,  and  carried  it  on  later 
with  brilliant  success  under  Marxsen  of  Altona. 
He  was  introduced  to  Schumann  at  Diisseldorf  in 
1853,  and  so  impressed  that  great  composer  with 
his  extraordinary  powers  that  he  wrote  an 
article  about  him  in  the  '  Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Musik,'  in  which,  with  the  earnestness  of  a 
prophet,  he  pointed  him  out  as  the  hero  of  the 
immediate  musical  future.  In  consequence  of 
this  Brahms  at  once  became  an  object  both  of 
general  attention  and  sceptical  opposition.  A 
tour  which  he  undertook  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing himself  and  his  works,  such  as  his  first  three 
Sonatas  and  Trio,  more  generally  known,  seemed 
for  the  time  scarcely  to  verify  Schumann's  pre- 
diction, for  he  found  but  little  sympathy  as  a  com- 
poser, and  had  but  moderate  success  as  a  pianist. 

For  several  years  after  this  he  remained  at 
Hamburg  in  retirement,  devoting  himself  assidu- 
ously to  study  and  composition,  after  which  he 
brought  forward  a  number  of  works,  which 
followed  one  another  in  quick  succession,  and 
soon  established  his  reputation.  In  1861  he 
went  to  Vienna,  and  finding  ready  sympathy, 
finally  established  himself  there,  where  he  has 
remained  almost  ever  since,  making  only  occasional 
tours,  either  as  a  pianist,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
conducting  his  own  works.  In  that  city,  so 
famous  for  its  connection  with  great  musicians, 
he  ofi&ciated  temporarily  as  conductor  of  the 
'Sing- Academic'  in  1863  and  64,  and  from  1872 
to  75  as  director  of  the  fam.ous  concerts  of  the 
*  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde,'  to  which  he 
has  given  extraordinary  lustre  and  importance 
through  the  performance  of  the  great  choral 
works  of  Handel  and  Bach. 

The  appreciation  and  diffusion  of  his  works  is 
steadily  increasing.  The  'Deutsches  Requiem' 
(op.  45,  1868)  established  his  fame,  and  from 
the  time  of  its  appearance  every  new  work  pub- 
lished by  him  became  an  event  in  the  musical 
life  of  Germany,  and  even  in  this  country,  where 
his  music  is  frequently  performed  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic, the  Monday  Popular  Concerts,  the 
Crystal  Palace,  and  elsewhere.  His  first  Sym- 
phony was  produced  at  Carlsruhe  Nov.  4,  1876, 
and  his  second  at  Vienna  Dec.  24,  1877. 

With  the  exception  of  Richard  Wagner,  who 
occupies  a  special  position  in  modem  music, 
Brahms  is  pre-eminent  among  living  composers 
for  the  definite  nature  of  his  individuality ;  he 
appears  as  the  climax  of  modem  musical  thought, 
standing,  as  it  were,  upon  the  shoulders  of  Schu- 
mann, whose  artistic  eye,  as  already  mentioned, 
recognised  the  younger  artist's  affinity  to  his  own 
nature,  and  based  upon  it  his  confidence  in  the 
progressive  development  of  modem  music.  No 
comparison  between  him  and  Wagner  is  possible, 
for  Wagner's  fame  is  entirely  founded  on  his 


BRAHMS. 

dramatic  works,  in  which  department  Brahms 
has  as  yet  done  nothing. 

Indeed,  notwithstanding  his  modem  tendency, 
he  is  entirely  opposed  to  the  so-called  'new 
German  school,'  or  '  school  of  the  future,'  which 
has  attached  itself  to  Wagner,  and  defends  his 
art-principles  on  the  ground  of  absolute  music. 
Brahms  takes  his  stand  upon  systematic  principles 
of  musical  form,  upon  which  indeed  his  individual 
characteristics  a  good  deal  depend.  In  point  of 
style  and  construction  his  music  displays  a  power 
which  is  now  quite  unique.  In  all  his  works, 
from  the  greatest  to  the  smallest,  the  hand  of  a 
master  is  manifest,  and  if  we  analyse  them,  we 
shall  find  the  same  unwearied  energy  and  con- 
sistency throughout  the  movement  as  is  used  at 
the  outset  to  express  the  leading  idea.  He  never 
allows  himself  to  be  drawn  aside  from  his  main 
idea,  in  spite  of  aU  the  wealth  of  episode  and 
secondary  thoughts  he  has  always  at  command. 
To  this  we  may  refer  many  of  the  prominent 
peculiarities  of  his  style,  such  as  its  formal  in- 
tensity, and  certain  original  terms  of  harmony 
and  modulation.  This  side  of  Brahms's  genius 
is  now  undisputed,  Jbut  the  individual  character 
of  his  ideas  and  the  intellectual  qualities  of  his 
nature  certainly  stand  in  the  way  of  his  over- 
coming opposition  and  gaining  the  sympathies  of 
the  large  mass  of  the  musi<;al  public.  His  deep 
brooding  earnestness,  and  his  abstraction  from 
external  things,  absorb  him  so  completely  in  his 
idea  that  he  sometimes  loses  his  feeling  for 
beauty  of  sound.  With  him  beauty  seems  to 
hold  a  place  subordinate  to  expression,  and  a 
certain  harshness  is  in  consequence  occasionally 
met  with  in  his  harmony  which  must  hinder 
the  popularity  of  his  works.  There  is  (if  the 
word  may  be  allowed)  an  unapproachable  as- 
ceticism about  his  genius  which  is  opposed  to 
aU  that  is  merely  pleasing  to  the  ear.  He  does 
not  court  the  understanding  ;  he  rather  demands 
from  it  arduous  and  unwearied  service. 

As  a  pianoforte  player,  Brahms  exhibits  the 
same  characteristics.  He  plays,  not  for  the 
listener,  but  for  himself  and  for  the  work  which 
he  is  performing.  Remarkable  as  his  technical 
execution  may  be,  with  him  it  always  seems  a 
secondary  casual  matter,  only  to  be  noticed 
incidentally.  But  if  we  reflect  that  the  technique 
of  pianoforte  playing  is  the  sole  medium  for 
reproducing  the  idea  of  a  pianoforte  piece,  it  is 
possible  that  fault  may  in  this  respect  be  justly 
found  with  his  playing;  yet  his  intellectual  quali- 
ties fit  him  for  masterly  performances  of  his  own 
works  ;  and  in  his  execution  of  Bach,  especially  of 
the  organ  works  on  the  piano,  he  is  acknowledged 
to  be  quite  unrivalled. 

The  follo\ving  is  a  list  of  Brahms's  published 
works  to  June,  1878: — 


Op.  1.  Sonata  for  P.  F.  in  C. 

2.  Do.      Do.  minor. 

3.  Six  Songs. 

4.  Sclierzo  for  P.  F.  in  Eb 

minor. 

6.  Sonata  for  P.F.  In  F  minor. 

6.  6  Songs.   Soprano  or  Tenor. 

7.  6  Songs  for  one  voice. 

8.  Trio  in  B.,  P.  F..V.  and  Cello. 

9.  Variations  for  P.  F.  on  a 

theme  of  Schumann. 


10.  4  Ballads  for  P.P. 

11.  Serenade  for  Full  Orchestra 

in  D. 

IZ  Ave  Maria  for  female  voices, 
Orcli.  and  Organ. 

13.  Funeral  hymn  for  Chorus 

and  Wind. 

14.  8  Songs  and  Romances  for 

one  voice  and  P.  F. 

15.  Concerto,  in  D,  for  P.  F.  and 

Orch. 


BEAHMS. 


BKAVURA. 


271 


Op.  16,  Serenade  for  small  orchestra 
in  A. 

17.  4  songs  for  female  Chorus,  2 

Horns  and  Harp. 

18.  Sextet  in  Bb  for  Strings. 

19.  Five  poems  for  voice  andP.F. 

20.  Three  duets  for  S.  and  A. 

with  P.  F. 

21.  Variations  for  P.  F. : 

(1)  On  original  theme  ; 

(2)  On  a  Hungarian  melody. 

22.  7  '  Marienlieder '  for  mixed 

choir,  in  2  parts. 

23.  Variations    for    P.  F.,  4 

hands,  on  a  theme  of  Schu- 
mann's. 

24.  Variations  and  Fugue  for 

P.  F.  on  theme  of  Handel's. 

25.  Quartet  in  G  minor  for  P.  F. 

and  Strings. 

26.  Quartet  in  A  for  ditto. 

27.  I'salm   xiii.    for  women's 

voices,  with  Organ  or  P.  F. 

28.  Four  Duets  for  Alto  and 

Baritone  with  P.  F. 

29.  Two  Motets  for  5  voices,  h, 

capella. 

SO.  Sacred  Song  by  Paul  Flem- 
ming.  4  voices,  mixed 
Choir  and  Organ. 

31.  Three  Quartets  for  S.A.T.B. 

32.  9  Songs  by  A.  von  Platen  and 

G.  F.  Daumer.  For  voice 
and  P.  F.  in  2  parts. 

33.  15  Romances  from  Tieck's 

'Magelone,'  for  voice  and 

P.  F.  in  5  parts. 
54.  Quintet    for    P.  F.  and 

Strings  in  F  minor. 
S4».  Sonata  for  P.  F.,  4  hands, 

from  the  foregoing. 

35.  2«  Variations  (Studien)  for 

P.  F.  solo  on  a  theme  of 
Paganini's. 

36.  Sextet  in  G  for  Strings. 

37.  Three  Sacred  Choruses  for 

female  voices. 

38.  Sonata  in  E  minor  for  P.  F. 

and  Cello. 

39.  16  Waltzes  for  P.  F.:  4  hands. 

40.  Trio  for  P.  F.,  Violin  and 

Horn  or  Cello. 

41.  Five  Part  Songs  for  4  men's 

voices. 

42.  Three  Songs  for  Chorus,  k 

capella.  6  v. 

43.  Four  Songs  for  1  voice  and 

P.  F. 

44.  Twelve  Songs  and  Romances 

for  female  chorus,  k  capella. 
4.^.  German    Eequiem,  Solo, 
Chorus  and  Orch. 


46.  Four  Songs  for  1  voice  with 

P.  F. 

47.  Four  ditto,  ditto. 

48.  Seven  ditto,  ditto. 

49.  Five  ditto,  ditto. 

50.  Einaldo ;  Cantata  by  Goethe, 

for  Tenor  Solo,  Male  Cho- 
rus, and  Orch. 

51.  Two  Quartets  for  Strings,  C 

minor  and  A  minor. 
62.  Liebeslieder  ;    Waltzes  for 
P.  F.,  4  hands,  and  voices. 

53.  Ehapsodie  ;  fragn)ents  from 

Goethe's  *  Harzreise  '  for 
Alto  Solo,  Male  Chorus, 
and  Orch. 

54.  Schicksalslied  (Sortg  of  Des- 

tiny) by.F.  Holderlin,  for 
Chorus  and  Orch. 
65.  Triumphlied   (Rev.,  chap, 
six.)  for  8-part  Chorus  and 
Orch. 

56  a.  Variations  on  a  theme  of 

Haydn's  for  Orchestra. 
56  6.  Ditto,  ditto,  for  2  Pianos. 

57.  8  Songs  by  Daumer  for  1 

voice  and  P.  F. 

58.  8  Songs  for  1  voice  and  P.  F. 

59.  8  Songs  for  1  voice  and  P.  F. 

60.  Quartet  (No.  3)  in  C  minor 

for  P.  F.  and  Strings. 

61.  Four  Duets  for  Sopr.  and 

Alto. 

62.  Seven  Songs  for  mixed  Choir. 

63.  9  Lieder  und  Gesange  for 

voice  and  P.  F. 

64.  3  Quartets  for  4  solo  voices 

and  P.F. 

65.  Neue  Liebeslieder- Waltzes. 

66.  Five  Duets. 

67.  String  Quartet;  Bb. 

68.  Symphony,  No.  1,  C  minor. 

69.  Nine  Songs. 

70.  Four  Songs. 

71.  Five  Songs. 

72.  Five  Son?s, 

73.  Symphony,  No.  2,  in  D. 

Without  Opus-number. 

Hungarian  dances  for  P.  F.,  4 

hands. 
The  same  for  Orchestra. 
Gluck's  Gavotte  for  P.  F.  solo. 
Studies  for  P.  F.  solo  : 

(1)  Etude  after  Chopin ; 

(2)  Rondo  after  Weber. 
15  Volkskinderliedchen. 
Mondnacht.    Song  for  1  voice 

and  P.F. 

[A.  M.] 


BRAMBILLA,  Marietta,  eldest  of  five 
sisters,  all  distinguished  singers,  was  bom  near 
Milan  about  1807,  and  made  her  debut  in 
London  as  Arsace  in  '  Semiramide'  in  1827. 
She  was  a  pupil  of  the  Conservatorio  at  Milan, 
and  had  never  appeared  on  any  stage ;  but, 
though  her  acting  was  indifferent,  her  lovely 
contralto  voice,  her  excellent  style,  youth,  and 
great  beauty,  ensured  her  success.  '  She  has  the 
finest  eyes,  the  sweetest  voice,  and  the  best  dis- 
position in  the  world,'  said  a  certain  cardinal ; 
*  if  she  is  discovered  to  possess  any  other  merits, 
the  safety  of  the  Catholic  Church  will  require 
her  excommunication.'  She  sang  in  London  for 
several  years,  as  well  as  in  Italy;  at  Vienna 
during  four  consecutive  seasons,  1837-1841 ;  and 
at  Paris,  where  she  chose  again  Arsace  for  her 
debut,  and  achieved  a  great  success,  Brambilla 
was  distinguished  as  a  teacher,  and  published 
(Ricordi)  exercises  and  vocalizzi  beside  other 
pieces.  [J.  M.] 

BRANDL,  JoHANN,  bom  Nov.  14,  1760,  at 
Rohr,  near  Ratisbon,  died  at  Carlsruhe  May  26, 
1837.    He  studied  violin  and  piano  as  a  child 


in  the  monastery  at  Rohr,  and  at  10  was  sent 
by  Canon  Gelasius  to  the  seminary  at  Munich. 
He  learnt  singing  from  Valesi ;  and  at  the  Jesuit 
school  at  Neuburg,  received  a  thorough  musical 
education  from  a  certain  Feldmaier.  He  began 
his  career  in  the  convent  of  Trutpert,  Freiburg- 
im-Breisgau,  as  teacher  of  the  violin  and  piano. 
In  1 784  he  was  appointed  chapel-master  to  Prince 
Hohenlohe  Bartenstein  ;  in  1 789  'musik-director' 
to  the  Bishop  of  Bruchsal ;  and  in  1 806  the  same 
to  the  archduke  of  Baden  at  Carlsruhe,  where  he 
stayed  till  his  death.  He  composed  an  opera, 
'Hermann';  a  monodrama,  'Hero';  and  many 
symphonies,  serenades,  quartets,  etc.  His  melo- 
dies are  beautiful,  and  were  highly  esteemed, 
as  may  be  seen  by  some  articles  in  the  Leipsic 
A.M.Z.  for  1828.  [F.  G.] 

BRANLE  (Fr.  hranle,  a  movement  of  the 
body  from  side  to  side).  An  old  French  dance, 
the  generic  name  of  all  dances  in  which,  like 
the  Cotillon  or  Grossvater,  the  whole  party  of 
dancers  were  led  by  one  or  two.  (Littre.)  The 
branle  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV  was  a  branle 
serieux.  It  combined  in  itself  the  movements  of 
the  minuet  and  the  polonaise.  For  an  example 
of  the  music  see  p.  289.  [E.  P.J 

BRASS  BAND.  (Fr.  Fanfare.)  The  smaller 
variety  of  the  military  band,  chiefly  employed  in 
cavalry  regiments,  on  account  of  the  greater  ease 
with  which  brass  instruments  can  be  played  on 
horseback.  It  ordinarily  consists  of  an  E  flat 
piccolo -comet,  two  or  more  cornets  in  B  flat,  two 
tenor  saxhorns  in  E  flat,  one  or  more  baritones 
and  euphoniums,  with  one  or  more  bombardons. 
Besides  these,  trumpets,  and  side-,  bass-,  or  kettle- 
drums are  usually  present.  It  is  materially  im- 
proved by  the  substitution  of  flutes  and  E  flat 
clarinets  for  the  piccolo-comet,  and  by  the  addition 
of  trombones.  It  has  not  the  variety  of  quality 
and  richness  of  tone  possessed  by  the  full  reed 
band,  but  is  competent  to  produce  very  smooth 
and  agreeable  harmony.  On  account  of  the 
greater  facility  with  which  brass  instruments  of 
the  saxhom  species  are  leamed,  as  compared 
with  clarinets  and  other  reeds,  a  brass  band  is 
much  more  easy  to  establish  and  maintain  in 
efficiency  than  a  fuU  military  band.     [W.  H.  S.] 

BRAVO,  i.e.  'well  done.*  An  Italian  term 
of  applause  which  has  gone  from  Italy  to 
other  countries,  though  never  taking  very  firm 
root  in  England.  It  was  the  custom  in  Italy 
to  applaud,  not  only  at  the  end  of  a  piece  or 
passage,  but  during  the  performance,  and  the 
hravos  were  addressed  to  composer,  singer,  or 
instrument — '  Bravo  Mozart ! '  '  Bravo  Lablache !' 
*  Bravo  il  fagotto  ! '  The  word  was  there  natu- 
rally inflected,  and  the  applause  to  a  female 
singer  would  be  *  Brava  Grisi ! '  Beethoven  when 
satisfied  with  the  orchestra  used  to  give  a  '  thun- 
dering Bravi  tutti.'  [G,] 

BRAVURA  (Ital, ,  courage,  bravery) .  A  style 
of  both  music  and  execution  involving  the  dis- 
play of  unusual  brilliancy  and  technical  power ; 
music  written  to  task  the  ability  and  test  the 


272 


BRAVURA. 


BREITKOPF  &  HARTEL. 


courage  of  the  artist.  Thus  *  Let  the  bright  Ser- 
aphim' (Samson),  'Gli  angui  d'infemo'  (Flauto 
magico),  and  *  Non  piu  mesta '  (Cenerentola)  are 
bravura  songs,  requiring  a  compass  and  a  power 
of  execution  out  of  the  common. 

The  notion  of  effect  for  effect's  sake  is  perhaps 
involved  in  the  term.  Beethoven  therefore  can 
never  be  said  to  have  written  bravura  pieces, 
though  many  of  his  pieces  require  the  greatest 
skill  and  are  extremely  brilliant. 

'Con  bravura'  and  'Allegro  di  bravura'  are 
similarly  used  to  denote  fire  and  brilliancy.  [G.] 

BREATH.  Various  signs  are  used  in  vocal 
music  to  indicate  the  places  for  taking  breath, 
they  are  usually  '  *  t/  ".  The  management 
of  the  breath  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
singing,  as  by  it  a  good  tone  is  formed.  The 
two  essentials  are  (i)  the  power  of  controlling 
the  quantity  and  force  of  air  as  it  is  expired; 
(2)  the  power  of  directing  the  vibrating  column 
of  air.  By  too  great  pressure  of  breath  the  form 
of  the  waves  of  sound  most  favourable  to  a  good 
tone  is  disturbed,  while  too  little  pressure  deprives 
the  tone  of  strength.  A  certain  quantity  of 
breath  will  produce  a  tone  in  perfection,  and 
any  increase  or  diminution  of  that  quantity  will 
result  in  loss  of  quality  or  power.  The  old 
Italian  masters  of  singing  made  the  management 
of  the  breath  a  matter  of  primary  consideration  ; 
they  required  their  scholars  in  practising  their 
exercises  to  do  so  piano,  and  to  breathe  at  first 
as  in  speaking ;  the  places  for  doing  this  were 
carefully  and  distinctly  marked  ;  if  it  were  found 
that  the  pupil  emitted  his  breath  with  too  great 
a  pressure  or  too  rapidly,  so  as  to  crowd  or 
impair  the  sound,  he  was  taught  to  hold  it  back, 
and  only  when  he  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
and  a  feeling  for  pure  tone  was  he  permitted  to 
attempt  to  take  larger  breaths,  and  shown  how 
to  gradually  increase  the  breathing  capacity  of 
his  lungs.  The  breath  is  the  basis  of  a  full  rich 
tone  in  singing,  and  on  the  management  of  its 
vibrating  column  of  air  depends  the  great  charm 
and  beauty  of  vocalisation,  no  less  than  the 
power  of  successfully  executing  phrasing,  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  a  poetical  and  intelligent 
mind.  [W.  H.  C] 

BREITKOPF  &  HARTEL.  On  Jan.  27, 
1869,  this  renowned  firm  of  music-publishers 
in  Leipsic  celebrated  the  150th  anniversary  of 
its  existence.  Its  foundation  was  laid  in  1 719, 
when  Bernhardt  Christoph  Breitkopf,  mem- 
ber of  a  mining  family  of  the  Hartz,  bom  at 
Clausthal  March  2,  1695,  set  up  a  printing  press 
at  Leipsic.  "  His  first  publication  was  a  Hebrew 
Bible,  quickly  followed  by  a  number  of  theolo- 
gical and  historical  works,  in  which  Breitkopf's 
friendly  relations  to  the  poet  Gottsched  were  of 
much  use  to  him.  In  1732  a  printing  office  was 
built  with  the  sign  of  '  zum  goldnen  Bar,'  which 
in  1765  was  increased  by  the  addition  of  the 
'  silbeme  Bar.' 

In  1745  Breitkopf  gave  up  the  printing  busi- 
ness to  his  only  son,  and  in  1765  the  firm 
became  B.  C.  Breitkopf  &  Son.    On  March  26, 


1777  the  old  man  died,  aged  83.  He  had  raised 
himself  from  a  common  printer  to  be  the  head  of 
the  first  printing  establishment  in  Germany,  and 
he  also  had  the  happiness,  wh'ch  Gottsched  had 
predicted,  of  seeing  himself  eclipsed  by  his  son. 
The  son,  Johann  Gottlob  Immanuel,  bom  Nov. 
23,  1 719,  devoted  himself  with  ardour,  while  a 
lad,  to  the  acquirement  of  leaming,  leaving  pro- 
fessional knowledge  till  later.  His  acquirements 
in  literature  were  developed  by  intercourse  with 
such  scholars  as  Lessing  and  Winkelmann.  He 
laboured  to  improve  the  practice  of  printing,  and 
with  that  view  wrote  several  papers.  By  the  in- 
troduction of  separate  movable  music  type  he 
produced,  as  early  as  1750,  a  revolution  in  the 
music  trade.  In  1756  the  first  fruits  of  his  inno- 
vations appeared  in  the  shape  of  a  splendid 
edition  of  an  opera  in  full  score,  and  in  3  vols,, 
entitled  'II  trionfo  della  fedeltk,  dramma  per 
musica  di  E,  T.  P.  A'  (the  initials  of  Ermelinda 
Talia  Pastorella  Arcada,  a  name  assumed  for 
the  occasion  by  Antonia  Amalia  Walburga,  Prin- 
cess of  Saxony).  After  this,  Breitkopf  published 
a  long  series  of  important  compositions  by  C.  P. 
E.  Bach,  Graun,  Hiller,  Leopold  Mozart,  etc. 
He  had  hardly  laegun  to  realise  the  results  of 
his  invention  in  the  music  trade  when  his  energy 
found  a  new  channel.  During  the  Seven  Years 
War  (1756-63)  he  had  organised  on  a  large 
scale  a  warehouse  of  German,  English,  French, 
and  Italian  music,  both  MS.  and  printed,  and 
had  started  a  special  trade  in  music,  through 
the  publication  of  systematic  descriptive  cata- 
logues referring  to  his  stock,  and  embracing  the 
whole  field  of  musical  literature.  Between  1 760 
and  80  he  issued  catalogues  of  printed  music, 
both  theoretical  and  practical,  in  six  parts  ;  of 
MS.  music  in  four  parts  ;  and  a  third  (especially 
important  for  the  history  of  music) — a  thematic 
catalogue  of  MS,  music  only,  in  5  parts,  with 
16  supplements  (1762-87).  His  activity  was  ab- 
solutely unceasing.  In  1770  he  founded  a  manu- 
factory of  playing  cards  (which  he  sold  in  1782), 
a  coloured  paper  manufactory,  a  bookselling  busi- 
ness in  Dresden  and  another  in  Bautzen.  He 
died  Jan,  29,  1794,  honoured  as  the  reformer  of 
the  music  trade,  and  secure  of  a  place  in  the 
history  of  the  art  of  printing.  His  portrait  is 
extremely  interesting.  The  well-formed  head, 
the  speaking  eye,  the  intelligent  features,  show 
intellectual  power  and  strong  will.  Immanuel 
had  two  sons,  who  leamed  the  printer's  craft  from 
their  father,  Bernhard  Theodor  (bom  1749), 
was  musician  enough  to  compose  some  pretty 
music  to  Goethe's  '  Jugendlieder '  in  1769.  He 
went  in  1777  to  Russia,  and  founded  a  printing 
office  and  bookselling  business  in  Petersburg — 
was  teacher  in  an  institution  for  the  education 
of  girls,  and  died  at  a  great  age  as  Russian 
'  Staats-Rath.'  His  second  son,  Christoph  Gott- 
lob (bom  1 750),  remained  with  his  father.  He 
was  an  amiable  dilettante,  to  whom  the  burden 
of  his  vast  business  was  intolerable  ;  after  carry- 
ing it  on  therefore  for  a  year  he  gave  it  up  to 
his  friend  G.  C.  Hartel,  at  the  same  time  making 
him  his  heir.    He  died  much  lamented  in  1800, 


13EEITK0PF  &  HAETEL. 


BREXDEL. 


273 


the  last  scion  of  a  gifted  race.  Since  then  the 
business,  though  entirely  in  Hartel's  hands,  has 
been  conducted  under  the  well-known  title  of 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  | 

Gottfried  Christoph  Hartel,  son  of  Dr.  j 
Christoph  Hartel,  Burgomaster  of  Schneeberg,  ' 
was  born  there  Jan.  27,  1763.  Having  given  up  1 
his  former  occupation,  he  applied  himself  with  ■ 
vigour  to  improve  the  business  by  undertaking 
the  publication  of  musical  works  of  the  highest 
order.  Thus  he  brought  out  the  works  of  Mozart 
in  17  vols.  (179S-1816);  of  Haydn  in  12  vols. 
(1S00-1S06);  of  Clemen ti  in  13  vols.  (1800- 
iSiS);  and  of  Dussek  in  12  (1814-1818) — an 
undertaking  which  was  the  forerunner  of  many 
popular  and  critical  collected  editions.  Hartel 
also  started  the  'AUgemeine  musikalische  Zei-  ] 
tung,'  which  long  maintained  its  position  as 
the  best  musical  periodical,  and  advocated  the 
interests  of  music  from  1798  to  1848  ;  he  further 
published  a  Kterary  paper,  the  '  Leipziger  Lite- 
ratur-Zeitung '  (181 2-1834),  enlarged  his  stock 
of  music  and  books,  and  made  various  practical 
improvements  in  printing.  Amongst  other  things 
he  introduced  the  system  of  engraving  music  on 
pewter  plates,  to  which  in  1805  he  added  a  litho- 
graphic establishment,  with  the  personal  co- 
operation of  Sennefelder,  the  inventor.  Procuring 
workmen  from  Vienna,  he  next  started  the  first 
factory  of  pianos  in  central  Germany.  Being  a 
man  of  great  cultivation  and  refinement,  such 
constant  absorption  in  business  was  not  to  his 
taste,  but  he  accepted  the  task  which  fate  had 
laid  upon  him,  and  executed  it  faithfully  till  his 
death  on  July  25,  1827. 

Up  to  I  S3 5  the  business  was  carried  on  by  his 
nephew  Florexz  Hartel.    But  at  that  date 
Herjianx  Hartel,  the  eldest  son  of  Gottfried 
(bovn  April  27,  1S03),  entered  the  house  as  head, 
in  partnership  with  his  younger  brother  Bat- 
MUND,  who  had  joined  in  1832.    Hermann's  fine 
character  had  been  improved  by  an  excellent 
education ;  he  read  law,  and  took  his  doctors' 
degree  in  1828,  and  his  love  of  art  had  been 
cultivated  by  a  two  years'  residence  in  Italy. 
Both  in  public  and  private  life  he  was  a  man  of 
noble  disposition  and  true  culture.   The  brothers 
lived  to  see  a  remarkable  spread  of  taste,  and  to 
publish  many  works  of  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  j 
Chopin,  and  other  eminent  modern  composers  ;  j 
they  brought  out  new  editions  of  Schubert,  ! 
Weber,  and  Hunmiel.     Their  catalogue  up  to 
1874  included  over  14.000  works,  extending  over 
the  whole  range  of  music.    In  1866  they  began 
the  issue  of  a  series  of  cheap  editions  of  classical 
works  in  red  covers,  ■which  are  now  widely 
known.    They  assisted  in  the  formation  of  the 
Bach-Gesellschaft,  which,  like  the  companion 
Handel  Society,  owes  much  to  their  energy,  taste,  j 
and  accuracy.     In  1862  they  projected  a  com- 
plete critical  edition  in  score  and  parts  of  the  ; 
works  of  Beethoven,  which  was  completed  in  j 
1866,  and  is  now  (1S76)  being  followed  by  a 
similar  edition  of  ]Mendelssolm. 

The  list  of  their  publications  contains  treatises 
by  Kiesewetter  and  others  on.  the  history  of  [ 


music,  important  works  by  Tucher  and  Winter- 
feld  on  the  church  music  of  Germany ;  biogra- 
phies, such  as  Bach  hy  Spitta,  Handel  by  Chfy- 
sander,  Mozart  by  Jahn  ;  thematic  catalogues  of 
Beethoven  by  Nottebohm,  and  Mozart  by  Kochel ; 
works  on  the  theory  of  music  by  Chladni,  Haupt- 
mann.  Lobe,  Kohler,  Marx,  Sechter,  etc.,  as  well 
as  a  long  list  of  publications  on  literature,  law, 
theology,  medicine,  natural  philosophy,  philology, 
archaeology,  etc.,  etc.  The  practical  part  of  the 
business  has  increased  so  much  that  the  Goldene 
Bar  was  in  1867  exchanged  for  a  much  larger 
building.  By  18  71  the  printing  had  developed 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  became  necessary  to  use 
the  space  formerly  occupied  by  the  pianoforte 
manufactory.  Since  the  death  of  Hermann,  Ray- 
mund,  youngest  son  of  Gottfried  (born  June  9, 
1 810),  has  been  at  the  head  of  the  house,  assisted 
by  two  grandsons  of  Gottfi-ied's — Wilhelm  Volk- 
mann  and  Dr.  Georg  Oscar  Immanuel  Hase.  It 
is  for  these  gentlemen  to  complete  the  edition 
of  Mendelssohn,  and  to  crown  the  great  under- 
takings already  enumerated,  by  the  edition  of 
Mozart's  great  works  in  score  which  they  have 
already  annoimced  (1876).    [See  Leipzig.] 

(The  above  is  taken  by  kind  permission  from 
papers  in  the  archives  of  the  firm.)       [C.  F.  P.] 

BREMXER,  Robert,  bom  in  Scotland  about 
1720.  He  practised  for  some  years  as  a  teacher 
of  singing,  and  afterwards,  about  174S,  became 
a  music-seller  at  Edinburgh,  under  the  sign  of  the 
'  Harp  and  Hoboy.'  He  subsequently  settled  in 
London,  and  commenced  business,  with  the  same 
sign,  'opposite  Somerset  House  in  the  Strand.' 
He  arranged  many  collections  of  '  Scots  Songs  for 
"Voice  and  Harpsichord.'  He  was  also  the  author 
of  'Rudiments  of  Music,  with  Psalmody,'  a  work 
which  went  through  many  editions ;  *  Thoughts 
on  the  Performance  of  Concert  Music';  'In- 
structions for  the  Guitar,'  etc.  He  died  at  Ken- 
sington, May  12,  1789.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BREXDEL,  Dr.  Karl  Fraxz,  musical  critic, 
born  Xov.  25,  181 1,  at  Stollberg  in  the  Harz ; 
educated  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Freiberg  in 
Saxony,  where  his  father  was  Berg-Rath,  and  at 
the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Berlin.  jNIusic 
always  formed  his  special  pursuit,  in  which  he 
was  mainly  assisted  by  Anacker  and  AVieck. 
He  began  his  public  career  with  lectures  on  the 
history  of  music,  delivered  in  Freiberg  and  in 
Dresden.  In  1844  he  settled  in  Leipsic  as  pro- 
prietor of  Schumann's  'Xeue  Zeitschrift,'  which 
he  edited  from  Jan.  I,  1S45,  at  the  same  time 
teaching  musical  history  and  esthetics  in  Men- 
delssohn's newly  established  Conservatorium. 
Here  he  delivered  the  public  lectures  on  which 
he  founded  his  most  comprehensive  work,  'Ge- 
schichte  der  Musik  in  Italien,  Frankreich,  imd 
Deutschland'  (1S52;  4th  edition  1S67),  an  at- 
tempt to  treat  the  various  historical  developments 
of  the  art  from  one  practical  point  of  \'iew.  More 
important  however  were  his  articles  in  the  'Xeue 
Zeitschrift,'  written  as  a  strenuous  advocate  of 
modem  ideas  in  music.  His  first  eflbrts  were 
devoted  to  the  recognition  of  Schumann ;  but  in 


274 


BRENDEL. 


BREVE. 


time  the  paper  became  the  organ  of  Warner  and 
Liszt.  Brendel  certainly  had  a  rare  power  of 
appreciating  the  ideas  of  the  real  leaders  of  the 
movement,  and  of  illustrating  and  developing 
them  effectively,  and  thus  materially  assisted  the 
movement.  His  treatment  is  dry,  logical,  and 
didactic;  but  what  it  wants  in  directness  and 
poetical  force  is  made  up  for  by  the  perseverance 
with  which  he  urges  his  arguments. 

In  1850  he  began  to  issue  another  periodical, 
entitled  'Anregungen  fiir  Kunst,  Leben,  und 
Wissenschaft,'  which  for  several  years  supported 
the  propaganda  of  the  Zeitung  in  favour  of  Liszt 
ajid  Wagner.  But  the  most  open  exposition  of 
the  views  of  the  party  is  to  be  found  in  his 
*  Musik  der  Gegenwart  und  die  Ge^ammtkunst 
der  Zukunft,'  which  must  be  regarded  as  a 
completion  of  his  History,  and  is  not  free  from 
considerable  party  spirit.  With  the  year  1859 
Brendel  began  to  labour  for  the  reconciliation 
of  the  contending  parties,  on  the  basis  of  the 
general  progress  of  modern  times.  The  field  for 
this  effort  was  the  'Allgemeine  deutsche  Musik- 
Verein,'  or  '  German  musical  union,'  which  arose 
out  of  a  festival  of  musicians  held  on  the  occasion 
of  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  '  Neue 
Zeitschrift,'  and  was  founded  in  1861.  Brendel 
wa3  not  only  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
'Verein,'  but  as  its  president  he  worked  for  it 
with  restless  energy  to  the  time  of  his  death,  and 
his  Zeitung  was  its  official  organ.  Brendel  died 
Nov.  25,  1868.  The  Zeitung  continued  to  follow 
the  same  path  as  before,  but  lost  its  old  eminence. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  Brendel 
issued  various  smaller  publications,  all  more  or 
less  distinguished  by  a  tendency  for  the  New 
German  School — *  Liszt  als  Syniphoniker'  (1858), 
'  Organisation  der  Musik  durch  den  Staat'  (1866). 
An  abridgment  of  his  history,  for  schools,  was 
pubhshed  under  the  title  of  '  Grundziige  der 
Geschichte,'  etc.,  and  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages.  [A.  M.] 

BREVE  (Fr.  Carree;  Ital.  Breve).  A  note 
of  the  value  of  two  semibreves,  rarely  met  with 
in  modem  music,  in  which  there  is  no  place  for 
it,  as  the  longest  bar  commonly  used  (viz.  a  bar 
of  12-8  time)  has  but  the  value  of  a  semibreve 
and  a  half.  Although  now  nearly  obsolete  from 
its  great  length,  the  breve  was  originally  (as  in- 
dicated by  its  name,  derived  from  brevis,  short) 
the  shorter  of  the  two  notes  of  which  the  earliest 
measured  music,  invented  about  A.D.  1200,  was 
composed.  These  two  notes,  which  corresponded 
to  the  long  and  short  syllables  of  the  text  to 
which  they  were  sung,  were  termed  longa  and 
hrevis,  and  were  written  thus,  p  and  The 
proportion  which  they  bore  to  each  other  was  not 
always  constant,  the  longa  containing  sometimes 
three  breves,  in  which  case  it  was  called  perfect, 
and  sometimes  only  two,  when  it  is  said  to  be 
imperfect.  So  likewise,  after  the  introduction 
of  a  still  shorter  note  called  semibrevin,  the  brevis 
could  be  either  perfect  or  imperfect,  and  consist 
of  three  or  two  semibreves.  These  variations  of 
proportion,  which,  together  with  many  others, 
remained  in  use  until  about  the  middle  of  the 


17th  century,  and  which  could  not  but  have 
added  immensely  to  the  difficulty  of  the  study 
of  music,  were  dependent  on  the  order  in  which 
the  longer  and  shorter  notes  followed  each  other, 
and  also  upon  the  appearance  of  certain  time- 
signatures  which  were  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  composition.  For  a  full  account  of  these 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Bellermann's  treatise 
'Die  Mensuralnoten  und  Taktzeichen  des  15. 
und  16.  Jahrhundei*ts,'  Berlin,  1858. 

The  breve,  together  with  other  notes  belonging 
to  the  same  epoch,  was  originally  written  black,  the 
more  modern  white  notes  (Fr.  blanches)  written 
in  outline  being  introduced  by  Dufay  about  the 
end  of  the  14th  century.  After  this  period  black 
notes  (Fr.  noires)  were  exclusively  used  to  ex- 
press diminution,  the  note  made  black  losing 
a  portion  of  its  value,  either  one -third  or  one- 
fourth,  according  to  circumstances.  A  relic  of 
this  custom  survives  in  modern  music  in  the 
method  of  writing  minim  and  crotchet. 

In  modern  music  the  breve,  in  the  rare  cases 
in  which  it  is  used,  is  always  Avo-itten  white, 
and  either  of  an  oblong  form,  thus  jsj ,  or  oval 
with  two  small  vertical  strokes  at  each  end, 
thus  ||^|. 

The  expression  alia  breve,  placed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  composition,  has  been  variously 
interpreted.  Some  have  understood  it  to  mean 
a  rhythm  of  one  breve  to  a  bar,  while  others, 
translating  the  words  'alia  breve'  literally  into 
'in  short  fashion,'  understand  by  it  a  rhythm  of 
either  two  or  four  beats  in  a  bar,  but  at  a  double 
rate  of  movement,  semibreves  being  taken  at 
about  the  speed  of  ordinary  minims,  and  so  on. 
In  favour  of  this  latter  view  is  the  fact  that  the 
signature  of  alia  breve  time  is  always  the  semi- 
circle crossed  by  a  vertical  stroke,  (j'j  which  is 
the  'diminutio  simplex  in  tempus  imperfectum' 
of  the  ancient  measured  music,  where  it  served 
precisely  the  same  purpose,  i.  e.  by  reducing 
each  note  to  half  its  proper  value  it  doubled 
the  rate  of  movement.  Both  views  agree  in  the 
most  important  particular,  namely,  that  compo- 
sitions marked  *  alia  breve,'  or,  even  when  not  so 
marked,  if  provided  with  the  distinctive  time- 
signature,  must  be  performed  twice  as  fast  as  if 
simply  marked  with  the  sign  of  common  time, 
C  or  4-4.  And  with  regard  to  the  opinion  which 
holds  that  compositions  alia  breve  ought  to  be 
written  in  bars  of  the  value  of  a  breve,  it  may 
be  urged  that  in  spite  of  the  undoubted  fact 
that  most  of  such  compositions  have  but  one 
semibreve  in  the  bar,  it  is  possible  that  this 
method  of  writing  may  have  been  intended  to 
represent  merely  the  division  of  the  original  alia 
breve  bar  into  two  halves,  for  convenience  of 
reading,  a  division  which  has  actually  been  made 
in  certain  cases,  as  for  example  in  Handel's 
chorus  'All  we  like  sheep'  (Messiah),  which  was 
originally  written  in  bars  of  the  value  of  two 
semibreves,  and  marked  'alia  breve,'  although 
now  printed  in  bars  of  half  that  length.  More- 
over, it  is  certain  that  the  expression  alia  breve 
has  never  been  applied  to  movements  in  triple 
time,  although  if  it  had  had  reference  merely  to 


BREVE. 

the  rate  of  movement  this  would  have  been  per- 
fectly possible.  [F.  T.] 

BREWER,  Thomas,  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital,  and  brought  up  as  a  performer  on  the 
viol.  He  flourished  in  the  time  of  Charles 
I,  the  Protectorate,  and  part  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  II,  He  was  the  composer  of  several 
excellent  fantasias  for  the  viol ;  and  many 
rounds  and  catches  of  his  are  printed  in  Hilton's 
'Catch  that  Catch  can.'  He  was  the  composer 
of  the  pretty  three-part  song  'Turn  Amaryllis,' 
inserted  by  Playford  in  his  '  Musical  Companion.' 
In  the  Harleian  MS.,  No.  6395,  entitled  '  Merry 
Passages  and  Jests,'  compiled  by  Sir  Nicholas 
Lestranore,  is  the  following  anecdote  respecting 
him  : — '  ITiomas  Brewer,  my  musical  servant, 
through  his  proneness  to  good  fellowship,  having 
attained  to  a  very  rich  and  rubicund  nose,  being 
reprov'd  by  a  friend  for  his  too  frequent  use  of 
stronc;  drinkes  and  sacke,  as  very  pernicious  to 
that  distemper  and  inflammation  in  his  nose — 
"Nay,  faith,"  says  he,  "if  it  will  not  endure 
sacke,  it  is  no  nose  for  me." '  The  date  of  his 
death  is  not  known.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BRIAR  D,  ^TIEXNE,  engraver  of  music,  born 
at  Bar-le-Duc  towards  the  end  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, settled  at  Avignon  in  1530.  He  replaced 
the  square  characters  hitherto  in  use  by  round 
ones,  and  devised  a  simple  means  of  express- 
ing the  duration  of  a  note,  instead  of  the  com- 
plicated system  of  ligatures.  Peignot,  in  his 
'  Diction,  de  la  Bibliologie,'  supp.  p.  140,  claims 
priority  in  these  inventions  for  Granjon,  also  a 
printer ;  but  Briard's  characters  are  certainly 
better  formed  and  easier  to  read.  A  facsimile 
of  them  may  be  seen  in  Schmidt's  '  Ottaviano 
Petrucci.'  The  works  of  the  composer  Eleazar 
Genet,  called  '  Carpentras, '  after  his  birthplace, 
were  printed  at  Avignon  in  1532  in  Briard's 
characters.  Jean  Baptiste,  a  descendant  of 
the  celebrated  printer,  has  distinguished  himself 
as  a  violinist.  He  was  born  May  13,  1823,  at 
Carpentras ;  gained  the  second  prize  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  in  1S43,  and  the  first  in  1844. 
His  teachers  were  Clarel,  Baillot,  and  Habe- 
neck.  [F.  G.] 

BRIDE  OF  DUNKERRON,  THE,  a  dra- 
matic cantata  ;  the  ver^e  by  Enoch ;  music  by 
Henry  Smart.  Written  for,  and  produced  at, 
the  Birmingham  Festival  Sept.  6,  1864.  [G.] 

BRIDE  OF  SONG,  THE,  operetta  in  one 
act ;  words  by  Henry  Farnie ;  music  by  Jules 
Benedict.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden  Dec.  3, 
1864.  [G.] 

BRIDES  OF  VENICE,  a  grand  opera  in  2 
acts  ;  music  by  Jules  Benedict.  Produced  at 
Drury  Lane,  Monday,  April  22,  1S44.  [G.] 

BRIDGE.  The  strings  on  the  instruments  of 
the  violin  tribe  are  stretched  over  a  smull  piece 
of  wood  called  the  bridge,  which  transmits  their 
%-ibrations  to  the  body  of  the  instrument.  The 
shape  and  details  of  the  bridge,  a^  finally  fixed 
upon  by  Stradivari,  cannot  be  altered  in  any 


BRIDGETOWER.  275 

single  respect  without  iajury  to  the  tone  of  the 
instrument. 


If  a  plain  piece  of  wood  is  substituted  for  the 
bridge,  the  instrument  has  absolutely  no  tone  ; 
by  cutting  out  the  feet  the  tone  is  made  to 
appear  to  a  certain  extent,  and  it  increases  in 
proportion  as  the  bridge  assumes  its  normal 
shape.  It  is  generally  made  of  spotted  maple. 
Its  height,  width,  and  thickness  depend  on  the 
qualities  of  the  individual  instrument  which  it 
is  to  serve.  As  a  rule  its  height  must  not  be 
more  than  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  Sound- 
post.  The  thickness  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, for  if  too  thick,  it  will  not  readily 
transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  strings.  The  left 
foot  must  stand  exactly  over  the  middle  of  the 
bass-bar,  and  both  feet  must  be  at  an  equal 
distance  from  the  /■  holes.  [P.  ]).] 

BRIDGETOWER,  George  Augustus  Pol- 
GEEEN,  a  mulatto,  son  of  an  African  father  and  an 
European  mother,  appears  to  have  been  born  at 
Bisla  in  Poland  1779  1780,  and  to  have  made 
his  first  appearance  in  February  1 790  at  Drury 
Lane,  where  he  played  a  violin  solo  between  the 
parts  of  the  '  Messiah.'  This  probably  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  Pi  ince  of  Wales,  since  on  the  2nd 
June  following  he  and  Clement,  a  lad  of  about 
the  same  a^^e,  gave  a  concert  under  the  patronage 
of  H.  R.  H.  In  the  same  year  he  also  played  at 
the  '  Professional  Concerts.'  Bridgetower  became 
a  pupil  of  Giornovichi  and  of  Attwood,  and 
was  attached  to  the  Prince's  establishment  at 
Brighton  as  a  first  -violin-player.  His  name  is 
found  among  the  performers  at  the  Haydn-Salomon 
Concerts  of  1 791,  and  at  concerts  of  Barthelemon's 
in  92  and  94,  where  he  played  a  concerto  of 
Viotti's.  At  the  Handel  Commemoration  of 
1 791,  Bridgetower  and  Hummel  sat  on  each  side 
of  Joah  Bates  at  the  organ,  clad  in  scarlet  coats, 
and  pulled  out  the  stops  for  him.  He  was  known 
in  London  by  the  sobriquet  of  '  the  Abyssinian 
Prince.'  In  1802  he  obt  dned  permission  to  visit 
his  mother  at  Dresden,  where  she  was  living  with 
another  son,  a  cello  player.  In  Dresden  he  gave 
concerts  on  July  24,  1802,  and  March  18,  1803  ; 
and  from  thence  went  to  Vienua,  where  his 
reputation  preceded  him,  and  where  he  played  the 
sonata  Op.  47 — known  as  the  'Kreutzer  Sonata' 
— with  Beethoven,  on  the  17th  or  24th  May. 
After  this  he  is  heard  of  110  more,  but  is  believed 
to  have  died  in  England  between  1840  and  1850, 
leaving  a  daughter  who  still  lives  in  Italy. 

Bridgetower  has  lefc  a  memorandum  of  the 
performance  of  the  Sonata  which,  if  it  can  be 

T  2 


276  BRIDGETOWER. 


BRISTOL  MADRIGAL  SOCIETY. 


believed,  is  interesting.  He  introduced  an  altera- 
tion of  one  passage  which  so  pleased  Beethoven 
that  he  jumped  up  from  his  seat,  threw  his  arms 
round  Bridgetower,  and  cried  *Noch  einmal,  mein 
lieber  Bursch^ — 'Once  more,  my  dear  fellow.' 

Czerny  has  left  on  record  that  Bridgetower  s 
gestures  in  playing  were  so  extravagant  and  ab- 
surd that  no  one  could  help  laughing. 

The  memorandum  just  mentioned  is  given  by 
Thayer  ('Beethoven,'  ii,  229)  ;  and  further  details 
wiU  be  found  at  pp.  227-231  and  385-391.  See 
also  Pohl's  'Haydn  in  London,'  pp.  18,  28,  38, 
etc. — Beethoven  writes  '  Brischdower.'  [G.] 

BRIEGEL,  Wolfgang  Karl,  church  com- 
poser, born  1626,  originally  organist  at  Stettin, 
and  afterwards  (see  the  title-page  of  his  then 
published  works)  Music-Director  to  Prince  Frie- 
denstein  in  Gotha,  and  in  1660  Kapellmeister  to 
the  Duke  of  Saxe  Gotha.  In  1670  he  was  called 
to  Darmstadt  as  Kapellmeister  to  the  Landgrave 
of  Darmstadt,  where  he  remained  till  his  death 
in  1 7 10.  Among  the  remains  of  Emanuel  Bach 
was  a  portrait  of  Briegel,  engraved  by  Nessen- 
thaler  ;  it  represents  a  man  of  about  sixty-five,  of 
healthy  and  jovial  aspect,  and  with  no  trace  of 
the  labour  involved  in  so  many  serious  composi- 
tions. Schneider  (das  Musik.  Lied,  iii.  155)  says, 
that  '  perceiving  the  fashion  of  solo  songs  like 
those  of  Ad.  Krieger  and  the  two  Ahles  to  be  on 
the  wane,  he  returned  to  the  composition  of  songs 
for  several  voices ;  he  wrote,  in  fact,  incessantly 
in  all  sorts  of  styles  with  much  fluency  but  no 
originality,  and  with  no  adequate  return  for  his 
labours.'  His  principal  compositions  consisted  of 
sacred  songs  for  several  voices,  mostly  to  his  own 
words.  One  of  his  works  alone,  for  3  and  4 
instruments  (Erfurt,  165  2),  contains  10  Paduaner, 
10  Gagliarden,  10  Ballette,  and  10  Couranten. 
His  one  secular  work,  '  Musikalisches  Tafel- 
Confect'  (Frankfort,  1672),  consists,  according  to 
its  quaint  title,  of  'pleasant  Conversations  and 
Concertos.'  His  Hymn-book  for  Darmstadt  ap- 
peared in  1687.  His  published  works,  twenty-five 
in  number,  begin  with  '  Geistliche  Arien  und  Con- 
certo' (Erfurt,  1672),  and  end  with  '  Letzter 
Schwanen-Gesang,'  consisting  of  twenty  Trauer- 
gesange  for  four  or  five  voices  (Giessen,  1709). 

Gerber  (Lexicon,  181 2)  gives  a  catalogue  of 
his  published  works  according  to  dates  from 
Darmstadt,  Employed  by  Fetis  in  his  '  Biographic 
Universelle.'  [C.  F.  P.] 

BRIGHENTI,  or  BRIGHETTI,  Mme.  Maeia 
(nee  Giorgi),  a  celebrated  singer,  born  at  Bologna 
1792;  fii-st  appeared  at  Bologna  in  1814.  She 
created  the  part  of  Rosina  at  the  first  per- 
formance of  the  'Barl)iere  di  Siviglia'  (Rome, 
1816)  ;  and  for  her  Rossini  wrote  'La  Cene- 
rentola.'  She  sang  in  the  principal  towns  of 
Italy,  and  retired  in  1836.  Mme.  Brighenti 
embodied  her  recollections  of  Rossini,  whom  she 
had  known  from  childhood,  in  an  interesting 
book  *Cenni  ....  sopra  il  Maestro  Rossini' 
(Bologna,  1823).  [M.  C.  C] 

BRIND,  Richard,  M-as  brought  up  as  a 
chorister  in  St.  Paul's  Cnthedral.  On  the  death  in 


1707  of  Jeremiah  Clark,  organist  of  the  cathedral, 
Brind  was  appointed  his  successor,  and  held  the 
place  until  his  death  in  1 718.  He  composed  for 
occasions  of  thankgiving  two  anthems  now  wholly 
forgotten.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BRINDISI  (Ital.  far  hrindisi ;  Span,  brindar, 
*to  drink  one's  health'),  a  drinking  or  toasting 
song.  Well-known  and  popular  examples  are  '  II 
segreto '  in  'Lucrecia  Borgia,'  and  '  Libiamo'  in 
the  'Traviata'  —  the  latter  written  for  chorus, 
with  solos  for  soprano  and  tenor.       [W.  H.  C] 

BRISTOL  MADRIGAL  SOCIETY.  The 

establishment  of  this  society  in  1837  was  one  of 
the  fruits  of  a  lecture  on  Madrigals  given  at 
Bristol  by  Professor  Edward  Taylor.  The  society 
was  limited  to  thirty  members,  who  were  to  meet 
on  alternate  Wednesdays  at  the  Montague  Tavern, 
to  sing  such  madrigals  as  had  been  previously 
agreed  upon  by  the  committee ;  the  late  Mr.  J. 
D.  Corfe,  organist  of  the  Cathedral,  was  the 
director,  and  among  the  first  members  was  Mr. 
Pearsall,  the  eminent  madrigal  writer.  At  the 
first  annual  dinner  in  1838  Sir  John  Rogers 
and  Mr.  Thomas  Oliphant,  president  and  secre- 
tary of  the  London  Madrigal  Society,  were  pre- 
sent. In  the  same  year  it  was  resolved  to  give 
a  'Ladies'  Night,'  and  in  1839  number  of 
these  open  performances  was  increased,  owing 
to  the  demand  for  tickets,  while  ultimately 
the  *  Ladies'  Night '  took  the  place  of  the  annual 
dinner.  In  Feb.  1841  the  Ladies'  Nights  were 
suspended,  but  at  the  end  of  1842  they  were 
recommenced  at  the  Victoria  Rooms,  with  an 
audience  of  1200,  and  have  since  been  continued 
annually.  The  number  of  members  has  been 
increased  to  forty-two,  and  the  meetings  are 
still  held  at  the  Montague.  The  choir  consists 
exclusively  of  male  voices,  the  boys  being  selected 
from  the  cathedral  choirs  of  Bristol,  Oxford, 
Exeter,  and  other  places.  Mr.  Corfe  continued 
to  direct  the  society  till  1864,  when  he  resigned, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  D.  Rootham,  the 
present  conductor.  The  open  nights  have  always 
attracted  a  large  number  of  eminent  musicians, 
and  among  the  frequent  visitors  in  past  years 
may  be  named  Dr.  C.  Corfe,  of  Oxford ;  Sir  G. 
J.  Elvey  and  Dr.  Stephen  iElvey ;  the  Rev.  Sir 
Frederick  Gore  Ouseley,  Bart. ;  Dr.  Stainer, 
(then  of  Oxford) ;  Mr.  Amott,  of  Gloucester ; 
Mr.  Done,  of  Worcester;  and  Mr.  Townshend 
Smith,  of  Hereford,  who  brought  with  them  the 
most  effective  members  of  their  respective  choirs. 
During  the  period  of  Mr.  Corfe's  direction  these 
gentlemen  joined  the  choir  of  Bristol  Cathedral 
at  service  on  the  day  of  the  concei-t,  a  practice 
since  discontinued.  The  music  sung  during  the 
first  twelve  years  of  the  society's  existence  was 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  madrigals,  the 
exceptions  being  anthems  by  Tye  and  Creighton, 
and  the  works  of  Mr.  Pearsall,  but  some  of 
Mendelssohn's  four-part  songs  were  introduced 
at  a  concert  in  Jan.  185 1,  and  have  been  fre- 
quently included  since,  with  other  choral  works 
of  the  same  class.  The  following  was  the  pro- 
gramme at  the  society's  first  meeting  on  March  i, 


BRISTOL  MADRIGAL  SOCIETY. 


BROADWOOD. 


277 


1837  : — '  I  wiU  arise'  (Creighton)  ;  '  Cynthia,  tliy 
song  and  chanting '  (G.  Croce) ;  '  Flora  gave 
me  '  (Wilbye) ;  '  To  shorten  Winter's  sadness ' 
(Weelkes) ;  'In  pride  of  May'  (Morley);  '0  that 
the  learned  poets'  (0.  Gibbons) ;  'All  creatures 
now '  (Benet) ;  '  Hosanna '  (Gibbons)  ;  '  April  is 
in  my  Mistress'  face'  (Morley);  'So  saith  my 
fair '  (L.  Marenzio) ;  *  Down  in  a  flow'ry  vale ' 
(Festa) ;  'Soon  as  I  careless  stray' d'  (Festa)  ; 
'  The  Waits  '  (Saville) .  In  subsequent  programmes 
we  find  the  names  of  the  great  madi-igal  writers 
of  England  and  Italy.  A  sacred  work  occasion- 
ally finds  a  place  in  the  programmes,  and  the 
last  number  is  always  '  The  Waits.'         [C.  M.] 

BRITISH  CONCERTS.  When  the  Vocal 
Concerts  were  discontinued  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1822  the  British  Concerts  were  established 
to  supply  their  place,  and,  according  to  the  pros- 
pectus, 'to  meet  the  wishes  of  a  numerous  class 
of  persons  who  are  anxious  to  see  native  talent 
encouraged.'  The  programmes  were  to  consist 
'entirely  of  works  of  British  composers,  or  of 
foreigners  who  have  been  naturalised  and  resi- 
dent in  these  realms  for  at  least  ten  years.*  The 
managers  of  the  concerts  were  the  following 
members  of  the  Concentores  Society: — Messrs. 
Attwood,  Bishop,  Elliot,  Goss,  Hawes,  Horsley, 
Jolly,  Linley  and  Walmisley,  and  Sir  G.  Smart. 
Three  concerts  were  given  in  1823,  under  the 
immediate  patronage  of  the  King,  including  in- 
strumental chamber  music,  vocal  solos  and  glees. 
Among  the  new  works  given  were  string  quartets 
by  J.  Calkin  and  G.  Griffin,  a  quartet  for  piano 
and  strings  by  Griffin,  Horsley's  'Address  to  Hope' 
for  double  choir,  and  his  glee  'The  Crier,'  Lin- 
ley's  glee  'Now  the  blue-fly's  gone  to  bed,' 
Elliott's  'A  choir  of  bright  beauties,'  Hawes's 
*  Love,  like  a  bird,'  Attwood's  '  In  this  fair  vale.' 
The  instrumental  performeis  were  Mori,  W. 
Griesbach,  H.  Smart,  and  Linley,  and  the  chief 
vocalists  Mrs.  Salmon,  Miss  Stephens,  and  Messrs 
Vaughan,  Sale,  and  Bellamy.  The  concerts  took 
place  in  the  ball-room  of  the  Argyll  Rooms,  and  a 
list  of  200  subscribers  was  published,  but  the 
support  accorded  to  the  scheme  was  insufficient 
for  the  continuance  of  the  concerts,  and  the 
season  of  1823  was  the  first  and  last.       [C.  M  ] 

BRITISH  ORCHESTRAL  SOCIETY.  This 
society  was  established  in  1872  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  an  annual  series  of  concerts  by  British 
artists,  the  soloists,  vocal  and  instrumental,  to- 
gether with  the  band  of  seventy -five  performers, 
being  drawn  from  the  ranks  of  native  musicians. 
The  scheme  of  each  concert  includes  a  symphony, 
a  concerto,  two  overtui'es,  and  vocal  music ;  the 
programme  being  gone  through  without  any 
bi  eak.  Mr.  George  Mount  is  the  conductor,  and 
the  band  includes  Messrs.  Carrodus,  Zerbini, 
Doyle,  E.  Howell,  J.  Howell,  sen.,  as  the  leaders 
of  the  string  department.  While  the  performers 
have  been  exclusively  English,  the  music  has  been 
drawn  from  composers  of  all  nations,  but  several 
new  works  by  native  writers  have  been  given  for 
the  first  time,  including  Macfarren's  overture  to 
•St.  John  the  Baptist'  (1873);  J.  F.  Barnett's 


overture  to  Shakspere's  'Winter's  Tale'  (1873), 
written  for  the  society  ;  J.  Hamilton  Clarke's 
'  Saltarello'  (1874);  Alfred  Holmes'  overture  to 
'Inez  de  Castro'  (1874);  Gadsby  s  overture  'The 
Witches'  Frolic'  (1874)  ;  Wingham's  Symphony 
in  B  flat  (1875).  The  soloists  at  the  concerts 
include  the  names  of  the  most  eminent  English 
artists.  The  concerts  are  given  at  St.  James's 
Hall,  and  Mr.  Stanley  Lucas  is  the  secretary 
(1876).  [C.  M.] 

BRITO,  EsTEBAN  DE,  lived  about  1625,  musi- 
cal director  at  the  cathedrals  of  Badajos  and 
Malaga,  and  composer  of  motets,  etc.  preserved 
in  the  King  of  Portugal's  library. 

BRITTON,  Thomas,  called  the  'Musical 
Small-Coal  Man,'  was  bom  at  or  near  Higham 
Ferrers,  Northamptonshire,  about  the  year  1651. 
He  was  apprenticed  in  London  to  a  coal-dealer, 
and  afterwards  commenced  business  in  Aylesbury 
Street,  Clerkenwell,  as  a  dealer  in  '  small -coal' 
(charcoal  ?),  which  he  carried  through  the  streets 
on  his  back.  He  obtained  an  extensive  know- 
ledge of  chemistry,  of  old  books,  chiefly  on  the 
occult  sciences,  and  of  both  the  theoretical  and 
practical  part  of  music.  He  established  weekly 
concerts,  and  formed  a  sort  of  club  for  the  practice 
of  music.  These  concerts  were  held  in  a  long 
narrow  room  over  his  shop,  the  entrance  to  which 
is  described  as  being  by  a  stair  outside  the  house. 
Notwithstanding  the  humbleness  of  the  attempt 
these  gatherings  are  said  to  have  been  attractive 
and  very  genteel.  The  performers  were  Handel 
(who  presided  at  the  harpsichord),  Pepusch,  John 
Banister,  Henry  Needier,  John  Hughes  (the  poet), 
Philip  Hart,  Henry  Symonds,  Abel  Whichello, 
Obadiah  Shuttleworth,  Woollaston  (the  painter), 
and  many  other  professors  and  amateurs.  The 
concerts  were  at  first  free  to  all  comers ;  sub- 
sequently the  visitors  paid  ten  shillings  a  year 
each.  Britton  provided  his  guests  with  coffee 
at  a  penny  a  dish.  The  small-coal  ^lan  was  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Earls  of  Oxford,  Pembroke, 
Sunderland,  and  Winchelsea  (the  great  book- 
collectors  of  the  day),  who  appreciated  his  con- 
versation and  book-learning.  He  had  a  hand 
in  the  formation  of  the  celebrated  Harleian 
Library ;  and  the  Somers  tracts  were  entirely  his 
collecting.  His  reception  by  these  noblemen  led 
many  persons  to  imagine  that  Britton  was  not  the 
character  he  seemed  to  be,  and  that  his  musical 
assemblies  were  only  a  cover  for  seditious  pur- 
poses. Indeed  he  was  severally  suspected  of  being 
a  magician,  an  atheist,  a  presbyterian,  and  a 
Jesuit.  These  conjectures  were  all  ill-grounded. 
Britton  was  a  plain,  simple,  honest  man,  perfectly 
inoffensive,  and  with  tastes  above  his  condition  in 
life.  His  death  was  brought  about  by  a  ventrilo- 
quist, who  so  frightened  him  that  he  never  re- 
covered. He  died  Sept.  27,  1 714,  and  was  buried 
in  St.  J ames'  Churchyard,  Clerkenwell,  his  funeral 
being  attended  by  the  members  of  his  musical 
club.  [E.  F.  R.] 

BROADWOOD  (John  Broadwood  and  Sons). 
The  house  which  has  borne  this  name  and  been 
identified  with  pianoforte-making  in  London  from 


278 


BROADWOOD. 


BROSSARD. 


the  introduction  of  the  instrument,  was  established 
by  a  harpsichord-maker,  Burkhard  Tschudi,  a 
descendant  of  the  Schwanden  branch  of  the  noble 
Swiss  family  of  that  name  (Schweizerische  Lexi- 
con, art.  'Tschudi,'  Zurich,  1795).  In  England 
he  wrote  his  name  Shudi,  and  established  himself 
about  the  year  1732  at  the  house  (afterwards  No. 
33)  in  Great  Pulteney  Street,  Golden  Square,  the 
sign  he  adopted,  before  it  was  numbered,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  time,  being  the  'Plume  of 
Feathers.'  Tschudi,  originally  a  joiner,  had  been 
the  pupil  of  Tabel,  a  Flemish  harpsichord-maker 
settled  in  London,  who  had  himself  been  taught 
in  the  famous  house  of  Ruckers  at  Antwerp. 
Through  merit  and  the  recommendation  of  Handel, 
Tschudi  was  made  harpsichord-maker  to  the  royal 
family  of  England.  A  fine  double  harpsichord, 
made  by  him  in  1 740,  was  long  preserved  in  Kew 
Palace,  and  is  now  in  Windsor  Castle.  He  was 
also  patronised  by  Frederick  the  Great,  two  harpsi- 
chords made  by  Tschudi  being  still  in  the  royal 
palace  at  Potsdam.  Burney  spoke  of  his  tone 
being  refined  and  delicate,  and  compared  his  in- 
struments with  those  of  his  rival  Kirkman,  also 
a  pupil  of  Tabel.  Tschudi's  only  patent  was  taken 
out  in  1769,  for  a  Venetian  swell  to  the  harpsi- 
chord (see  Venetian  Swell),  probably  the  in- 
vention of  his  son-in-law  and  partner  John  Broad- 
wood,  the  latter  a  journeyman  cabinet-maker  who 
came  from  Scotland  to  London,  found  employment 
at  Tschudi's,  married  Tschudi's  daughter,  and  was 
taken  into  partnership  by  his  father-in-law,  who 
retired  in  1773,  but  as  late  as  1794  the  joint 
names  appear  as  the  style  of  the  firm  in  a  Musical 
Directory.  About  1770  the  first  grand  pianoforte 
made  in  London  had  been  constructed  by  a 
Dutchman,  Americus  Backers,  with  the  assistance 
of  John  Broadwood  and  his  apprentice  Robert 
Stodart.  Backers  died  about  1 781,  recommending 
his  action  to  John  Broadwood's  care;  and,  allow- 
ing for  some  change  in  the  proportion  of  parts,  it 
is  the  same  Messrs.  Broadwood  still  use,  known 
on  the  Continent  as  the  English  action.  In  1783 
John  Broadwood  took  out  a  patent  for  a  change 
in  the  construction  of  the  square  pianoforte,  by 
which  the  wrest-plank  holding  the  tuning-pins  was 
removed  from  the  right-hand  side,  as  in  the  old 
clavichord,  to  the  back  of  the  instrument.  He  also 
introduced  the  division  of  the  bridge  on  the  sound- 
board of  the  grand  piano.  These  improvements 
were  so  important  that  they  were  afterwards  every- 
where adopted.  John  Broadwt)od  died  in  18  [2. 
His  sons,  James  Shudi  and  Thomas  Broadwood 
did  much  to  extend  the  business,  the  former  having 
recognised  claims  as  a  progressive  pianoforte- 
maker.  The  continued  history  of  the  house  is  so 
intimately  connected  with  the  modem  develop- 
ment of  the  instrument  that  further  reference  to  it 
must  be  sought  under  Pianoforte.  The  present 
head  of  the  firm  (1877)  is  Mr.  Henry  Fowler 
Broadwood.  [A.  J.  H.] 

BRODERIP,  WiLLTAM,  organist  of  Wells 
Cathedral  aljout  the  commencement  of  the  i8th 
century,  contributed  some  things  towards  the 
store  of  cathedral  music.  A  service  and  an 
anthem   with    orchestral   accompaniments  by 


him  are  included  in  the  manuscript  collection 
of  church  music  made  by  Dr.  Tudway  for  the 
Earl  of  Oxford,  and  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. [W.  H.  H.] 

BRONSART,  Hans  von,  pianist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Berlin,  1830,  educated  at  Dantzic 
and  at  Berlin  University.  Studied  harmony 
and  composition  under  Dehn,  and  the  piano, 
first  under  Kullak,  and  (1854-57)  under  Liszt 
at  Weimar.  After  several  years  devoted  to 
concert  tours,  Bronsart  (1860-62)  conducted  the 
Euterpe  concerts  at  Leipsic  ;  in  65  became 
Director  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde 
at  Berlin,  and  in  67  Intendant  of  the  court 
theatre  at  Hanover,  a  post  he  still  fills  (1878). 
His  chief  works  are  a  Pianoforte  Trio  in  G 
minor,  and  a  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  FjJ  minor — 
both  much  and  successfully  played  by  von  Biilow, 
Sgambati,  and  others;  Polonaise  in  C  minor 
(Liszt's  '  Das  Klavier ') ;  Friihlings-Fantaisie  for 
orchestra,  often  performed ;  'Christmarkt,'  a  Can- 
tata for  double  choir  and  orchestra ;  Der  Corsair 
(MS.),  an  opera,  text  from  Byron  ;  also  an  in- 
teresting pamphlet,  '  Musikalische  Pflichten.'  In 
1862  he  married  Ingeborg  Starck,  like  himself  a 
pupil  of  Liszt's.  [See  Starck.]  In  England 
Bronsart  is  only  known  by  his  Pianoforte  Con- 
certo, which  was  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
Sept.  30,  1876,  by  Hartvigson.  [E.D.] 

BROS,  Juan,  bom  at  Tortosa  1776,  died  at 
Oviedo  1852,  successively  director  at  the  cathe- 
drals of  Malaga,  Leon,  and  Oviedo,  and  composer 
of  much  church  music,  still  perf  ormed  in  the 
churches  throughout  Spain.  Three  Misereres 
written  at  Leon  are  cited  as  his  best  works. 
Specimens  of  his  music  are  given  by  Eslava  in 
the  '  Lira  Sacro-Hispano.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BROSCHI,  Carlo  ;  detto  Farinelli.  (See 
Farinelli.) 

BROSSARD,  Sebastien  de,  author  of  the 
first  musical  dictionary,  published  under  the  title 
of  '  Dictionnaire  de  musique  contenant  une  expli- 
cation des  termes  grecs  et  latins,  italiens  et 
fran9ai8  les  plus  usites  dans  la  musique,'  etc. 
(Paris,  Ballard,  1703,  folio).  There  were  two 
later  editions,  the  second  at  Paris  in  8vo.,  and 
the  third  by  Roger  of  Amsterdam.  The  work 
contained  a  catalogue  of  900  authors  on  music. 
Brossard  was  born  in  1660,  and  was  a  priest  at 
Strassburg,  and  chapel-master  to  the  cathedral 
from  1689  to  1698.  In  1700  he  was  appointed 
grand  chaplain  and  musical  director  of  the 
cathedral  at  Meaux,  where  he  died  Aug.  10, 
1730.  Janowka,  a  Bohemian,  brought  out  a 
musical  dictionary  two  years  before  Brossard's, 
but  it  was  in  Latin,  like  all  such  works  at 
that  time.  Brossard's  book  being  in  French 
brought  musical  subjects  within  the  range  of 
the  general  reading  public,  and  thus  rendered 
an  important  service  to  art.  It  is  not  with- 
out faults,  but  contains  an  enormous  amount 
of  information  to  have  been  amassed  by  one 
man.  Brossard  also  wrote  *  Lettre  h  M.  Demotz 
sur  sa  nouvelle  mothode  d'ocrire  le  plain- chant 
et  la  musique'  (Ballard,  1729).    As  a  composer 


BROSSARD. 


BRUMEL. 


279 


of  cliurch  music  lie  made  his  mark.    He  gave 
his  valuable  library  to  Louis  XIV  in  considera-  ! 
tion  of  an  annuity  of  1 200  francs.    His  ^MSS.  and 
notes  for  a  universal  history  of  music  are  pre-  ■ 
served  in  the  national  library  in  Paris.     [F.  G.] 

BROWNSMITH,  John  Leman,  was  born  in  ; 
Westminster  in  1S09,  and  received  his  musical 
education  as  a  cbori>rer  of  Westminster  Abbey 
under  Georg«  Ebenezer  Williams  and  Thomas 
Greatorex.  On  quitting  the  choir  he  pursued 
the  study  of  the  organ,  and  in  a  short  time 
became  not  only  an  excellent  player  but  ac- 
quired so  perfect  a  knowledge  of  the  structure 
of  the  instrimient  as  to  be  able  to  build  a 
small  chamber-organ  for  himself.  In  1S29,  on 
the  death  of  Benjamin  Jacob,  Brownsmith  was 
appointed  his  success. >r  as  organist  of  St.  John's 
church,  Waterloo  Road.  In  March  1S3S  he  was 
appointed  a  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
In  October  1S4S  he  succeeded  William  Miller 
as  organist  to  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  in 
which  capacity  he  otficiated  at  the  Handel  Fes- 
tivals at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1S57,  1S59,  1^62, 
and  1S65.  In  I S5 3  he  resigned  bis  appointment 
at  St.  John's  on  being  chosen  organist  of  the 
then  newly-erected  chm-ch  of  St.  Gabriel,  Pim- 
lico.    He  died  Sept.  14,  1S66.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BRUCH,  Max,  one  of  the  most  eminent  living 
Grerman  composers,  was  bom  at  Cologne  on  Jan. 
6,  1S3S.  His  father  was  in  government  employ, 
his  mother  came  of  a  well-known  and  gifted 
musical  family  of  the  Lower  Rhine.  Hei-self  a 
distinguished  singer,  she  carefully  watched  the 
early  development  of  her  son's  musical  talents. 
He  received  his  theoretical  instruction  from  Pro- 
fessor Breidenst^ein  at  Bonn,  and  soon  began  to 
give  extraordinary  promise.  In  1 85  2  Bruch  gained 
the  scholarship  of  the  Mozart  foundation  at  Frank- 
fort-on-Maine  for  four  years,  during  which  time 
he  continued  his  studies  under  Hiller,  Reinecke 
and  Breuning  at  Cologne,  at  the  same  time 
making  himself  gradually  known  by  his  compo- 
sitions. His  fuuher  development  was  promoted 
by  long  visits  to  Leipsic,  Munich,  and  other 
musical  towns.  His  stay  at  Munich  was  of  spe- 
cial importance  through  the  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  the  poet  Geibel,  whose  *  Loreley,'  written 
for  Mendelssohn,  Bruch  had  composed  while  at 
Cologne.  He  at  length  obtained  the  poet's  con- 
sent for  the  performance  of  the  opera,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Mannlieim.  where  it  was  first  given, 
and  where  he  occupied  himself  with  studving  the 
requirements  of  the  stage.  He  then  produced 
many  of  those  works  which  have  associated  his 
name  with  the  best  of  the  present  time.  In  i  S65 
he  accepted  the  post  of  musical  dii-ector  of  the  Con- 
cert-Institution at  Coblen2,  and  in  1S67  became 
Kapellmeister  to  the  Prince  of  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1S70, 
since  which  time  he  has  lived  independently, 
first  at  Berlin  and  now  at  Bonn,  devoting  himself 
exclusively  to  composition.  The  first  work  with 
which  he  came  before  the  public  was  an  operetta, 
'  Scherz,  List  und  Rache,'  to  Goethe's  words  ; 
then  followed  various  chamber  compositions,  a 


trio  (op.  5\  two  string  quartets  (op.  9,  10), 
songs,  and  pianoforte  works.  For  the  present, 
however,  Bruch  has  abandoned  these  branches, 
and  devot-ed  his  whole  strength  to  the  larger 
forms  of  orchestral  and  choral  music.  His  first 
st^p  in  this  field  was  taken  with  the  opem 
'Loreley'  (op.  i6\  already  mentioned,  which 
met  with  considerable  success  ;  but  his  most  im- 
portant and  most  successful  work,  and  that 
which  established  his  fame,  was  his  '  Scenes  from 
the  Frithjof-Saga'  (op.  23^,  for  male  voices  and 
orchestra — a  work  of  the  freshest  invention  and 
consummate  technique.  Amongst  his  instru- 
mental works  the  more  important  are  two 
Violin  Conceit:>s,  the  fii-st  in  G  minor,  and  the 
second  (1S77)  in  D  minor,  as  well  as  two 
S\-mphonies.  His  chief  vocal  works,  with  or- 
chestra, are:  'Die  Flucht  der  hedigen  Familie' 
(op.  20),  '  Romischer  Triumpfgesang,'  'Romische 
Leichenfeier,'  '  Salamis '  (these  last  three  for 
men's  chorus),  '  Schon  Ellen,'  '  Rorate  Coeli.' 
'  Kyrie,  Sanctus,  and  Benedictus,'  '  Odysseus,' 
and  various  smaller  works  of  the  same  kind. 
He  also  wrote  a  second  opera,  called  '  Hermione ' 
after  Shakespeare's  '  Winter's  Tale,'  but  this 
had  no  success.  Bruch's  real  field  is  concert 
music  for  chorus  and  orchestra  ;  he  is  above  all 
a  master  of  melody,  and  of  the  effective  treats 
ment  of  the  masses.  These  two  sides  of  his 
artistic  activity,  so  to  speak,  play  into  each  other's 
hands,  and  have  brought  him  deserved  success. 
Bruch's  melody  is  not  drawn  from  the  hidden 
depths  of  innermost  feeling,  but  rather  from  the 
upper  surface  of  his  nature  ;  yet  it  is  true,  un- 
constrained, natm-al,  and  excellent  in  structure, 
broad,  impressive,  and  vocal.  He  thoroughly 
understands  how  to  clothe  his  thoughts  in  the 
most  favourable  and  effective  fjmis.  In  the 
elaborate  and  complicated  machinery  of  the 
modern  orchestra  and  chorus  he  is  thoroughly  at 
home.  While  on  the  one  hand  we  admit  that 
the  effect  of  his  more  important  works  is  perhaps 
greatly  dependent  on  the  brilliant  clothing  of 
the  musical  ideas,  we  must  on  the  other  hand 
insist  that  this  skilful  use  of  external  means 
is  always  accompanied  by  a  keen  artistic  feel- 
ing for  external  harmony,  with  a  delicate  esti- 
mat'on  of  the  proportionate  effect  of  the  sepa- 
rate parts  in  comparison  to  the  whole.  This 
artistic  sense  of  propoition  saves  him  from  losing 
himself  in  that  mere  outward  show  which 
we  sometimes  find  among  the  modem  realistic 
scho<^l.  [A.  M.] 

BRUMEL,  AynoTSY,  a  Flemish  musician,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  Ockenheim's  pupils. 
He  flourished  in  the  epoch  (1480-1520)  which 
may  be  distinguished  as  the  period  of  Josquin 
des  Pres.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  personal 
history,  but  his  compositi«ms  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  in  sufiicient  number  to  prove  the 
justice  of  his  great  reputation.  There  is  a  perfect 
copy  of  five  of  his  masses,  printed  in  one  volume 
by  Petrucci  of  Venice  in  1503,  preserved  in  the 
royal  library  at  Berlin.  There  is  also  a  collection 
of  masses  of  various  authors  by  the  same  printer, 
and  containing  one  of  Brumel's,  in  the  British 


2S0 


EEUMEL. 


BULOW. 


Museum.  There  are  besides  many  masses  and 
motets  in  other  editions  of  Petrucci's,  and  MSS. 
exist  in  the  royal  library  at  Mimich  as  well  as 
in  the  pontifical  chapel.  [J.  K.  S.  B.] 

BRUXETTI,  Gaetaxo,  a  violin-player  and 
composer,  was  bom  at  Pisa  in  1753.  He  was  a 
pupil  first  of  his  father,  an  able  musician,  and 
afterwards  of  the  celebrated  Xardini  at  Florence, 
whose  style  of  playing  and  composing  he  adopted 
with  considerable  success.  The  greater  part  of 
his  life  he  spent  at  Madrid,  attached  to  the  court 
of  the  Prince  of  Astiu-ias,  afterwards  Charles  IV. 
Here  he  came  into  close  connection  with  Bocche- 
rini,  then  at  the  height  of  his  fame  as  a  performer 
and  composer,  and  appears  gradually  to  have 
superseded  that  artist  in  the  favour  of  the  court 
and  the  public.  With  the  symphonies,  serenades, 
and  other  instrumental  works  which  he  •wTote  for 
the  King  and  the  Duke  of  Alba  he  was  eminently 
successful.  They  appear  to  be  very  much  in  the 
style  of  Boccherini ;  but  on  the  whole  inferior 
to  the  works  of  that  master.  Brimetti  died  at 
Madrid  in  1S08.  His  numerous  compositions — 
published  at  Paris — coni«ist  of  symphonies,  sere- 
nades, sextets,  quintets,  and  violin-duets.  Over 
200  works  of  his  remain  in  MS.  [P.  D.] 

BEUXI,  AyioixE-BAKTHELEirT,  a  violinist 
and  composer,  bom  at  Coni  in  Piedmont  in  1759. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Pugnani,  and  lived  from  1771 
at  Paris,  first  as  orchestral  player  at  the  Italian 
Opera,  and  afterwards  as  conductor  of  the  Opera 
Comique.  He  wrote  sixteen  operas,  some  of 
which  achieved  considerable  success,  although 
now  entirely  forgotten. 

For  the  violin  he  wrote  four  sets  of  sonatas, 
several  concertos,  ten  quartets,  and  twenty -eight 
sets  of  violin  duets,  the  latter  well  known  to 
professors  as  useful  pieces  for  teaching  purposes, 
ako  a  '  Methode  de  A'iolon,'  and  a  '  Methode  pour 
I'Alto-viola.'    He  died  in  1823.  [P-D.] 

BRUXI,  SiGXOB,  an  Italian  primo  uomo  who 
was  singing  at  Florence  in  the  winter  of  1784. 
In  1793  he  sang  in  London.  He  improved  in 
voice  and  style,  but  was  still  weak,  when  com- 
pared with  his  predecessors.  He  distantly  re- 
caUed  EubinelH.  [J.M.] 

BUGLE  ^  (Eng.  and  Fr. ;  Germ.  Fliir/dhorn, 
Ital.  Troniba).  A  treble  instrument  of  brass  or 
copper,  differing  from  the  trumpet  in  haA-ing  a 
shorter  and  more  conical  tube,  with  a  less  ex- 
panded bell.  It  is  played  with  a  cupped  mouth- 
piece. In  its  original  form  the  bugle  is  the  signal 
horn  for  the  infantn,',  as  the  trumpet  is  for  the 
cavalry,  and  it  is  usually  tuned  in  C,  with  an  extra 
Bi?  crook,  or  in  Eb.  Only  five  sounds  are  required 
for  the  various  calls  and  signals.  These  are  the 
intermediate  open  notes  of  the  tube,  from  C  below 
the  treble  stave  to  G  above  it.  Eight  sounds 
however  can  in  all  be  obtained,  by  the  addition 
of  the  Bb  and  C  above  high  G,  and  the  octave 
of  the  lowest  C,  which  though  feeble  and  of  poor 


'  Mr.  Tennyson  has  immortalised  it  by  his  Son^  in  The  rrincess. 


tone  is  the  real  fundamental  note.  With  these 
additions  the  entire  compass  is  as  follows  : — 


Two  methods  have  been  adopted  for  bridgang 
over  the  gaps  between  the  open  notes  of  this 
instrument,  viz.  keys  and  valves.  The  key- 
bugle,  called  also  the  'Kent  bugle'  and  'Eegent's 
bugle,'  which  was  extremely  popular  some  forty 
years  ago,  has  been  entirely  superseded  by  the 
valve  system.  Xo  doubt  the  latter,  as  in  the 
cornet  and  euphonium,  preserves  the  whole 
length  of  tube  for  the  higher  notes,  and  thus 
gains  power  and  fulness  ;  but  it  is  a  question 
whether  the  keyed  instrument  does  not  produce 
more  accurate  intonation  and  a  tenderer  quality  of 
tone.  This  however  is  a  matter  to  which  English 
bandmasters  seem  perfectly  indifferent,  although 
the  Fliigelhom  and  the  key-bugle  are  still  to  be 
heard  with  effect  in  the  superb  bands  of  Austria. 

In  the  ordinary  bugle  valves  are  often  added 
as  an  attachment,  of  which  the  bugle  itself  be- 
comes the  beU.  [W.  H.  S.] 
BULOW,  Haxs  Guido  von,  bom  Jan.  8, 
1830,  at  Dresden.    The  foremost  pianist  of  that 
most  advanced  school  of   pianoforte  playing, 
founded  by  Chopin  and  developed  by  Liszt.  A 
first-rate  conductor,  and  a  musician  whose  tech- 
nical attainments  and  complete  knowledge  of 
the  art  from  its  germs  to  its  very  latest  devel- 
I  opment  can  be  rivalled  by  few  contemporaries 
and  surpassed  by  none.    As  a  pianist  his  reper- 
I  toire  comprehends  the  master  works  of  all  styles 
'  and  schools,  from  the  early  Italians  to  the 
present  day;  it  would  in  fact  be  difficult  to 
j  mention  a  work  of  any  importance   by  any 
I  composer  for  the  pianoforte  which  he  has  not 
i  played  in  public,  and  by  heart.    His  prodigious 
musical  memory  has  enabled  him  also  as  a 
conductor  to  perform  feats  which  have  never 
I  before  been  attempted,  and  will  in  all  like- 
1  Hhood  not  be  imitated.    The  distinctive  pecu- 
liarity of  both  his  playing  and  conducting  may 
be  set  down  as  a  passionate  intellectuality. 
One  notices  at  every  step  that  all  details  have 
been  thought  about  and  mastered  down  to  the 
minutest  particle ;  one  feels  that  all  effects  have 
been  analysed  and  calculated  with  the  utmost 
subtlety,  and  yet  the  whole  leaves  an  impression 
of  warm  spontaneity.    This  is  the  highest  praise 
which  can  be  awarded  to  an  executant.  It 
does  not,  perhaps,  apply  to  all  of  Billow's  ap- 
pearances in  public,  but  it  applies  strictly  to  his 
performances  at  their  best ;  and  it  is  but  bare 
justice  to  measure  the  achievements  of  a  great 
artist  as  one  measures  a  mount-ain  chain,  by  the 
peaks  rather  than  by  the  valleys.   The  analytical 
and  reconstructive  powers  just  emphasised  render 
his  editions  of  classical  pianoforte  works,  such  as 
those  of  Beethoven's  sonatas,  variations,  and 
bagatelles,  from  op.  53  upwards,  of  Cramer's 
studies,  of  selections  from  Sebastian  and  Emanuel 
Bach,  from  Handel,  Scarlatti,  etc. — in  which  he 
has  indicated  the  most  refined  phrasing  and 


BULOW. 


BULL. 


2S1 


fingering,  as  well  as  the  most  minute  nuances 
of  tempo  and  expression,  and  has  corrected  pre- 
sumable misprints  and  inaccuracies — unique  and 
invaluable  to  the  student. 

In  addition  to  these  his  admirable  partition 
de  'piano  of  the  most  intricate  score  in  existence, 
Wagner's  'Tristan  und  Isolde,'  together  with 
that  of  the  overture  to  '  Die  Meistersinger '  and 
*Eine  Faust  Ouverture,'  as  well  as  the  arrange- 
ments of  Weber's  two  concertos  and  the  con- 
certstiick  for  pianoforte  solo  should  be  mentioned. 

In  early  youth  Von  Biilow  seems  to  have 
shown  neither  talent  for  music  nor  delight  in 
it.  Both  gifts  first  made  their  appearance  after 
a  long  illness,  but  then  in  a  supreme  degree. 
After  his  ninth  year  he  was  placed  under 
Friedrich  Wieck,  the  father  of  Clara  Schumann, 
who  laid  the  solid  foundations  for  his  future 
technical  achievements.  M.  K.  Eberwein  was 
for  two  years  subsequently  his  master  in  harmony 
and  counterpoint.  In  1848  he  came  to  the 
university  of  Leipzig  to  commence  the  study  of 
jurisprudence,  his  parents  having  always  looked 
upon  music  as  a  mere  pastime.  At  Leipzig 
he  continued  his  studies  in  counterpoint  under 
Hauptmann.  In  Oct.  1849  we  find  him  a 
member  of  the  university  of  Berlin,  absorbed 
in  the  political  movements  of  the  time,  and 
contributor  to  a  democratic  journal  '  Die  Abend- 
post.'  In  this  paper  he  first  began  to  announce 
and  defend  the  musical  doctrines  of  the  new 
German  school  led  by  Liszt  and  Wagner.  A 
performance  of  'Lohengrin'  at  Weimar  in  1850 
under  Liszt  moved  him  so  intensely  that  he 
threw  over  his  career  as  a  lawyer,  went  to 
Ziirich  and  entrusted  himself  to  the  guidance 
of  Wagner.  In  June  1851  he  went  to  Weimar 
to  study  pianoforte  playing  under  Liszt,  and 
in  1853  made  his  first  concert  tour,  play- 
ing at  Vienna,  Pesth,  Dresden,  Carlsruhe, 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Berlin.  From  1855  to 
1864  he  occupied  the  post  of  principal  master 
of  pianoforte  playing  at  the  conservatorium  of 
Professors  Stern  and  A.  B.  Marx,  at  Berlin. 
Here  we  find  him  organising  trio  soirees,  or- 
chestral concerts,  and  pianoforte  recitals,  with 
programmes  of  the  most  varied  character,  though 
with  a  decided  leaning  towards  the  works  of 
the  new  German  school,  writing  articles  for 
various  political  and  musical  papers,  making 
journeys  through  Germany  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  Russia,  and  reaping  laurels  everywhere  as 
player  and  conductor.  In  1864  was  called 
to  Munich  as  principal  conductor  at  the  royal 
opera  and  director  of  the  Conservatorium.  It 
was  there  that  he  succeeded  in  organising  model 
performances  of  Wagner's  'Tiistan  und  Isolde' 
and  'Die  Meistersinger  von  Niirnberg.'  In 
1869  ^6  left  Munich,  and  has  since  been  giving 
concerts  in  Italy,  Germany,  Russia,  Poland, 
England,  and  America.  Among  his  most  im- 
portant compositions  the  following  have  been 
published  : — op.  20,  '  Nirwana,  Symphonisches 
Stimmungsbild' ;  op.  10,  Music  to  Shakspeare's 
'Julius  Caesar';  op.  16,  Ballade  for  Orchestra, 
*Des  Sanger's  Fluch' ;  op,  23,  'Vier  Charakter- 


stiicke  fiir  Orchester,  (i)  Allegro  risoluto,  (2) 
Notturno,  (3)  Intermezzo  guerriero,  (4)  Fune- 
rale.'  Among  his  pianoforte  pieces  especial  at- 
tention should  be  called  to  his  recent  op.  21, 
'II  Camovale  di  Milano.' 

On  Jan.  i,  1878,  he  was  appointed  Koniglicher 
Hofkapellmeister  at  Hanover.  [^.D.] 

BUHL,  Joseph  David,  bom  near  Amboise 
1 781,  trumpeter,  son  of  a  musician  in  the  service 
of  the  Due  de  Choiseul.  He  was  successively  a 
member  of  the  band  of  the  '  Garde  Parisienne,* 
organised  1792,  and  of  the  Consuls'  'Grenadiers 
de  la  Garde.'  He  was  also  professor  at  the 
cavalry  school  of  trumpeters  at  Versailles,  from 
its  foundation  in  1805  to  its  abolition  in  181 1. 
In  1 8 14  he  was  appointed  by  Louis  XVIII  con- 
ductor of  the  band  of  the  Gardes  du  Corps,  and 
received  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  181 6  he 
became  first  trumpeter  at  the  Opera,  and  at 
the  Theatre  Italien  ;  but  owing  to  an  accident  at 
the  coronation  of  Charles  X  was  compelled  to 
relinquish  both  appointments  in  1825.  In  1823 
Buhl  introduced  into  France  the  slide-trumpet  (a 
couHsse),  invented  by  HalteuhofF  of  Hanau. 
He  published  a  'Method  for  Trumpet'  (Paris, 
Janet),  and  was  editor  of  the  '  Ordonnance  des 
Trompettes.'  [M.  C.  C] 

BULL,  John,  Mus.  Doc,  was  born  in  Somer- 
setshire about  1563.  He  was  educated  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Chapel  under  William  Blitheman,  the 
celebrated  organist.  On  Dec.  24,  1582  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  Hereford  Cathedral  and 
afterwards  master  of  the  children.  In  January 
1585  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  in  1 591  on  the  death  of  his  master  is 
said  to  have  succeeded  him  as  organist.  But  this 
is  mere  conjecture,  as  John  Hewlett  succeeded 
Blitheman  in  the  place  of  a  gentleman,  and  the 
office  of  organist  as  a  separate  appointment  did 
not  then  exist.  On  July  9,  1586,  he  was  ad- 
mitted Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford, '  having  practised  in 
that  faculty  fourteen  years,'  and  on  July  7,  1592, 
was  incorporated  Mus.  Doc.  in  the  same  Univer- 
sity, having  previously  taken  the  degree  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1596,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  Bull  was  the  first  appointed 
Music  Professor  in  Gresham  College,  and,  al- 
though unable  to  compose  and  read  his  lectures 
in  Latin,  according  to  the  founder's  original  in- 
tention, such  was  his  favour  with  the  Queen  and 
the  public,  that  the  executors  of  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham,  by  the  ordinances  bearing  date  1597, 
dispensed  with  his  knowledge  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  ordered  'The  solemn  music  lecture 
twice  every  week,  in  manner  following,  viz.  the 
theoretique  part  for  one  half -hour,  or  thereabouts, 
and  the  practique,  by  concert  of  voice  or  instru- 
ments, for  the  rest  of  the  hour,  whereof  the  first 
lecture  should  be  in  the  Latin  tongue  and  the 
second  in  English ;  but  because  at  this  time  Mr. 
Dr.  Bull,  who  is  recommended  to  the  place  by 
ths  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  being  not 
able  to  speak  Latin,  his  lectures  are  permitted  to 
be  altogether  in  English,  so  long  as  he  shall  con- 
tinue in  the  place  of  music  lecturer  there.'  In 
1 60 1  Bull  went  abroad  for  the  recovei-y  of  hia 


282 


BULL. 


BUNTING. 


health,  and  during  his  absence  was  permitted  to 
substitute  as  his  deputy,  Thomas,  son  of  Vv'illiani 
Byrd.  He  travelled  incognito  into  France  and 
Germany,  and  Antony  h,  Wood  tells  a  story  of  a 
feat  performed  by  him  at  St.  Omer's,  where,  to  a 
composition  originally  in  forty  parts,  he  added 
forty  more  in  a  few  hours.  After  the  death  of 
Elizabeth,  Bull  retained  his  post  in  the  Chapel 
Eoyal,  and  his  fame  as  an  organist  was  widely 
spread.  On  Dec.  15,  1606,  Bull  was  admitted 
into  the  freedom  of  the  Merchant  Taylors'  Com- 
pany by  service,  having  been  bound  apprentice 
to  Thomas,  Earl  of  Sussex,  who  was  free  of  the 
Company.  On  July  16,  1607,  when  James  I  and 
Prince  Henry  dined  at  Merchant  Taylors'  Hall, 
the  royal  guests  were  entertained  with  music, 
both  vocal  and  instrumental.  And  while  His 
Majesty  was  at  table,  according  to  Stowe,  '  J ohn 
Bull,  Doctor  of  Musique,  one  of  the  organists  of 
His  Majesties  Chappell-royall,  and  free  of  the 
Merchant-taylors,  being  in  a  citizen's  gowne, 
cappe,  and  hood,  played  most  excellent  melodic 
upon  a  small  payre  of  Organes,  placed  there  for 
that  pixrpose  onley.'  (Chronicles,  edit.  1631,  p. 
891.)  On  Dec.  22,  1607,  Bull  obtained*  from 
the  Bishop  of  London  a  marriage  licence  for  him- 
self and  'Elizabeth  Walter  of  the  Strand,  maiden, 
aged  about  24,  daughter  of  Walter, 
citizen  of  London,  deceased,  she  attending  upon 
the  lU.  Hon.  the  Lady  Marchioness  of  Winchester.' 
They  were  to  marry  at  '  Christ  Church,  London.' 
In  the  same  month  he  resigned  his  professorship  at 
Gresham  College,  which  was  tenable  only  so  long 
as  he  remained  unmarried.  In  161 1  he  was  in  the 
service  of  Prince  Henry,  and  his  name  stands  first 
on  the  roll  of  the  Prince's  musicians,  with  a  salary 
of  £40  per  annum.  The  old  Cheque  Book  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  records  under  date  of  161 3  that 
'  John  Bull,  Doctor  of  Musicke,  went  beyond  the 
seas  without  license,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Archduke's  service.'  No  valid  reason  can  be 
assigned  for  his  leaving  the  country,  but  it 
seems  he  had  been  preparing  for  the  step  some 
months  previously.  In  the  British  Museum 
(Add.  MSS.  No,  6194^  is  preserved  a  letter  from 
Dr.  Bull  to  Sir  M.  Hicks,  wishing  his  son's  name 
to  be  inserted  instead  of  his  own  in  some  patent 
dated  April  26,  161 2  ;  and  the  same  MS.  contains 
an  extract  from  Mr.  Trumbull's  letter  to  .James  I 
concerning  the  Archduke's  receiving  Dr.  Bull,  the 
king's  organist,  into  his  chapel  without  permis- 
sion, dated  May  30,  1614.  The  subsequent  life 
of  Dr.  Bull  has  been  hitherto  simply  conjecture, 
but  the  writer  is  fortunately  enabled  to  clear  up 
the  latter  part  of  it  from  a  letter  written  by  the 
Chevalier  Leon  de  Burbure  some  few  years  back, 
in  answer  to  certain  inquiries.  The  Chevalier 
says,  '  I  do  not  know  that  the  Cathedral  of  Ant- 
werp ever  possessed  any  MSS.  of  Dr.  John  Bull, 
but  at  all  events  there  have  remained  no  traces 
for  a  long  time.  The  only  facts  relative  to  John 
Bull  that  f  have  discovered  are,  that  he  became 
organist  of  Notre  Dame  at  Antwerp  in  161 7,  in 
the  place  of  Ilumold  Waelrent  deceased ;  that  in 
1620  he  lived  in  the  house  adjoining  the  church, 

1  This  fact  has  never  before  been  noticed.  I  am  Indebted  for  It  to 
ColonelJ.  L.  Chester.  [G.] 


on  the  side  of  the  Place  Verte,  in  which  the  con- 
cierge of  the  cathedral  had  lived;  that  he  died 
on  March  12  or  13,  1628,  and  was  buried  on  the 
1 5th  of  the  same  month  in  the  cathedral  where 
he  had  been  organist.'  Specimens  of  Bull's  com- 
positions for  voices  may  be  found  in  Barnard's  and 
Boyce's  collections  and  in  Sir  William  Leighton's 
'Teares  or  Lamentations  of  a  Sorrowfull  Soule,' 
1 61 4,  fol.  He  joined  Byrd  and  Gibbons  in  con- 
tributing to  the  Parthenia,  a  collection  of  pieces 
for  the  virginals,  printed  early  in  the  1 7th  cen- 
tury, and  a  large  number  of  his  instrumental 
movements  are  extant  in  the  volume  in  the  Fitz- 
william  Museum  known  as  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Virginal  Book,  and  in  other  MSS.  See  a  curious 
list  in  Ward's  Lives  of  the  Gresham  Professors, 
pp.  203-8.  To  Bull  has  been  attributed  the  com- 
position of  the  popular  tune, '  God  save  the  King,' 
but  the  claim  made  on  his  behalf  has  met  with 
but  partial  acceptance.  [See  God  save  the 
King.]  A  portrait  of  Bull  is  preserved  in  the 
Music  School  at  Oxford.  It  is  painted  on  a  board 
and  represents  him  in  the  habit  of  a  bachelor  of 
music.  On  the  left  side  of  the  head  are  the  words, 
'  An.  ^tatis  svse  26,  1589,'  and  on  the  right  side 
an  hoiir -glass,  upon  which  is  placed  a  human  skull, 
with  a  bone  across  the  mouth.  Round  the  four 
sides  of  the  frame  is  wi'itten  the  following  homely 
distich: — 

*  The  bull  by  force  in  field  doth  raigne: 
But  BuU  by  skill  good  will  doth  gayne.' 

[E.  F.  R.] 

BUNN,  Alfred,  manager  and  dramatic  au- 
thor, was  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  director,  and 
during  the  greater  part  of  that  time  lessee,  of 
Drury  Lane  Theatre.  EUiston  gave  him  his  first 
appointment  as  stage-manager  of  Drury  Lane  in 
1823,  when  he  was  quite  a  young  man ;  and  he 
first  obtained  a  certain  celebrity  as  a  manager 
by  endeavouring  some  dozen  years  afterwards  to 
establish  an  English  Opera.  'The  Maid  of  Ar- 
tois,'  and  a  few  years  later  '  The  Bohemian  Girl,' 
'  The  Daughter  of  St,  Mark,'  and  other  operas  by 
Balfe,  were  produced  at  Drury  Lane  under  JMr. 
Bunn's  management ;  and  for  the  first  of  these 
works  Mme,  Malibran  was  engaged  at  the  then 
unprecedented  rate  of  £125  a  night.  Mr.  Bunn 
also  brought  out  Mr.  (now  Sir  Julius)  Benedict's 
'Brides  of  Venice'  and  Vincent  Wallace's  'Mari- 
tana.'  For  most  of  these  operas  Mr,  Bunn  him- 
self furnished  the  libretto,  which  however  was  in 
every  case  of  French  origin.  He  was  the  author 
or  adapter  of  a  good  many  dramas  and  farces,  in- 
cluding '  The  Minister  and  the  Mercer,'  a  trans- 
lation of  Scribe's  '  Bertrand  et  Raton,'  which,  on 
its  fii-st  production,  obtained  remarkable  success. 
Long  before  his  career  as  manager  had  come  to 
an  end  he  published  a  volume  of  memoirs,  under 
the  title  of '  The  Stage.'  [H.  S.  E.] 

BUNTING,  Edward,  son  of  an  English 
engineer  and  an  Irish  lady,  born  at  Armagh  in 
February  1773.  He  was  educated  as  an  organ 
and  pianoforte  player,  and  distinguished  himself 
for  his  love  of  Irish  music,  of  which  he  published 
three  collections.  The  first,  containing  Irish  airs 
*  never  before  published,'  came  out  in  1 796,  A 


BUNTING. 


BUELETTA. 


283 


second,  containing  75  additional  airs  (words  by 
Campbell  and  others),  and  a  dissertation  on  the 
Irish  Harp,  appeared  in  1 809.  A  third  collection, 
containing  upwards  of  150  airs,  of  which  more 
than  120  were  then  for  the  fii'st  time  given  to 
the  public,  was  published  in  1840.  This  last 
collection  is  remarkable  for  a  dissertation  of  100 
pages  upon  the  history  and  practice  of  music  in 
Ireland.  According  to  this  dissertation  'the 
occasion  which  first  confirmed  him  in  his  partiality 
for  the  airs  of  his  native  country,  was  the  great 
meeting  of  the  Harpers  at  Belfast  in  1 79  2 .  Before 
tiiis  time  there  had  been  several  similar  meetings 
at  Granard,  in  the  county  of  Longford,  which 
had  excited  a  surprising  degree  of  interest  in 
Irish  music  throughout  that  part  of  the  country. 
Tne  meeting  at  Belfast  was  however  better 
attended  than  any  that  had  yet  taken  place,  and 
its  efiects  were  more  permanent,  for  it  kindled 
an  enthusiasm  throughout  the  north  which  burns 
bright  in  some  warm  and  honest  hearts  to  this 
day.  All  the  best  of  the  old  class  of  Harpers — 
a  race  of  men  then  nearly  extinct,  and  now  gone 
for  ever  —  Dennis  Hempson,  Arthur  O'Neill, 
Charles  Fanning,  and  seven  others,  the  least 
able  of  whom  has  not  left  his  like  behind,  were 
present.'  Aided  by  O'Neill  and  the  other  harpers, 
Bunting  immediately  began  to  form  his  first  col- 
lection. He  travelled  into  Derry,  Tyrone,  and 
Connaught,  where,  especially  in  the  last,  he 
obtained  a  great  number  of  excellent  airs.  His 
first  and  second  collections  contain  the  best  Irish 
airs,  although  in  his  third  there  are  several  very 
good  ones,  and  some  very  curious.  Among 
these  last  are  the  '  caHnans  or  dirges,  and  airs  to 
which  Ossianic  and  other  old  poems  are  simg,' 
and  which  the  editor  gives  as  '  very  ancient ' — 
many  hundred  years  old.  He  afterwards  en- 
deavours to  anal3^se  the  structure  of  Irish  airs, 
and  to  point  out  their  characteristics. 

Bunting  died  at  Belfast  Dec.  21,  1S43,  and 
was  interred  at  Mount  Jerome.  His  death  was 
absolutely  unnoticed.  '  He  was  of  no  party,  and 
therefore  honoured  of  none,  and  yet  this  un- 
honoured  man  was  the  preserver  of  his  country's 
music'  {Dub.  Univ.  Mag.,  Jan.  1847;  Private 
:^ourccs.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BURDEN  OR  BURTHEN.  Old  songs  and 
ballads  frequently  had  a  chorus  or  motto  to  each 
verse,  which  in  the  language  of  the  time  was 
called  a  Burden  or  Bob.  One  of  the  most  an- 
cient and  most  popular  was  'Hey  troly  loly  lo,' 
quoted  in  '  Piers  Plowman,'  1362,  and  other  early 
songs.  It  occurs  after  every  line  of  a  song  of 
the  time  of  Edward  IV  (Sloane  MS.  No.  1584) ; 
and  in  Isaac  Walton's  'Compleat  Angler'  is  the 
burden  of  '  0  the  sweet  contentment  the  country- 
man doth  find,' 

*  Heigh  trollollie  loe, 
Heigh  trollollie  lee.' 

The  ancient  'Frogge  Song'  has  the  ridiculous 
bui'den — 

*  Farthing  linkum  laddium, 
Farm — ho —  fanny  ho. 
Farthing  glen.* 
In  the  ballad  of  '  Sir  Eglamore,'  which  was  very 


popular  in  the  1 7th  century,  the  burden  is  '  Fa 
la,  lanky  down  dilly.'  In  Shakespeare's  'Tem- 
pest '  we  find — 

'  Foote  it  featly  heere  and  there, 
And  sweet  Sprites  the  burthen  beare.' 
The  stage  direction  to  which  is  'Burthen  dis- 
persedly';  and  the  burthen  follows — 
'  Harke,  harke,  bowgh-wough ; 
The  watch-dogges  barke 
Bowgh-wough.' 
The  second  song  in  the  same  play  has  'Ding- 
dong'  for  the  burden.    In  'As  You  Like  It' 
Celia  says  'I  would  sing  my  song  without  a 
burthen,  thou  bring'st  me  out  of  tune.' 

The  ballad  '  The  Jolly  Miller '  has  been  a  fa- 
vourite from  the  1 6th  or  1 7th  century,  and  was 
sent  to  Beethoven  to  harmonise  on  account  of 
'its  merited  popularity'  by  Thomson,  who  in- 
serted it  in  his  'Scotch  Songs,'  1824.  In  it  we 
find  the  lines — 

*  This  the  burden  of  his  song 
For  ever  us'd  to  be, 
I  care  for  nobody,  no,  not  I, 
If  nobody  cares  for  me.' 

It  is  probable  that  the  burdens  were  ac- 
companied by  motion  or  dancing.  [Ballad.] 
In  '  Much  Ado  about  Nothing '  Margaret  says 
'Claps  into  Light-a-love  (that  goes  without  a 
burden).  Do  you  sing  it  and  I'll  dance  it.' 
Burden  also  means  the  drone  or  bass  of  a  bag- 
pipe.   [Faux-bourdon.]  [W.H.C] 

BURGMULLER,  Nobbert,  composer;  born 
at  Diisseldorf,  Feb.  8,  18 10;  son  of  the  then 
music-Director  there,  who  died  in  1824  well 
known  and  honoured  as  one  of  the  founders  and 
conductors  of  the  Lower  Rhine  festivals.  Nor- 
bert  very  early  showed  extraordinary  musical 
talent.  After  leaving  his  father  he  studied  at 
Cassel  under  Spohr  and  Hauptmann.  But  a 
sickly  constitution  prevented  his  full  develop- 
ment, and  he  died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1836. 
He  left  much  music  behind  him,  of  which  two 
symphonies,  an  overture,  and  some  other  pieces 
were  published  by  Kistner,  all,  notwithstand- 
ing their  natural  immaturity,  manifesting  great 
ability,  lively  imagination  full  of  ideas,  freshness 
of  invention,  and  a  strong  feeling  for  classical 
'  form.'  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that,  if  his 
life  had  been  spared,  concentration  and  strength 
would  have  come  with  years,  and  that  Burg- 
miiller  would  have  reached  a  high  place  in  his 
art.  Schumann  valued  him  greatly :  he  begins  a 
memorial  notice  of  him  by  saying  that  since  the 
early  death  of  Schubert  nothing  more  deplorable 
had  happened  than  that  of  Burgmiiller  (Ues. 
Schriften,  iii.  145).  [A.  M.] 

BURL  A,  OR  BURLESCA,  a  musical  joke  or 
playful  composition;  J.  S.  Bach's  Partita  3, 
engraved  with  his  own  hand  on  copper,  and 
published  in  1727,  contains  a  Burlesca  as  the 
fifth  piece.  Schumann  has  a  Burla  in  op.  124. 
No.  12.  [W.  H.C.J 

BURLETTA,  a  droll  or  facetious  musical 
drama  or  farce,  which  derives  its  name  from  the 


284 


BUELETTA. 


BURNEY. 


Italian  verb  hurlare,  'to  jest,'  or  'to  ridicule.' 
The  burletta  found  its  way  from  Italy  through 
France  to  England.  The  most  celebrated  ex- 
ample produced  in  England  was  the  Beggar's 
Opera  in  1727,  written  by  Gay,  and  adapted 
to  the  popular  melodies  of  the  day.  In  1737 
appeared  '  The  Dragon  of  Wantley,'  by  Henry 
Carey  and  Lampe,  which  succeeded  so  well  that 
it  was  followed  in  1738  by  a  second  part  or 
sequel,  entitled  *  Margery.'  [W.  H.  C] 

BURNEY,  Charles,  Mus.  Doc,  was  born  at 
Shrewsbury  April  7,  1726,  and  educated  at 
the  free  school  there.  He  was  subsequently 
removed  to  the  public  school  at  Chester,  where 
he  commenced  his  musical  studies  under  Mr. 
Baker,  the  organist  of  the  Cathedral  When 
about  fifteen  years  of  age  he  retm-ned  to  his 
native  town,  and  for  three  years  pursued  the 
study  of  music,  as  a  future  profession,  under  his 
elder  brother  James  Bumey,  organist  of  St. 
Mary's,  Shrewsbury.  He  was  next  sent  to  Lon- 
don, and  for  three  years  studied  under  Dr.  Arne. 
In  1749  he  was  elected  organist  of  St.  Dionis- 
Backchurch,  Fenchurch-street,  and  in  the  winter 
of  the  same  year  engaged  to  take  the  harpsi- 
chord in  the  subscription  concerts  then  recently 
established  at  the  King's  Arms  in  Cornhill.  In 
the  following  year  he  composed  the  music  of  three 
dramas — Mallet's  Alfred,  Mendez's  Robin  Hood, 
and  Queen  Mab — for  Drury-lane.  Being  threat- 
ened with  consumption,  however,  he  could  not 
continue  these  exertions,  and,  in  1751,  accepted 
the  situation  of  organist  of  Lynn-Regis,  Norfolk, 
where  he  remained  for  the  succeeding  nine 
years.  In  this  retreat  he  formed  the  design, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  future  History  of 
Music.  In  1760,  his  health  being  completely 
restored,  he  returned  to  London,  and  again 
entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  profession. 

Soon  after  his  arrival  in  London,  Burney  pub- 
lished several  concertos  for  the  harpsichord  which 
were  much  admired  ;  and  in  1 766  he  brought  out 
at  Drurj'-lane,  with  considerable  success,  both  | 
words  and  music  of  a  piece  entitled  'The  Cunning  | 
Man,'  founded  upon,  and  adapted  to  the  music  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau's  'Devin  du  Village.'  On  June 
23,  1769,  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred 
upon  him  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Doctor 
of  Music,  on  which  occasion  his  exercise  consisted 
of  an  anthem  of  considerable  length,  with  over- 
ture, solos,  recitatives  and  choruses,  which  con- 
tinued long  to  be  a  favourite  at  the  Oxford  Music 
Meetings,  and  was  several  times  performed  in 
GeiTnany  under  the  direction  of  Emanuel  Bach, 
In  tlie  meantime,  neither  the  assiduous  pursuit 
of  his  profession,  nor  his  many  other  engage- 
ments had  interrupte-'l  his  collections  for  his 
History  of  Music.  He  had  exhausted  all  the 
information  that  books  could  afford  him,  and 
was  far  from  what  he  desired.  The  present 
state  of  music  could  only  be  ascertained  by 
personal  investigation  and  converse  with  the 
most  celebrated  musicians  of  foreign  countries, 
as  well  as  his  own.  He  resolved  to  make  the 
tour  of  Ttalj',  France  and  Germany,  and  fur- 
nished with  powerful  letters  of  introduction  from 


the  Earl  of  Sandwich  (a  nobleman  devoted  to 
music)  quitted  London  in  June  1770.  He  spent 
several  days  in  Paris,  and  then  went  by  Lyons 
and  Geneva  (where  he  had  an  accidental  inter- 
view with  Voltaire),  to  Turin,  Milan,  Padua, 
Venice,  Bologna,  Florence,  Rome,  and  Naples, 
consulting  everywhere  the  libraries  and  the 
learned;  hearing  the  best  music,  sacred  and 
secular,  and  receiving  the  most  cheerful  and 
liberal  assistance  towards  the  accomplishment 
of  his  object.  On  his  return  to  England,  Dr. 
Burney  published  an  account  of  his  tour,  in  one 
volume,  which  was  exceedingly  well  received, 
and  deemed  so  good  a  model  that  Dr.  Johnson 
professedly  imitated  it  in  his  own  Tour  to  the 
Hebrides,  saying, '  I  had  that  clever  dog  Burney' s 
Musical  Tour  in  my  eye.'  In  July  1772,  Dr. 
Burney  again  embarked  for  the  continent  to 
make  the  tour  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands, 
of  which  he  published  an  account  in  two  volumes. 
At  Vienna  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  make  the 
intimate  acquaintance  of  the  celebrated  poet 
Metastasio.  Here  he  also  found  two  of  the 
greatest  musicians  of  that  age,  Hasse  and  Gluck. 
From  Vienna  he  proceeded  through  Prague, 
Dresden  and  Berlin,  to  Hamburg,  and  thence  by 
Holland,  to  England,  where  he  immediately  de- 
voted himself  to  arranging  the  mass  of  materials 
thus  collected. 

In  1773  Dr.  Burney  was  elected  an  F.  R.  S.  ; 
and  in  1776  the  first  volume  of  his  General 
History  of  Music  appeared  in  4to.  In  the  same 
year  the  complete  work  of  Sir  John  Hawkins 
was  published.  Bumey's  subsequent  volumes 
were  published  at  unequal  intervals,  the  fourth 
and  last  appearing  in  1789.  Between  the  two 
rival  histories,  the  public  decision  was  loud  and 
immediate  in  favour  of  Dr.  Burney.  Time  has 
modified  this  opinion,  and  brought  the  merits  of 
each  work  to  their  fair  and  proper  level — ad- 
judging to  Burney  the  palm  of  style,  arrange- 
ment, and  amusing  narrative,  and  to  Hawkins 
the  credit  of  minuter  accuracy  and  deeper  re- 
search, more  particularly  in  parts  interesting  to 
the  antiquary  and  the  literary  world  in  general. 
Bumey's  first  volume  treats  of  the  music  and 
poetry  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  music  of  the 
Hebrews,  Egyptians,  etc.  The  second  and  third 
volumes  comprise  all  that  was  then  known  of  the 
biographies  of  the  great  musicians  of  the  15th, 
1 6th,  and  17th  centuries.  The  fourth  volume 
is  perhaps  less  entitled  to  praise.  Whole  pages 
are  given  to  long-forgotten  and  wortliless  Italian 
operas,  whilst  the  great  works  of  Handel  and 
J.  S.  Bach  remain  unchronicled ;  the  latter  indeed 
is  almost  ignored. 

When  the  extraordinary  musical  precocity  of 
the  infant  Crotch  first  excited  the  attention  of  the 
musical  profession  and  the  scientific  world,  Bur- 
ney drew  up  an  account  of  the  infant  phenome- 
non, which  was  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1779,  and  published  in  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions.  The  commemoration  of  Handel 
in  1 784  again  called  forth  his  literary  talents ; 
his  account  of  these  performances,  published  in 
4to  for  the  benefit  of  the  musical  fund,  is  well 


BURXEY. 


BUSNOIS. 


2S5 


known  to  every  musical  reader.  Dr.  Bumey  also  ' 
wrote  'An  Essav  towards  the  History  of  Comets,'  | 
1 769  ;  'A  Plan  for  a  Music  School,'  1 7  74  ;  and  the 
'Life  and  Letters  of  Metastasio,'  3  vols.  8vo,  I 
1 796.    His  last  labour  was  on  Eees'  Cyclopedia, 
for  which  work  he  furaished  all  the  musical  , 
articles,  except  those  of  a  philosophical   and  ' 
mathematical  kind.    His  remuneration  for  this  ! 
was  £1000,  and  as  most  of  the  matter  was 
extracted  without  alteration  from  his  Histor}', 
the  price  was  large. 

During  a  long  life  Dr.  Burney  enjoyed  the 
intimate  acquaintance  of  almost  everj^  contempo-  • 
rary  who  was  distinguished  either  in  literature 
or  "the  arts ;  with  Johnson  he  was  in  habits  of 
friendship  ;  and  it  is  known  that  soon  after  J ohn- 
son's  death,  he  had  serious  thoughts  of  becoming  1 
his  biographer.  For  many  years  Dr.  Burney 
lived  in  St.  Martin's  Street,  Leicester  Square,  in 
a  house  once  the  residence  of  Newton,  and  still 
standing;  but  about  17S9,  on  being  appointed 
organist  of  Chelsea  College,  he  removed  to  a  j 
suite  of  apartments  in  that  building,  where  he 
spent  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  the 
enjo}"ment  of  independence,  and  of  a  family,  each 
individual  of  which  (thanks  to  their  parents'  early 
care  and  example)  had  attained  high  distinction 
in  some  walk  of  literature  or  science.  '  In  all  the 
relations  of  private  life,'  says  one  of  his  biogra- 
phers, 'his  character  was  exemplary,  and  his 
happiness  such  as  that  character  deserved  and 
honoured.  His  manners  were  peculiarly  easy, 
spu-ited  and  gentlemanlike  ;  he  possessed  all  the 
suavity  of  the  Chesterfield  school  without  its 
stiflFness — all  its  graces,  unalloyed  by  its  laxity  of 
moral  principle.'  At  length,  full  of  years,  and 
rich  in  all  that  should  accompany  old  age,  he  , 
breathed  his  last  on  April  12,  1814,  at  Chelsea 
College.  His  remains  were  deposited,  on  the 
ooth  of  the  same  month,  in  the  burial-ground  of  i 
that  institution,  attended  by  his  own  family  (of  . 
which  he  lived  to  see  the  fourth  generation"),  the 
chief  ofi&cers  of  the  college,  and  many  others  of 
rank  and  talent.  ! 

His  intelligent  and  expressive  face  has  been 
preserved  by  Eeynolds,  in  a  fine  poitrait,  en- 
graved by  Bartolozzi,  and  Barry  has  introduced 
him  in  his  large  picture  at  the  Society  of  Arts. 

As  a  composer  Dr.  Barney's  principal  works,  in 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  are  '  Sonatas  - 
for  two  Viohns  and  a  Base,'  two  sets ;  '  Six 
Comet  Pieces  with  Introduction  and  Fugue  for 
the  Organ ' ;  '  Twelve  Canzonetti  a  due  voci  in 
canone,  poesie  dell'  abate  Metastasio' ;  *  Six  Duets 
for  German  Flutes ' ;  '  Six  Concertos  for  Violin, 
etc.  in  eight  parts';  'Two  Sonatas  for  Pianoforte, 
Violin  and  Violoncello';  and  'Six  Harpsichord 
Lessons.'  [E.  F.  R.]  , 

BUREOAVES,  John  Freckletox,  bom  in  ' 
London,  April  23,  17S7,  was  a  pupil  of  "William 
Horsley.  He  first  made  himself  known  a^  a 
composer  by  an  overture  and  several  vocal 
pieces  with  orchestral  accompaniments,  and 
afterwards  by  an  overture  produced  at  the  con- 
certs of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  original  members.     He  soon 


however  abandoned  these  pursuits  for  the  less 
distinguished  but  more  profitable  one  of  com- 
posing and  arranging  for  the  pianoforte.  Bui-- 
rowes  was  the  author  of  '  The  Thorough  Bass 
Primer'  and  '  The  Pianoforte  Primer,'  both 
which  ha%"e  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
are  still  in  request.  He  was  also  the  composer 
of  some  ballads  and  many  pianoforte  pieces.  For 
nearly  forty  years  he  held  the  situation  of  organist 
of  St.  James's  Church,  Piccadilly.  He  died 
March  31,  1852.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BUETOX,  Avery,  a  cathedral  musician  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  some  of  whose  compo- 
sitions are  still  preserved  in  the  Music  School  at 
Oxford.  [W.  H.  H.] 

BUETOX,  John,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  bora 
1730,  was  a  pupil  of  John  Keeble,  the  theorist. 
He  became  one  of  the  first  harpsichord  players  of 
his  time,  particularlv  as  respects  expression.  He 
died  in  1785.  "  [AY.  H.H.] 

BUSBY,  Thohas,  Mus.  Doc,  bom  in  West- 
minster, 1755.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was 
articled  to  Battishill ;  he  also  studied  languages, 
became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  for  several 
years  was  connected  with  the  press  as  reporter. 
He  was  successively  organist  at  St.  ^Mary's,  Xfiw- 
ington,  and  St.  Maiy  Woolnoth,  Lombard  Street. 
In  1799  he  produced  an  oratorio  called  'The 
Prophecy,'  which  met  with  considerable  success. 
Encouraged  by  this  he  wrote  an  '  Ode  to  British 
Genius' ;  an  'Ode  to  St. Cecilia's  Day'  (by  Pope); 
'Comala'  (from  Ossian) :  and  the  oratorio  of 
*  Britannia.'  In  1801  he  took  his  degree  as 
Mus.  Doc.  at  Cambridge,  having  previously  en- 
joyed that  of  LL.D.  He  next  composed  the 
music  to  'Joanna,'  a  five-act  romance  by  Cimi- 
berland,  and  subsequently  gained  fame  by  his 
music  to  'A  Tale  of  Mystery,'  and  '  Eugantino, 
or  the  Bravo  of  Venice' — the  first  melodramatic 
music  heard  in  this  country.  He  died  in  April, 
183S.  Busby  was  a  man  of  great  industry,  and, 
besides  the  works  enumerated,  wrote  and  pub- 
lished the  following  : — '  The  Day  of  Genius,'  a 
satire,  17S6  ;  'A  Dictionary  of  Music'  17S6 — a 
work  which  went  through  many  editions,  and  is 
still  in  print;  'The  Divine  Harmonist,'  I7J^8  ; 
'  Melodia  Britannica,'  1790;  'The  Monthly 
Musical  Joumal '  (4  numbers\  1801 ;  'Lucre- 
tius," translated  from  the  Latin.  2  vols.  4to., 
1S13  ;  'A  Grammar  of  Music,'  181S;  'A 
History  of  Music'  (compiled  from  Bumey  and 
Hawkins),  2  vols.  8vo.,  1S19;  '  Concert-Eoom 
and  Orchestra  Anecdotes,'  3  vols.  i2mo.,  1825  ; 
'A  Musical  Manual,  or  Technical  Directory,' 
1828.  {Diet,  of  Livinff  AuMiors,  1S16;  Busbv, 
Eist.  of  Music  {  Private  Sources.)        [E.  F.  E'.] 

BUSXOIS,  a  Belgian  musician  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  15th  century,  who  with  Ockenheim 
and  a  few  othei-s  represent  the  Netherland  school 
immediately  preceding  Josquin  des  Ires.  The 
date  and  place  of  his  bii'th  are  unknown,  but 
he  was  without  doubt  educated  and  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Belgium.  In  1476 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chapel  singers  of 


286 


BUSNOIS. 


BYED. 


Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
continued  in  that  position  till  the  death  of  that 
prince  (Jan.  5,  1477),  when  he  retired  to  a 
country  life  till  his  death  about  1480. 

Kiesewetter,  in  his  'Essay  on  the  Music  of 
the  Netherlands,'  has  printed  three  four-part 
chansons  from  the  'Canti  Cento  Cinquanta'  (Pe- 
trucci,  Venice,  1503),  which  show  a  decided 
progress  on  the  music  of  Dufay's  period  (1380- 
1450).  Some  masses  of  Busnois'  are  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  pontifical  chapel,  and  other 
compositions,  chiefly  for  the  church,  in  a  MS. 
in  the  royal  library  at  Brussels.  Many  of  his 
chansons  are  in  a  MS.  brought  to  light  of  late 
years  in  the  library  at  Dijon.  [J.  E.  S.  B.] 

BUTLER,  Thomas  Hamlt,  son  of  John 
Butler,  professor  of  music,  was  bom  in  London 
in  1762.  He  received  his  early  musical  educa- 
tion as  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr. 
Nares.  On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  was 
sent  to  Italy  to  study  composition  under  Piccini, 
where  he  remained  three  years.  On  his  return 
to  England  he  was  engaged  by  Sheridan  to  com- 
pose for  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  Differences 
however  arising,  he  quitted  England  at  the 
expiration  of  Ijis  engagement  and  settled  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  established  himself  as  a 
teacher,  and  where  he  died  in  1823.  Butler 
composed  the  music  for  '  The  Widow  of  Delphi,' 
a  musical  comedy  by  Richard  Cumberland, 
1780,  besides  many  pieces  for  the  piano- 
forte, [W.  H.  H.] 

BUXTEHUDE,  DieTrich,  a  celebrated  or- 
ganist and  composer,  bom  1637  at  He'singor, 
Denmark,  where  his  father  Johaun  was  organist 
of  the  Olai-church.  The  father  died  Jan.  22, 
1674,  in  his  72nd  year.  It  is  not  known  whether 
the  son  received  his  thorough  musical  education 
from  his  father  or  not.  In  April  1668  he  ob- 
tained the  post  of  organist  at  the  Marien-Kirche 
of  Liibeck — one  of  the  best  and  most  lucrative 
in  Germany — where  his  admirable  playing  and 
promising  abilities  excited  much  attention.  Here 
his  energy  and  skill  at  once  found  their  proper 
field.  Not  content  with  discharging  his  duties 
at  the  organ,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  instituting 
great  musical  performances  in  connection  wdth 
the  church  services,  and  in  1673  started  the 
*  Abendmusiken,'  or  evening  performances,  on 
which  Liibeck  peculiarly  prided  itself  They  took 
place  annually,  on  the  five  Sundays  before  Christ- 
mas, beginning  between  four  and  five  o'clock,  after 
the  afternoon  service,  and  consisted  of  concerted 
pieces  of  sacred  music  for  orchestra  and  chorus — 
the  former  improved  and  the  latter  formed  by 
Buxtehude — and  organ  performances.  In  such 
efforts  Buxtehude  was  well  seconded  by  his  fel- 
low citizens.  The  musical  evenings  continued 
throughout  the  i8th  century,  and  even  into  the 
19th.  Further  particulars  by  them  are  given 
by  Spitta  in  his  '  Life  of  J.  S.  Bach '  (i.  253,  from 
MoUer's  '  Cimbria  Litterata,'  and  Conrad  von 
Hciveln's  'Begliicktem  und  geschmiicktem  Lii- 
beck'); Matheson  also  mentions  them  in  his 
'Volkommene  Kapellmeister.'  The  best  testi- 
inouy  to  Buxtehude's  greatness  is  contained  in 


the  fact  of  Sebastian  Bach  having  made  a  journey 
of  fifty  miles  on  foot  that  he  might  become  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  the  Liibeck  concerts.  In 
fact  Buxtehude  became  the  great  musical  centre 
for  the  North  of  Europe,  and  the  young  musicians 
flocked  around  him.  Amongst  these  was  Nicolas 
Bruhns,  who  excelled  Buxtehude  himself  both  in 
composition  and  in  organ-playing. 

Buxtehude  ended  his  active  and  deservedly 
famous  life  May  9,  1707.  His  strength  lay  in 
his  free  organ  compositions  (i.  e.  pieces  not 
founded  on  chorals),  and  generally  in  instru- 
mental music,  pure  and  simple,  and  not  based 
on  a  poetical  idea.  These,  though  now  anti- 
quated, are  remarkable  as  the  earliest  assertion  of 
the  principle  of  pure  instrumental  music,  which 
was  afterwards  so  fully  developed  by  Bach.  In 
treatment  of  chorales  on  the  organ  Buxtehude 
was  not  equal  to  the  school  of  Pachelbel ;  but  to 
judge  him  from  one  side  only  would  be  unfair. 
A  list  of  his  published  works,  corrected  from 
Gerber,  is  given  by  Spitta  ('  J.  S.  Bach,'  i.  25S, 
note).  These  include  the  'Abendmusiken'  from 
1678-87,  and  occasional  pieces,  many  of  them 
published  at  Liibeck  during  his  lifetime. 

Earlier  instrumental  compositions  Spitta  was 
not  able  to  discover ;  Matheson  also  complained 
that  of  Buxtehude's  clavier  pieces,  in  which  his 
principal  strength  lay,  few  if  any  existed.  A 
collection  of  seven  '  Claviersuiten '  mentioned  by 
Matheson  (Volk.  Kapellmeister,  130),  'in  which 
the  nature  and  character  of  the  planets  are 
agreeably  expressed,'  exists  probably  only  ia  MS. 
In  later  times  fourteen  '  Choral-Bearbeitvmgen ' 
were  edited  by  Dehn  (Peters) .  Commer  ( '  Musica 
Sacra,'  i.  No.  8),  G.  W.  Komer,  Busby  (Hist,  of 
Music),  and  A.  G.  Ritter  (*  Kunst  des  Orgel- 
spiels'),  have  also  published  separate  pieces  of 
his.  [C.  F.  P.] 

BYRD,  William  (or  as  his  name  is  some- 
times spelt,  B}Tde  or  Bird),  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  son  of  Thomas  Byrd,  a  gentleman  of 
Edward  the  Sixth's  Chapel.  The  precise  date 
of  his  birth  is  unlcnown,  but  the  fact  of  his 
ha\dng  been  senior  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral in  1554,  would  fix  it  at  about  1538  (see  a 
petition  for  the  restoration  of  certain  obits  and 
benefactions  which  had  been  seized  under  the 
Act  for  the  Suppression  of  Colleges  and  Hospitals, 
in  Dugdale  s  St.  Paul's,  ed.  Ellis).  Wood  teUs 
us  that  he  studied  music  under  Thomas  TaUis. 
In  1563  (according  to  the  same  authority)  he 
was  appointed  Organist  of  Lincoln,  which  post 
he  held  till  1569.  Upon  the  death  of  Robert 
Parsons,  in  that  year,  he  succeeded  him  as 
Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  In  1575  he  is 
styled  'Organist'  {Cantioiies  Sacrae),  but  as  no 
provision  for  that  office  then  existed  in  the 
chapel,  the  title  was  only  complimentary.  B)n*d 
is  thought  to  have  derived  considerable  pecu- 
niary advantages  from  a  patent  granted  to  him 
and  his  master,  TalKs,  for  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  printing  music  and  vending  music  paper 
(Ames,  2yp.  Ardiq.  536). 

BjTd's  printed  works  (under  this  patent)  are 
as  follows  : — (i)  Cantiones  quae  ab  argumento 


BYRD. 


BABELL. 


287 


sacrae  vocantur,  quinque  et  sex  partium  (jointly 
with  Tallis),  1575 ;  {2)  Psalmes,  Sonets  and 
Sonjs  of  Sadnes  and  Pietie,  made  into  musicke 
of  five  parts  [1587]  ;  (3)  Songs  of  Sundrie  Na- 
tures, some  of  Gravitie  and  others  of  Myrth 
(for  3,  4,  5  and  6  voices),  15S9  ;  (4)  Liber 
Primus  Sacrarum  Cantionum  quinque  vocum, 
1589  ;  (5)  Liber  Secundus  Sacrarum  Cantionum, 
etc.  1591  ;  (6)  Gradualia,  ac  Cantiones  Sacrae 
Lib.  Primus  (for  3,  4  and  5  voices),  1607; 
(7)  Gradualia,  etc.  Lib.  Secundus,  1610 ;  (8) 
Psalmes,  Songs  and  Sonnets  (for  3,  4,  5  and  6 
voices  or  instruments)  161 1.  In  addition  to 
these  works,  Byrd  printed  three  masses  (pro- 
bably composed  between  the  years  1553  and 
1558),  without  date  or  the  name  of  printer. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  following  works  : — 
(i)  Musica  Transalpina,  Madrigales  translated, 
of  foure,  five  and  six  parts,'  1588  ;  (2)  Watson's 
First  Sett  of  Italian  Madrigalls  Englished,  1 590  ; 
(3)  Parthenia,  or  the  Maiden -head  of  the  first 
Musick  that  ever  was  printed  for  the  Virginalls 
[1600]  ;  (4)  Leighton's  Teares  or  Lamentacions 
of  a  Sorrowful  Soule  (a  collection  of  part-songs, 
by  the  principal  composers  of  the  day),  1 614. 
A  large  number  of  his  virginal  compositions  are 
contained  in  the  so-called  'Virginal  Book  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,'  in  the  FitzwiUiam  Museum, 
Cambridge,  and  in  Lady  Xevill's  'Virginal  Book,' 
in  the  possession  of  the  Earl  of  Abergavenny. 
Besides  the  services  and  anthems  printed  in 
Barnard's  'Selected  Church  Musick,'  1641,  and 
Boyce's  '  Cathedral  Music,'  many  others  are  to 
be  found  in  MS.  in  the  Aldrich,  the  Hawkins, 
and  the  Tudway  Collections.  A  mass  in  D 
minor,  edited  by  the  writer,  and  Book  I.  of 
Cantiones  Sacrae,  edited  by  the  late  W.  Hors- 
ley,  were  jmbHshed  by  the  Musical  Antiquarian 
Society.  The  well-known  canon,  'Xon  nobis 
Domine,'  is  traditionally  said  to  be  the  compo- 
sition of  Byrd,  but  it  is  not  found  in  any  of  his 
works.  A  poem  in  Blow's  '  Amphion  AngKcus,' 
1700,  speaks  of  '  Bird's  Anthem  in  golden  notes,' 
preserved  in  the  Vatican,  which  may  have  some 
reference  to  the  canon  in  question. 

Byrd  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  vrith  the  elder 
Ferrabosco,  and  more  than  once  was  his  rival  in 
trials  of  skill  and  ingenuity  in  Counterpoint. 
Morley  {Introd.  1597),  speaks  of  one  of  these 
'virtuous  contentions';  and  Peacham,  in  his 
*Compleat  Gentleman'  (ed.  1622,  p.  100),  says, 
'for  motets  and  musicke  of  pietie  and  devo- 
tion, as  well  for  the  honour  of  our  nation  as 
the  merit  of  the  man,  I  preferre  above  all 
other  our  Phoenix,  ^Ir.  William  Byrd,  whom  in 
that  kind,  I  know  not  whether  any  may  equal.' 


In  a  letter  from  the  Earl  of  Worcester  ta  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbur}',  September  19,  1602  (pre- 
served among  the  Talbot  Papers  in  the  Heralds' 
College),  we  have  an  interesting  passage  re- 
specting one  of  Byrd's  part-songs.  The  writer 
says :  '  We  are  frolic  here  in  Court  ;  much 
dancing  in  the  Pri%-y  Chamber  of  country  dances 
before  the  Queen's  Majesty,  who  is  exceedingly 
pleased  therewith.  Lish  tunes  are  at  this  time 
most  pleasing,  but  in  winter,  LuUaby,  an  old 
song  of  Mr.  Bird's,  will  be  more  in  request  as 
I  think.'  The  '  Lullaby  Song'  is  printed  in  the 
author's  '  Psalmes,  Sonets  and  Songs  of  Sadnes 
and  Pietie,'  1588. 

From  the  Cheque  Book  of  the  Chapel  Eoyal 
we  learn  that  B^Td  died  July  4,  1623  ;  and  in 
the  record  of  the  event  he  is  styled  '  A  Father  of 
Musicke,'  probably  in  allusion  to  his  age  and  his 
length  of  service.  If  he  was  sixteen  when  his 
name  appears  as  senior  chorister  of  St.  Paul's,  he 
I  must  have  been  eighty -five  years  old  when  he 
died.  Thomas  Tomkins  (who  was  his  scholar), 
in  his  *  Songs  of  3,  4,  5  and  6  Parts,'  1622,  speaks 
of  his  '  ancient  and  much  reverenced  master.' 

Byrd  resided,  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century, 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Helen,  Bishopsgate.  He  was 
married,  and  had  a  family,  as  we  learn  from  the 
registers  of  that  church.  One  son,  Thomas,  was 
educated  to  the  profession,  for  in  1601  he  acted 
as  substitute  for  Dr.  John  Bull  as  Gresham 
Professor. 

Xot^-ithstanding  his  conformity  to  the  esta- 
blished religion,  B}Td  is  supposed  to  have  been 
at  heart  a  Bomanist.  Some  very  curious  parti- 
culars bearing  upon  this  point  have  lately  come 
to  Hght.  In  a  list  of  places  frequented  by  cer- 
tain recusants  in  and  about  London,  under  date 
1 58 1,  is  the  following  entry:  'Wyll'm  Byred 
of  the  Chappele,  at  his  house  in  p'rshe  of  Har- 
lington,  in  com.  JNIidds.'  In  another  entry  he 
is  set  down  as  a  friend  and  abettor  of  those 
beyond  the  sea,  and  is  said  to  be  residing  '  with 
Mr.  Lister,  over  against  St.  Dunstan's,  or  at  the 
Lord  Padgette's  house  at  Draighton.'  In  the 
'Proceedings  in  the  Archdeaconry  of  Essex,' 
May  II,  1605,  'William  Birde,  Gentleman  of 
the  King's  Majestie's  ChapeU,'  is  'presented' 
for  '  popish  practices,'  but  what  was  his  sentence 
does  not  appear,  as  he  was  hiding  at  the  time. 

There  is  a  portrait  of  William  B\Td — an  oval, 
in  the  same  print  with  Tallis.  It  was  engraved 
by  Vandergucht  for  N.  Haym's  '  History  of 
Music,'  which  never  appeared.    One  impression 

I  only  is  known  to  exist.  (Life  of  Byrd,  Mus.  Ant. 

j  Soc. ;  Cheque-Boole  of  Chapel  Royal,  Camd.  Soc. ; 

I  Eimbault,  Bill.  Madricjaliana.)         [E.  F.  E.] 


BABELL,  William,  the  son  of  a  bassoon- 
player,  was  bom  about  1690,  and  instructed  in 
the  elements  or  music  by  his  father,  and  in  com- 
position by  Dr.  Pepusch.  He  was  celebrated  for 
his  proficiency  on  the  harpsichord,  and  was  also 
a  good  performer  on  the  violin.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  band,  and  for  some  years  or- 


ganist of  AU  Hallows,  Bread  Street.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  rise  and  popularity  of  the 
opera  in  England,  he  was  the  first  to  arrange 
the  favourite  airs  as  lessons  for  the  harpsichord. 
In  this  he  was  highly  successful,  and  his  arrange- 
ments of  *Pyrrhus  and  Demetrius,'  'Hydaspes,' 
'  Einaldo/  etc.,  were  standard  works  of  their 


288 


•BABELL. 


BAINI. 


class  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  Ba- 
bell's  fame  reached  even  to  Germany,  where  some 
of  his  works  were  printed.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  '  Suits  of  the  most  celebrated  Lessons, 
collected  and  fitted  to  the  Harpsichord  or  Spin- 
net'  ;  'Twelve  Solos  for  a  Violin  or  Hautboy' ; 
*  Twelve  Solos  for  the  German  Flute  or  Haut- 
boy' ;  '  Six  Concertos  for  small  Flutes  and  Violins,' 
and  other  works  mentioned  in  old  catalogues. 
He  died  at  Canonbury  Sept.  23,  1723,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  which  he  had  been  organist. 
(Hawkins,  Hist. ;  Private  Sources.)      [E.  F.  E,.] 

BACON,  EiCHAKD  Mackenzie,  bom  at  Nor- 
wich, May  I,  1776,  was  a  musical  critic  of  great 
acumen,  and  wrote  at  a  time  when  sensible 
musical  criticism  was  an  uncommon  thing.  His 
father  was  proprietor  of  the  'Norwich  Mercury,' 
which  he  inherited  from  him,  and  bequeathed  to 
his  son.  Kicha,rd  began  to  write  for  this  journal 
at  seventeen,  and  its  editorship  was  the  standard 
occupation  of  his  whole  life.  He  is  known  to 
musical  men  as  the  projector,  editor,  and  chief 
writer  of  the  '  Quarterly  Musical  Magazine  and 
Review,'  which  was  the  first  journal  devoted  to 
music  in  England.  The  first  number  was  issued 
in  January,  181 8,  and  it  was  for  some  time  con- 
tinued, as  its  name  implies,  quarterly,  but  the 
late  numbers  came  out  irregularly,  the  last  (com- 
pleting the  loth  volume)  appearing  in  1826.  He 
contributed  musical  notes  to  'Colburn's  Maga- 
zine,' and  other  periodicals.  He  issued  proposals 
for  an  extensive  musical  dictionary,  for  which  he 
is  said  to  have  collected  the  materials,  but  it 
was  never  printed.  In  1828  he  published 
'The  Elements  of  Vocal  Science,'  a  work  of 
considerable  merit,  the  materials  of  which  had 
previously  appeared  in  the  '  Musical  Magazine.' 
He  claims  the  merit  of  originating  the  Norwich 
Triennial  Musical  Festival,  the  first  celebration 
of  which  was  held  in  1824.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  '  Life  of  Pitt,'  a  '  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk,' 
and  of  numerous  political  pamphlets.  He  died 
at  Norwich,  Nov.  2,  1844.  {Imp.  Diet,  of  Biog.; 
Private  Sources.)  [E.  F.  R.] 

BATNI,  Giuseppe,  commonly  known  as  the 
Abbe  Baini,  was  born  at  Rome  Oct.  21,  1775. 
He  was  the  nephew  of  Lorenzo  Baini,  a  Venetian 
composer  who  had  become  Maestro  di  Capella  at 
the  Church  of  the  Gesil.  Giuseppe  received  his 
first  musical  instruction  at  the  competent  hands 
of  his  uncle,  and  completed  his  studies  under  the 
well-known  Jannaconi,  with  whom  he  came  to  be 
on  terms  of  very  close  friendship.  Shrewd,  en- 
thusiastic, studious  and  devou*.,  by  the  time  of 
his  entry  into  Holy  Orders  he  was  at  once  an 
erudite  theologian,  an  expert  musician,  and  an 
accomplished  literary  man.  His  powers  of  assi- 
milation and  criticism  were  equal  to  his  capacity 
for  learning;  and  his  love  for  antiquity  and  the 
antique  forms  of  art  was  as  absorbing  as  his  taste 
was  keen  and  his  judgment  true.  Further,  nature 
had  endowed  him  with  a  beautiful  bass  voice 
which  he  had  carefully  cultivated.  With  such 
qualifications  his  reception  into  the  Pontifical 
choir  was  easy,  and  once  a  member  of  it,  his  suc- 


cession to  the  Mastership  was  a  certainty.  As 
composer  and  Maestro  di  Capella  he  was  alike 
an  exponent  and  a  representative  of  the  old  Roman 
school  of  the  i6th  century.  He  was  indeed  a 
cinque-cento  priest  of  the  higher  order  bom  out 
of  due  time.  For  him  the  sun  of  music  had  begun 
to  set  at  the  close  of  the  one  period  which  he  loved 
and  understood.  None  of  his  mu  sical  compositions 
have  been  published,  but  one  of  them  at  least  is 
famous.  His  'Miserere,'  composed  for  the  Holy 
Week  by  order  of  Pope  Pius  VII,  is  the  only 
one  out  of  the  hundreds  that  have  been  produced 
in  Rome  which  has  taken  its  place  permanently 
in  the  services  of  the  Pontifical  Chapel  side  by 
side  with  the  two  celebrated  compositions  of 
AUegri  and  Baj.  His  first  contribution  to  the 
literature  of  music  was  a  pamphlet  evoked  by  the 
ignorance  of  the  directors  of  the  Accademia  Na- 
poleone  in  Lucca,  who  in  the  year  1 806  bestowed 
their  annual  prize  upon  a  motet  for  four  choirs 
written  by  Marco  Santucci,  as  though  it  were  a 
production  of  a  new  order.  Baini  exposed  their 
mistake,  and  cited  a  long  list  of  similar  pieces  by 
Antonelli,  Agostini,  Benevoli,  Abbatini,  Beretta, 
and  a  host  of  other  composers,  dating  from  the 
1 6th  century  downwards,  and  including  one  by 
his  own  master  and  friend  Jannaconi.  His  second 
literary  work  was  an  essay  on  the  identity  of 
Musical  and  Poetic  rhythm.  It  was  written  in 
obedience  to  a  request  of  the  Comte  de  St.  Leu, 
brother  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  and  it  takes 
the  form  of  answers  to  no  less  than  sixteen  ques- 
tions proposed  to  him  by  the  illustrious  amateur. 
The  subject  was  one  well  calculated  to  display  the 
solid  learning  and  delicate  analysis  of  Baini,  but 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  is  not  to  be  hon- 
oured among  those  efforts  in  which  abstruseness 
and  mysticism  are  unalloyed  by  any  trace  of 
practical  result.  But  the  masterpiece  of  Baini, 
to  which  and  for  which  he  was  alike  led  by 
temperament  and  fitted  by  power,  is  his  great 
monograph  on  Palestrina  ('Memorie  Storico- 
critiche,'  etc.,  Rome  1828,  2  vols.  4to.).  A 
more  complete  and  satisfactory  piece  of  work  it 
would  be  difficult  to  conceive.  It  is  something 
more  and  something  less  than  a  biography. 
For  the  details  of  the  life  of  Palestrina  are 
somewhat  scanty,  although  the  account  of  his 
works  is  absolutely  exhaustive.  Still,  the  per'- 
trait  of  the  man,  the  loveable  husband,  father, 
and  friend,  the  conscientious  worker,  the  de- 
voted man  of  genius,  the  pure  liver,  and  faithful 
Catholic,  is  full  and  finished.  Moreover  any  lack 
of  view  into  his  family  interior  is  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  glimpses  we  get  of  cinque-cento 
life  and  society  in  Rome.  To  snatch  these  from 
the  materials  to  which  he  had  access,  and  to 
reproduce  without  intruding  them,  was  a  task 
absolutely  congenial  to  the  nature  and  genius  of 
Baini,  and  he  has  performed  it  to  perfection.  But 
the  book  is  as  valuable  to  the  musical  historian 
as  it  is  to  the  general  reader.  A  hundred  sub- 
sidiary notices  of  the  composers  of  the  Italian 
school  from  the  days  of  Goudimel  to  the  middle 
of  the  1 7th  century  are  sown  like  satellites  around 
the  central  figure ;  and  it  is  hardly  too  much  to 


CABEL. 


2S9 


say  that  in  it  we  have  a  sketch  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  Italian  music  from  the  deposition  of 
the  Flemings  and  the  establishment  of  a  national 
school  to  the  close  of  the  ecclesiastical  era  and 
the  rise  of  opera. 

Baini  thought  to  publish  a  complete  edition  of 
the  works  of  the  great  master,  whom,  with  a 
constantly  recurring  enthusiasm,  he  calls  '  II  Prin- 
cipe della  Musica.'  But  fate  ordained  that  he 
should  only  live  to  reproduce  the  man ;  and  he 
died  before  he  had  transcribed  and  published 
more  than  two  voltmaes  out  of  the  vast  mass  of 
his  compositions. 

He  was  as  devoted  to  his  profession  as  he  was 
to  his  art ;  and  his  death,  which  took  place  on 
May  21,  1844,  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age,  was 
attributed  to  over  fatigue  arising  from  persistence 
in  his  duties  as  a  confessing  priest.      [E.  H.  P.]  | 


BATHE,  William,  a  learned  Irishman,  was 
bom  in  Dublin  in  1552.  He  entered  into  the 
order  of  the  J esuits,  and  leaving  Ireland  travelled 
extensively  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
finally  settled  in  Salamanca,  being  appointed 
professor  of  languages  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  He  published  there  a  philological  work 
called  '  Janua  Linguarum.'  Leaving  Salamanca 
he  came  to  London,  where  he  published  some  re- 
ligious treatises,  and  also  '  A  Brief  Introduction 
to  the  true  arte  of  Musicke,'  1 584.  On  the  title- 
page  he  styles  himself  'Student  at  Oxenford.' 
It  is  dedicated  to  his  uncle,  Gerald  Fitzgerald, 
Earl  of  Kildare.  A  second  edition,  imder  the 
title  of  'A  Briefe  Introduction  to  the  Skill  of 
Song,'  was  printed  by  Thomas  Este  without  date. 
(Hawkins,  Hist.;  Blog.  Brit.;  Imp.  Bid.  of 
1  Biog.).  [E.  F.  R.] 


BRA.XLE  (p.  271).  The  music  of  many  Branles,  and  other  old  dances,  is  given  in  Arbeau's 
*  Orchesographie'  (Langres  1588),  a  copy  of  which  is  in  the  British  Museimi.    We  quote  two  : — 


1.    Brank  de  la  torche 


2.   Branle  des  Saboti 


CThe  keynote  of  the  'natural'  scale,  so  called 
because  it  requires  neither  flats  nor  sharps 
*    in  its  signature.    In  German  also  it  is  C, 
C  %  being  called  Cis :  but  in  Italian  and  French 
it  is  called  Ut  and  Do,  the  former  from  the  name 
given  it  by  Guido  d'Arezzo.  [Scale.] 

It  is  the  Ionic  scale  of  the  Church  tones  or 
modes,  and  in  it  were  written  '  Ein'  feste  Burg,' 
'Gott  der  Yater,'  '  Jesaia  der  Propheten,'  'Tom 
Himmel  hoch,'  and  others  of  the  earliest  German 
chorales.  In  the  i6th  century  it  was  much  em- 
ployed for  dance  tunes,  and  perhaps  on  that 
account  was  known  as  '  il  modo  lascivo'  (Zarlino, 
in  Hullah,  'Hist,  of  Mod.  Music,'  Lect.  3).  In 
more  modem  times  it  has  been  rendered  illus- 
trious among  other  masterpieces  by  Gibbons's 
'  Hosanna,'  the  Jupiter  and  C  minor  Symphonies, 
and  the  Overture  to  Leonora.  Schubert's  great 
Symphony  and  Handel's  'Dead  March  in  Saul' 
are  written  in  C  major. 

The  name  of  '  C  clef  is  given  to  all  clefs  when 
iij-   "Jj     thus  written,  the  line  on  which 
~     ~,    .  the  clef  mark  stands  being  middle 
In"  C,  and  the  clef  mark  itself  a  cor- 

ruption of  the  letter  C.  Those  shown  in  the 
example  are  the  Soprano,  Alto,  and  Tenor,  but 
the  C  clef  has  been  used  on  every  line  of  the 
stave. 


I  Horns  and  trumpets  are  made  to  play  the  scale 
of  C,  and  are  written  in  the  score  in  that  key ; 
the}-  transpose  into  the  key  of  the  piece  by  the 
addition  of  crooks.  The  drums  used  formerly  to 
be  given  in  the  score  in  the  key  of  C,  with  an 
indication,  at  the  begdnning  of  the  movement,  of 
the  key  in  which  they  were  to  be  tuned.  But 
they  are  now  usually  printed  as  played. 

As  a  sign  of  time  C  stands  for  common  time, 
4  crotchets  in  a  bar ;  and  for  allabreve  time, 
with  2  or  4  minims  in  a  bar. 

C.f.  is  occasionally  used  in  church  music,  or  in 
instruction  books,  as  an  abbrenation  for  canto 
fermo.  [G.] 

CABALETTA,  also  written  Cabbaletta  and 
Cavaletta,  originally  Cavatinetta,  from  Cava- 
TiXA,  usually  signifies  the  short  final  quick  move- 
ment of  an  air.  [W.  H.  C] 

CABEL,  Marie  Josephs,  nee  Deeulette, 
bora  at  Liege  Jan.  31,  1827.  Showed  at  an 
early  age  a  great  talent  for  the  piano.  After 
the  death  of  her  father  she  became  acquainted 
with  Cabel,  a  teacher  of  singing,  who  discovered 
her  fine  voice,  instructed,  and  finally  married  her. 
In  47  she  went  with  her  husband  to  Paris,  and 
first  appeared  at  the  Chateau  des  Fleurs.  On 
Meyerbeer's  recommendation  she  studied  for  two 

U 


290 


CABEL. 


CADENCE. 


years  in  the  Conservatoire,  and  in  29  came  out 
at  the  Opera  Comique  with  great  success.  After 
this  she  divided  her  time  between  Brussels  and 
Paris,  and  in  1854  appeared  in  the  important 
and  difficult  part  of  Catherine  in  the  '  Etoile  du 
Nord,'  expressly  written  for  her  by  Meyerbeer. 
In  59  he  wrote  for  her  the  part  of  Dinorah.  In 
60  she  played  the  Figlia  del  Reggimento  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  July  14,  and  appeared  in  the 
Shadow  scene  from  Dinorah,  July  28.  In  61  she 
played  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  soon  after  left  the 
boards.  Her  voice  was  not  large,  but  sympa- 
thetic and  of  extraordinary  flexibility,  and  she 
was  a  very  clever  actress.  [G.] 

CABINET  PIANO.  An  upright  pianoforte 
about  six  feet  high,  much  in  vogue  from  soon  after 
the  date  of  its  introduction  early  in  this  century 
to  about  1840.  A  few  years  later  the  lower 
upright  instruments,  oblique,  cottage,  piccolo, 
etc.,  had  quite  superseded  it.  The  name  Cabinet 
Pianoforte  appears  for  the  first  time  in  a  patent 
secured  by  William  Southwell  in  1807  (patent 
No.  3029),  but  upright  pianofortes  with  the 
strings  descending  nearly  to  the  floor  instead  of 
only  to  the  stand  or  legs  as  in  the  older  Upright 
Grand,  had  been  previously  suggested  by  Isaac 
Hawkins  in  1800  (patent  No.  2446)  and  Thomas 
Loud  in  1802  (patent  No.  2591).  The  bold  step 
of  inverting  the  wrestplank  or  tuning-pin  block, 
which  in  the  Upright  Grand  was  at  the  bottom 
near  the  keys,  but  in  the  Cabinet  was  at  the  top, 
appears  to  have  been  taken  by  Thomas  Loud,  as 
in  his  specification  we  find  his  wrestplank  fixed 
diagonically  in  the  sides  of  the  case,  the  h&ss  end 
near  the  top,  6  feet  3  inches  high,  to  preserve 
length  for  the  bass  strings,  the  treble  end  lower 
4  feet  3  inches  from  the  bottom,  leaving  an  angular 
space  above  which  might  be  utilised  for  book- 
shelves. In  Southwell's  patent,  which  refers 
specially  to  the  action  and  damper  movement,  the 
wrestplank  is  certainly  elevated  horizontally. 
James  Shudi  Broadwood,  in  some  MS.  notes 
dated  1838,  since  printed  for  private  circulation, 
claims  a  part  in  the  invention  through  having 
given  a  sketch  for  a  vertical  or  cabinet  pianoforte 
to  William  Southwell  about  1804,  He  adds  no 
particulars,  but  remarks  that  the  new  instrument 
when  introduced  was  for  a  time  unsuccessful, 
which  is  also  stated  from  another  source  by  Mr, 
A.  N.  Wornum  (Address  to  J urors,  Paris  Exhi- 
bition, 1867).  The  further  history  of  this  im- 
portant invention,  which  includes  the  almost 
contemporaneous  oblique  and  cottage  pianofortes 
is  referred  to  in  Pianoforte,  but  it  has  a  special 
interest  from  the  upright  piano  of  any  height, 
oblique  or  vertically  strung,  having  been  invented 
and  first  produced  in  this  country,  independent  of 
foreign  suggestion  or  help.  See  also  Cottage 
Piano,  Oblique,  and  Piccolo.  [A.  J.  H.] 

CACCINI,  GiULio,  a  native  of  Eome,  known 
also  as  GiULio  Romano,  bom,  according  to  the 
preface  of  his  own  'Nuove  Musiche,'  in  1558  or 
1560.  He  learned  to  sing  and  play  the  lute 
from  Scipione  della  Palla,  and  in  1578  removed 
to  Florence,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  , 


1640.  Great  as  a  singer  he  was  still  greater  as 
a  reformer  in  music.  Though  neither  harmonist 
nor  contrapuntist,  it  was  he  who,  following  the 
lead  of  V.  Galilei,  first  gave  countenance  and 
importance  to  music  for  a  single  voice.  The 
recitatives  which  he  composed  and  sang  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  theorbo,  amid  the  enthu- 
siastic applause  of  the  musical  assemblies  meeting 
at  the  houses  of  Bardi  and  Corsi  in  Florence, 
were  a  novelty  of  immense  significance.  They 
were  the  first  attempt  to  make  music  dramatic, 
to  use  it  as  the  expression  of  emotion.  From 
such  small  beginnings  he  proceeded  to  detached 
scenes  written  by  Bardi,  and  thence  to  higher 
flights.  The  pastoral  drama  of  Dafne,  written 
by  Rinuccini  and  set  to  music  by  Caccini  and 
Peri  in  1594,  and  still  more  the  'Euridice,  Tra- 
gedia  per  Musica,'  of  the  same  poet  and  the 
same  musicians  in  1600,  were  the  beginnings  of 
the  modem  opera.  Other  compositions  of  Cac- 
cini's  were  the  *  Combattimento  d'Apolline  col 
Serpente,'  'II  ratto  di  Cefale'  (with  Peri),  and 
'  Le  nuove  Musiche,'  a  collection  of  madrigals 
and  canzone  for  a  single  voice.  'Euridice'  has 
been  published — but  with  the  name  of  Peri 
alone  attached  to  it  —  by  Guidi  (1863,  8vo.). 
Caccini's  daughter  Francesca  was  celebrated 
both  as  a  singer  and  composer. 

CACHUCHA  (Spanish).  An  Andalusian  dance, 
introduced  to  the  theatre  by  the  celebrated 
Fanny  Elssler  in  the  ballet  of '  Le  diable  boiteux,' 
the  music  of  which  is  in  3-4  time,  and  closely 
resembles  the  Bolero.  The  dance -tune  was 
originally  sung  with  a  guitar  accompaniment. 
Of  the  origin  of  the  name  nothing  certain  is 
known.  [E.  P.] 

CADEAC,  Pierre,  master  of  the  choristers 
at  Auch  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century, 
church-composer  of  great  merit  in  his  day  ;  com- 
posed masses  and  motets  for  the  most  part  pub- 
lished in  the  following  collections  : — '  Quintus 
liber  Motettorum'  (Lyons,  1543);  '  Gardano's 
XII  Missse'  (Venice,  1554);  'Missarum 
Musicalium'  (Paris,  1556).  [M.  C.  C] 

CADENCE.  Cadences  or  (as  they  are  often 
called)  Closes,  are  the  devices  which  in  music 
answer  the  purpose  of  stops  in  language.  The 
effect  is  produced  by  the  particular  manner  in 
which  certain  chords  succeed  one  another,  the 
order  being  generally  such  as  to  produce  suspense 
or  expectation  first,  and  then  to  gratify  it  by  a 
chord  which  is  more  satisfying  to  the  ear.  They 
are  commonly  divided  into  three  kinds — the  Per- 
fect cadence,  the  Imperfect  cadence,  and  the 
Interrupted  cadence.  Some  writers  specify  a 
greater  number,  but  this  only  tends  to  confusion 
and  misconception.  All  that  is  requisite  is  to 
group  the  various  kinds  under  names  which 
mark  their  common  effect.  Thus  every  cadence 
which  can  be  used  satisfactorily  to  end  a  move- 
ment must  of  necessity  be  a  Perfect  cadence. 
Every  cadence  which  is  broken  away  from  at  the 
very  moment  when  it  seemed  to  promise  a  con- 
clusion is  obviously  an  Interrupted  cadence ;  and 
every  cadence  which  without  producing  the  eflTect 


CADENCE. 


CADEXCE. 


291 


of  interruption  leaves  the  mind  unsatisfied  and 
expecting  something  more  should  be  called  an 
Imperfect  cadence.  And  this  classification  seems 
to  include  ^11  the  varieties.  Every  composer  in 
writing  feels  that  certain  cadences  are  fitted  for 
particular  places  in  his  work,  and  endeavours  to 
give  variety  in  his  treatment  of  them.  But  it  is 
unwise  to  give  all  these  possible  varieties  defi- 
nite titles,  as  what  may  answer  the  purpose  of  a 
full  stop  in  one  movement  may  only  produce  the 
effect  of  a  semicolon  in  another,  according  to  the 
calibre  of  the  work. 

The  ideas  at  the  root  of  the  perfect  cadence 
are  two :  first,  that  the  key  be  emphatically 
defined ;  and  secondly,  that  the  expectation  roused 
by  the  doubtful  or  discordant  nature  of  one  chord 
be  absolutely  satisfied  by  another. 

The  simplest  and  most  perfect  manner  of 
obtaining  these  effects  is  the  progression  from 
dominant  to  tonic  harmony,  as  in  the  example, 
which  is  the  t}'pe  of  all  perfect 
cadences. 

Here  the  key  is  strongly 

  marked  by  the  number  of 

^  ^  ~  ^  notes  proper  to  it  which  are 
employed,  and  also,  as  Helm- 
holtz  has  pointed  out,  'by  the  distinct  passage 
from  the  remotest  parts  of  the  scale  to  the  centre 
of  the  system'  of  the  key,  since  the  dominant 
chord  contains  the  not«s  which  are  most  remote 
in  their  relation  to  the  tonic.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  tonic  chord  in  its  first  position  is  the 
only  chord  sufficiently  decisive  to  be  used  as  a 
conclusion ;  and  the  dominant  harmony  must  in 
any  case  be  doubtful  and  inconclusive,  even  when 
concordant,  and  the  effect  is  enhanced  when,  as 
in  the  example,  a  discord  is  made  use  of. 

The  common  use  of  the  major  third  in  the 
tonic  chord  in  the  final  cadences  of  pieces  in  a 
minor  key  is  for  the  purpose  above  mentioned,  of 
marking  the  key  strongly,  as  the  minor  third  is 
more  obscure  in  character  than  the  major  third, 
and  without  the  latter,  especially  in  vocal  music, 
the  conclusion  would  not  be  so  clear  and  incisive. 

In  old  times,  especially  in  church  music,  another 
very  simple  form  of  cadence  was  common ;  viz. 
that  in  which  the  penultimate  chord  is  that  of 
the  sub-dominant  or  4th  of  the  key,  either  major 


or  minor,  as,  in  the  key  of  C — 


These  two  forms  of  the  perfect  cadence  were 
distinguished  as  the  Authentic  and  the  Plagal, 
from  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  ancient 
church  modes.  The  latter  is  not  so  frequently  used 
in  modem  music,  except  sometimes  for  variety, 
or  to  follow  some  particular  turn  of  romance 
or  sentiment  which  is  expressed  in  the  music. 

The  conmionest  form  of  Imperfect  cadence  is 
just  a  reversal  of  the  dominant  perfect  cadence, 
so  that  the  haiTQony  of  the  dominant  or  5  th  of 
the  key  is  preceded  by  that  of  the  tonic.  In 


this  case  the  effect  will  evidentlv  not  be  con- 
clusively satisfying,  because  a  piece  can  only 
come  to  a  complete  stop  on  the  harmony  of  the 
tonic.    So,  in  the  key  of  C,  the  cadence- 


will  leave  the  mind  unsatisfied,  though  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  it  produces  the  effect  of  a  stop. 

Another  common  form  of  imperfect  cadence  is 
that  in  which  the  harmony  of  the  dominant  is 
preceded  by  that  of  the  supertonio,  or  2nd  note 
of  the  scale,  direct  or  in  inversion,  thus — 


m 


as  in  Mozart's  Quartet  in  G,  Xo.  i- 


and  in  Beethoven's  Violin  Sonata  in  G — 


I, 

.....  -fct 


 W 

or  the  following  from  his  Symphony  in  C  minor- 


I  1 

When  a  complete  strain  or  subject  is  divided 
into  two  parts  the  first  half  frequently  ends  with 
an  imperfect  cadence,  by  which  the  continuity  of 
the  passage  is  not  affected,  though  the  division 
is  sufficiently  marked. 

The  imperfect  cadence  is  also  sometimes  called 
a  half  close,  which  term  has  a  good  deal  to 
reconmiend  it  as  the  fitter  name  of  the  two. 
both  from  its  form  and  from  the  position  it 
frequently  occupies,  as  mentioned  above. 

The  form  of  Interrupted  cadence  generally 
quoted  as  typical  is  that  in  which  the  chord 
of  the  domiiaant,  instead  of  proceeding  to  the 
harmony  of  the  tonic  as  the  mind  is  led  to 

U  2 


292 


CADEXCE. 


CADEXCE. 


expect,  is  followed  by  the  chord  of  the  6th  of 
the  key,  or  sub-mediant,  thus — 

Q  I  ^  II  But  in  point  of  fact  this 
(n)    g~  gives  but  a  very  small  notion 

%T  of  what  an  interrupted  ca- 

^  dence  really  is.  For  it  can 
only  be  distinguished  from  an 
imperfect  cadence  with  cer- 
tainty by  reference  to  the  context.  The  latter 
is  a  definite  stop  occurring  in  the  natural  course 
of  the  music,  and  marking  a  period,  though 
not  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  passage 
which  it  ends  to  be  taken  as  complete  in  itself. 
But  the  former  is  an  abrupt  and  irregular  in- 
terruption of  the  natural  flow  of  the  music 
towards  its  anticipated  termination  in  a  perfect 
cadence,  postponing  that  termination  for  a  time 
or  altogether  avoiding  it.  Thus  at  the  end  of 
the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  C,  op.  53, 
Beethoven  keeps  on  postponing  the  perfect 
cadence  in  this  manner — 


— t —  ' 

r\t.  ores. 

etc. 

In  his  later  works  an  entire  evasion  of  the 
cadence  is  frequent,  as  in  the  first  movement  of 
the  Sonata  in  E,  op.  109 — 


It  is  a  common  practice  with  writers  of  trea- 
tises on  harmony  to  give  a  series  of  chords  pre- 
paratory to  the  two  final  ones  which  are  given 
above  as  the  perfect  cadence.  This  makes  it 
look  as  though  the  treatises  were  meant  to  teach 


people  to  make  music  at  so  much  a  yard ;  for  a 
man  who  really  has  something  to  say  in  music 
which  he  feels  naturally  is  only  hampered  and 
worried  with  every  extra  direction  of  the  kind, 
which  tells  him  to  put  in  so  much  that  cannot 
possibly  mean  anything  because  it  is  everj-body's 
property.    A  real  musician  only  requires  dbec- 
tions  and  general  principles,  which  are  capable  of 
considerable  expansion  according  to  the  power  of 
his  genius.   The  rule  seems  simply  to  be  that,  re- 
j  lative  to  the  degree  in  which  the  cadence  is  final, 
j  the  passage  which  immediately  precedes  it  must 
mark  the  key  in  which  it  is  made.    The  sense  of 
j  the  key  in  which  any  movement  is  written  is  of 
I  extreme  importance  for  the  comprehension  of  the 
j  music,  especially  in  instrumental  music,  and  such 
1  as  depends  much  upon  its  form  of  construction. 
Hence  a  cadence  of  any  finahty  must  mark  the 
key  strongly.    Subordinate  cadences,  such  as  oc- 
cur in  the  course  of  the  movement,  especially 
apart  from  the  broader  di\-isions  of  the  move- 
ment, need  not  be  so  marked ;  but  if  the  final 
cadence  of  the  whole  movement,  or  that  of  an 
important  subdivision  of  a  movement,  is  simply 
a  couple  of  chords  or  so  immediately  succeeding 
a  passage  in  a  foreign  key,  the  sense  of  where- 
abouts is  lost,  and  an  entirely  unsatisfactory 
efiect  produced  by  the  indecisiveness  of  the  con- 
clusion. 

The  tendency  of  modem  music  has  been  to 
avoid  full  cadences  in  the  course  of  a  piece  of 
music,  and  when  they  become  necessary  to  vary 
them  as  much  as  possible.  The  former,  because 
frequent  cadences  make  a  movement  into  a  frag- 
mentary series  of  continually  recommencing  pas- 
sages, coming  each  time  to  a  full  stop  and 
beginning  again;  the  latter,  because  the  mind 
has  become  so  habituated  to  the  form  of  the 
ordinary  perfect  cadence  that  in  a  movement  of 
higlily  emotional  character  it  comes  rather  like  a 
platitude.  Besides,  though  form  is  a  great  and 
often  the  principal  element  of  beauty  in  a  move- 
ment, to  make  it  too  obvious  by  the  marked 
nature  of  the  cadences  destroys  the  interest  and 
freshness  of  the  work.  Mozart  marked  the  di- 
visions of  his  movements  very  strongly,  but  in 
his  day  the  forms  of  instrumental  music  were  not 
by  any  means  so  familiar  as  they  are  now,  and 
their  being  strongly  marked  was  necessary  for 
their  due  comprehension.  Besides,  in  Mozart's 
day  people  had  much  more  time  to  sit  down  and 
rest  between  one  action  and  another  than  they 
seem  to  have  now,  and  perfect  cadences  are 
exactly  like  sitting  down  and  resting  when  one 
tune  is  oyer  so  as  to  be  fresh  for  the  next  when 
it  makes  its  appearance.  And  the  analogy  goes 
even  further,  for  the  movement  in  which  one 
sits  down  least  often  and  least  completely  is 
that  which  is  most  like  one  great  action  with 
a  single  principle  at  its  basis  rather  than  a 
series  of  somewhat  disconnected  motions,  which 
are  chiefly  recommended  by  their  mutual  con- 
trasts and  relative  proportions. 

With  regard  to  the  position  of  the  chords  in 
the  bar,  the  commonest  position  is  that  in  which 
the  final  chord  is  on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar,  or 


CADENCE. 


CADENZA. 


293 


the  strongest  beat  of  all  when  the  bars  are  thrown  i 
into  groups  by  the  rapidity  of  the  time  of  the  i 
movement.    So  that  the  cadence  proceeds  from  a  | 
chord  without  emphasis  to  a  chord  with  it,  or  in 
other  words,  from  the  unaccented  to  the  accented 
part  of  the  bar ;  as  first — 


Sonata  in  D, 
beat,  as  in 


the  cadences  fall  on  the  second 


1 — j — - —  - 

5.  -1- 

from  Mozart's  Quartet  in  A,  No.  5  ;  or — 


where  the  B  and  D  are  merely  suspensions  of  the 
final  chord  of  A — and  in  Beethoven's  Quartet  in 
A  minor,  op.  132,  the  last  chord  of  the  cadences 
in  the  movement  '  AUegro  ma  non  tanto/  fails  on 
the  second  beat  of  a  bar  of  three — 


from  his  Quartet  in  Eb,  No.  4. 

The  next  commonest  position  is  to  find  the 
final  chord  in  the  middle  of  a  bar  which  is 
equally  divisible  into  two  halves,  as  on  the 
thfrd  beat  of  a  bar  of  four,  and  the  fourth  of  a 
bar  of  six.  Of  both  of  these  Mozart  makes 
very  frequent  use — as  in  the  first  movement 
of  the  first  Quartet,  the  slow  movement  of 
the  Quartet  in  Bb,  the  Eondo  for  pianoforte 
in  A,  and  the  Variations  in  the  Sonata  in  A. 
Very  often  he  seems  to  use  this  position  with  a 
sense  of  its  being  weaker  and  less  conclusive 
than  that  in  which  the  last  chord  falls  on  the 
first  beat  of  a  bar,  and  hence  as  a  kind  of  pseudo- 
imperfect  cadence ;  as  in  the  slow  movement  of 
the  Quartet  in  D  minor,  No.  2,  which  begins 
thus — 


and  in  the  slow  movement  of  his  Quartet  in  Bb, 
op.  1 30,  at  the  end,  the  last  chord  falls  on  the 
last  beat  of  a  bar  of  four — 


Cadences  are  also,  but  far  more  rarely,  found 
occupying  reversed  positions,  as  in  polonaises, 
where  the  last  chord  of  a  cadence,  owing  to  the 
peculiar  rhythmic  character  of  the  movement, 
frequently  falls  on  the  last  beat  of  a  bar  of  three  ; 
as  in  Chopin's  Polonaise  in  C  jf  minor — 


In  Mozart's  Rondeau  en  Polonaise,  from  the 


so  that  in  point  of  fact  the  gTeatest  authorities 
may  be  quoted  to  justify  cadences  in  almost  any 
position  in  the  bar ;  but  the  last -mentioned  in- 
stances are  decidedly  exceptional,  and  can  only 
be  justifiable  when  the  movement  in  which  they 
are  used  has  some  very  marked  peculiarities  of 
rhythm  or  a  very  strong  emotional  character, 

[C.H.H.P.] 

CADENZA  in  its  simplest  acceptation  is  a 
flourish  of  indefinite  form,  introduced  upon  a 
bass  note  immediately  preceding  a  close  of  some 
finality  ;  that  is,  occupying  the  position  of  full 
stop  either  to  an  entire  movement,  or  to  an 
important  section  of  one.  The  custom  was  most 
probably  originated  by  singers,  who  seized  the 
opportunity  afforded  by  the  chord  of  6-4  on  the 
dominant  immediately  preceding  the  final  close 
of  an  aria  or  scena,  to  show  off  the  flexibility, 
compass,  and  expressive  powers  of  their  voices  to 
the  highest  advantage ;  so  that  the  piece  coming 
to  an  end  immediately  afterwards,  the  audience 
might  have  the  impression  of  astonishment  fresh 
in  their  minds  to  urge  them  to  applause. 

The  idea  thus  originated  spread  widely  to  all 
kinds  of  music,  and  in  course  of  time  its 
character  has  changed  considerably,  though  the 
flourish  of  which  it  is  composed  is  still  its 


294 


CADENZA. 


CAECILIA. 


conspicuous  feature.  In  instrumental  music  it 
fulfils  a  peculiar  office,  as  it  is  frequently  intro- 
duced where  a  pause  in  the  more  important  matter 
of  the  movement  is  desirable,  without  breaking 
off  or  allowing  the  minds  of  the  audience  to 
wander.  Thus  it  occurs  at  points  where  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  movement  has  been  worked 
to  such  a  heat  that  it  is  necessary  to  pause  a 
little  before  returning  to  the  level  of  the  natural 
ideas  of  the  themes,  as  in  Liszt's  'Khapsodie 
Hongroise'  in  A,  and  Chopin's  'Nottumos'  in 
F  minor  and  Cjf  minor.  Chopin  uses  them  fre- 
quently when  the  main  business  of  the  move- 
ment is  over,  in  order  to  prevent  the  close, 
which  follows  immediately,  being  too  abrupt. 
At  other  times  it  occurs  as  a  connecting  link 
between  two  movements,  or  between  an  intro- 
duction and  the  movement  following  it,  where 
for  certain  reasons  it  is  expedient  to  pause 
a  whde  on  some  preparatory  chord,  and  not  to 
commence  serious  operations  before  the  minds  of 
the  audience  have  settled  to  the  proper  level. 

Specimens  of  this  kind  are  common  in  the 
works  of  many  great  masters — e.g.  Beethoven's 
Sonata  in  Eb  (op.  27,  No.  i).  Adagio;  Sonata 
pathetique  ;  Variations  in  F  (op.  34)  ;  Brahms's 
Sonata  in  F}f  (op.  2,  last  movement)  ;  Mendels- 
sohn's 'Lobgesang,'  connecting  the  first  move- 
ment with  the  second. 

The  greater  cadenza,  which  is  a  development 
of  the  vocal  flourish  at  the  end  of  a  vocal  piece 
already  spoken  of,  is  that  which  it  is  customary 
to  insert  at  the  end  of  a  movement  of  a  con- 
certo for  a  solo  instrument.  Like  its  vocal  pre- 
decessors the  cadenza  usually  starts  from  a  pause 
on  a  chord  of  6-4  on  the  dominant,  prepara- 
tory to  the  final  close  of  the  movement,  and 
its  object  is  to  show  off  the  skill  of  the  per- 
former. Such  cadenzas  may  occur  either  in  the 
first  or  last  movement,  and  even  in  both,  as 
in  Mozart's  Concerto  in  D  minor  and  in  Bee- 
thoven's in  G.  With  regard  to  their  form  there 
is  absolutely  no  rule  at  all.  They  should  contain 
manifold  allusions  to  the  chief  themes  of  the 
movement,  and  to  be  successful  should  be  either 
brilliant  or  very  ingenious  ;  containing  variety 
of  modulation,  but  rather  avoiding  progressions 
which  have  been  predominant  in  the  movement 
itself ;  and  the  more  they  have  the  character 
of  abandonment  to  impulse  the  better  they  are. 
It  was  formerly  customary  to  leave  the  cadenzas 
for  improvisation,  and  certainly  if  the  frenzy  of 
inspiration  could  be  trusted  to  come  at  the  right 
moment,  impromptu  cadenzas  would  undoubtedly 
be  most  effective  in  the  hands  of  real  masters  of 
the  situation.  Moreover,  it  is  chiefly  in  the 
sense  of  their  being  the  exposition  of  the  player's 
special  capacities  that  they  are  defensible,  for  as 
far  as  the  composer  is  concerned  the  movement 
generally  offers  full  opportunities  for  display  of 
the  powers  of  the  executant. 

Still  custom  is  generally  stronger  than  reason, 
and  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  cadenzas  will  yet 
die  out.  And  as  the  art  of  improvisation  is  for 
various  reasons  considerably  on  the  wane  it  will 
probably  become  habitual  for  composers  to  write 


their  own  cadenzas  in  full,  as  Beethoven  has  done 
in  the  Eb  Concerto,  and  Schumann  in  his  A 
minor  Concerto. 

Beethoven  also  wrote  cadenzas  for  his  other 
concertos  and  for  Mozart's  D  minor ;  and  these 
are  published  separately.  Many  famous  musi- 
cians have  supplied  the  like  for  classical  con- 
certos, Moscheles  for  Beethoven's,  and  Hummel 
for  Mozart's. 

The  indication  for  a  cadenza,  when  not  written 
out  in  ftJl,  is  a  pause  or  fer-  ^ 
mata  ^  indicating  its  com- 
mencement, usually  over  a 
rest  in  the  solo  part,  and 
over  the  last  note  in  each  of 
the  orchestral  parts  ;  another 
pause  over  a  shake  in  the 
solo  part  indicating  its  close. 
The  example  is  taken  from  Beethoven's  Concerto 
in  C  minor,  pianoforte  part.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CAECILIA,  a  German  musical  periodical, 
conducted  by  an  association  of  scholars,  art 
critics,  and  artists,  started  by  Gottfried  Weber 
in  1824,  and  published  by  Messrs.  Schott.  It 
appeared  at  irregular  intervals,  lasted  till  1848, 
and  forms  a  series  of  27  volumes  of  4  nos.  each. 
Weber  conducted  it  till  his  death,  at  the  20th 
vol.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dehn,  who  continued 
editor  till  its  discontinuance  in  consequence  of 
the  political  troubles  of  1848.  By  its  opening 
prospectus  Caecilia  was  intended  to  be  not  so 
much  a  regular  periodical  as  a  collection  of 
original  articles  of  permanent  interest,  and  a 
medium  for  the  exchange  of  views  and  opinions 
on  art.  It  contains  papers  on  the  theory  of 
music  and  acoustics,  on  history  and  aesthetics, 
reviews  and  notices  of  music  and  treatises  on  the 
art.  The  earlier  numbers  also  contained  tales 
and  poems,  and  other  light  pieces.  Amongst 
the  theoretical  articles  of  most  value  are  those 
on  the  compensation  of  organ  pipes  (xi.  181-202) 
and  on  the  production  of  aliquot  tones  in  reed 
pipes  and  clarinets  (xii.  i),  both  by  W.  Weber ; 
on  the  voice  (i.  81  ;  compare  iv.  157  and  229), 
by  Gottfried  Weber;  an  account  of  the  experi- 
ments of  Joh.  Miiller  on  the  formation  of  the 
voice  (xxi.  16),  by  Haser ;  on  equal  tempera- 
ment (xxvi.  137),  and  on  measurements  of  tones 
and  of  temperament  (xxi.  117),  both  by  Kiese- 
wetter ;  and  on  the  value  of  notes  and  the  length 
of  string  necessary  to  produce  them  (xxiv.  91), 
by  Elrieger.  Among  the  historical  papers  may 
be  named  those  on  the  literature  and  history  of 
music  by  Anton  Schmid  (xxi-xxvii) — chiefly 
notices  of  ancient  MSS.  in  the  Vienna  library ; 
also  a  paper  by  Aloys  Fuchs  on  the  musical  col- 
lections of  Vienna,  interesting  for  its  descriptions 
of  MSS.,  especially  those  of  the  Gesellschaft  der 
Musikfreunde  (xxiii.  40) ;  several  communica- 
tions by  Dehn  on  the  Bach  MSS.  in  the  Berlin 
library  (xxii.  166,  xxiii.  34,  xxiv.  17);  critical 
papers  by  Gottfried  Weber  on  the  authenticity 
of  Mozart's  'Kequiem'  (iii.  205,  iv.  257,  v.  237, 
vi.,  viii.  128,  ix.,  x.,  xiv.  147,  xx.  279),  written 
with  unnecessary  violence  and  personality,  and 
since  superseded  by  the  publication  of  the  ori- 


CAECILIA. 


CAFFARELLT. 


295 


ginal  score.  In  addition  to  the  authors  named, 
articles  were  furnished  by  Kochlitz,  Chladni, 
Fink,  and  von  Drieberg,  and  the  whole  formed  a 
valuable  record  of  the  progress  of  the  historical 
and  theoretical  departments  of  music  during  a 
quarter  of  a  century.  The  practical  portion  of 
the  art  was  not  so  well  represented.  In  fact 
the  great  movement  begun  by  Mendelssohn,  and 
carried  on  by  Schumann,  Chopin,  and  others,  not 
only  received  no  recognition,  but  was  treated 
with  a  certain  covert  hostility,  and  with  the 
constant  obtrusion  of  an  obsolete  and  exaggerated 
worship  of  Mozart.  In  the  first  volume  the 
publication  of  a  mass  by  the  Abbd  Vogler  (died 
1 8 14)  was  hailed  as  an  event,  and  reviewed  with 
laborious  care.  In  the  list  of  publications  of  the 
year  contained  in  the  27  th  volume  scarcely  any 
mention  is  made  of  the  works  of  either  of  the 
composers  named  above ;  and  the  notices  are 
confined  almost  entirely  to  salon  music  and  in- 
struction books,  chiefly  those  issued  by  the  pub- 
lishers of  the  magazine.  Mendelssohn's  *  St. 
Paul'  (produced  1834)  is  only  cursorily  men- 
tioned, Chopin  is  rarely  named,  and  Schumann 
not  at  all,  though  by  the  year  1848  he  had 
composed  many  of  his  very  greatest  works.  The 
earlier  volumes  of  the  Caecilia  are  of  more  value 
than  the  later  ones  in  reference  to  practical 
music.  [A.  M.] 

CAECILIAJT  SOCIETY.  This  society  was 
instituted  in  1785  by  a  few  friends  who  met 
weekly  at  each  other's  houses  for  the  practice  of 
hymns  and  anthems,  but  subsequently,  having 
some  instrumentalists  among  them,  they  united 
for  the  performance  of  sacred  works  on  a  more 
extended  scale,  and  especially  of  Handel's  ora- 
torios. In  1 791  an  organ  was  erected  in  the 
society's  room  in  I'riday-street,  and  after  meeting 
at  Plasterers'  Hall,  Painters'  Hall,  Coachmen's 
Hall,  and  the  Paul's  Head,  they  obtained  the 
use  of  Albion  Hall,  London  Wall,  where  they 
met  until  the  dissolution  of  the  society  in  1861. 
Among  the  works  performed  were  all  Handel's 
oratorios  and  secular  compositions,  Haydn's  '  Cre- 
ation' and  'Seasons,'  Mozart's  and  Haydn's 
masses  and  Mendelssohn's  *  Elijah.'  W.  Rus- 
sell, sometime  organist  to  the  Foimdling,  com- 
posed for  the  society,  of  which  he  was  a  member, 
*  The  Redemption  of  Israel '  and  the  '  Ode  to 
Music,'  the  words  of  the  latter  being  supplied  by 
Mr.  Vincent.  John  Nightingale,  Russell's  suc- 
cessor at  the  Foundling,  who  became  organist  to 
the  society,  also  composed  a  work  for  perform- 
ance by  the  members.  For  many  years  the 
society  gave  the  only  performances  of  the 
oratorios  of  Handel  and  Haydn  which  could 
be  heard  (except  during  Lent  at  the  theatres 
of  Covent  Garden  and  Drury  Lane),  and  its 
work  may  be  said  to  have  been  taken  up  by  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  which  was  founded  a 
few  years  before  the  dissolution  of  the  older 
body.  The  first  conductor  of  the  Society  was 
Mr.  Vincent,  an  amateur,  who  filled  the  office 
tor  upwards  of  thirty  years,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  Walker,  whose  place  was  taken 
by  his  own  son  J oseph  Walker.  JNIr.  Shoubridge 


was  the  last  conductor.  Among  the  earlier  mem- 
bers were  some  professional  musicians  who  after- 
wards became  famous,  and  who  when  they  had 
left  its  ranks  fi'equently  came  to  assist  in  its 
performances.  The  society  was  almost  entirely 
self-supporting,  and  the  tickets  of  admission  to 
the  concerts  were  given  by  the  members  to  their 
friends.  [C.  M.] 

CJ^SAR,  Julius,  M.D.,  of  an  ancient  family 
of  Rochester,  many  of  whom  are  interred  in  the 
cathedral  there,  was  an  amateur  composer  in  the 
1 7th  century.  Some  catches  by  him  appear  in 
the  collection  entitled  *  The  Pleasant  Musical 
Companion.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

C^SAR,  alias  William  Smegergill,  was 
the  composer  of  some  songs  published  in  '  Select 
Musicall  Ayres  and  Dialogues,  1653,  and  other 
collections  of  the  period.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CAFARO,  Pasquale,  otherwise  CAFFARO, 
and  also  known  by  his  name  of  endearment 
CAFFARELLI,  was  born  at  Naples  in  1708. 
He  was  destined  by  his  parents  for  a  scientific 
career,  but  his  bent  towards  music  showed  itself 
too  strongly  for  contradiction,  and  he  was  en- 
tered at  the  Conservatorio  della  Pieth,,  at  that 
time  under  the  direction  of  Leonardo  Leo.  On 
the  termination  of  his  studies  he  became  Maestro 
at  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Naples,  and  in  time 
Director  of  the  Conservatorio  as  well.  He  died 
in  1787.  Grace,  purity  of  style,  and  poverty  of 
invention  were  the  characteristics  of  his  work. 
The  following  are  among  his  best  known  pro- 
ductions:— Oratorio  per  I'lnvenzione  della  Croce; 
Naples  1747.  Ipermnestra ;  Naples  1751.  La 
Disfatta  di  Dario ;  1756.  Antigono ;  1754. 
L'Incendia  di  Troia;  Naples  1757.  Cantata  a 
tre  voci  per  festeggiare  il  giorno  natalizio  di 
Sua  Maestk;  Naples  1764.  Arianna  e  Teseo; 
1766.  Cantata  a  tre  voci,  etc.,  etc.;  Naples 
1766.  II  Cresco  k  Turin;  1768.  Giustizia  pla- 
cata ;  1769.  Cantata  a  piti  voci  per  la  Tians- 
lazione  di  sangue  di  S.  Januario  ;  Naples  1769. 
L'Olimpiade ;  Naples  1 769.  Antigono,  reset  to 
fresh  music;  1770.  Betulia  liberata.  IlFigluolo 
prodigo  ravveduto.  Oratorio  on  S.  Antcnio  of 
Padua.  II  Trionfo  di  Davidde,  Oratorio.  In 
addition  to  these  there  are  in  existence  by  Cafaro 
many  pieces  of  church  music,  consisting  of  masses, 
psalms,  motets,  etc.,  of  acknowledged  merit.  An 
'Amen'  for  5  voices  by  him  is  included  in 
NoveUo's  'FitzwiUiam  Music'  [E.  H.  P.] 

CAFFARELLI,  Gaetano  Majorano,  detto, 
was  born  at  Bari,  Naples,  April  16,  1703.  His 
father  was  a  peasant,  and  for  some  time  opposed 
his  son's  inclination  for  music  at  the  expense  of  his 
ordinary  tasks.  Gaetano  however,  by  his  assidu- 
ous attendance  at  the  musical  services  in  a  certain 
chapel,  soon  attracted  the  notice  and  favour  of 
Cafaro  or  Caffaro  (see  above).  This  artist,  recog- 
nising the  genius  of  the  boy,  rescued  him  from 
the  toil  to  which  he  was  destined  by  his  ignorant 
parents,  sent  him  to  Norcia  to  be  prepared  for 
the  career  of  an  evirato,  according  to  the  barba- 
rous custom  of  those  days ;  and,  upon  his  return, 


296 


CAFFARELLI. 


CA  IRA. 


gave  him  in  his  own  house  elementary  instruction 
in  reading,  writing,  and  music.  When  sent  to 
study  at  Naples  under  Porpora,  the  grateful 
youth,  as  was  not  unusual,  called  himself  CafFa- 
relli,  in  remembrance  of  his  first  protector.  It 
is  of  this  extraordinary  singer  that  the  story  is 
told  that  he  was  kept  by  old  Porpora  for  five  or 
six  years  to  the  uninterrupted  and  unvaried  study 
of  one  page  of  exercises ;  and  that,  at  the  end  of 
this  time,  he  was  dismissed  with  these  words, '  Go, 
my  son :  I  have  nothing  more  to  teach  you. 
You  are  the  greatest  singer  in  Europe.'  Whether 
Porpora' s  object  in  this  system  was  to  secure  the 
perfect  equality  of  the  voice,  which  in  his  opinion 
could  not  be  otherwise  gained,  or  to  humble 
the  boy's  pride,  which  was  inordinate — whether 
the  story  be  true  or  false,  certain  it  is  that, 
according  to  aU  competent  authorities,  the  singers 
whom  he  sent  forth  into  the  world,  Farinelli, 
CaffareUi,  etc.,  were  superior  to  any  that  preceded 
or  followed  them.  His  valedictory  words,  in  any 
case,  were  ill  calculated  to  check  the  pride  and 
presumption  which  made  CaffareUi,  throughout 
a  career  of  marvellous  success,  always  ridiculous, 
always  odious,  and  always  a  contrast  to  the 
modest  Farinelli.  In  1724  he  made  his  ddbut 
at  Rome  in  a  female  character,  as  was  usual  for 
sopranists,  when  his  beautifiJ  voice,  perfect 
method,  and  handsome  face,  procured  him  his 
first  triumph.  He  now  easily  obtained  engage- 
ments, and  sang  with  similar  success  in  the 
principal  cities  of  Italy  until  1728,  when  he 
returned  to  Rome.  Here  his  success  was  more 
brilliant  than  before,  and  than  that  of  any 
previous  singer.  He  was  courted  by  the  highest 
society,  and  in  one  of  his  very  numerous  *  bonnes 
fortunes'  he  nearly  lost  his  life.  Owing  to  a 
sudden  alarm,  he  had  to  escape  by  passing  the 
night  in  an  empty  cistern  in  a  garden,  where  he 
caught  a  severe  cold,  which  kept  him  to  his  bed 
for  a  month.  After  this  he  went  about  every- 
where protected  by  four  bravos  from  the  vengeance 
of  the  husband.  He  left  Rome  safe,  however,  in 
1 730  ;  and,  after  singing  in  other  places,  arrived 
in  London  at  the  end  of  1737.  Here  he  made 
his  first  appearance  at  the  King's  Theatre  on 
Jan.  7,  1738,  in  the  principal  character  in 
Handel's  '  Faramondo,'  and  in  'Serse'  on  April 
15.  He  also  sang  the  part  of  Jason  in  Pescetti's 
'  La  Conquista  del  vello  d'oro'  in  the  same  year. 
His  name  does  not  appear  again  ;  and  it  is  said 
that  during  all  his  stay  in  London  he  was  never 
in  good  health  or  voice.  He  does  not  appear  to 
have  fulfilled  the  expectation  that  his  coming 
had  created.  He  now  returned  to  Italy,  and 
passed  through  Turin,  Genoa,  Milan,  Florence, 
and  Venice,  in  a  triumphal  progress.  At  Turin, 
when  the  Prince  of  Savoy  told  CaffareUi,  after 
praising  him  greatly,  that  the  princess  thought 
it  hardly  possible  that  any  singer  could  please 
after  Farinelli,  'To-night,'  he  replied,  'she  shall 
hear  two  Farinellis ! '  What  would  have  been 
thought  of  this  answer  by  the  lady  who  once 
exclaimed  in  delirious  excitement  'One  God, 
and  one  Farinelli ! '  At  Naples  he  excited  the 
wildest  enthusiasm.   While  he  was  singing  there 


he  was  told  of  the  arrival  of  Gizziello,  whom, 
as  a  possible  rival,  he  was  most  anxious  to 
hear  and  estimate  for  himself.  He  posted  all 
the  way  to  Rome,  arrived  in  time  for  the 
opera,  and  took  a  back  seat  in  the  pit.  After 
listening  attentively  to  Gizziello's  aria  di  entrata 
he  could  not  master  his  emotion;  but,  rising 
from  his  seat,  exclaimed  'Bravo,  bravissimo, 
Gizziello !  E  Cafiarelli  chi  te  lo  dice ! '  and  fled 
precipitately  from  the  theatre.  Throwing  himself 
into  his  carriage,  he  posted  rapidly  back  to  Naples, 
and  found  he  had  barely  time  to  dress  and  ap- 
pear at  the  opera,  where  his  absence  had  already 
been  remarked.  In  1 740  he  retiuned  to  Venice, 
where  he  received  a  higher  salary  than  any  singer 
had  received  before, — 800  sequins  (  =  £385),  and 
a  benefit  of  700  sequins  (  =  •£335),  for  a  season 
of  three  months.  He  reappeared  at  Turin  in 
1 746,  and  then  at  Florence  and  Milan.  On  the 
imitation  of  the  Dauphine  he  went  to  Paris  in 
1750,  and  sang  at  several  concerts,  where  he 
pleased  as  much  as  he  astonished  the  critics. 
Louis  XV  sent  him  a  present  of  a  snuflf-box  ;  but 
Cafi'arelli,  observing  that  it  was  plain,  showed 
the  messenger  who  brought  it,  one  of  the  gentle- 
men of  the  court,  a  drawerfull  of  splendid  boxes, 
and  remarked  that  the  worst  of  them  was  finer 
than  the  gift  of  the  King  of  France.  *  If,'  said 
he,  '  he  had  sent  me  his  portrait  in  it ! '  '  That, ' 
replied  the  gentleman,  'is  only  given  to  am- 
bassadors.' '  Well,'  was  the  reply,  '  and  all 
the  ambassadors  of  the  world  would  not  make 
one  CaSarelli !'  This,  when  repeated,  made  the 
King  laugh  heartily  ;  but  the  Dauphine  sent  for 
the  singer,  and,  giving  him  a  passport,  said — •'  It 
is  signed  by  the  King  himself, — for  you  a  great 
honour ;  but  lose  no  time  in  using  it,  for  it  is 
only  good  for  ten  days.'  CafiarelK  left  France 
in  dudgeon,  saying  he  had  not  gained  his  expenses 
there.  Stories  about  him  are  innumerable  :  Me- 
tastasio,  in  one  of  his  letters,  tells  an  amusing 
one,  according  to  which  the  intervention  of  Tesi, 
the  celebrated  singer,  alone  saved  him  from  a 
duel  at  Vienna,  provoked  by  his  arrogance  and 
folly.  At  the  age  of  sixty-five  he  was  still 
singing ;  but  he  had  made  an  enormous  fortune, 
had  purchased  a  dukedom,  and  built  at  Santo 
Dorato  a  palace,  over  the  gate  of  which  he 
inscribed,  with  his  usual  modesty,  'Amphion 
Thebas,  ego  domum.'  A  commentator  added 
'  Hie  cum,  sine  tu  ! '  It  will  be  inferred  from  the 
above  that  he  was  the  rival  of  Farinelli,  to  whom 
by  some  he  was  preferred  as  a  singer.  He  ex- 
celled in  slow  and  pathetic  airs,  as  well  as  in  the 
bravura  style;  and  was  unapproached  both  in 
beauty  of  voice  and  in  the  perfection  of  his 
shake  and  chromatic  scales.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  introduce  the  latter  embellish- 
ment in  quick  movements.  He  died  in  1783, 
leaving  his  wealth  and  his  dukedom  to  his 
nephew.  [J.  M.] 

CA  IRA.  The  earliest  of  French  revolution- 
ary songs,  probably  first  heard  on  Oct.  5,  1789, 
when  the  Parisians  marched  to  Versailles.  The 
words  were  suggested  to  a  street-singer  called 
Ladrd  by  General  La  Fayette,  who  remembered 


gA  IRA. 


CALLCOTT. 


297 


Franklin's  favourite  saying  at  eacli  progress  of 
the  American  insurrection.    The  burden  of  the 
song  was  then  as  follows  : — 
'  Ah  !  (ja  ira,  qa,  ira,  <ja  ira  ! 

Le  peuple  en  ce  jour  sans  cesse  r^pete  : 

Ah  !  9a  ira,  ga  ira,  9a  ira  ! 

Malgre  les  mutins,  tout  reussira.' 

At  a  later  period  the  burden,  though  more 
ferocious,  was  hardly  more  metrical : — 
'  Ah  !  Qa  ira,  9a  ira,  9a  ira  ! 
Les  aristocrat'  h.  la  lanterne  ; 
Ah  !  9a  ira,  9a  ira,  9a  ira  ! 
Les  aristocrat'  on  les  pendra.' 

The  tune — the  length  and  compass  of  which 
show  that  it  was  not  composed  for  the  song — was 
the  production  of  a  certain  Becour  or  Becourt, 
a  side-drum  player  at  the  Opera ;  and  as  a  contre- 
danse  was  originally  very  popular  under  the  title 
of  '  Carillon  national.' 
Allegro 


[G.C.] 

CALAH,  John,  born  1758,  was  organist  of 
Peterborough  Cathedral  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century.  He  composed  some  cathedral  music, 
still  in  use,  and  died  Aug.  4, 1798.  [W.H.H,] 

CALANDO  (Ital.),  diminishing,  i.e.  in  tone; 
equivalent  to  diminuendo  or  decrescendo,  and 
often  associated  with  ritardando.  [G.] 

CALASCIONE  or  COLASCIONE  (Ital.; 
Fr.  Colachon).  The  name  of  a  fingerboard  instru- 
ment of  the  lute  kind  belonging  to  Lower  Italy. 
The  calascione  is  strung  with  two  catgut  strings 
tuned  a  fifth  apart.  The  body  of  it  is  like  that 
of  an  ordinary  lute,  but  it  is  relatively  smaller 
towards  the  neck.  Of  all  fingerboard  instruments 
the  calascione  is  most  like  the  NFE,  (vocalised 
by  different  interpreters  as  nofre,  nefru,  or  nefer) 
of  the  old  Egyptian  monuments ;  but  it  would 
be  a  bold  hypothesis  to  derive  the  modern  instru- 
ment from  one  used  in  such  remote  antiquity, 
the  long -necked  Egyptian  lute  having  been 


depicted  as  early  as  the  fourth  d}-nasty — accord- 
ing to  Herr  Lepsius  anterior  to  3000  B.C. 
The  strings  of  the  calascione  are  touched  with 
a  plectrum,  rarely  by  the  fingers.  The  finger- 
board has  frets  of  ivory.  About  1767  the 
brothers  Cola  were  noted  performers  on  it.  [See 
Bandora.]  [A.J.H.] 

CALDARA,  Antonio,  was  bom  at  Venice  in 
1678,  where  he  studied  music  under  Legrenzi. 
He  remained  for  maiiy  years  a  simple  singer  in 
the  Ducal  Chapel  of  S.Marco,  but  was  in  1 714  ap- 
pointed Maestro  di  Cappella  at  ]Mantua.  Thence 
in  1718  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  the  emperor 
Charles  VI  made  him  one  of  his  vice -chapel- 
masters.  In  1738  he  returned  to  Venice,  where 
he  lived  in  retirement  until  his  death  in  1768.' 
These  are  the  dates  in  his  career  which  are 
given  by  Fetis,  and  which  he  defends  against 
Gerber  and  Antoine  Schmidt,  who  say  that  he 
died  at  Vienna  in  1736.  He  was  a  laborious 
composer  both  for  the  church  and  the  stage. 
But  his  worth  is  hardly  equal  to  his  fecundity. 
A  certain  solemnity  of  maimer  in  some  measure 
redeems  his  church  music ;  but  his  operas  are 
essentially  of  that  order  which  when  once  laid 
aside  are  laid  aside  for  ever.  He  wrote  no  less 
than  69  operas  and  oratorios,  and  dramatic  com- 
positions in  the  nature  of  one  or  the  other.  The 
catalogue  of  his  church  music  is  equally  lengthy, 
and  includes  a  number  of  cantate  on  sacred  sub- 
jects for  one,  two,  and  three  voices,  with  elabo- 
rate orchestral  accompaniments.  [E.  H.  P.] 

CALIFE  DE  BAGDAD.  Opera  in  one  act, 
words  by  Saint- Just,  music  by  Boieldieu;  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera  Comique  Sept.  16,  1800, 
and  still  a  favourite,  after  many  hundred  repre- 
sentations. [G.] 

CALL,  Leonard  de,  bom  in  1779;  *  guitar 
player  and  composer  of  harmonious  and  pretty 
part  songs,  which  were  greatly  in  fashion  in 
Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  formation  of  the  '  Manner 
Gesangvereine '  in  that  country.  Some  pleasing 
specimens  wiU  be  found  in  '  Orpheus.'  De  Call 
is  also  known  for  his  instruction  book  for  the 
guitar.    He  died  at  Vienna  1815.  [G.] 

CALL  CHANGES.  Eingers  are  said  to  be 
ringing  call  changes  when  the  conductor  calls  to 
each  man  to  tell  him  after  which  bell  he  is  to  ring, 
or  when  the  men  ring  changes  with  the  order  in 
which  they  are  to  ring  written  out  before  them. 
When  such  changes  are  rung,  each  change  is 
generally  struck  consecutively  from  ten  to  a 
hundred  times.  [C.A.W.T.] 

CALLCOTT,  John  Wall,  Mus.  Doc,  was 
born  November  20,  1766,  at  Kensington,  where 
his  father  carried  on  the  business  of  a  bricklayer 
and  builder.  W^hilst  a  school-boy  he  had  frequent 
opportunities  of  examining  the  oi*gan  at  Kensing- 
ton church,  and  having  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  the  organist  became  a  constant  visitor  to 
the  organ-loft  on  Sundays.  There  he  acquired 
his  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  music.  His 


298 


CALLCOTT. 


CALLCOTT. 


intention  was  to  follow  the  profession  of  surgery, 
but  the  sight  of  a  severe  operation  so  seriously 
affected  his  nerves  that  he  abandoned  it  and 
turned  his  attention  to  music.  In  this  pursuit 
his  studies  were  prosecuted  without  the  aid  of 
a  master.  By  frequent  attendance  at  the  Chapel- 
Royal  and  Westminster  Abbey  he  became  ac- 
quainted, in  1782,  with  Drs.  Arnold  and  Cooke, 
and  the  elder  Sale,  from  whom  he  derived  much 
musical  knowledge,  although  he  did  not  receive 
any  regular  instruction.  In  1783  he  became 
deputy  organist,  under  Reinhold,  of  St.  George 
the  Martyr,  Queen  Square,  Bloomsbury,  which 
post  he  held  until  1785.  In  the  latter  year  Dr. 
Cooke  introduced  him  to  the  orchestra  of  the 
Academy  of  Ancient  Music,  and  the  associations 
he  there  formed  gave  him  his  first  bias  towards 
glee  writing.  In  17  84  he  had  submitted  a  glee, 
'  0  sovereign  of  the  willing  soul,'  as  a  candidate 
for  a  prize  at  the  Catch  Club,  which  was  not 
successful;  but  in  1785  he  carried  off  three  of 
the  four  prize  medals  given  by  the  club  by  his 
catch  '0  beauteous  fair' ;  his  canon  'Blessed  is 
he ' ;  and  his  glee  '  Dull  repining  sons  of  care.' 
On  July  4  in  the  same  year  he  took  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  setting  as  his 
exercise  Dr.  Joseph  Warton's  'Ode  to  Fancy.' 
In  1786  he  composed  an  ode  for  the  Humane 
Society,  and  gained  two  prizes  from  the  Catch 
Club  for  his  catch  '  On  a  summer's  morning,'  and 
his  canon  'Bow  down  Thine  ear.'  The  next 
year,  determined  (as  he  said)  to  show  that  if 
deficient  in  genius  he  was  not  wanting  in  industry, 
he  sent  in  nearly  100  compositions  as  competitors 
for  the  prizes.  Of  this  large  number,  however, 
two  only  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  coveted 
distinction,  viz.  the  canon  '  Thou  shalt  show  me,' 
and  the  glee  'Whann  Battayle  smethynge' ; 
whilst  the  members  of  the  club,  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  so  troublesome  and  inconvenient 
an  event,  resolved  that  in  future  the  number  of 
pieces  to  be  received  from  any  one  candidate 
should  be  limited  to  twelve,  i.e.  three  of  each 
kind — catch,  canon,  and  serious  and  cheerful 
glees.  In  1787  Callcott  took  an  active  part 
with  Dr.  Arnold  and  others  in  the  formation 
of  the  Glee  Club.  In  1788,  offended  at  the 
new  regulation  of  the  Catch  Club  limiting  the 
number  of  compositions  to  be  received  from  each 
candidate  for  prizes,  he  declined  writing  for  it, 
but  in  the  next  year,  changing  his  determin- 
ation, he  sent  in  the  full  number  of  pieces 
permitted,  and  succeeded  in  carrying  off  all  the 
prizes,  a  circumstance  unparalleled  in  the  history 
of  the  club.  The  four  compositions  which 
achieved  this  feat  were  the  catch  'Have  you 
Sir  John  Hawkins'  History  ?'  the  canon  '0  that 
Thou  would'st' ;  and  the  glees  '0  thou,  where'er, 
thie  bones  att  rest,'  and  '  Go,  idle  boy.'  In  the 
same  year  he  was  chosen  joint  organist,  with 
Charles  S.  Evans,  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden, 
and  four  years  later  organist  to  the  Asylum  for 
Female  Orphans,  which  he  held  till  1802. 
Although  he  now  ranked  as  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  popular  composers  of  the  day  he  had 
but  little  skill  in  orchestral  writing.    He  there- 


fore availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
by  the  visit  of  Haydn  to  England  in  1790  to 
take  lessons  in  instrumental  composition  from 
that  illustrious  master.  Whilst  studying  under 
Haydn,  Callcott  composed  his  fine  song  'These 
as  they  change*  for  Bartleman.  From  1790  to 
1793  (after  which  the  Catch  Club  ceased  to  offer 
prizes)  he  was  awarded  nine  medals  for  his 
compositions ;  two  in  1 790  for  the  canon  '  Call 
to  remembrance,'  and  the  glee  '0  voi  che 
sospirate' ;  three  in  1791  for  the  catch  'Tom 
Metaphysician,'  the  canon  '  I  am  well  pleased,' 
and  the  glee  '  Triumphant  Love ' ;  three  in 
1792  for  the  canon  *0  Israel,'  and  the  glees 
'See,  with  ivy  chaplet  bound,'  and  'Father  of 
heroes,'  and  one  in  1793  for  the  canon  'Christ 
being  raised.'  It  was  about  this  time  that  he 
began  to  study  the  works  of  the  best  theorists, 
and  to  feel  the  desire  of  appearing  as  a  writer  on 
the  theory  of  music.  Having  acquired  the  MSS. 
of  Dr.  Boyce  and  his  pupil,  Marmaduke  Overend, 
organist  of  Isleworth,  he  projected  a  musical 
dictionary,  and  made  large  collections  for  the 
work,  of  which  in  1797  he  issued  a  prospectus. 
On  June  19,  1800,  he  proceeded  Doctor  of 
Music  at  Oxford,  his  exercise  being  a  Latin 
anthem,  'Propter  Sion  non  tacebo.'  In  1801, 
upon  the  formation  of  a  volunteer  corps  at 
Kensington,  Callcott  accepted  a  commission  in 
it.  Aided  by  a  subscription  he  formed  a  band 
for  the  corps,  for  which  he  not  only  purchased 
the  instruments  and  composed  and  arranged  the 
music,  but  even  instructed  the  performers.  The 
compilation  of  his  dictionary  proceeding  but 
slowly,  and  thinking  the  public  had  a  right  to 
expect  some  theoretical  work  from  him,  he  em- 
ployed himself  in  1804  and  1805  in  writing  his 
Musical  Grammar,  which  was  published  in  i8c6. 
In  the  latter  year  he  wrote  for  Bartleman  a 
scena  upon  the  death  of  Lord  Nelson,  and  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Dr.  Crotch  as  lecturer  on 
music  at  the  Royal  Institution.  His  anxiety  to 
distinguish  himself  in  this  new  position,  com- 
bined with  the  heavy  labours  of  which  he  had  so 
unsparingly  imposed  upon  himself,  and  the  daily 
drudgery  of  teaching,  seriously  impaired  his 
health,  and  his  mind  suddenly  gave  way.  For 
five  years  his  life  was  a  blank.  During  that 
period  (in  1809)  his  professional  friends  gave  a 
concert  on  his  behalf,  and  so  strong  was  the 
desire  to  show  S3anpathy  for  him  that  it  was 
found  that  the  opera-house  in  the  Haymarket 
was  the  only  building  large  enough  to  contain 
the  numbers  who  thronged  to  be  present.  After 
an  interval  of  rather  more  than  five  years  Dr. 
Callcott  so  far  recovered  as  to  lead  his  friends  to 
hope  that  his  health  was  completely  restored,  but 
their  hopes  were  in  vain.  Two  or  three  years 
passed  and  he  was  again  afflicted  with  the  most 
terrible  calamity  which  can  befal  frail  humanity. 
He  lingered  until  May  15,  1821,  when  death 
terminated  his  sufferings. 

Dr.  Callcott's  principal  works  were  his  very 
numerous  glees  and  other  pieces  of  vocal  harmony, 
mostly  published  singly,  but  he  left  in  manuscript 
many  anthems,  services,  odes,  etc.     His  fine 


CALLCOTT. 


CAMBINI. 


299 


scena  '  Angel  of  life'  was  written  for  Bartleman. 
His  son-in-law,  the  late  William  Horsley,  Mus. 
Bac,  edited  in  1824  a  collection  of  his  best  glees, 
catches,  and  canons,  in  two  folio  volumes,  with 
a  memoir  of  the  composer,  and  an  analysis  of  his 
compositions.  The  work  also  contains  a  portrait 
of  Callcott  from  a  painting  by  his  brother  Au- 
gustus, afterwards  Sir  Augustus  Callcott,  R.A. 
Besides  the  above-named  works  Callcott  was 
associated  with  Dr.  Arnold  in  the  selection,  adap- 
tation, and  composition  of  the  tunes  for  '  The 
Psalms  of  David  for  the  use  of  Parish  Churches ' 
(1791).  Dr.  Callcott  left  a  numerous  family. 
His  daughter,  Sophia,  became  eminent  as  a 
teacher  of  the  pianoforte,  and  his  younger  son, 
William  Hutchins  Callcott,  has  attained  dis- 
tinction as  a  composer  and  arranger.  One  of  his 
songs,  'The  last  man,'  met  with  remarkable 
success,  and  his  anthem  'Give  peace  in  our 
time,  0  Lord,'  has  been  very  generally  ad- 
mired. [W.  H.  H.] 

CALLINET.  See  Daublaine. 

CALOEI,  Angiola,  was  born  at  Milan  1732, 
and  came  to  London  in  1 758.  Here  she  appeared 
in  '  Issipile,'  by  Cocchi.  In  1759  she  sang  in 
'Ciro  riconosciuto,'  by  the  same  composer;  and 
in  his  'Erginda,'  1760.  In  the  next  season  she 
performed  the  part  of  Eugenia  in  Galuppi's 
'Filosofo  di  Campagna,'  but  her  name  does  not 
occur  here  again  after  that.  She  had  a  soprano 
voice  of  great  extent,  a  profound  knowledge  of 
music,  and  extraordinary  rapidity  of  execution. 
In  1770  she  was  singing  at  Dresden  with  great 
success.  She  returned  to  her  native  country 
in  1774,  and  continued  to  sing  at  the  vari- 
ous operas  of  Italy  tiU  1783.  She  died  about 
1790.  [J.  M.] 

CALVAEY,  the  English  version  of  Spohr's 
oratorio  of  '  Des  Heilands  letzte  Stunden.'  The 
translation  was  made  by  Mr  Edward  Taylor, 
and  the  first  performance  took  place  at  the  Nor- 
wich Festival  of  1839  under  Spohr's  own  direc- 
tion. It  was  again  performed,  in  his  presence, 
under  Costa's  baton,  by  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  at  Exeter  Hall,  July  5,  1852.  [G.] 

CALVESI,  SiGNOR,  an  Italian  singer  engaged, 
with  his  wife,  in  London  during  the  seasons  of 
1787  and  1788.  He  sang  the  principal  part  in 
PaisieUo's  *Ee  Teodoro,'  and  assisted  in  the  same 
composer's  '  Schiavi  per  amore,'  and  other  operas 
by  Cimarosa,  Sarti,  and  Storace,  in  some  of  which 
his  wife  appeared  with  him.  [J.  M.] 

CALVISIUS,  Seth,  musician,  astronomer, 
and  chronologer,  bom  at  Gorschleben  in  Thu- 
ringia,  Feb.  21,  1556,  of  very  poor  parents.  The 
name  is  a  refinement  of  Kallwitz.  His  poverty 
interfered  greatly  with  his  education,  but  he 
contrived  to  attend  the  Magdeburg  Gymnasium, 
and  the  Universities  of  Helmstedt  and  Leipsic, 
and  to  avail  himself  of  every  opportunity  of 
musical  instruction.  In  1580  he  was  made 
music  director  at  the  Pauliner  Church,  Leipsic, 
in  82  Cantor  at  Schulpforte,  and  in  94  Can- 
tor and  Schulcollege  at  the  St.  Thomas-school, 


and  music  director  at  the  St.  Thomas  church 
of  Leipsic.  For  music  he  gave  up  much — for 
instance,  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Wittenberg, 
ofiered  him  in  1611.  He  died  in  Leipsic  on 
Nov.  24, 1 61 5.  His  treatises  are  'Melopeia  .  .  .' 
(Erfurt,  1582),  'Compendium  musicse  practicse 
.  .  .'  (Leipsic,  1594),  'Musicse  artis  praecepta  .  .  .' 
(Leipsic,  161 2;  ed.  3  of  the  'Compendium'), 
'  Exercitationes  musicae  duse  .  .  .'  (Leipsic,  1600 
and  16 II).  His  music,  original  and  edited, 
comprises  'Harmonia  cantionum,  a  M.  Luthero 
.  .  .  compositarum'  (Leipsic,  1596),  'Biciniorum 
libri  duo  .  .  . '  (Do.  1 590  and  161 2),  'Teutsche  Tri- 
cinia  .  .  .'  (Do.  1603),  'Der  150  Psalm  ftir  12 
Stimmen . . .'  (Do.  161 5),  '  Der  Psalter  Davids . . .' 
(Do.  161 7).  Many  motets  and  hymns  are  in  MS. 
in  the  Library  of  the  Thomas-school.  [G.] 

CAMACHO.   See  Wedding  of  Camacho. 

CAMAEGO,  Miguel  Gomez,  bom  at  Guada- 
lajara about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century, 
musical  director  at  the  Cathedral  of  Valladolid. 
Several  of  his  compositions  in  MS.  are  in  the 
library  of  the  Escurial,  and  Eslava's  '  Lira  Sacra- 
Hispana'  contains  a  beautiful  hymn  to  St.  lago 
in  the  purest  counterpoint.  [M.  C.  C] 

CAMBEET,  Egbert — sometimes  called  Lam- 
bert— the  originator  of  French  opera,  born  at 
Paris  1628  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Chambonniere's, 
organist  of  the  church  of  S.  Honore,  and  (1666) 
Intendant  of  Music  to  Anne  of  Austria.  The 
'Euridice'  of  Peri  and  Caccini,  performed  at 
Florence  in  1600,  had  set  the  musical  world  in 
a  blaze,  and  the  Abbe  Perrin,  after  hearing 
that  work,  proposed  to  Cambert  to  compose  a 
similar  piece  entitled  'La  Pastorale.'  This  was 
performed  for  the  first  time,  amid  extraordinary 
applause,  at  the  Chateau  d'Issy,  and  was  the 
first  French  opera.  '  La  Pastorale'  was  followed 
by  'Ariane,'  'Adonis,'  and  other  pieces,  and  in 
1669  Perrin  obtained  a  patent  securing  the  right 
to  perform  opera.  For  32  years  Cambert  was 
associated  with  Perrin  in  the  enterprise,  and 
the  result  was  the  production  of  the  operas  of 
'Pom one'  (16 71)  and  'Les  peines  et  les  plaisirs 
de  r  amour.'  By  Lully's  intrigues  Perrin  lost 
the  Acaddmie,  and  Cambert  took  refuge  in 
England,  where  he  became  first  bandmaster  to 
a  regiment,  and  then  master  of  the  music  to 
Charles  II.  He  died  here  in  1677.  Portions 
of  'Pomone'  were  printed,  and  the  MS.  of 
'Les  peines'  is  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale. 
Lully's  jealousy  implies  that  Cambert  was  a 
formidable  rival.  [G.] 

CAMBINI,  Giovanni  Guiseppe,  bom  at 
Leghorn,  1746,  violinist  and  composer,  studied 
under  Padre  Martini,  at  Bologna,  between  1763 
and  1766.  In  the  latter  year  he  produced  an 
opera  at  Naples  without  success.  Having  formed 
an  attachment  for  a  girl  from  his  native  city, 
he  was  returning  thither  with  her  to  be  married 
when  their  vessel  was  captured  by  corsairs,  and 
they  were  both  sold  as  slaves  in  Barbary.  Here 
a  rich  Venetian  merchant  bought  Cambini  and 
gave  him  his  liberty.    In  1770  he  went  to  Paris, 


800 


CAMBINI. 


CAMPENHOUT. 


and  was  introduced  to  Gossec,  who  performed  some 
of  his  symphonies  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels. 
These  works,  though  very  slight,  were  written 
with  the  flowing  melody  characteristic  of  Italian 
music,  and  created  a  highly  favourable  impression. 
During  the  ensuing  twenty  years,  Cambini  pro- 
duced an  enormous  mass  of  music  ;  60  symphonies, 
144  string-quartets,  concertos  for  every  variety  of 
instrument,  an  oratorio,  'Le  sacrifice  d' Abraham' 
(Concerts  Spirituels,  1774),  and  12  operas,  of 
which  Fetis  gives  a  list.  He  was  conductor  at 
the  Theatre  des  Beaujolais  (i  788-1791),  and  of 
the  Theatre  Louvois  (i79i-i794\  In  1804  he 
wrote  some  articles  in  the  Leipsic  'AUgem.  Musik. 
Zeitung,'  and  in  18 10  and  181 1  was  joint-editor 
of  the  '  Tablettes  de  Polymnie.'  Towards  the 
end  of  his  life  Cambini  maintained  himself  by 
arranging  popular  airs  and  other  like  drudgery, 
but  even  this  resource  failed  him,  and  his  last  ten 
years  were  spent  in  the  hospital  of  the  Bicetre, 
where  he  died  in  1825.  His  best  works  were  his 
quartets.  He  excelled  so  much  in  playing  that 
style  of  music,  that  Manfredi,  Nardini,  and  Boc- 
cherini,  the  three  most  eminent  quartet  players 
of  that  epoch,  each  chose  him  to  play  the  viola 
with  them.  Cambini  wasted  in  dissipation  abil- 
ities which  might  have  placed  him  in  the  fore- 
most rank  of  musicians  ;  and  so  little  was  he 
troubled  with  a  conscience  as  to  undertake  to 
write  some  quartets  and  quintets  in  the  style  of 
Boccherini,  which  were  published  by  Pleyel,  in- 
discriminately with  genuine  compositions  of  that 
master.  [M.  C.  C] 

CAMBEIDGE.  See  Degree  ;  Doctor  ;  Pro- 
fessor. 

CAMERA  (Ital.  'chamber').  A  sonata  or 
concerto  di  camera  was  of  secular  character, 
and  written  for  a  room,  and  was  so  called  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  sonata  or  concerto  di 
chiesa,  which  was  intended  for  performance  in 
a  church.  [G.] 

CAMIDGE,  John,  bom  about  1735,  was,  on 
the  resignation  of  James  Nares  in  1756,  ap- 
pointed organist  of  the  cathedral  church  of 
York,  which  he  held  until  his  death,  April  25, 
1803,  a  period  of  about  forty-seven  years.  He 
published  '  Six  Easy  Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord.' 
His  son  Matthew  was  born  in  1764,  and  re- 
ceived his  early  musical  education  in  the  Chapel 
Royal  under  Dr.  Nares.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1803  he  was  appointed  his  successor  as 
organist  of  York.  He  published  a  Collection  of 
Tunes  adapted  to  Sandys'  version  of  the  Psalms 
(York,  1789),  and  'A  Method  of  Instruction  in 
Musick  by  Questions  and  Answers.'  He  died 
Oct.  23, 1844,  aged  80.  His  son  John  graduated 
at  Cambridge  as  Bachelor  of  Music  in  181 2,  and 
as  Doctor  in  18 19.  About  1828  he  published  a 
volume  of  Cathedral  Music  of  his  composition. 
He  received  the  appointment  of  organist  of  York 
Cathedral  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1844, 
having  for  many  years  previously  discharged  the 
duty.  The  present  organ  of  the  cathedral,  one 
of  the  largest  in  England,  was  constructed  chiefly 
under  his  superintendence.    Early  in  1859 


resigned  his  appointment,  and  died  Sept.  21  fol- 
lowing.— The  Camidges  aiford  a  singular  example 
of  three  members  of  the  same  family  (father,  son, 
and  grandson)  holding  successively  the  appoint- 
ment of  organist  of  the  same  cathedral  for  up- 
wards of  a  century.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CAMPAGNOLI,  Bartolomeo,  a  violinist  of 
great  repute,  born  Sept.  10,  1751,  at  Cento,  near 
Bologna.  He  learned  the  violin  from  Dall'  Ocha, 
a  pupil  of  Lolli's,  from  Guastarobba,  of  the  school 
of  Tartini,  and  afterwards  from  Nardini.  While 
in  the  orchestra  of  the  Pergola  at  Florence  he 
made  the  friendship  of  Cherubini.  He  led  the 
opera  bands  at  Florence  and  Rome  alternately 
for  some  years,  and  in  1776  became  Capell- 
meister  to  the  Bishop  of  Freysing.  After  two 
years  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of 
Courland  at  Dresden.  From  1783  to  86  he  was 
travelling  in  north  Europe ;  in  88  he  revisited 
Italy.  From  1797  to  1818  he  was  conductor  at 
Leipsic.  In  1801  he  visited  Paris,  renewed  his 
acquaintance  with  Cherubini,  and  heard  R. 
Kreutzer.  On  Nov.  6,  1827,  he  died  at  Neu- 
strelitz.  His  works  comprise  concertos,  sonatas, 
duets,  and  smaller  pieces  for  the  violin  and 
flute,  and  a  violin-school.  His  daughters,  Al- 
BERTINA  and  Granetta,  were  well  known  as 
singers.  [P.  D.] 

CAMPANOLOGY  (from  campana  and  \oyos), 
the  art  and  mystery  of  Bells  and  Bell-ringing. 
See  Bell,  Change,  Carillon,  Chimes. 

The  following  list  of  works  on  Campanology, 
published  during  the  present  century,  is  given  in 
Rev.  Woolmore  Wigram's  'Change-ringing  dis- 
entangled' (1871)  as  those  most  useful  to  ringers 
in  general. 

1.  On  the  Bells  themselves: — 'Belfries  and 
Ringers,'  H.  T.  Ellacombe;  'Clocks  and  Bells,' 
E.  B.  Denison;  'Account  of  Church  Bells,'  W. 
C.  Lukis. 

2.  On  Change -ringing : — '  Campanologia,'  W. 
Ship  way;  'Campanologia, 'H.Hubbard;  'Change- 
ringing,'  C.  A.  W.  Troyte;  'Church  Bells  and 
Ringing,'  W.  T.  Maunsell ;  'Change-ringing,'  W. 
Sottenshall.  [G.] 

CAMPBELL,  Alexander,  an  organist  in  Edin- 
burgh, edited  and  published,  in  1792,  a  collection 
of  twelve  Scots  songs,  with  an  accompaniment 
for  the  violin,  and  later  a  similar  collection  with 
an  accompaniment  for  the  harp.        [W.  H.  H.] 

CAMPENHOUT,  Francois  van,  born  at 
Brussels  1780,  died  there  1848,  began  his  career 
in  the  orchestra  at  the  Theatre  de  la  Monnaie. 
Having  developed  a  high  tenor  voice  he  appeared 
on  the  stage  at  the  same  theatre.  During  the 
ensuing  thirty  years  he  sang  in  the  chief  towns 
of  Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  and  made  his 
farewell  appearance  at  Ghent  in  1827.  He 
composed  several  operas,  'Grotius'  (Amster- 
dam, 1808)  ;  '  Le  Passe-partout '  (Lyons,  1815); 
'  L'heureux  Mensonge,'  and  others  unpublished, 
besides  songs,  choruses,  and  church  music.  His 
name,  however,  is  chiefly  associated  with  the 
BRABAN90NNE,  which  he  composed  at  the  time 


CAMPENHOUT. 


CAMPOEESE. 


301 


of  the  revolution  in  1830,  and  has  now  become 
the  national  air  of  Belgium.  [M.  C.  C] 

CAMPIOLI,  Antonio  Gualaxdi,  detto,  bom 
in  Germany,  of  Italian  parents.  He  learnt  to 
sing  in  Italy  and  returned  to  Germany,  where 
his  lovely  contralto  voice  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion. He  appeared  first  at  Berlin  in  1708.  In 
1720  he  was  engaged  at  Wolfenbtittel.  Six 
years  later  he  visited  Hamburg ;  and,  after  tra- 
velling in  Gei-many  and  Holland,  returned  to 
Dresden,  where  he  sang  in  Hasse's  'Cleofida' 
in  1 731.  At  the  end  of  that  year  he  appeared 
in  London  in  Handel's  *  Poro.'  On  Feb.  19, 
1732,  he  sang  in  the  new  opera  'Sosarme,'  and 
in  revivals  of  *  Flavio '  and  *  Acis,'  all  by  the 
same  master.  He  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  Italy.  [J.  M.] 

CAMPION  or  CAMPIAN,  Thomas,  M.D., 
a  physician  by  profession,  was  a  poet,  dramatist, 
composer,  and  writer  on  music  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  17th  century.     In  1602  he  pub- 
lished 'Observations  on  the  Art  of  English 
Poesie,'  and   in  1607   wrote  and  invented  a 
masque  performed  at  Whitehall  on  Twelfth 
Night  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Lord  Hayes 
with  the  daughter  of  Lord  Denny,  for  two  of 
the  songs  in  which  he  also  furnished  the  music. 
In  1 610  he  produced  'Two  Bookes  of  Ayres. 
'  The  First  contayning  Divine  and  Morall  Songs  : 
'The  Second  Light  Conceits  of  Lovers.    To  be 
'  sung  to  the  Lute  and  Viols,  in  two,  three  and 
'foure  Parts  ;  or  by  one  Voyce  to  an  Instrument.' 
This  was  followed,  in  161 2,  by  'The  Third  and 
'  Fourth  Booke  of  Ayres.    Composed  by  Thomas 
'  Campian  so  as  they  may  be  expressed  by  one 
•Voyce  with  a  Violl,  Lute  or  Opharion,'  the 
words  as  well  as  the  music  being  of  his  pro- 
duction.   In  161 3  he  wrote  'Songs  of  Mourning 
bewailing  the  untimely  death  of  Prince  Henr}%' 
which  were  set  to  music  by  John  Coprario  ;  and 
also  devised  and  wrote  the  entertainment  given 
by  Lord  Knowles  at  Cawsome  [Caversham] 
House,  near  Reading,  to  Queen  Anne  in  her 
progress  towards  the  Bath  on  April  27  and  28; 
the  Masque  presented  in  the  Banqueting  House 
at  Whitehall  on  St.  Stephen's  night,  1 61 3,  on 
the  marriage  of  the  Earl  of  Somerset  and  Lady 
Frances  Howard;  the  Masque  of  Flowers  pre- 
sented by  the  gentlemen  of  Gray's  Inn  in  the 
same  place  on  Twelfth  Night,  161 3,  in  honour 
of  the  same  marriage ;  and  the  Lords'  IMasque 
presented  in  the  Banqueting  House  on  the 
marriage  of  Frederick,  the  Elector  Palatine, 
vnth  the  Princess  Elizabeth  on  Feb.  13,  161 3, 
for  one  song  in  which  he  also  composed  the 
music.    Some  lines  by  Campion  are  prefixed  to 
Alfonso  Ferrabosco's  Ayres,  1609,  and  others 
to  Ravenscroft's  'Briefe  Discourse  of  the  true 
(but  neglected)  use  of  Charaot'ring  the  Degrees 
by  their  Perfection,  Imperfection,  and  Diminution 
in  Measurable  Musicke,'  1614.    Campion's  trea- 
tise, *  A  New  Way  of  making  Fowre  parts  in 
Counter-point,  by  a  most  familiar  and  infallible 
Rule,'  was  first  published  without  date,  but 
probably  about  1618  ;  the  second  edition,  with 
annotations  by  Christopher  Sympson,  was  pub- 


lished in  1655  under  the  title  of  'The  Art  of 
Setting  or  Composing  of  Musick  in  Parts  by  a 
most  familiar  and  easie  Rule ' ;  and  another 
edition  called  'the  last'  appeared  in  1664,  with 
the  word  'Setting'  in  the  title  changed  to 
'Descant.'  The  later  editions  were  appended 
to  the  first  eight  or  nine  editions  of  John  Play- 
ford's  '  Introduction  to  the  Skill  of  Musick.' 

Dr.  Campion  died  in  1619,  and  was  buried 
on  March  i  in  that  year  in  the  church  of  St. 
Dunstan  in  the  West,  Fleet  Street.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CAMPORESE,  ViOLANTE,  was  bom  at  Rome, 
1785.  She  belonged  to  a  good  family,  and  had 
cultivated  music  only  as  an  amateur ;  but,  having 
married  a  gentleman  of  the  noble  family  of 
Giustiniani,  she  found  herself  compelled  by  cir- 
cumstances to  practise  it  as  a  profession.  She 
appeared  at  first  only  in  concerts.  Possessed  as 
she  was  of  a  very  good  soprano  voice  and  great 
facility  of  execution,  she  was  already  a  talented 
singer,  when  she  was  engaged  for  the  private 
concerts  of  Napoleon  in  Paris,  where  she  so  pro- 
fited by  the  lessons  of  Crescentini  as  to  become 
an  adnairable  artist.  Ebers,  while  in  Paris  in  the 
autumn  of  1816,  was  introduced  to  Mme.  Cam- 
porese  at  the  house  of  Paer,  and  gives  a  good 
account  of  her  voice,  style,  and  appearance.  She 
possessed  a  fine-toned  voice  of  more  than  two 
octaves,  from  C  in  alt.  to  A  below ;  but  her  best 
notes  were  from  C  to  F.  She  '  cultivated  a  pure, 
chaste,  and  expressive  style,  was  a  handsome  and 
elegant  woman  of  31,  with  dark  hair,  eyes,  and 
complexion,  a  tall,  slender  figure,  a  fine  Roman 
countenance  full  of  tragic  dignity,  and  features 
rather  strongly  marked.'  The  purity  and  force  of 
her  singing,  and  the  exquisite  quality  of  her  voice, 
were  united  to  an  execution  refined,  polished,  and 
free  fi-om  any  effort  at  display.  From  Paris  she 
went  to  Milan,  where  she  sang  at  La  Scala  to 
crowded  and  enthusiastic  houses.  While  there, 
she  is  said  to  have  given  up  an  evening  engage- 
ment in  order  to  visit  a  poor  insane  musician 
in  the  hospital,  whom  she  soothed  by  singing  to 
him.  She  was  as  kind  and  charitable  as  she 
was  talented.  In  181 7  she  was  engaged  for 
the  King's  Theatre  in  London,  and  made  her 
debut  on  Jan.  11,  in  Cimarosa's  'Penelope.' 
She  was  not  accustomed  to  the  stage,  and  was 
therefore  at  first  nervous  and  embarrassed,  and 
made  little  effect.  A  critic  of  the  day  said,  'Her 
intonation  is  generally  good,  and  her  science 
is  indisputable.  It  is  alike  manifest  in  what  she 
does  and  in  what  she  declines.  She  never  attempts 
in  the  way  of  ornament  what  she  cannot  per- 
fectly execute.  Catalani  takes  her  hearers  by 
storm ;  Camporese  wins  by  more  quiet,  more 
regular,  but  not  less  certain  approaches.'  As 
Susanna  in  'LeNozze  di  Figaro,'  she  established 
her  reputation,  and  this  success  was  followed  by 
another  when  she  played  Donna  Anna  in  'Don 
Giovanni.'  In  May  she  appeared  as  Agnese  in 
Paers  opera  of  that  name,  taken  from  Mrs. 
Opie's  'Father  and  Daughter,'  in  which  she 
delighted  the  critics  by  her  pure  and  tasteful 
singing.  Ambrogetti's  acting,  however,  was  so 
1  strongly  and  painfully  dramatic,  that  the  piece 


302 


GAMPOKESE. 


CANCRIZANS. 


gave  more  pain  than  pleasure,  and  was  soon 
withdrawn.  In  J uly  *  La  Clemenza  di  Tito'  was 
given,  Camporese  sustaining  the  principal  part  of 
Sesto.  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  declares  that  she 
gave  more  effect  to  it  than  Braham  or  Tramez- 
zani.  She  sang  also  at  the  Ancient  Music  and 
Philharmonic  Concerts.  Owing  to  a  mistake,  she 
was  not  re-engaged  for  the  opera,  and  she  con- 
sequently went  to  Milan,  After  singing  there 
and  at  other  places  in  Italy,  she  returned  in 
1 821  to  London,  with  an  engagement  for  the 
season  at  a  salary  of  £1550,  with  extra  allowance 
for  costumes,  permission  to  sing  at  concerts,  and 
her  salary  paid  in  advance.  Meanwhile  she 
was  welcomed  in  all  ranks  of  society,  even  the 
most  exclusive.  She  sang,  March  10,  in  'La 
Gazza  ladra,*  with  the  greatest  dclat;  but, 
thinking  she  could  succeed  in  comic  parts  still 
more  than  in  tragic,  she  attempted  Zerlina,  but 
had  the  good  sense  not  to  repeat  the  experiment. 
In  1822  she  was  again  engaged,  and  appeared  in 
*Le  Nozze  di  Figaro'  and  '  Otello' ;  and  she  sang 
also  at  the  concerts  at  the  Argyll  Rooms.  She 
appeared  again  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  1823, 
bringing  out  at  her  benefit  Rossini's  '  Riccardo  e 
Zoraide,'  in  which  opera  she  took  her  leave 
Aug.  5.  In  1824  she  again  returned;  but  her 
voice  was  worn,  and  she  could  not  bear  com- 
parison with  Malibran  and  Sontag,  then  in  full 
force.  She  prudently  retired  to  Rome ;  but  we 
find  her  singing  in  Rossini's  'Aureliano'  and 
other  operas  at  Ancona,  1827.  Two  years  later 
she  came  once  more  to  London,  and  sang  in 
concerts ;  but  her  voice  was  gone,  and  her  per- 
formance was  not  successful.  She  had  a  public 
benefit  concert,  with  guinea  tickets,  June  12. 
She  was  stiU  living  in  1 860.  [J.  M.] 

CANARIE.  A  now  antiquated  dance,  deriving 
its  name  from  the  Canary  Islands,  whence  it  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced,  in  which  the  two 
partners  danced  alternately  before  each  other 
with  the  gestures  of  savages  (Littre).  It  wa,s 
greatly  in  vogue  at  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 
According  to  some  authorities,  however,  it  is  of 
Spanish  origin.  It  is  a  species  of  gigue,  usually 
in  3-8  or  6-8  time,  the  distinctive  peculiarity  of 
which  is  that  the  first  note  of  the  bar  is  almost 
always  dotted.  In  this  respect  it  resembles  the 
LouRE,  but  differs  from  it  in  its  tempo,  the 
Canarie  being  moderately  quick  and  the  Loure 
somewhat  slow.  It  always  commences  on  the 
fijst  beat  of  the  bar,  and  consists  of  two  short 
periods,  each  repeated.  The  following  example, 
dating  from  the  17th  century,  is  quoted  from 
r.  L.  Schubert's  'Die  Tanzmusik' : — 


A  specimen  may  also  be  found,  in  3-4  time  by 
the  way,  in  the  second  suite  (or  'ordre,'  to  use 
the  composer's  own  term)  of  the  first  book  of 
Couperin's  *  Pieces  de  Clavecin.'  [E.  P.] 


CANCAN,  a  word  applied  by  modem  slang  to 
a  peculiar  way  of  dancing  at  public  balls,  which 
became  popular  in  Paris  shortly  after  1830,  and 
has  even  been  brought  on  the  stage  in  operettas. 
It  is  neither  a  national  dance  nor  a  characteristic 
step  ;  but  a  mere  succession  of  extravagant  jumps, 
with  loose  and  obscene  gestures,  introduced  into 
the  usual  figures  of  the  quadriUe.  According  to 
Francisque  Michel  it  is  called  cancan  either 
because  the  performers  are  imitating  the  walk  of 
a  goose  (or  rather  a  duck — cane),  or  because  they 
quack  like  that  animal.  It  is  more  probably  from 
the  Latin  word  quamquam,  a  fruitful  subject  of 
squabbles  in  the  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
written  indifferently  'cancan'  and  'quanquan.' 
French  people  still  employ  the  expression  '  faire 
un  grand  cancan  de  quelque  chose,'  in  order  to 
say  '  much  ado  about  nothing.'  [G.  C] 

CANCRIZANS.  ^  This  is  a  name  given  to 
canons  by  retrogression,  on  account  of  their  crab- 
liJce  motion — from  the  Latin  word  cancer,  a  crab. 
The  German  term  is  Jirehszveis.  An  example 
(from  A.  Andre's  '  Lehrbuch  der  Tonsetzkunst ') 
will  best  explain  their  construction. 


Sometimes  a  canon  is  both  cancrizans  and  by 
contrary  motion — 'Retrograde-inverse,'  of  which 
we  give  an  example  from  Fetis's  'Traite  du 
Contrepoint  et  de  la  Fugue.' 


i 


The  book  should  be  turned  upside  down  to  show  the 
retrograde  and  inverse  structure.  [F.A.G.O.] 


CANNABICH. 


CANON. 


303 


CANNABICH,  Christian,  a  violin-player, 
composer,  and  renowned  orchestral  conductor, 
was  born  at  Mannheim  in  1731.  He  was  a  pupil 
first  of  his  father,  a  flute-player,  and  afterwards 
of  Stamitz  (see  that  name),  the  celebrated  vio- 
linist at  the  head  of  the  Mannheim  orchestra. 
The  Elector  afterwards  sent  him  to  Italy,  where  he 
studied  composition  under  Jomelli.  In  1765  he 
was  appointed  leader,  in  1775  conductor,  of  the 
orchestra  at  Mannheim;  and  in  1778  followed 
the  Elector  in  the  same  capacity  to  Munich. 
He  died  in  1 798  at  Frankfort,  while  on  a  visit 
to  his  son. 

Cannabich  was  a  very  good  violinist  and  a 
fair  composer,  but  all  contemporary  writers  on 
musical  matters  lay  most  stress  on  his  great 
skill  as  a  leader  and  conductor.  Mozart  in 
many  letters  to  his  father  praises  the  perfect  en- 
semble in  the  orchestral  performances  at  Mann- 
heim, and  speaks  of  Cannabich  as  the  best  con- 
ductor he  ever  met  with.  Burney,  in  his  *  Tour 
through  Germany,'  is  not  less  hearty  in  his  praise, 
and  Schubart,  a  German  writer  of  considerable 
authority,  reports  upon  the  Mannheim  orchestra 
in  the  flowery  style  of  the  period  as  follows : 
*  Here  the  forte  is  a  thunder,  the  crescendo  a  cata- 
ract, the  diminuendo  a  crystal  streamlet  babbling 
away  into  the  far  distance,  the  'piano  a  breeze  of 
spring.' 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  performances 
at  Mannheim  under  Cannabich  enjoyed  a  special 
reputation  for  refinement  and  observance  of  nu- 
ances, somewhat  like  those  of  the  Paris  Conser- 
vatoire concerts  at  a  later  period.  And  although 
it  has  been  suggested  with  much  probability, 
that  Cannabich  had  in  this  respect  derived  his 
experience  from  Italy,  where  his  master  Jomelli 
had  introduced  more  refinement  into 'orchestral 
playing,  he  must  still  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
first  and  most  successful  promoters  of  that 
exact  style  of  performance,  which  alone  can  do 
justice  to  the  works  of  the  great  modem  com- 
posers. He  was  also  a  successful  teacher.  Most 
of  the  violinists  at  Mannheim, — some  of  them 
artists  of  reputation, — were  his  pupils.  That  he 
was  not  only  a  fervent  admirer  of  Mozart's  genius, 
when  it  was  by  no  means  universally  recognised, 
but  also  for  many  years  a  true  and  useful  friend 
to  the  great  master,  is  another  point  which  se- 
cures him  a  lasting  place  in  history,  and  in  the 
hearts  of  all  lovers  of  music. 

He  composed  a  number  of  operas,  which  how- 
ever were  not  particularly  successful.  Some 
ballets  and  a  considerable  number  of  symphonies 
and  quartets  were  much  liked  at  the  time,  but 
appear  to  have  been  of  little  importance. 

His  son  Carl,  bom  at  Mannheim  in  1 769,  was 
also  a  good  violinist  and  composer.  After  having 
for  some  time  conducted  the  opera  at  Frankfort  he 
succeeded  his  father  in  1800  as  conductor  at 
Munich,  and  died  there  in  1806.  His  composi- 
tions are  numerous  but  of  no  importance.  Lists 
of  the  works  of  both  father  and  son  are  given 
by  Fdtis.  [P.  D.] 

CANNICIARI,  Don  Pompeo,  a  composer  of 
the  Roman  school.    The  date  of  his  birth  seems 


to  be  unknown ;  but  we  know  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed Maestro  at  S.  Maria  Maggiore  in  1709, 
and  that  he  retained  that  post  until  his  death, 
which  took  place  Dec.  29,  1 744.  He  amassed  a 
large  musical  library,  and  bequeathed  it  to  the 
Basilica  in  the  service  of  which  his  manhood  had 
been  passed.  This  collection,  along  with  the 
other  contents  of  S.  Maria,  has  been  dispersed, 
and  much  of  it  has  probably  been  lost.  In  the 
Santini  library  there  were  various  pieces  by 
Canniciari : — Three  masses  for  4  and  one  for  5, 
six  for  8  and  four  for  16  voices ;  four  motets 
for  4  and  ten  for  8  voices ;  two  Magnificats  for 
4  voices,  with  organ  accompaniment ;  and  an 
Ave  Maria  for  8  voices.  He  wrote  music  for 
two  and  for  four  choirs.  An  Ave  Maria  for  4 
voices  is  given  by  Proske,  'Musica  Divina,'  ii. 
No.  10.  [E.  H.  P.] 

CANON.  This  is  the  strictest  and  most 
regular  species  of  imitation.  [See  Imitation.] 
It  is  practised  in  music  for  two,  three,  or  more 
parts.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
Kavojv,  a  rule  or  standard.  A  canon,  therefore, 
is  a  composition  written  strictly  according  to 
rule.  The  principle  of  a  canon  is  that  one  voice 
begins  a  melody,  which  melody  is  imitated 
precisely,  note  for  note,  and  (generally)  interval 
for  interval,  by  some  other  voice,  either  at  the 
same  or  a  different  pitch,  beginning  a  few  beats 
later  and  thus  as  it  were  running  after  the 
leader.  For  this  reason  the  parts  have  been 
sometimes  respectively  called  '  Dux'  and  'Comes,' 
or  'Antecedens'  and  *  Consequens.' 

The  following  is  a  simple  example  of  a  canon 
'two  in  one  at  the  octave,'  i.e.  for  two  voices 
an  octave  apart,  and  both  singing  one  and  the 
same  melody. 

A 


Coda 


T 


By  means  of  a  coda  (or  tail- piece)  this  canon 
is  brought  to  a  conclusion.  But  many  canons 
lead  back  to  the  beginning,  and  thus  become 
'circular'  or  'infinite.'  The  following  is  a 
specimen  of  this  kind,  which  is  'two  in  one  at 
the  fifth  below,'  or  'canon  ad  hypodiapente '  :  — 


Sometimes  two  or  more  canons  are  simul- 
taneously woven  into  one  composition.  The 


304 


CANON. 


CANTATA 


following,  for  instance  (from  Travers's  Service, 
1740),  would  be  called  a  canon  'four  in  tv/o.' 


Byrd's  *DiIiges  Dominum,' for  8  voices,  con- 
sists of  4  canons  all  sung  together,  each  voice 
singing  the  melody  of  its  fellow  reversed. 

Often  in  a  quartet  there  may  be  a  canon 
between  two  of  the  voices,  while  the  other  two 
are  free  ;  or  three  voices  may  be  in  canon  and 
the  fourth  part  free.  We  would  quote  as  an 
example  the  admirable  Gloria  Patri  to  Gibbons's 
'  Nunc  dimittis '  in  F,  in  which  the  treble  and 
alto  are  in  canon  while  the  tenor  and  bass  are 
free.  Again,  theie  are  canons  by  inversion, 
diminution,  augmentation,  or  'per  recte  et 
retro,'  cancrizans,  &c.  [See  those  headings.] 
A  modern  one  of  great  ingenuity  by  Weber  exists 
to  the  words  *  Canons  zu  zwey  sind  nicht  drey ' 
(Jahns,  No.  90). 

The  old  writers  often  indicated  canons  by 
monograms,  symbols,  or  other  devices,  instead 
of  writing  them  out  in  full.  Indeed  they  went 
so  far  as  to  write  their  indications  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  a  hand,  or  other  shape,  with  enig- 
matical Latin  inscriptions  to  indicate  the  solu- 
tion. Such  pieces  were  called  '  enigmatical 
canons.'  As  compositions  of  this  nature  can  only 
be  regarded  in  the  light  of  ingenious  puzzles, 
bearing  the  same  relation  to  music  that  a  clever 
riddle  does  to  poetry,  it  will  be  needless  to  give 
examples  here, — let  it  suffice  to  refer  to  those 
v/hich  are  to  be  found  in  Fetis's  admirable 
'Traite  du  Contrepoint  et  de  la  Fugue,'  and  in 
Marpurg's  celebrated  work  on  the  same  subjects. 

The  great  masters  were  fond  of  the  relaxation 
of  these  plays  on  notes.  They  occur  often  in 
Beethoven's  letters,  and  the  well-known  Alle- 
gretto Scherzando  of  his  8th  Symphony  origin- 


I  ated  in  a  canon  to  be  sung  at  Maelzel's  table. 
Kochel's  Catalogue  of  Mozart's  works  contains 
2  3  canons  ;  that  of  Weber  by  Jahns,  8  ;  and  an 
interesting  collection  will  be  found  in  the  Ap- 
pendix to  Spohr's  Autobiography.  In  Bach's 
'  30  Variations'  there  are  9. 

As  popular  examples  of  canons  may  be  named 
Byrd's  well-known  *Non  nobis  Domine,'  which 
is  a  canon  three  in  one,  in  the  fourth  and  eighth 
below,  and  Tallis's  'Canon,'  which  is  a  hymn-tune 
(usually  adapted  to  Ken's  evening  hymn)  in 
which  the  treble  and  tenor  are  in  canon  while 
the  alto  and  bass  are  free.  The  lover  of  cathedral 
music  will  find  specimens  of  almost  every  variety 
of  canon  in  the  service  by  Purcell  in  Bb,  which 
is  a  masterpiece  of  ingenuity  and  skill.  Other 
good  specimens  will  be  found  in  the  Collection 
of  his  Gloria  Patris,  published  by  V.  Novello  for 
the  Purcell  Club.  On  the  tablet  erected  in  the 
cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey  to  the  memory 
of  Dr.  Benjamin  Cooke,  organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  there  is 
engraved  a  canon,  three  in  one,  by  double  aug- 
mentation, which  is  one  of  the  best  extant  speci- 
mens of  that  kind  of  composition.  Another,  by 
Andre,  4  in  one,  by  threefold  augmentation,  is 
given  in  Ouseley's  'Counterpoint,  Canon,  and 
Fugue,'  example  12. 

Canons  are  often  introduced  into  fugues  as  the 
closest  species  of  'stretto'  [see  Fugue  and 
Stketto],  and  are  to  be  found  both  in  vocal  and 
instrumental  compositions.  As  specimens  of  the 
former  we  would  refer,  in  addition  to  the 
references  given  above,  to  many  of  Handel's 
choruses,  especially  to  one  in  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
'To  our  great  God,'  which  contains  a  canon 
by  inversion ;  also  to  Sebastian  Bach's  mag- 
nificent cantata  on  the  chorale  *  Ein'  feste 
Burg.'  As  specimens  of  instrumental  canons  we 
would  refer  to  the  first  movement  of  Mozart's 
sonata  for  pianoforte  and  violin  in  E  minor ;  or 
to  the  minuet  of  Haydn's  symphony  in  the  same 
key. 

The  word  'canon'  is  also  applied,  somewhat 
incorrectly,  to  a  species  of  vocal  composition 
called  a  Hound.  And  thus  we  have  duets,  trios, 
and  quartets  'a  canone,'  especially  in  the  works 
of  modern  Italian  composers,  which  are  not  really 
canons,  but  a  much  freer  and  less  scientific  kind 
of  music.  Good  examples  may  be  quoted  in  Bee- 
thoven's 'Mir  ist'  (Fidelio),  Curschmann's  'Ti 
prego,'  Cherubini's  '  Perfida  Clori/  and  Rossini's 
'  Mi  manca  la  voce.'  [F.  A.  G.  0.] 

CANTATA.  The  idea  of  reviving  the  decla- 
mation of  tragedies  after  the  manner  of  tlie 
ancients  led  to  the  invention  of  recitative,  which 
is  attributed  to  Caccini  and  Giacomo  Peri  about 
1600.  It  was  at  first  confined  to  the  opera,  but 
the  desire  to  adapt  it  to  music  for  the  chamber 
soon  led  to  the  invention  of  the  Cantata,  which 
in  its  earliest  form  was  simply  a  musical  reci- 
tation of  a  short  drama  or  story  in  verse  by 
one  person,  without  action,  accompanied  in  the 
simplest  manner  by  a  single  instrument. 

The  first  change  was  the  introduction  of  an  air, 
repeated  at  different  points  in  the  course  of  the 


CAXTATA. 


CANTICLE. 


305 


recited  narratire ;  tlius  produciBg  a  primitive 
kind  of  rondo. 

The  cantata  in  this  style  was  brought  to  great 
perfection  by  the  Italians  of  the  17th  century. 
The  composer  who  produced  the  most  perfect  ex- 
amples was  Carissimi ;  apparently  they  are  all 
for  a  single  voice,  or  at  most  for  two,  with  ac- 
companiment of  a  single  instrument — lute,  cello, 
clavecin,  etc.  Shortly  after  his  time  the  accom- 
paniment took  a  much  more  elaborate  form,  and 
the  violoncello  parts  to  some  of  Alessandro  Scar- 
latti's cantatas  were  so  difficult  that  it  was  con- 
sidered the  mark  of  a  very  distinguished  artist 
to  be  able  to  play  them.  Carissimi  was  the  first 
to  adopt  this  form  of  composition  for  church  pur- 
poses. His  cantatas,  like  those  of  his  contempo- 
raries, are  only  known  by  the  first  few  words,  so 
that  it  would  answer  no  purpose  to  quote  their 
names.  One  only  is  mentioned  as  having  been 
written  on  a  special  occasion — the  death  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  Among  his  contemporaries  the 
most  famous  cantata  composers  were  Lotti, 
Astorga,  Rossi,  MarceUo,  Gasparini,  and  Ales- 
sandro Scarlatti,  whose  cantatas  were  extra- 
ordinarily numerous.  One  by  Cesti,  '  0  cara 
liberta,'  is  said  to  have  been  especially  famous. 
Specimens  by  most  of  these  composers  are  quoted 
in  Bumey's  History,  and  a  collection  of  twenty-six 
by  Carissimi  was  published  in  London  at  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  century,  apparently  after  Bumey  had 
finished  his  work.  Twenty-six  by  MarceUo  for 
different  voices  with  accompaniment  of  different 
instruments  have  also  been  published,  and  a  great 
number  for  soprano  and  contralto  with  clavecin 
accompaniment . 

At  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  cantatas 
of  more  extended  form  and  various  movements 
were  written  by  Domenico  Scarlatti  and  by 
Pergolesi.  The  most  famous  was  the  'Orfeo 
ed  Euridice,'  which  the  latter  composed  in  his 
last  illness.  Handel  also  wrote  cantatas  after 
the  same  fashion,  for  single  voices,  both  with 
accompaniments  of  strings  and  oboes,  and  with 
thorough  bass  for  clavier,  and  many  of  these 
have  been  published.  But  they  are  not  well 
known;  and  since  his  time  this  form  of  cantata 
has  quite  fallen  into  disuse,  and  has  gradually 
changed  into  the  concert-aria,  of  which  Mozart 
has  left  many  fine  examples,  and  of  which 
Beethoven's  'Ah,  perfido!'  and  Mendelssohn's 
'  Infelice,'  are  well-known  instances.  The  name 
Cantata  is  given  to  a  composition  by  Mozart 
for  three  solo  voices,  chorus  and  orchestra  in 
three  movements,  composed  in  or  about  1783 
(Kochel,  No.  429). 

The  Church-Cantata  is  a  much  more  extended 
kind  of  composition,  and  of  these  Handel  also 
wrote  some,  mostly  in  his  younger  days,  and 
at  present  little  known  (see  Chrysander's  Han- 
del, i).  The  greatest  and  most  valuable  ex- 
amples are  the  Kirchen-cantaten  of  Sebastian 
Bach.  The  number  which  he  wrote  is  quite 
astonishing — a  hundred  have  been  published  by 
the  Bach-Gesellschaft  alone,  up  to  1876,  and 
more  than  as  many  more  remain  in  MS.  A  list 
of  the  whole— 232  in  all— will  be  found  in  Miss 


Kay-Shuttleworth's  sketch  of  his  life.   They  are 
for  four  voices  and  full  orchestra,  and  consist  of 
from  4  to  7  movements — usually  an  opening 
chorus  founded  on  a  chorale-melody,  recitatives, 
airs,  and  duets,  and  winding  up  with  a  chorale, 
often  the  same  which  is  employed  in  the  opening, 
in  plain  four-part  harmony.   Many  of  these,  such 
as  '  Christ  lag  inTodesbanden,'  or '  Ein'  feste  Burg,' 
j  are  marvels  of  contrapuntal  skill,  and  others,  such 
I  as  '  Ich  hatte  viel  Bekiimmemiss,'  are  of  great 
beauty  and  dignity.    The  supposition  is  that 
they  were  intended  for  use  as  anthems  in  the 
Sunday  and  Feast-day  services.  Mendelssohn 
adopted  the  same  form  in  more  than  one  of  his 
I  early  works,  as  in  Op.  23,  No.  i,  and  Op.  39, 
j  No.  3,  which  are  written  on  chorales,  and  corre- 
;  spond  closely  with  Bach's  cantatas,  though  not 
so  entitled. 

In  modem  times  the  word  Cantata  is  used  to 
supply  an  obvious  want.    The  idea  as  well  as 
the  use  of  '  Cantate  di  Camera'  having  quite 
I  gone  out  of  fashion,  the  term  is  applied  to  choral 
works  of  some  dimensions — either  sacred  and  in 
j  the  manner  of  an  oratorio,  but  too  short  to  be 
!  dignified  vrith  that  title  ;  or  secular,  as  a  lyric 
drama  or  story  adapted  to  music,  but  not  in- 
j  tended  to  be  acted.    Specimens  of  the  former 
j  kind  are  Yery  numerous.    Of  the  latter  we  may 
mention  Bennett's  'May  Queen'  and  Brahms's 
I  'Einaldo.'  [C.H.H.P.] 

I     CAXTATE  DOMINO  is  the  name  by  which 
the  98th  Psalm  is  known  in  its  place  as  an  alter- 
native to  the  Magnificat  in  the  evening  service 
of  the  Anglican  church.    The  title  is  formed  of 
the  first  words  of  the  Vulgate  version,  according 
to  the  practice  of  the  Anglican  Psalter.  The  1 7th 
canon  of  the  council  of  Laodicea  appointed  lessons 
and  psalms  to  be  read  alternately  ;  and  on  this 
1  principle  the  '  Cantate '  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
I  'responsory  psalm'  coming  between  the  lessons. 
!  It  has  no  history  attached  to  it  in  the  position  it 
;  now  occupies,  as  it  was  not  used  specially  in  the 
I  ancient  church.    It  was  not  in  the  Prayer-Book 
i  of  Cranmer,  which  was  published  in  1549, 
I  consequently  does  not    appear  in  Marbeck's 
'  'Book  of  Common  Praier  Noted,'  published  in 
!  1550.    But  it  was  introduced  in  the  revision  of 
'  I55'2>  probably  to  obviate  the  recurrence  of  the 
;  Magnificat  when  that  canticle  happened  to  be  in 

the  second  lesson  of  the  day. 
j     It  appears  not  to  have  been  a  favourite  with 
musicians.    Indeed  the  Magnificat  is  in  every 
I  way  preferable,  as  regards  both  the  service  and 
j  the  opportunities  the  words  seem  to  offer  to  the 
I  composer.   '  Cantate  Services '  are  therefore  rare, 
and  in  the  most  famous  collections  of  our  church 
music  there  are  very  few  of  them.    In  Barnard 
there  is  not  one  ;  in  Boyce  only  three,  viz.  two 
by  Blow  and  one  by  Purcell ;  and  in  Arnold  one 
by  Aldrich  and  one  by  King.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

CANTICLE  is  the  name  now  generally  given 
to  certain  hymns  taken  from  the  Bible,  and  sung 
in  the  services  of  the  different  churches  of  Chris- 
tendom :  such  as  the  Benedictus,  the  Benedicite, 
the  Magnificat,  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis.    In  the 


306 


CANTICLE. 


CAPO  TASTO. 


Prayer-Book  the  word  is  used  for  the  Benedicite 
only.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  can- 
ticum,  the  term  applied  in  the  Vulgate  to  the 
Song  of  Moses,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  many  of  the 
psalms,  etc.,  etc.  In  the  Calendar  of  the  Pi  ayer- 
Book  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  entitled  'The  Can- 
ticles,' but  in  common  parlance  the  above  is  the 
meaning  of  the  term.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CANTO  (Lat.  Cantus;  Fr.  Chant).  With  the 
Italians  this  word  has  a  great  variety  of  accepta- 
tions ;  e.  g.  music,  instrumental  as  well  as  vocal ; 
the  motif,  subject  or  leading  idea,  of  a  musical 
composition  ;  the  art  and  practice  of  singing ;  a 
section  of  a  poem,  etc.,  etc.  Canto  fermo  or 
cantus  firmus  is  the  tune  or  melody  of  an  ancient 
hymn  on  which  a  motet  is  founded,  and  which 
remains  firm  to  its  original  shape  while  the  parts 
around  it  are  varying  with  the  counterpoint. 
Technically  canto  is  more  generally  understood 
to  represent  that  part  of  a  concerted  piece  to 
which  the  melody  is  assigned.  With  the  old 
masters  this  was,  as  a  rule,  the  Tenor;  with  the 
modern  it  is  almost  always  the  Soprano.  Thence 
canto  (voice  as  well  as  part)  has  become  syno- 
nymous with  soprano.    The  canto  clef  is  the  C 

clef  on  the  first  line —    zlUI      •  [J.H.] 

CANTO  FERMO,  or  CANTUS  FIRMUS, 
the  plain  song — as  distinguished  from  Canto 
figurato,  the  florid  or  figured  song — is  the  simple 
imadorned  melody  of  the  ancient  hymns  and 
chants  of  the  church.  Such  tunes  are  often  em- 
ployed by  the  great  church  composers  of  the 
Roman  church  as  the  basis  of  their  compositions. 
Thus  in  Palestrina's  masses  *  Sterna  Christi 
munera,'  and  '  Assumpta  est  Maria,'  each  move- 
ment begins  with  the  first  phrase  of  the  hymn. 
His  motet '  Beatus  Laurentius'  is  still  more  com- 
pletely founded  on  the  canto  fermo,  since  the 
tune  is  sung  throughout  the  piece  in  the  first  tenor, 
while  the  other  four  parts  are  moving  in  counter- 
point above  and  below  it — a  counterpoint  more 
or  less  closely  modelled  on  the  tune.  In  such 
cases  the  tune  is  usually  marked  in  the  score  as 
C.  F.  (canto  fermo).  Bach  treats  his  choral- 
melodies  in  the  same  way  (see  his  cantata  '  Ein' 
feste  Burg';  his  organ  'Vorspiele'  on  'Kyrie'; 
'Christe';  'Kyrie';  on  'Allein  Gott';  'Dies 
sind  die  heiligen' ;  *  Vater  unser,'  etc.,  etc.),  and  in 
so  doing  styles  them  'canti  fermi.'  In  English  the 
term  is  often  translated  by  'Plain-chant.'  [G.] 

CANTORIS.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
features  of  the  singing  in  the  services  of  the 
Christian  churches  is  its  antiphonal  character; 
that  is,  the  manner  in  which  the  singers  on  either 
side  of  the  church  answer  one  another  in  the 
chants  or  in  passages  of  the  music.  In  order  to 
distinguish  the  sides  from  one  another  in  English 
cathedrals  the  words  Decani  and  Cantoris  are 
used,  the  former  being  the  side  of  the  dean's  stall 
on  the  south  or  right-hand  side  when  facing  the 
altar,  and  the  latter  that  of  the  cantor  or  precentor 
on  the  north  or  left-hand  side.         [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

CANZONA  (Ital.)    The  name  of  a  particular 


variety  of  lyric  poetry  in  the  Italian  style,  and 
of  Proven9al  origin,  which  closely  resembled  the 
madrigal.      Musically,   the    term    is  applied 

(1)  to  the  setting  to  music  of  the  words  of  a 
canzona,  whether  for  one  or  more  voices,  the  only 
difference  between  the  canzona  and  the  madrigal 
being  that  the  former  was  less  strict  in  style. 

(2)  The  name  was  also  given  to  an  instrumental 
piece  written  in  the  style  of  a  madrigal.  An 
example  of  such  a  canzona,  by  Sebastian  Bach, 
may  be  found  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Griepen- 
kerl's  edition  of  his  organ  works.  (3)  It  appears 
to  have  been  used  as  an  equivalent  for  sonata  for 
a  piece  of  several  movements  ;  and  also  as  a  mark 
of  time,  in  place  of  Allegro  (Brossard).  [E.P.] 

CANZONET  (in  Italian  Canzonetta)  originally 
meant  a  smaller  form  of  canzona.  Morley  in 
1597  published  'Canzonets  or  little  short  songs 
to  four  voices ;  selected  out  of  the  best  and 
approved  Italian  authors.'  Afterwards  the  word 
was  used  for  vocal  soli  of  some  length  in  more 
than  one  movement ;  nowadays  it  is  applied  to 
short  songs,  generally  of  a  light  and  airy  cha- 
racter. Haydn  has  left  us  some  admirable 
canzonets,  grave  and  gay ;  for  example,  '  She 
never  told  her  love,'  and  '  My  mother  bids  me 
bind  my  hair.'  [W.  H. C] 

CAPELLA  (Ital.  a  chapel).  Di  capella,  or 
a  capella,  mean  in  a  church-like  fashion,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  Di  camera,  or  Di  teatro,  in  the 
fashion  of  the  chamber  or  the  theatre.  [Cha- 
PELLE.]  The  same  word  in  German,  Capelle, 
means  the  private  band  of  a  court  or  church, 
or  even  a  dance-orchestra,  and  Capellmeister 
the  conductor  of  the  same.    [Kapelle.]  [G.] 

CAPORALE,  Andrea,  an  Italian  cello-player 
who  arrived  in  London  in  1735,  and  excited 
much  attention.  In  1740  he  joined  Handel's 
opera-band,  and  died  in  London  in  or  about 
1756.  He  was  more  famous  for  tone  and  ex- 
pression than  for  execution.  [G.] 

CAPO  TASTO  (Ital.,  from  Capo,  head,  and 
taste,  touch,  or  tie  ;  Germ.  Capotaster,  sometimes 
Capo  cf  astro).  In  Italian  the  nut  of  a  lute  or 
guitar,  but  also  the  general  name  of  a  contrivance 
for  shortening  the  vibratory  lengths  of  strings, 
thus  forming  a  second  nut,  expressed  in  French 
by  'barre,'  to  facilitate  change  of  key.  The 
construction  of  a  capo  tasto  varies  according  to 
the  stringing  and  shape  of  the  neck  of  the 
instrument  it  is  to  be  applied  to,  but  it  may 
be  described  as  a  narrow  rail  of  hard  wood, 
metal,  or  ivory,  clothed  with  leather  or  cloth, 
and  often  fastened  by  a  screw  upon  the  fret 
from  which  it  is  intended  to  mark  off  the  new 
length  of  the  strings.  There  are  other  but  less 
simple  ways  of  attaching  it.  The  technical 
advantage  of  using  a  capo  tasto  is  that  higher 
shifts  can  be  more  easily  obtained ;  and  the  use  of 
open  strings,  upon  which  the  possibility  of  chords 
often  depends,  is  facilitated  in  a  higher  compass 
than  that  natural  to  the  instrument.  How  much 
transposition  may  be  facilitated  by  it  is  thus 
shown  by  Herr  Max  Albert  in  Mendel's  Lexicon. 


CAPO  TASTO. 


CARADOEI.  ALLAN.  307 


Take  a  guitar  the  strings  of  which  are  tuned  in 
real  notes 


the  basis  of  sharp  keys :  with  a  capo  tasto  on 
the  first  semitone  fret  we  have 


the  basis  of  flat  keys,  the  fingering  remaining 
the  same.  With  bow  instruments  the  capo  tasto 
is  no  longer  used,  but  it  was  formerly  with  those 
having  frets  as  the  viol  da  gamba.  The  use 
of  the  thumb  as  a  bridge  to  the  violoncello 
serves  as  a  capo  tasto,  as  also,  in  principle,  the 
pedal  action  of  the  harp.  [A.  J.  H.] 

CAPRICCIETTO  (Ital.,  dimin.  of  capriccio). 
A  Capriccio,  on  a  small  scale,  and  of  no  great 
development.  [^-P-] 

CAPRICCIO  (Ital. ;  Fr.  caprice-),    (i)  This 
name  was  originally  given,  according  to  IMar- 
purg,  to   pieces   written  for  the  harpsichord 
in  a  fugued  st3'le,  though  not  strict  fugues.  It 
was  also  sometimes  applied  to  actual  fugues, 
when  written  upon  a  lively  subject ;  and  the 
composition  was  consequently  for  the  most  part 
in  quick  notes.    Examples  of  this  kind  of  ca- 
priccio can  be  found  in  Handel's  '  Third  set  of  | 
Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord'  (German  Handel 
Society's  edition,  pai't  2),  and  in  the  second  of  | 
Bach's  '  Six  Partitas.'    Bach  also  uses  the  word  i 
as  s}Tionymous  with  'fantasia,'  i.e.  a  piece  in  a 
free  form,  in  his  '  Capriccio  on  the  departure  of 
a  beloved  brother.'    (2)  In  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  the  term  was  applied  to  exercises 
for  stringed  instruments,  such  as  would  now  be 
called  '  etudes,'  in  which  one  definite  figure  was 
carried  through  the  composition.   (3)  In  the  pre-  , 
sent  d:\y  the  word  Caprice  is  usually  employed, 
and  the  name  is  applied  to  a  piece  of  music  con-  ! 
structed  either  on  original  subjects,   and  fre-  I 
quently  in  a  modified  sonata-  or  rondo-form  (as  I 
in  Mendelssohn's  'Three  Caprices,'  op.  33,  or  j 
Sterndale  Beimett's  Caprice  in  E),  or  to  a  bril-  i 
liant  transcription  of  one  or  more  subjects  by 
other  composers.    As  an  example  of  the  latter 
kind  may  be  named  Heller's  'Caprice  brillant 
sur  la  Truite  de  Schubert.'   Although,  as  already 
mentioned,  the  sonata-  or  rondo-form  is  frequently 
adopted  for  the  caprice,  there  is,  as  implied  by  the 
name,  no  limitation  in  this  respect,  the  composer 
being  at  liberty  to  follow  his  inclinations,    [E,  P.] 

CAPULETTI  ED  I  MOXTECCHI,  I,  an 
Italian  opera  in  3  acts,  taken  from  Romeo  and 
Juliet ;  Ubretto  by  Romani,  music  by  Bellini, 
produced  at  Venice  March  12,  iS.:?o,  at  Paris 
Jan.  10,  1S33.  ^^"^  London  at  the  King  s 
The;\tre  July  20,  1S33.  A  fourth  act  was  added 
by  Vaccai,  and  is  usually  performed.  [G.] 

CARACCIO,  GioVAXXT,  was  bom  at  Bergamo  ' 
about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  centur}-.    He  was 


at  first  a  singer  in  the  private  choir  of  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria.  Having  quitted  this  service 
he  spent  some  years  at  Rome  and  at  Venice,  and 
then  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  was 
appointed  Maestro  at  the  cathedral.  He  held 
this  post  for  twenty-three  years,  when  he  mi- 
grated to  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome,  re- 
maining there  untU.  his  death  in  1626.  He  was 
one  of  those  fourteen  composers  of  diflferent 
nations  who  showed  their  appreciation  of  Pales- 
trina's  genius  by  dedicating  to  him  a  volume  of 
Psalms  to  which  each  had  contributed.  [Pales- 
TRiNA.]  His  published  works  are  : — Magnificat 
omnitonmn,  pars  i ;  Venice  1581.  Magnificat 
omnitonum,  pars  2  ;  Venice  1582.  Madrigali  a 
5  voci,  lib.  I  ;  Venice  1583.  Musica  a  5  voci 
da  sonare  ;  id.  1585.  Dialogo  k  7  voci  nel,  lib.  i, 
di  Madrigali  di  Claudio  da  Correggio ;  Milan 
1588.  Madrigali  a  5  voci,  lib.  2  ;  Venice  1589. 
Salmi  di  cofiipieta  con  le  antifone  della  Vergine, 
ed  otto  falsi  bordoni  a  5  voci;  V^enice  1591. 
Salmi  a  cinque  per  tutti  i  vesperi  dell'  anno,  con 
alcuni  hymni,  mottetti,  e  falsi  bordoni  accom- 
modati  ancora  a  voci  di  donne ;  Venice  1593. 
Madrigali  a  5  voci,  lib.  4;  Venice  1594.  Sahni 
a  cinque;  Venice  1594.  Madrigali  a  5  voci, 
lib.  5;  Venice  1597.  Canzoni  francesci  a  quat- 
tro;  Venice  1597.  Canzonette  a  tre ;  Venice 
1598.  Madi-igali  a  5  voci,  lib.  6;  Venice  1599. 
Messe  per  i  defonti  a  quattro  e  cinque,  con  mo- 
tetti ;  Milan  1611. 

Bergameno  has  inserted  some  of  Caraccio's 
work  in  his  '  Parnassus  musicus  Eerdinandseus,' 
2-5  vocum  ;  Venice  1615.  [E.H.P.] 

CARADORI -ALLAN,  Maria  CaterixX 
RosALBiXA,  nee  de  Munck,  was  bom  in  1800  in 
the  Ca^a  Palatina  at  Milan.  Her  father,  the 
Baron  de  Munck,  was  an  Alsacian,  and  had  been 
a  colonel  in  the  French  army.  Mile.  Munck's 
musical  education  was  completed  entirely  by  her 
mother,  without  assistance.  Her  father's  death 
obliged  her  to  avail  herself  of  her  gifts  in  order 
to  support  herself.  Ha%-ing  attempted  the  stage 
in  the  course  of  a  tour  through  France  and  part 
of  Germany,  she  took  her  mother's  family  name 
of  Caradori,  and  accepted  an  engagement  in 
London  in  1S22.  She  made  her  debut  on  Jan. 
12  at  the  King's  Theatre  as  Cherubino.  'It 
may  be  obsei-ved,'  says  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe, 
'  as  an  odd  coincidence  that  Pasta,  Vestris,  and 
Caradori  all  have  acted  the  Page  in  Le  Nozze 
di  Figaro,  and  none  more  successfully  than  the 
last,  who  by  accident,  not  choice,  made  her  debut 
in  that  part ;  and  it  proved  fortunate  for  her,  as 
her  chamiing  manner  of  performing  it  laid  the 
foundation  of  her  subsequent  favour.'  She  sang 
afterwards  in  '  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,'  '  Elisa  e 
Claudio,'  and  '  Corra^lino '  as  prima  donna  ;  and 
in  1S24,  as  seconda  donna,  in  *I1  Fanatico,'  with 
Catalan!.  She  continued  engaged  through  1S23 
and  24  ;  and  in  the  latter  year  took  her  benefit 
in  '  Don  Giovanni.'  In  25  she  sang  the  second 
part  in  '  L' Adelina '  of  Generali,  with  Mad. 
Ronzi  de  Begnis  as  prima  donna,  showing 
thereby  her  great  good  nature.  The  same  year, 
she  plaved  Fatima  in  Rossini's  '  Pietro  Teremita,' 

X  2 


308  CARADORI- ALLAN". 


CARESTINI. 


and  chose  *  Cosi  fan  tutte'  for  her  benefit ;  and 
at  Velluti's  ddbut  in  '  II  crociato,'  Mme.  Caradori 
sang  the  first  woman's  part,  distinguishing  herself 
particularly  in  the  duet  'II  tenero  afietto'  with 
the  musico.  In  1826,  though  still  belonging  to 
the  company,  she  was  removed  for  the  purpose 
of  introducing  Bouini,  who  was  better  suited 
as  a  foil  for  Velluti ;  and  Caradori,  when  she 
re-appeared  in  *La  Donna  del  Lago,'  was  re- 
ceived with  joy  by  the  public.  She  sang  also 
in  the  *  Barbiere '  and  in  '  Romeo  e  Giulietta ; ' 
and  took  her  benefit  in  '  Le  Nozze,'  as  Susanna. 

Pasta  ha^^ng  returned  to  London,  and  chosen 
Mayer's  '  Medea '  for  her  benefit,  Caradori  acted 
and  sang  most  charmingly  the  tender  and  gentle 
part  of  Creusa.    There  is  a  good  portrait  of  her 
in  this  character  by  J.  Hayter,  lithographed  by 
Hullmandel.    Her  voice,  though  not  very  power- 
ful, was  exceedingly  sweet  and  flexible,  and  her 
style  almost  faultless.    She  had  much  knowledge 
of  music,  and  sang  with  great  delicacy  and  ex- 
pression.    In  a  room  she  was  perfect.  Her 
appearance  was   interesting,  her   countenance  1 
very  agreeable,  and  her  manner  modest  and 
unassuming  :   she  always  pleased,  though  she  ' 
never  astonished,  her  audience.    Her  salary  rose 
gradually  from  £300  in  1S22  to  £1200  in  27.  | 
In  34.  happening  to  be  again  in  England,  she  | 
earned  on  the  operas  with  tolerable  success  until  j 
the  arrival  of  the  expected  prima  donna,  Giulia  | 
Grisi.    But  it  was  in  concerts  that  she  now  | 
achieved  her  greatest  success,  and  first  of  all  in 
the  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in  this  same 
year,  in  which  she  sang  with  her  usual  excellence, 
and  was  well  heard,  though  it  had  been  feared 
that  her  voice  was  not  powerful  enough  for  so  large 
a  space.    Her  'With  verdure  clad'  appeared  to 
Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  to  be  '  decidedly  the  best 
solo  performance  of  the  whole  concert.'  She 
took  part  also  in  the  performance  of  the  '  Mount 
of  Olives,'  'in  which  it  need  not  be  said  she  sang  ! 
well,'  and  gave  equally  well  'Rejoice  greatly,'  i 
which,  though  a  brilliant  song,  did  not  show  | 
her  to  the  best  advantage.    During  the  carnival 
of  1830  she  sang  with  success  at  Venice,  but 
after  1835        remained  in  England,  singing  at 
festivals  and  concerts.     She  sang  the  soprano 
part  in  'Elijah'  at  Birmingham,  Aug.  26,  1846, 
when  Mendelssohn's  judgment  of  her  performance 
was  not  so  favourable  as  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe's 
(Letters,  Aug.  51).    She  died  on  Sunday,  Oct. 
15,  1865.  [J.M.] 

CARAFA,  MiCHELE,  bom  at  Naples  Nov.  28, 
1785  ;  studied  under  Fazzi,  Fenaroli,  and  Ruggi, 
and  in  Paris  under  Cherubini.  His  first  opera 
was  '  II  Fantasma.'  So  little  however  did  Carafa 
feel  his  vocation  that  he  entered  the  army,  and 
became  an  officer  in  the  bodyguard  of  Murat, 
then  king  of  Naples.  Like  Henri  Beyle  (Sten- 
dhal) he  made  the  campaign  of  Russia  in  181 2, 
and  was  decorated  by  Napoleon.  After  the  Em- 
peror's fall  he  left  the  army  and  embraced  music 
as  his  profession.  His  first  opera,  'H  vascello 
di  occidente,'  was  produced  at  Naples  in  1814, 
and  was  followed  by  a  large  number  of  others. 
*Gabriele'  (18 18),  'Ifigenia,'  'Berenice,'  etc., 


etc.,  were  produced  in  Italy,  but  he  was  equally 
successful  in  Vienna  and  in  Paris.  In  the  lat- 
ter city  he  made  his  debut  with  'Le  Solitaire,' 
Aug.  17,  1822,  which  long  remained  extraor- 
dinarily popular.  In  27  he  took  up  his  resid- 
ence in  Paris,  and  brought  out  'La  Violette,' 
'La  fiancee  de  Lammermoor,'  '  Masaniello'  (Dec. 
27,  1827,  evidently  written  in  competition  with 
Auber's  'Muette,'  Feb.  29,  1828),  'La  prison 
d'Edimbourg,'  etc.  These  operas,  and  many 
others,  were  very  popular,  notwithstanding  the 
immense  counter  attractions  of  Auber  and  Ros- 
sini. This  they  owe  more  to  an  easy  flow  of 
melody  and  natural  unaffected  instrumentation 
than  to  any  original  character,  and  in  conse- 
quence they  have  now  fallen  into  oblivion.  As 
a  composer  for  the  pianoforte  Carafa  was  almost 
equally  the  fashion,  and  at  Cherubini's  instance 
he  was  made  Professor  of  Composition  in  the 
Conservatoire  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Paris, 
a  post  which  he  was  stiU  filling  in  1876.  In 
1837  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acaddmie 
des  beaux  arts. 

The  'Dictionnairelyrique'  ofM.  Felix  Clement 
mentions  no  less  than  35  of  his  operas.  [G,] 

CARDARELLI,  Signoka,  a  singer  who  per- 
formed the  part  of  Marina  in  Sacchini's  '  L'Isola 
d'amore'  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  1776.  [J.  M.] 

CARDON,  Louis,  a  harpist  of  great  repute, 
of  Italian  parentage,  but  born  in  Paris  1747. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  migrated 
to  Russia,  where  he  died  in  1805.  His  'Art  de 
jouer  la  harpe'  was  for  long  esteemed.  His 
brother  Pierre,  born  1 751  in  Paris,  was  a  singer 
and  cello  player,  [M.C.C.] 

CARDOSO,  Manuel,  a  Spanish  priest,  bom 
at  Fronteira  1569;  entered  the  Carmelite  order 
at  Lisbon  1588,  and  became  its  sub-prior  and 
chapel-master,  and  a  great  favourite  of  King- 
John  IV.  His  works  are  exclusively  for  the 
ehurch.  Several  are  said  to  have  been  pub- 
lished,, but  only  one  is  quoted,  'Livro  .  .  .  na  Se- 
mana  Santa,'  Lisbon  1648.  Two  motets  are 
given  by  Proske  in  the  'Musica  Divina,'  ii. 
Nos.  5and,33.  [M.C.C.] 

CARES  AN"  A,  Cristoforo,  an  Italian  musi- 
cian of  note,  born  at  Tarentum  1655,  and  settled 
in  Naples  in  1680.  He  published  motets,  hymns, 
and  duetti  da  camera,  and  left  many  MSS.  in 
the  library  at  Naples.  But  his  most  famous 
work  is  his  'Solfeggi'  (Naples,  1680),  of  which 
Choron  published  a  new  edition  for  use  in  the 
Conservatoire.  [M.  C.  C] 

CARESTINI,  Giovanni,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Italian  singers,  was  born  at  Monte  Filatrano, 
Ancona,  about  1705.  At  the  age  of  12  he  went 
to  Milan,  where  he  gained  the  protection  of  the 
Cusani  family,  in  gratitude  to  whom  he  assumed 
the  name  of  Cusanino.  His  voice,  at  first  a 
powerful  clear  soprano,  afterwards  changed  to 
the  fullest,  finest,  and  deepest  contralto  ever, 
perhaps,  heard.  His  first  appearance  was  at 
Rome  1 72 1,  in  the  female  part  of  Costanza  in 
Buononcini's  'Griselda.'  In  1723  he  sang  at 
Prague,  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  VI  as  King 


CARESTINI. 


CAREY. 


309 


of  Bohemia.  The  following  year  he  was  at 
Mantua,  and  in  1725  sang  for  the  first  time  at 
Venice  in  the  'Seleuco'  of  Zuccari,  and  in  1726 
with  Farinelli  and  Paita.  In  1728  and  30  he 
visited  Rome,  singing  in  Vinci's  'Alessandro 
neir  Indie'  and  'Artaserse.'  Owen  Swiny, 
happening  to  be  in  Italy  with  Lord  Boyne  and 
Mr.  Walpole,  wrote  to  Colman  from  Bologna,  on 
July  12,  1730,  mentioning  letters  which  he  had 
received  from  Handel,  and  goes  on  to  say :  *  I 
find  that  Senesino  or  Carestini  are  desired  at 
1 200  guineas  each,  if  they  are  to  be  had.  I  am 
sure  that  Carestini  is  engaged  at  Milan,  and  has 
been  so  for  many  months  past,'  Senesino  was 
engaged  for  London  on  this  occasion  ;  but  three 
years  later  Handel  was  more  fortunate,  and 
Carestini  made  his  debut  here  on  Dec.  4,  1733, 
in  'Cajus  Fabricius,'  a  pasticcio ;  and  his  magni- 
ficent voice  and  style  enabled  Handel  to  with- 
stand the  opposition,  headed  by  Farinelli,  at  the 
other  house.  In  34  he  sang  in  'Ariadne,' '  Pastor 
Fido,'  '  Parnasso  in  Festa,'  '  Otho,'  'Terpsichore,' 
'Deborah,'  and  'Athaliah';  and  the  next  season 
in  'Ariodante'  and  'Alcina.'  In  the  cast  of 
the  latter  his  name  is  spelt  Carestino,  as  it  is  also 
by  Colman.  In  '  Alcina'  occurs  the  beautiful 
song  'Verdi  prati,'  which  he  sent  back  to  the 
composer  as  not  suited  to  him.  Handel  on  this 
became  furious,  ran  to  the  house  of  the  singer, 
and  addressed  to  him  the  following  harangue  : 
*  You  tog  !  don't  I  know  petter  as  yourseluf  vaat 
es  pest  for  you  to  sing  ?  If  you  vill  not  sing  all 
de  song  vaat  I  give  you,  I  will  not  pay  you  ein 
stiver'  (Burney).  In  1 735  Carestini  left  England 
for  Venice,  and  for  twenty  years  after  continued 
to  enjoy  the  highest  reputation  on  the  continent, 
singing  at  Berlin  in  1750,  54,  and  55.  In  55  he 
was  engaged  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained 
till  58,  when  he  quitted  the  stage,  to  retire  to 
his  native  country  and  enjoy  a  well-earned 
repose.  Shortly  after,  he  died.  He  was  held 
in  the  higliest  esteem  by  Handel,  Hasse,  and 
other  composers,  in  whose  works  he  had  sung. 
Quantz  says  :  '  he  had  one  of  the  strongest  and 
most  beautiful  contralto  voices,  which  extended 
from  D  (in  the  F  clef)  to  G  above  the  treble 
clef.  He  was  also  extremely  perfect  in  passages 
which  he  executed  with  the  chest-voice,  according 
to  the  principles  of  the  school  of  Bernacchi,  and 
after  the  manner  of  Farinelli :  in  his  ornaments 
he  was  bold  and  felicitous.  He  was  also  a  very 
good  actor ;  and  his  person  was  tall,  handsome, 
and  commanding.  There  is  a  good  mezzotint 
of  him  by  J.  Faber,  engraved  in  1735  from  a 
picture  by  George  Knapton,  of  which  a  fine 
impression  is  now  rare.  [J.  M.] 

CAREY,  Hexry,  a  reputed  natural  son  of 
George  Savile,  Marquis  of  Halifax,  was  a  popular 
composer  and  dramatist  in  the  first  half  of  the  I  Sth 
century.  His  first  music-master  was  a  German 
named  Olaus  Westeinson  Linnert,  and  he  subse- 
quently received  instruction  fi-om  Roseingrave 
and  Geminiani.  Although  possessed  of  ready 
invention  as  a  melodist,  yet,  his  acquaintance 
with  the  science  of  his  art  being  but  limited, 
he  had  to  gain  a  subsistence  chiefly  by  teach- 


ing. In  1 71 5  he  wrote  and  composed  the  music 
for  the  farce  of  'The  Contrivances;  or.  More 
Ways  than  One,'  which  was  produced  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre  on  August  9  in  that  year  with 
much  success.  The  character  of  Arethusa  in 
this  piece  was  long  the  probationary  part  for 
female  singers  before  they  ventured  on  parts 
of  more  importance.  His  next  production  was 
a  farce  called  '  Hanging  and  Marriage ;  or.  The 
Dead  Man's  Wedding,'  performed  March  15, 
1722^  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre.  In  28 
he  set  to  music  the  songs  in  Vanbrugh  and 
Cibber's  comedy  'The  Provoked  Husband.'  He 
next  wrote  the  operas  of  '  Amelia '  (the  music 
by  Lampe),  which  was  performed  at  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre  in  the  summer  of  1732,  and 
'Teraminta,'  which  was  set  to  music  by  John 
Christopher  Smith  and  produced  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  Theatre  on  Nov.  20,  1732.  Each 
of  these  pieces  was  described  as  '  a  New  English 
Opera  after  the  Italian  manner.'  On  Dec.  2, 
32,  Carey  produced  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
a  ballad  opera  called  'Betty;  or,  The  Country 
Bumpkins,'  which  met  with  a  cold  reception.  In 
33  he  wrote  and  composed  a  musical  enter- 
tainment called  '  Cephalus  and  Procris, '  which 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  with  a 
pantomime  interlude  entitled  '  Harlequin  Volgi.' 
On  Feb.  22, 1734,  he  produced  at  the  Haymarket 
Theatre  '  The  most  Tragical  Tragedy  that  ever 
was  Tragedized  by  any  Company  of  Tragedians, 
called,  Chrononhotonthologos ' ;  a  highly  humorous 
burlesque  of  the  bombast  and  fustian  prevalent 
among  some  of  the  dramatists  of  the  day,  and 
especially  of  their  partialit}'-  for  tautologous  ex- 
pressions. This  he  also  described  as  his  '  Tragedy 
of  half  an  act.'  In  1735  produced  a  ballad- 
opera  entitled  '  A  Wonder ;  or,  the  Honest 
Yorkshireman,'  performed  by  the  Covent  Garden 
company  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre  for  one 
niglit  only,  July  11,  1735,  but  which,  when 
transferred  to  the  Haymarket  and  Goodmans 
Fields  Theatres  later  in  the  same  year  under  its 
second  title,  met  with  such  success  that  it  was 
soon  adopted  at  the  other  theatres  and  long 
remained  a  stock  piece.  On  Oct.  26,  1737, 
Carey's  burlesque-opera  '  The  Dragon  of  Wan  tley,' 
a  satire  on  the  Italian  opera  of  the  day,  the 
music  by  Lampe,  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  with  such  signal  success  that  it  ran  67 
nights  during  the  season.  In  the  next  year  the 
author  and  composer  joined  in  the  production  of 
a  sequel  entitled  '  Margery ;  or,  A  Worse  Plague 
than  the  Dragon'  (a  title  afterwards  changed  to 
'The  Dragoness'),  which  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  on  Dec.  9,  173S.  Although  by 
no  means  deficient  in  merit,  its  success  was  but 
partial.  In  39,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  with  Spain,  Carey  wrote  and  composed  a  mu- 
sical intei-lude  called  'Nancy;  or,  The  Parting 
Lovers,'  which  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  and  wa»  remarkably  successful.  It  was 
revived  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  with  alter- 
ations in  1755  (on  the  prospect  of  a  war)  under 
the  name  of  '  Tht-  Press  Gang ;  or.  Love  in  Low 
Life,'  and  frequently  brought  forward  on  similar 


310 


CAREY. 


CARILLON. 


occasions  under  the  title  of  'True  Blue.'  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  Carey  collected  his  principal 
dramatic  pieces  and  published  them  in  1743  by 
subscription  in  a  quarto  volume. 

In  1720  Carey  published  a  small  Tolume  of 
his  poems.  This  he  afterwards  enlarged  and 
published  by  subscription  in  29,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  poem  called  'Xamby  Pamby '  (a  good- 
humoured  satire  on  a  poem  written  by  Ambrose 
Phillips  on  the  infant  daughter  of  Lord  Carteret), 
which  received  the  ccimmendations  of  Pope.  i 

The  song's  and  cantatas  written  and  composed 
by  Carey  were  very  numerous.    In  1732  he  pub- 
lished '  Six  Cantatas,'  and  in  1739-40,  imder  the 
title  of  '  The  Musical  Century,  in  One  himdred 
English  Ballads  on  various  subjects  and  occasions, 
adapted  to  several  characters  and  incidents  in 
Human  Life,  and  calculated  for  innocent  conver- 
sation, mirth  and  instruction,'  issued  two  folio  . 
volumes  of  song^s  written  and  composed  by  him-  j 
self,  to  the  first  of  which  his  portrait  is  prefixed. 
A  second  edition  appeared  in  1 740,  and  a  third  in 
43.    Of  aU  his  compositions,  the  most  popular,  j 
and  that  which  will  transmit  his  name  to  pos-  ' 
terity,  is  his  ballad  of  '  SaUy  in  our  Alley,'  one  of 
the  most  striking  and  original  melodies  that  ever 
emanated  from  the  brain  of  a  musician.    The  j 
author's  account  of  its  origin  is  as  follows  : — '  A  ' 
shoemaker's  prentice,  making  holiday  with  hi5  j 
sweetheart  treats  her  with  a  sight  of  Bedlam, 
the  puppet  shows,  the  flying  chairs,  and  all  the 
elegancies  of  Moorfields,  from  whence  proceeding 
to  the  Farthing  Pye  House  he  gave  her  a  col- 
lation of  bims,  cheese-cakes,  gammon  of  bacon, 
stuffed  beef  and  bottled  ale,  through  all  which 
scenes  the  author  dodged  them.    Charmed  with  j 
the  simplicity  of  their  courtship,  he  drew  from 
what  he  hs  d  witnessed  this  little  sketch  of  nature.' 
He  adds,  with  pardonable  pride,  that  Addison  ' 
had  more  than  once  expressed  his  approbation  of  ! 
his  production. 

Carey  died  at  his  house  in  Great  Warner  Street, 
Clerkenwell,  on  Oct.  4,  1743.    It  has  been  gen- 
erally said  that  '  he  put  a  period  to  a  life  which 
had  been  led  without  reproach,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  eighty,  by  suicide,'  and  the  impulse  to  the 
act  has  been  variously  assigned  to  pecuniary  ! 
embarrassment,  domestic  unhappiness,  and  the  ! 
malevolence  of  some  of  his  fellow  professors. 
But  the  manner  of  his  death  seems  doubtful. 
In  the  Daily  Post  of  Oct.  5,  1 743,  we  read  '  Yes- 
terday morning  Mr.  H.  Carey,  well  known  to  the  ' 
musical  world  for  his  droll  compositions,  got  out  \ 
of  bed  from  his  w^fe  in  perfect  health  and  was 
soon  after  found  dead.    He  has  left  six  children  ' 
behind  him.'    An  advertisement  in  the  same 
newspaper  on  Nov.  17,  43,  announces  a  per- 
formance on  that  evening  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  '  For  the  Benefit  of  the  Widow  and  Four 
small  Children  of  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Carev,'  in 
which  the  widow  describes  herself  as  'left  en- 
tirely destitute  of  any  provision.'    His  age  at 
the  time  of  his  death  was  probably  much  over- 
stated.  Sir  John  Hawkins  thus  estimates  Carey's 
abilities  : — *  As  a  musician  Carey  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  first  of  the  lowest  rank ;  and  as 


a  poet  the  last  of  that  class  of  which  D'TJrfey 
was  the  first,  with  this  difference,  that  in  all  the 
songs  and  poems  written  by  him  on  wine,  love 
and  such  kind  of  subjects,  he  seems  to  have 
manifested  an  inviolable  regard  for  decency  and 
good  manners.' 

Carey's  posthumous  son,  George  Savile  Carey, 
inherited  much  of  his  father's  talent.  He  became 
an  actor,  but  not  succeeding  he  contrived  by 
giving  entertainments  of  singing,  recitation,  and 
imitations,  to  earn  a  precarious  living  for  about 
forty  years.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
claimed  for  his  father  the  composition  of  '  God 
save  the  King,'  and  the  claim  occupied  much 
attention  for  some  time.  Indeed  it  is  still  as 
hotly  debated  as  ever,  and  will  probably  never 
be  satisfactorily  decided.  G.  S.  Carey's  daucrhter, 
Anne,  was  the  mother  of  Edmund  Kean,  the 
tragedian.  [W.H.H.] 

CARILLON  is  the  name  given  to  a  set  of 
bells  so  hung  and  arranged  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  played  upon,  either  by  manual  action  or 
by  machinery,  as  a  musical  instrument,  i.  e.  so 
as  to  give  out  a  regularly  composed  melody  in 
correct  and  imvarying  time  and  rhythm,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  wild  and  irregular  music 
produced  by  change-ringing  on  a  peal  of  bells 
hung  to  swing  in  the  more  usual  manner. 
[Bells.]  A  much  larger  number  of  bells  are 
required  to  make  a  good  carillon  than  are  ever 
hung  for  an  ordinary  peal,  which  latter,  owing 
to  the  difficulties  of  ringing  and  the  space  re- 
qxiired  for  the  bells  to  swing  in.  can  scarcely 
exceed  ten  or  at  most  twelve  bells  with  ad- 
vantage, whereas  a  carillon  peal  not  infrequently 
includes  as  many  as  forty  or  more  bells,  the 
adequate  j>erformance  of  set  tunes  requiring  not 
only  a  more  extended  range  but  the  presence  of 
the  chromatic  intervals  of  the  scale,  instead  of 
the  simple  diatonic  scale  of  the  ordinary  peal. 
The  most  radical  distinction  in  the  method  of 
hanging  and  sounding  a  carillon  as  compared 
with  a  peal  is  that  while  in  the  latter  the  bells 
are  slung  to  a  wheel  and  axle,  and  are  sounded 
by  the  stroke  of  the  clapper  inside  on  being 
swimg  round,  in  the  carillon  the  beUs  are  abso- 
lutely fixed  on  the  frame,  and  are  struck  by  a 
hammer  on  the  outside.  It  is  owing  to  this 
stationary  position  of  the  beU  that  so  large  a 
number  of  bells  can  be  safely  hung  in  a  tower 
which  would  not  accommodate  half  the  number 
of  swinging  bells;  and  it  is  obvious  that  the 
precise  moment  of  the  stroke  is  much  more 
imder  the  control  of  the  ringer  when  he  has 
only  to  regulate  the  striking  of  the  hammer 
than  when  he  has  to  bring  alx>ut  this  by  causing 
the  bell  to  swing :  and  it  need  hardly  be 
mentioned  that  the  system  of  striking  on  the 
outside  of  the  bell  is  always  employed  when 
the  latter  is  made  use  of  for  striking  the  hours 
upon  in  connection  with  a  clock.  In  fact,  the 
carillon  system,  when  sounded  mechanically  (as 
in  a  majority  of  cases  it  is),  may  be  regarded  as 
an  extension  and  multiplication  of  the  stroke  of 
the  clock,  with  which  it  is  generally  connected, 
rather  than  as  allied  to  bell-ringing  properly 


CARILLON. 


CARILLON. 


311 


so-calleJ.  Occasionally,  however,  the  ringing- 
bells  are  also  used  as  part  of  the  carillon,  an 
apparatus  being  fitted  up  in  the  ringing  chamber 
whereby  the  carillon  and  clock  hammers  can  be 
simultaneously  pulled  off  the  bells  before  com- 
mencing the  ringing  of  the  peal. 

The  system  of  playing  tunes  on  small  bells, 
hung  in  a  graduated  order  and  struck  by  hand, 
is  believed  to  be  of  some  antiquity,  as  indicated 
by  occasional  illustrations  of  some  such  system 
in  mediaeval  manuscripts ;  and  it  seems  prob- 
able enough  that  so  obvious  a  means  of  music- 
making  in  a  simple  form  may  be  even  older  than 
any  such  records  imply.  But  we  first  meet  with 
carillon  music  in  its  greater  form  in  the  15th 
century,  when  the  steeples  of  the  churches  and 
hotels-de-ville  of  Holland,  Belgium,  and  North 
Germany  made  the  country  resound  with  the 
bell -music  for  which  Belgium  especially  was 
famed  during  that  and  the  three  succeeding  cen- 
turies. The  Van  den  Gheyn  family,  of  whom 
the  most  notable  member,  Mathias  van  den 
Gheyn,  was  born  in  1721,  were  pre-eminent 
among  the  Belgian  makers  of  carillons ;  Mathias 
himself  ha%ang  been  also  an  organ-player  and 
carillon  -  player.  The  family  were  of  Mechlin, 
but  migrated  to  Louvain,  where  the  traditions 
of  their  manufacture  are  kept  up  by  the  firm  of 
Aerschodt.  Among  the  most  celebrated  and 
largest  carillon-peals  of  the  continent  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Antwerp  (40  bells),  Bruges 
(48  bells),  Malines  (44  bells),  Ghent  (48  bells), 
de  Tournai  (42  bells),  de  Boulers  (39  bells), 
Louvain  ^  (35  bells),  etc.  It  is  worth  remark  that 
this  bell-music  has  had  its  special  development 
in  flat  countries,  Avhere  its  loud  and  travelling 
sounds  are  heard  with  far  more  effect  and  at  far 
greater  distance  than  in  hilly  districts,  where  the 
sound  is  closed  in,  inteiTupted,  and  echoed  back. 
Indeed,  the  instinctive  feeling  which  has  led  to 
great  sets  of  bells  being  placed  in  the  towers  of 
flat  countries  is  analogous  to  the  instinct  which 
gave  rise  to  the  towers  themselves.  A  flat  land- 
scape suggests  the  building  of  towers,  which 
become  far-seen  landmarks,  and  connect  one  city 
with  another ;  and  what  the  towers  were  to  the 
eye  the  bells  were  to  the  ear,  sending  greeting 
or  warning  from  one  city  to  another  over  a  vast 
expanse  of  level  landscape. 

Carillon -playing  in  these  cities  of  the  Low 
Countries,  however,  was  not  always  a  mere  piece 
of  mechanism ;  it  took  rank  as  a  branch  of 
executive  art  in  music,  and  required  the  culture 
of  a  musician  to  develop  its  resources.  The 
Belgian  and  Dutch  carillons  were  furnished  with 
a  keyboard,  rough  and  uncouth  enough  indeed, 
but  still  such  as  enabled  the  carilloneur  to  per- 
form pieces  in  two,  or  (by  the  aid  of  pedals 
and  of  the  prolonged  resonance  of  the  bells)  even 
in  three  parts.  Compositions  were  written  for 
or  extemporised  on  them ;  and  some  of  the  '  mor- 
ceaux  fugues'  for  carillons  by  Mathias  van  den 
Gheyn  have  been  collected  and  published  (by 
Messrs.  Schott  &  Co.).    The  bells  which  were 

'  The  Louvain  peal  has  been  reproduced,  or  nearly  so.  In  the  carillon 
made  by  GiUet  and  Bland  for  Cattistock  church  in  Dorsetshire. 


intended  thus  to  be  played  by  hand  were  fur- 
nished with  an  inside  clapper  as  well  as  the 
outside  hammers,  the  clapper  being  connected 
by  a  wire  with  the  keyboard  below,  and  the 
hammer  operated  upon  by  the  mechanical  barrel, 
so  that  the  same  set  of  bells  could  be  played 
either  by  machinery  or  by  hand.  The  keyboard, 
though  arranged  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
ordinary  pianoforte  keyboard,  was  a  large  affair 
with  wooden  keys,  so  far  distant  from  one  an- 
other as  to  admit  of  being  struck  with  the  fist 
without  disturbing  the  keys  on  either  side ;  for 
as  the  leverage  of  the  key  had  to  raise  the 
weight  of  the  clapper,  which  in  the  larger  bells 
was  considerable,  and  as  the  force  of  the  sound 
depended  also  in  great  measure  on  the  force  with 
which  the  key  was  struck,  it  is  obvious  that 
mere  finger  work  was  out  of  the  question.  The 
keyboard  in  fact  was  analogous  rather  to  the 
pedal  board  of  an  organ,  and  in  some  cases  the 
largest  bells  actually  were  connected  with  pedal 
keys,  so  as  to  enable  the  player  to  strike  a 
heavier  blow  than  he  could  with  his  hands.  It 
may  easily  be  imagined  that,  on  this  system, 
carillon-playing  was  a  matter  of  no  small  physi- 
cal exertion,  and  required  the  performer  to  pos- 
sess 7nens  Sana  in  corpore  sano  to  have  a  chance 
of  getting  successfully  through  his  task,  for 
which  he  clothed  himself  generally  in  a  suit  of 
flannels  alone,  the  hands  being  protected  by 
thick  gloves  to  prevent  injury  in  striking  the  keys. 

It  was  perhaps  owing  to  these  practical  diffi- 
culties that  the  art  of  carillon  -  playing  never 
seems  to  have  been  very  extensively  practised, 
and  has  now  very  much  fallen  into  disuse.  But 
the  difficulty  arising  from  the  player  having  to 
contend  with  the  weight  of  the  clapper  in  sound- 
ing the  bells  was  even  more  felt  in  the  applica- 
tion of  chiming  machinery  to  the  hammers 
which  struck  on  the  exterior  of  the  bells.  The 
chimes  were  sounded  by  means  of  a  large  barrel 
connected  with  and  regulated  by  clockwork,  by 
which  it  was  periodically  released,  and  driven 
round  under  the  ordinary  motive  power  of  a 
weight,  strong  pins  fixed  on  the  ban-el  coming  in 
contact,  each  at  the  proper  moment,  with  levers 
which  raised  the  hammers,  and  released  them  to 
fall  upon  the  bell  at  the  moment  when  the  pin 
on  the  barrel  quitted  the  lever.  The  barrel  was 
'  pricked '  for  various  tunes  (generally  seven  or 
eight),  a  change  being  effected  by  shifting  it 
slightly,  on  the  principle  familiar  to  every  one 
in  the  '  musical-box '  toy,  which  is  in  fact  a 
carillon  on  a  minute  scale,  playing  on  vibrating 
tongues  instead  of  on  bells.  The  application  of 
this  principle,  on  the  large  scale  necessary  for 
carillon-ringing,  is  fraught  with  difficulties,  which 
the  rude  and  unscientific  system  still  prevalent 
on  the  continent  (and  clung  to,  apparently,  with 
the  same  kind  of  conservatism  which  leads  the 
North  German  organ-builders  to  ignore  all  the 
refinements  of  modern  mechanism)  quite  failed  to 
meet.  As  with  the  clavier-system,  the  difficulty 
really  lies  in  the  weight  to  be  ovei'come  in  lifting 
the  striking  hanuner.  As  the  pins  on  the  barrel 
had  to  take  this  whole  weight,  it  was  necessary 


312 


CARILLON. 


CARILLOX. 


that  they  sliould  be  very  strong,  and  the  barrel 
itself  thus  became  so  large,  cumbrous,  and  ex- 
pensive an  affair  as  to  add  very  much  to  the 
diflBculties  of  fixing  a  large  carillon-machine  both 
in  regard  to  cost  and  space.  The  time  occupied 
in  raising  the  hammer  rendered  any  rapid  repe- 
tition of  a  note  impossible  with  a  single  hammer, 
especially  with  the  larger  bells  ;  consequently  a 
large  proportion  of  the  bells  had  to  be  furnished 
with  two  or  more  hammers  to  provide  for  this 
difl&culty,  the  pins  being  arranged  so  as  to  sound 
two  or  three  hammers  successively  on  the  same 
bell  when  the  immediate  repetition  of  a  note  was 
required.  The  method  of  sounding  the  note  by  the 
release  of  the  lever  from  the  pin  did  not  conduce 
to  precise  accaracy  in  the  time  of  sounding,  but 
a  much  more  serious  interference  with  correct 
tempo  arose  from  the  fact  that  as  some  of  the 
heavier  hammers  offered  much  greater  resistance 
to  the  pins  than  others,  while  the  barrel  was 
driven  by  the  same  uniform  weight,  the  progress 
of  the  tune  was  constantly  retarded  before  the 
striking  of  the  larger  bells,  producing  the  irregu- 
lar or  'stuttering'  effect  which  those  who  have 
listened  to  carillon  chimes  must  have  noticed.^ 
The  system  is  in  fact  mechanically  so  clumsy, 
and  involves  so  much  loss  of  time  and  power, 
that  it  is  obvious  that  carillon-chimes,  if  worth 
doing  at  all,  are  worth  doing  better  than  this. 

England  has  borrowed  the  idea  of  carillons 
only  recently  from  the  continent,  but  has  the 
credit  of  inventing  and  perfecting  the  principle 
of  mechanism  which  has  surmounted  all  the 
above-named  drawbacks  of  the  Belgian  carillon 
machinery.  The  part  which  English  science  and 
ingenuity  has  played  in  the  matter  is,  in  fact, 
exactly  similar  to  that  which  it  has  taken  in 
regard  to  organ-building.  We  borrowed  from 
the  Germans  the  idea  of  the  grand  instruments 
with  full  pedal  organ  which  supplemented  the 
'box  of  whistles'  of  the  old  English  builders, 
but  our  modem  builders  have  applied  to  them 
mechanical  refinements  which  have  almost  revo- 
lutionised organ-playing  (not  perhaps  always  in 
the  right  direction),  and  have  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  English  organist  facilities  for 
variety  of  effect  and  brilliant  execution  such  as 
his  German  brother  in  the  art  is  scarcely  cogni- 
sant of  at  all.  In  regard  to  the  improvement  in 
carillons  it  is  only  simple  justice  to  say  that,  so 
far,  its  history  is  identified  entirely  with  one 
firm,  who  perseveringly  set  themselves  to  accom- 
plish the  task  of  simplifying  and  perfecting  the 
control  of  the  bells  on  true  mechanical  principles. 
Messrs.  Gillett  and  Bland,  of  Croydon,  clock 
manufacturers,  having  turned  their  attention  to 
the  construction  of  carillons,  aimed  at  getting 
rid  of  the  main  difficulty  which  is,  as  we  have 
shown,  at  the  bottom  of  all  the  defects  of  the  old 
system,  namely,  the  use  of  the  same  action  both 
for  lifting  and  letting  go  the  hammers.  The 
principle  on  which  this  improvement  is  effected 

1  To  many  lUtenen,  no  doubt,  this  Irregularity,  so  liar  from  detracting 
from  the  effect  of  this  airy  music,  would  se*;m  rather  pleasing  from  its 
old-bsbioned  sound  and  associations.  This  association,  however, 
thou^  It  may  be  a  reason  for  not  interfering  with  old  chimes,  is 
DO  reason  for  repeating  the  same  defects  in  new  ones. 


is  by  the  introduction  of  a  revolving  cam  wheel 
beneath  each  lever,  which,  contmually  turning, 
raises  the  lever  the  moment  the  hammer  has 
struck  the  bell,  so  that  the  latter  is  at  once 
brought  into  position  again  for  striking,  and  the 
action  of  the  pins  on  the  barrel,  instead  of  being 
a  lifting  and  letting-off  action,  is  merely  a  letting- 
off,  the  whole  of  the  lifting  being  done  by  the 
cam  wheels.    As  in  many  other  mechanical  in- 
\  ventions,  the  simplicity  of  action  which  charac- 
terises the  new  carillon  machinery  was  not  at- 
'  tained  at  once.    In  the  first  attempts,  of  which 
i  the  chiming  machine  at  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 
\  Dublin,  is  an  example,  the  barrel  was  stiU  of  an 
I  unwieldy  size,  though  an  attempt  was  made  to 
compensate  for  this  in  some  measure  by  a  novelty 
of  construction,  the  barrel  consisting  not  of  a 
,  solid  cylinder  but  a  series  of  double  bars,  be- 
tween which  the  pins  were  fixed  in  such  a  man- 
,  ner,  by  screws,  as  to  be  readily  capable  of  being 
loosened  and  shifted  one  way  or  the  other,  so  as 
to  be  adjusted  to  a  new  set  of  tunes  if  desired. 
The  first  machine  made  on  this  system  was  put 
up  at  Boston,  playing  28  tunes  on  44  bells,  but 
the  connection  between  the  letting-off  and 
lifting  action  being  much  too  complicated  and 
■  circuitous,  the  inventors  patented  a  further 
I  improvement  which  very  much  simplified  the 
I  action,  and  the  contact  between  the  pins  and 
;  the  levers  was  brought  to  the  front  instead  of 
I  the  top  of  the  barrel,  so  as  to  render  the  most 
important  portion  of  the  mechanism  more  easily 
accessible.    These  improvements  were  first  in- 
I  troduced  in  the  machine  erected  in  Croydon 
j  church.     There  was  still  a  weak  point  in  the 
action;  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  explain 
I  all  the   intermediate  stages  of  improvement 
without  the  aid  of  a  number  of  diagrams,  and 
;  we  must  be  content  here  with  giving  a  description 
I  of  the  new  carillon  action  in  its  most  perfected 
form,  as  described  in  the  following  extract  from 
the  'Engineer'  of  August  13,  1875,  and  which  is 
I  rendered  more  intelligible  by  the  accompanying 
diagram,  representing  in  a  simple  manner  the 
principle  of  the  action,  without  encumbering  it 


'  The  diagram  is  supposed  to  show  the  gear  for 
working  one  hammer.  It  must  be  multiplied  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  hanamers,  but  the 

I  parts  are  aU  repetitions  of  each  other. 

I  'The  musical  barrel  B  is  set  with  pins  in  the 
usual  way.    A  is  a  cam  wheel  of  very  peculiar 

'  construction,  operating  on  a  lever  C  by  what  is 


CAEILLOX. 


CAEILLON. 


813 


to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  new  mechanical 
motion,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  that,  however 
fast  the  cam  wheel  revolves,  the  tripping  of  the 
lever  is  avoided.  In  all  cases  the  outer  end 
must  be  lifted  to  its  full  height  before  the  swing- 
ing piece  D  quits  the  cam.  The  little  spring 
roller  E  directs  the  tail  D  of  the  lever  into  the 
cam  space,  and  when  there  it  is  prevented  from 
coming  out  again  by  a  very  simple  and  elegant 
little  de%-ice,  which  the  inventors  do  not  at  pre- 
sent desire  to  be  made  public,  by  which  certainty 
of  action  is  secured.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
lever  C  is  a  trip  lever  F.  This  lever  is  pulled 
toward  C  by  a  spring,  and  whenever  C  is  thrown 
up  by  the  cam  wheel,  F  seizes  it  and  holds  it  up  ; 
but  the  wire  to  the  bell-hammer  in  the  tower 
above  is  secured  to  the  eye  G,  so  that  when  D  is 
lifted,  the  eye  G  being  pulled  down,  the  hammer 
is  lifted.  The  pins  in  the  musical  barrel  B  come 
against  a  step  in  F,  and  as  they  pass  by  they 
push  F  outwards  and  release  C,  which  immediately 
drops,  and  with  it  the  hammer,  so  that  the  in- 
stant the  pin  passes  the  step  F  a  note  is  sounded. 
But  the  moment  D  drops  it  engages  with  A, 
which  last  revolves  at  a  very  high  speed,  and  D 
is  incontinently  flung  up  again,  and  the  hammer 
raised,  and  raised  it  remains  until  the  next  pin 
on  B  passes  the  step  on  F,  and  again  a  note  is 
struck.  It  will  be  seen  therefore  that,  if  we  may 
use  the  phrase,  B  has  nothing  to  do  but  let  oflF 
traps  set  continually  by  A,  and  so  long  as  A  sets 
the  traps  fast  enough,  B  will  let  them  off  in 
correct  time.  But  A  revolves  so  fast  and  acts  so 
powerfully  that  it  makes  nothing  of  even  a 
3  cwt.  hanmaer,  much  less  the  little  ones ;  and 
thus  a  facility  of  execution  is  obtained  hitherto 
unknown  in  carillon  machinery.  We  venture  to 
think  that  our  readers  will  agree  with  us  that 
such  a  carillon  machine  as  we  illustrate  is  about 
as  ingenious  a  combination  of  mechanism  as  is  to 
be  met  with  in  the  range  of  the  arts.' 

It  will  be  seen  that  here  we  have  a  system 
in  which  all  the  direct  work  that  the  musical 
barrel  has  to  do  is  merely  to  let  off  the  triggers, 
so  to  speak,  of  the  hammers,  while  the  force 
necessary  to  raise  them  is  so  distributed  and  so 
much  better  applied  than  when  the  pins  on  the 
barrel  had  to  perform  this  office,  that  the  in- 
equality of  weight  between  the  large  and  small 
hammers  is  not  felt  as  a  perturbing  influence  on 
the  speed  of  working.  One  result  of  this  is  that 
the  barrel  is  greatly  reduced  in  dimensions  ;  the 
pins  being  required  only  for  such  light  work  can 
be  made  much  smaller,  and  require  little  or  no 
leverage  power  in  themselves  ;  and  consequently, 
while  the  old  carillon  barrels  were  sometimes 
eight  or  ten  feet  in  diameter,  that  at  Shoreditch 
is  only  ten  inches  diameter.  A  barrel  of  this 
size,  besides  taking  up  so  much  less  room,  can 
easily  be  taken  out  and  exchanged  for  a  fresh 
one,  with  a  new  set  of  tunes,  when  desired. 

But  the  crowning  advantage  of  the  system  of 
the  letting-off  barrel  is  that  by  this  means  music 
can  be  played  on  the  bells  by  a  keyboard  like 
that  of  a  pianoforte  attached  to  the  frame,  with 
no  more  exertion  than  on  the  pianoforte  itself. 


Thus  the  physical  effort  entailed  by  carillon- 
playing  on  the  old  continental  system,  which 
rendered  it  an  art  only  to  be  attacked  by  a  mus- 
cular person  in  rude  health,  is  entirely  a  thing  of 
the  past,  and  there  is  no  reason,  so  far  as  the 
difficulty  of  the  task  is  concerned,  why  carillon- 
playing  should  not  be  as  common,  in  connection 
with  large  churches  and  public  buildings,  as 
organ-playing.  The  new  carillon  for  Manchester 
To%vn  Hall,  in  construction  at  the  time  of  writing 
these  remarks,  is  to  be  furnished  with  such  a 
keyboard,  in  addition  to  the  mechanical  arrange- 
ment for  sounding  the  chimes.  It  may  also  be 
observed  that  the  carillon  system  can  be  applied 
to  produce  mechanical  change -ringing,  by  having 
a  barrel  pricked  with  changes,  and  thus  the 
'ringing  for  church'  can  be  done  automatically, 
in  places  where  ringers  capable  of  change-ringing 
are  not  to  be  found.  This,  however,  can  only 
be  regarded  as  an  inferior  and  meagre  substitute 
for  the  grand  effect  produced  by  change-ringing 
with  swinging  bells  ;  and  many,  perhaps,  would 
even  prefer  round-ringing  with  the  swung  bells 
to  mechanical  change -ringing  with  fixed  bells. 
The  result  however  can  be  heard  and  judged  of 
at  Greenfield  church,  and  at  St.  Mark's,  Oldham, 
where  this  contrivance  has  been  applied. 

The  bells  composing  a  carillon  peal  are  fixed 
to  a  frame,  generally  of  oak,  slightly  pyramidal 
in  shape,  so  that  while  the  lower  cross-beams 
bear  upon  the  wall,  the  upper  portion  of  the 
frame  sto.ncls  free  ;  this  is  not  so  absolutely  essen- 
tial as  in  the  case  of  bells  hung  to  swing,  where 
the  swaying  action  is  very  violent  when  the  peal 
is  being  rung ;  but  stUl  it  is  better  to  keep  the 
vibration  off  the  wall  as  much  as  possible.  The 
large  bells  are  hung  at  the  bottom  of  the  frame 
(in  some  of  the  continental  towers  they  were 
hung  low  down,  below  the  ban-el  and  quite  apart 
fr'om  the  rest),  and  the  smaller  ones  above.  In 
arranging  the  scale  of  the  bells  it  is  seldom  con- 
sidered necessary  to  have  the  complete  chromatic 
scale  throughout ;  and  in  almost  all  the  older 
carillons  the  lower  portion  of  the  scale  was  re- 
stricted to  a  few  notes  giving  the  tonic  or  domi- 
nant to  the  keys  intended  to  be  most  used,  the 
intermediate  intervals  being  omitted  on  account 
of  the  great  expense  of  the  larger  bells,  and  the 
amount  of  space  which  they  occupied.  The  ar- 
rangement, in  fact,  is  much  the  same  as  that 
which  obtained  on  the  pedal  boards  of  old  English 
organs,  before  what  were  at  first  called  '  German 
pedals'  (i.  e,  the  complete  scale)  were  introduced. 
This  principle  has  mostly  been  more  or  less  fol- 
lowed in  the  modern  English  peals.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  scale  for  Manchester  Town  Hall,  con- 
sisting of  twenty -one  bells: — 

Hour  Bell,  7  tons. 


Here  the  carillon  scale  is  laid  out  for  the  keys  of 
D  and  A  principally,  and  the  selection  of  G  for 


314 


CAEILLON. 


CARISSIMI. 


the  hour  bell  appears  out  of  keeping ;  but  in 
fact  the  hour  bell  is  never  used  in  the  carillon, 
and  the  quarter  chimes  are  sounded  on  a  selec- 
tion from  the  carillon  peal  forming  a  scale  in 
the  key  of  C.  The  ten  bells  used  for  this  pur- 
pose are  also  hung  so  as  to  swing  and  be  rung 
by  hand  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the  carillon 
action  being  lifted  oiF  for  the  purpose  :  so  that 
Manchester  in  reality  has  two  peals,  the  carillon 
peal  as  given  above,  rung  mechanically,  and  the 
following  scale — 


tf— 2? — ^— ^  ■ 
formed  of  bells  selected  out  of  the  carillon  peal, 
rung  by  hand.  There  is  also  an  automatic 
change-ringing  barrel  to  operate  upon  these  bells 
when  desired.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  this  is 
the  first  town-hall  in  England  which  has  been 
fitted  with  a  ringing  peal.  Carillons  on  the 
perfected  principle  above  described  have  already, 
at  the  date  of  this  article,  been  put  up  in  the 
towers  of  Worcester  Cathedral,  of  Bradford,  Roch- 
dale, and  Reading  Town  Halls,  in  the  churches 
of  Leek,  Oldham,  Shoreditch,  Holsworthy,  Wit- 
ney, St.  Stephen's  Hampstead,  etc.,  all  by  the 
same  Croydon  firm  before  referred  to. 

How  far  manual  carillon-playing  may  be  car- 
ried, as  a  branch  of  music,  with  effect,  it  is  difii- 
cult  to  say.  The  class  of  composition  performed 
on  such  a  medium  can  never  be  very  elaborate  or 
varied,  and  must  probably  have  a  specialty  of 
character  to  suit  the  instrument  (if  one  may  call 
it  so)  and  the  circumstances  and  situation  in 
which  it  is  heard.  It  is  possible  that  these  con- 
siderations might  suggest  some  novelty  of  style 
and  effect,  if  the  keyboard  carillon  comes  more 
into  use.  The  clangour  and  prolongation  of  the 
sound,  however,  which  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
effects  of  a  peal  of  bells,  is  inimical  to  an)rthing 
like  true  musical  definition  ;  and  the  attempt  to 
damp  the  bells  after  being  struck  would  rob  them 
of  much  of  their  peculiar  wildness  and  grandeur. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  carillon  must 
always  be  an  instrument  for  effect  rather  than 
for  intricate  musical  design ;  though  it  would  be 
very  interesting  to  hear  the  experiment  tried  of 
executing  more  elaborated  music  on  a  carillon 
with  a  complete  chromatic  scale.  It  must  always 
be  remembered  however,  that  carillons,  like  bells 
proper,  are  to  be  judged  from  a  fair  distance,  and 
not  at  close  quarters  ;  their  tones,  calculated  to  be 
heard  over  a  large  tract  of  country,  are  necessarily 
somewhat  harsh  and  jangling  when  too  near. 

What  may  be  termed  drawing-room  carillons 
are  also  made,  in  which  the  sounds  are  produced 
by  metal  bowls  like  the  bell  of  an  ordinary  time- 
piece, and  played  on  by  a  pianoforte  keyboard. 
These  may  perhaps  produce  some  new  musical 
effects  in  combination  with  such  an  instrument 
as  the  harmonium ;  but  probably  they  will  always 
be  regarded  as  pretty  toys  rather  than  serious 
means  of  musical  effect  or  expression.  [H.  H.  S.] 

CARIO,  JoHANN  Heinrich,  born  at  Eckern- 
forde  in  Holstein,  1736,  was  instructed  by  Em- 


manuel Bach,  Telemann,  and  Schwenke,  and 
became  a  great  trumpet  player.  He  is  said  to 
have  invented  a  keyed  trumpet  which  would 
play  in  every  key,  and  to  have  executed  a  pre- 
lude in  Bb  minor.  He  may  therefore  have  been 
able  to  execute  the  trumpet  parts  in  Sebastian 
Bach's  music  which  are  now  unplayable.  Carlo 
was  living  in  1800.  [G.] 

CARISSIMI,  GiACOMO,  was  born  at  Marino 
near  to  Rome  in  1604,  according  to  Pitoni,  whom 
both  M.  Fetis  and  the  Abbe  Alfieri  follow  upon 
this  point;  but  at  Padua  in  1582,  if  Spiri- 
dione  ^  be  trusted  for  the  place  of  his  birth,  and 
Mattheson  for  the  date  of  it.  His  first  pro- 
fessional post  was  that  of  Maestro  at  Assisi.  This 
he  held  for  some  years.  He  then  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  obtained  the  Mastership  at  the  church 
of  S.  Apollinaris,  attached  to  the  German  Col- 
lege. In  this  office  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  days,  without,  in  all  probability,  ever  having 
crossed  the  Papal  frontier.  He  died  in  1674. 
That  he  gained  his  taste  and  style,  which  were 
admirable,  by  long  residence  in  Paris,  and  by 
writing  for  French  audiences,  is  one  of  by  no 
means  the  least  foolish  and  perverse  of  the  many 
foolish  and  perverse  assertions  of  the  Seigneur  de 
Freneuse.'^ 

Carissimi  has  the  reputation  of  having  done 
more  than  any  other  Italian  of  his  epoch  towards 
the  perfection  of  recitative.  To  him  Kircher  ad- 
mits that  he  owes  much  that  is  valuable  in  his 
'Musurgia'  upon  this  branch  of  art.  He  was 
moreover,  although  not  the  actual  inventor  of  the 
sacred  cantata,  at  least  its  parent  by  adoption  and 
development,  and  at  his  hands  it  received  that 
elevation  of  form  and  accession  of  beauty  which 
enabled  it  to  supplant  the  madrigal,  and  give  to 
sacred  music  those  elements  of  pathos  and  dra- 
matic force  for  which  the  rise  of  the  opera  had 
created  a  general  appetite.  A  third  contribution 
by  Carissimi  to  the  progress  of  his  art  was  the 
lightness  and  variety  of  his  accompaniments. 
He  had  less  learning  and  more  imagination  and 
playfulness  than  his  predecessors  in  the  Roman 
school.  But  if  his  harmonies  were  less  elaborate 
than  theirs,  his  melodies  were  freer  and  more 
graceful,  and  his  effects  more  dramatic.  There 
was  something  essentially  modern  in  his  music, 
and  he  was  the  precursor  and  teacher  of  a  large 
group  of  polished  and  pleasant  artists,  among 
whom  Bassani,  Cesti,  Buononcini,  and  Alessandro 
Scarlatti  were  conspicuous.  No  less  prolific  than 
original,  Carissimi  left  a  great  quantity  of  finished 
work  behind  him.  Unhappily  too  little  of  it  has 
been  published,  and  too  much  of  it  was  destroyed 
at  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 
when  the  collections  of  S.  Apollinaris  and  the 
Gesti  were  sold  for  waste  paper.  In  the  library 
of  the  Abbe  Santini  there  were  two  printed  col- 
lections of  motetti  by  Carissimi  for  two,  three, 
and  four  voices,  which  had  been  published  at 
Rome  in  1664  and  1667,  and  a  Lauda  Sion  and 

'  •  Musica  Romana  D.  D.  Fogsise,  Carissimi,  Gratiani,  aliorumque.' 
(Bamberi;,  1665.^ 

2  '  Comparaison  de  la  Musique  Italienne  et  de  la  Muslque  Fran^aise,' 
3mc  partie,  p.  2020.   (Brussels,  1704.) 


CARISSIMI. 


CARMAX'S  WHISTLE.  315 


a  Nisi  Dominus,  both  for  eight  voices,  and  both 
in  manuscript.  Baini  says  that  in  the  archives 
of  the  Pontifical  Chapel  there  is  a  mass  by  Ca- 
rissimi  for  twelve  voices,  written  on  the  famous 
Provenfal  melody  •  L'homme  arme.'  This  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  last  occasion  on  which  that 
favourite  theme  was  ever  employed.  The  Na- 
tional Library  in  Paris  has  a  rich  manuscript 
collection  of  the  oratorios  of  Carissimi.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  their  names  : — *  La  Plainte 
des  Damn^s' ;  'Histoire  de  Job';  '  Ezechias' ; 
'  Baltazar ' ;  'David  et  Jonathas ' ;  'Abraham  et 
Isaac' ;  'Jephte' ;  'Le  Jugement  Dernier' ;  *Le 
Mauvais  Riche' ;  'Jonas'.  Chief  among  these 
ranks  the  Jephthah,  of  which  Hawkins  has  said 
that  '  fur  sweetness  of  melody,  artful  modulation, 
and  original  harmony,  it  is  justly  esteemed  one  of 
the  finest  efibrts  of  musical  skill  and  genius  that 
the  world  knows  of.'  Handel  thought  it  worth 
while  to  borrow  his  chorus  in  'Samson,'  'Hear 
Jacob's  God'  from  a  famous  movement  in  the 
'Jephte'  called  'Plorate  filise  Israel.'  Croft 
has  imitated  his  'Gaudeamus,'  and  Aldrich 
adapted  his  motets  to  English  words  for  anthems. 
Hawkins  prints  a  remarkably  graceful  little  duet 
of  Carissimi,  caUed  'Dite,  o  Cieli.'  It  was  in 
emulation  of  this  piece,  upon  hearing  it  over- 
praised by  King  Charles  II,  that  Dr.  Blow  com- 
posed his  celebrated  'Go,  perjured  man.'  The 
library  of  the  French  Conservatoire  is  rich  in 
the  manuscripts  of  Carissimi,  and  there  are  some 
valuable  volumes  of  his  music  in  the  British 
Museum.  But  the  magnificent  collection  of  his 
works  made  by  Dr.  Aldrich  at  Oxford  throws 
all  others  into  the  shade,  and  forms  one  of  the 
special  ornaments  of  the  library  at  Christ  Church. 
A  few  of  his  pieces  are  in  the  Musica  Romana 
of  Spiridione,  and  a  few  more,  disfigured  by 
French  words,  in  the  collection  of  '  Airs  serieux 
et  a  boire,'  published  by  Ballard.  There  are 
some  motets  of  his  in  Stevens's  *  Sacred  Music,' 
and  Crotch  has  published  one  or  two  examples  in 
his  'Selections  of  Music'  Five  specimens  are 
printed  in  the  'Fitzwilliam  Music'  Jephte, 
Judicium  Salomonis,  Jonas,  and  Baltazar  have 
been  published  by  Chrysander  (Schott) ;  and 
Jonah  by  Henry  Leslie  (Lambom  Cock).  Enough 
has  now  been  said  to  indicate  where  those  who 
are  interested  in  this  master  may  form  acquaint- 
ance with  his  work  ;  and  it  only  remains  to  add 
that  the  'Judgment  of  Solomon,'  a  cantata  often 
attributed  to  him,  was  in  all  probability  not  bJs, 
but  the  production  of  his  pupil  Cesti.    [E,  H.  P.] 

CARLO,  Geronimo,  bom  at  Reggio  in  the 
first  half  of  the  i6th  century;  author  of  a  col- 
lection of  five-part  motets  by  eminent  composers, 
Crequillon,  Clemens  non  Papa,  Ciera,  etc.,  en- 
titled 'Motetti  del  Labirinto,'  2  vols.  (Venice, 
1554  and  1555).  [M.C.C.] 

CARLTON,  Rev.  Richard,  Mus.  Bac,  pub- 
lished in  1 601  a  collection  of  twenty-one  '  Ma- 
drigals for  five  voyces,'  the  preface  to  which  is 
dated  from  Norwich.  He  had  in  the  same  year 
contributed  a  madrigal,  '  Calme  was  the  aire,' 
to  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana.'  Nothing  is  known 
of  his  biography.    One  of  the  same  name  was  in 


161 2  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Bawsby  and 
Glosthorp,  Norfolk.  [W.H.H.] 

CARMAGNOLE.  The  French  song  called 
*La  Carmagnole'  is  a  popular  tune  originating  in 
Provence.  Gretry  (Memoires,  iii.  13)  thought  it 
was  originally  a  sailor-song  often  heard  in  Mar- 
seilles ;  it  is  more  probably  a  country  roundelay 
or  dance-tune,  adapted  to  a  patriotic  mili- 
tary song  which  was  written  either  at  the  end 
of  August  or  early  in  September,  1792.  The 
four  stanzas  of  this  national  song  are  known 
to  a  very  few  historians  only  ;  we  transcribe  the 
first  couplet : — 

'  Le  canon  vient  de  r^sonner  : 
Guerriers,  soyez  prets  k  marcher. 
Citoyens  et  soldats. 
En  volant  aux  combats, 
Dansons  la  carmagnole  : 
Vive  le  son,  vive  le  son, 

Dansons  la  carmagnole, 
Vive  le  son 
Du  canon ! ' 

The  unknown  author  of  these  lines  was  pro- 
bably some  brave  soldier,  whilst  the  bloody  '  Car- 
magnole des  Royalistes'  may  be  attributed  to  the 
worst  of  demagogues.  The  original  eight  stanzas 
of  the  latter  began  as  follows : — 

*  Oui,  je  suis  sans  culotte,  moi, 
En  depit  des  amis  du  roi. 
Vive  les  MarseiUois, 
Les  Bretons  et  nos  lois  ! ' 
But  this  new  song  was  soon  enlarged,  and  when 
published  by  Frere  it  contained  thirteen  stanzas, 
the  first  of  which  ran  in  the  following  manner, 
'  to  the  tune  of  the  Carmagnole : — 


i 


Ma-dame  Ve  -  to     a  -  vait  pro-mis,  Ma-dame  Ve-to 


a  -  vait  pro-mis,     De  faire  i  -  gor  -  ger  tout  Pa-ris,  De 


faire    6  -  gor  -  ger    tout   Pa-ris;   Mais    son  coup  a  man- 


que,  Grace    d    nos    ca  -  non-niers.    Dan-sons    la    Car  -  ma- 


gno-le,  Vi-ve  le  son,    vi  -  ve  le   son,  Dan-sons  la  Car-ma- 


During  the  French  Revolution  a  great  many 
songs  were  adapted  to  this  tune,  which,  in  spite 
of  its  association  with  the  Terreur,  has  often 
1  been  introduced  on  the  stage  in  vaudevilles  or 
I  burlettas.  [G.C.J 
I     CARMAN'S  WHISTLE,  THE,  an  old  Eng- 
lish tune  found  in  the  Virginal  books  of  Lady 
Nevill  (1591)  and  Queen  Elizabeth  (1603-12). 
in  both  with  harmony  and  variations  by  Byrd. 


316 


CARMAN'S  WHISTLK 


CARPANI. 


The  following  is  the  air  as  there  given  (see  Bur- 
ney,  'History,'  iii.  89): — 

tr 


In  Chappell's  '  Popular  j\fusic  of  the  Olden 
Time'  (p.  139)  the  tune  is  given  to  the  words  of 
'The  courteous  carman  and  the  amorous  maid,' 
and  is  mentioned  (p.  42S)  as  suiting  'The  country 
hostesses  vindication.'  [G.] 


CAEMIGXANI,  Giovaxna,  sang  in  London 
in  1763,  taking,  among  others,  the  principal 
serious  part  of  Lavinia  in  '  La  Cascina,'  produced 
at  the  King's  Theatre  by  J.  C.  Bach.  Anna  de 
Amicis  sang  in  the  same  piece.  [J.M.] 

CARNABY,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  bom  in 
London  in  1772,  was  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel - 
Royal  under  I)r.  Nares  and  Dr.  Ayrton.  On 
leaving  the  choir  he  became  organist  at  Eye, 
which  he  quitted  for  a  similar  appointment  at 
Huntingdon.  Whilst  residing  at  the  latter  place 
he  published  '  Six  Canzonets,'  and  also  '  Six 
Son^,'  which  were  favourably  received.  In  1805 
he  graduated  at  Cambridge  as  Bachelor  of  Music, 
and  in  1808  proceeded  to  Doctor.  In  the  interval 
he  had  settled  in  London,  and  on  the  opening  of 
Hanover  Chapel,  Regent  Street,  in  1823,  he  was 
appointed  its  organist.  His  compositions,  chiefly 
vocal,  were  numerous.  They  have  been  charac- 
terised as  scientific,  but  deficient  in  taste.  He 
died  Nov.  13,  1839.  [W.H.H.] 

CARNAYAL  DE  YENISE.  This  popular 
air,  which  was  heard  by  Paganini  at  Venice, 
when  he  visited  the  Queen  of  the  Adriatic  in 
1816,  1824,  and  1826,  and  which  his  magic  bow 
hag  made  a  favourite  tune  all  over  the  world,  is 
the  eflfusion  of  an  unknown  musician  probably  of 
the  end  of  the  last  century.  Several  talented 
composers  have  embroidered  it,  and  all  pianists 
have  played  the  brilliant  variations  and  fantasias 
written  upon  it  by  Herz  and  Schulhoff.  It  has 
been  even  introduced  on  the  lyric  stage.  Am- 
broise  Thomas  has  composed  very  clever  variations 
on  the  tune  for  the  overture  to  his  opera  '  Le 
Camaval  de  Yenise,*  and  Yictor  Masse,  in  his 
'  Reine  Topaze,'  introduces  an  air  varie  upon  it 
to  the  words 

'  Yenise  est  tout  en  fetes, 
Car  voici  le  carnaval.' 

In  England  it  was  for  long  known  to  the  words 
*  0  come  to  me,  I'll  row  thee  o'er 
Across  yon  peaceful  sea.' 

The  air,  as  given  by  Paganini,  is  as  follows : — 


Andantino 


[G.C.] 

CARNICER,  Ramon,  Spanish  dramatic  com- 
poser, bom  near  Lerida  in  Catalonia  1789,  died  in 
I  MaJri-1  1855.    In  1818  he  was  appointed  con- 
ductor at  the  Italian  Opera  of  Barcelona,  and 
I  here  he  produced  successfully  his  first  opera 
J  '  Adela  de  Lusignano,'  which  was  followed  by 
!  several  others.    Between  1820  and  27  he  visited 
I  Paris  and  London,  and  was  favourably  received 
in  both.    In  28  he  was  appointed  conductor  at 
the  Theatre  Royal  in  Madrid,  for  which  he  com- 
posed 'Elena  e  Mai  vino'  (1829),  and  'Colombo' 
(1831),   generally   considered   his    best  work. 
He  largely  contributed  to  the  foundation  of  a 
national  opera.  From  1830  to  54  he  was  professor 
of  composition  at  the  Madrid  Conservatoire. 
Besides  nine  operas,  he  composed  church  music, 
symphonies,  military  marches,  national  hjTnns, 
and  an  infinity  of  songs.    His  muisic  is  original 
and  rh}i;hmical,  though  much  impregnated  with 
phrases  from  national  airs.  [M.C.C.] 
CAROL,  see  Htmn. 

CAROX,  FiRMiN,  a  composer  of  the  15th 
century,  probably  bom  about  1420.  He  is  said 
by  Tinctor  to  have  been  the  scholar  of  Binchois 
or  Dufay.  The  name  is  Flemish.  Baini  ('  Pales- 
trina')  states  that  the  Library  of  the  Pope's  Chapel 
possesses  a  MS.  volume  of  masses  by  Caron,  con- 
taining one  on  '  L'omme  arme.'  Caron  also  wrote 
secular  songs,  some  of  which  were  known  to 
M.  Fetis,  who  found  them  to  surpass  those  of 
Ockenheim  and  Busncis  in  ease.  One  of  them 
begins  'Helas  !  que  pourra  devenir.'  [M.C.C.] 

CAROSO,  Marco  Fabrice,  of  Sermoneta,  in 
Italy ;  author  of  '  II  Ballerino  . . .  con  intavolatura 
di  liuto,  e  il  soprano  della  musica  nella  sonata 
di  ciascun  ballo'  (Yenice,  1581),  valuable  for 
the  dance  music  which  it  contains.  [M.C.C.] 

CARPANI,  Giuseppe,  poet  and  writer  on 
music,  born  Jan.  28,  1752,  at  Yillalbese,  in  the 
district  of  Brianza.  His  father  destined  him 
for  the  law,  he  studied  at  Milan  and  Padua, 
and  practised  under  the  celebrated  advocate 
Yillata  at  Milan.  But  he  soon  gave  up  the 
law,  entered  the  society  of  artists  and  literary 
men,  and  indulged  his  natural  taste  for  art.  He 
had  already  written  more  than  one  comedy 
and  several  opera-libretti  for  the  Italian  stage, 
among  others  'CamUla,'  composed  by  Paer. 
In  consequence  of  some  violent  articles  against 
the  French  Revolution  in  the  'Gazetta  di  Milano,* 
of  which  he  was  editor  from  i  792-96,  he  had  to 
leave  Milan  when  it  was  taken  by  the  French. 


CAEPANI. 


CARTIER. 


317 


Until  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  in  1797  he 
lived  at  Vienna ;  after  that  date  he  became 
censor  and  director  of  the  stage  in  Venice,  but  a 
malady  of  the  eyes  drove  him  back  to  Vienna, 
where  the  Emperor  pensioned  him  till  his  death. 
He  published  a  number  of  translations  of  French 
and  German  operas,  and  also  wrote  an  oratorio 
on  *La  passione  di  Gesii  Christo,'  which  was 
set  to  music  by  Weigl,  and  performed  in  1808, 
in  the  palace  of  Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  in  1821 
by  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik-Freunde.  He  also 
translated  the  'Creation'  into  Italian,  and  wrote 
a  sonnet  on  the  celebrated  performance  of  that 
work,  at  which  Haydn  was  present  the  year  be- 
fore his  death.  Carpani  had  the  greatest  esteem 
and  affection  for  Haydn,  which  led  to  his  pub- 
lishing his  well-known  'Haydine,'  etc.  (Milan, 
181 2,  and  a  second  enlarged  edition  at  Padua, 
1 8 23).  *  La  Haydine'  is  a  kind  of  sesthetical  work, 
and  a  eulogy  on  Haydn's  compositions,  written 
with  enthusiasm.  It  quickly  found  a  translator 
in  Beyle,  the  French  writer,  who  published  it  as  his 
own  composition  under  the  name  of  Bombet — 
'  Lettres  ecrites  de  Vienne,  etc.,  by  Louis  Alex- 
andre Cesar  Bombet'  (Paris,  1814).  Carpani 
attacked  this  piracy  in  two  spirited  letters 
— 'Lettere  due,  deU'  Autore  deUe  Haydine' 
(Vienna,  181 5).  Beyle  was,  nevertheless,  au- 
dacious enough  again  to  publish  his  work, 
this  time  under  the  alias  of  Stendahl,  '  Vies 
de  Haydn,  Mozart,  et  Metastase,'  etc.  (Paris, 
181 7),  In  spite  of  Carpani's  protestations, 
the  first  of  the  two  appeared  in  English  as 
'Lives  of  Haydn  and  Mozart'  (Murray,  181 7; 
and  Boston,  U.S.,  1839).  Extracts  of  Carpani's 
original  work,  translated  by  D,  Mondo,  appeared 
at  Niort  in  1836,  and  in  a  complete  form  at 
Paris  1837,  under  the  title  'Haydn,  sa  vie,  ses 
ou^Tages,  et  ses  aventures,  etc.,  par  Joseph  Car- 
pani ;  traduction  de  Mondo.'  Some  clever  but 
partial  sketches  of  Rossini  were  published  by 
Carpani  in  one  volume  as  'Le  Rossiniane,' 
(Padua,  1824).  This  also  was  pirated  anonymously 
by  Beyle  (Paris),  and  published  by  Mondo.  In 
1809  Carpani  accompanied  the  Archduke  John  1 
on  his  expedition  to  Italy.  After  the  return  i 
of  peace,  he  devoted  himself  to  starting  the 
'Biblioteca  Italiana.'  He  died  in  the  smaller 
Liechtenstein  Palace  at  Vienna,  a  bachelor  of 
73,  on  Jan.  22,  1825,  from  simple  decay  of 
nature.  [C.F.P.] 
CARPENTRAS,  or  IL  CARPENTRASSO, 
the  sobriquet  of  Eliazar  Genet,  born  at  Car- 
pentras,  Vaucluse,  before  1500.  Being  in  priest's 
orders  he  became  a  member  of  the  Pope's  Chapel, 
and  wrote  some  Magnificats  and  Lamentations, 
the  latter  of  which  induced  Leo  X  to  make  him 
Bishop  in  partihus  in  1518.  About  the  same 
time  he  became  the  Pope's  Chapel-master.  He 
was  much  employed  in  negotiations  by  both  Leo 
and  Clement  VII,  and  died  after  the  year  1532 
— the  date  of  two  out  of  four  volumes  of  music 
which  he  published.  Vol.  i  contains  5  masses, 
written  on  the  most  secular  tunes — *  A  1' ombre 
d'un  buissonet,' '  Encore  irai-je  jouer,'  etc. ;  vol.  2, 
the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  j  vol.  3  is  Liber 


Hymnorum ;  vol.  4,  Liber  Magnificat.  Carpen- 
tras'  music  enjoj'ed  a  great  fame  at  the  time, 
and  was  much  published  (see  the  list  in  F^tis). 
His  Lamentations  were  so  favourite  as  to  keep 
those  of  Palestrina  out  of  the  Pope's  Chapel  for 
many  years.  M.  Fdtis  had  examined  them,  how- 
ever, and  finds  them  inferior  not  only  to  Pales- 
trina but  to  Josquin  des  Pres. 

CARRODUS,  John  Tipladt,  born  at  Keigh- 
ley,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  20,  1836.  His  father  was 
a  zealous  amateur,  a  violin  pla37er,  and  leader  of 
the  local  Choral  Society.  The  boy  was  destined 
to  music  from  the  first,  and  at  12  years  of  age 
was  put  into  the  able  hands  of  Molique,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Stuttgart,  and  with  whom  he 
remained  till  nearly  18.  On  his  return  to  Lon- 
don he  entered  the  orchestra  of  Covent  Garden, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  solo-player  at 
a  concert  of  the  Musical  Society  of  London,  on 
April  22,  1863,  since  which  time  he  has  been 
frequently  heard  at  the  Philharmonic,  the  Crystal 
Palace,  and  other  leading  concerts,  both  metro- 
politan and  provincial.  He  has  published  two 
Violin  Solos  and  a  Morceau  de  Salon.  [G.] 

CARTER,  Thomas,  born  in  Dublin  about 
1735,  at  an  early  age  displayed  a  capacity  for 
music,  and  was  sent,  imder  the  auspices  of  the 
Earl  of  Inchiquin,  to  Italy  for  study.  He  after- 
wards went  to  India  and  vmdertook  the  direction 
of  the  music  at  the  Calcutta  Theatre,  but  the 
climate  proving  injurious  to  his  health,  he  re- 
turned to  England  and  appeared  as  a  dramatic 
composer.  He  furnished  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
with  music  for  '  The  Rival  Candidates'  (1775), 
'The  Milesians'  (1777),  and  the  *  Fair  Ameri- 
can' (1782).  In  1787  he  became  musical  director 
of  the  Royalty  Theatre,  Goodman's  Fields,  then 
opened  under  the  management  of  John  Palmer, 
and  produced  there  'The  Birth-day'  and  'The 
Constant  Maid,'  besides  songs  and  catches.  In 
1792  he  composed  the  comic  opera  'Just  in 
Time,'  for  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  He  pub- 
lished many  concertos  and  lessons  for  the  piano- 
forte, but  he  is  now  best  known  as  the  composer 
of  Bishop  Percy's  baUad,  '  0  JSTanny,  wilt  thou 
gang  wi'  me  V  and  the  naval  song  '  Stand  to 
your  guns.'  Carter's  life  was  passed  in  a  constant 
succession  of  embarrassments,  consequent  upon 
his  incorrigible  carelessness  and  improvidence. 
He  died  Oct.  12,  1804.  [W.H.H.] 

CARTIER,  Jean  Baptists,  a  French  violinist, 
born  at  Avignon  in  1765  ;  the  son  of  a  dancing- 
master.  His  first  teacher  on  the  violin  was  an 
Abb^  Walrauf.  In  1783  he  went  to  Paris  and 
continued  his  studies  under  Viotti.  His  progress 
must  have  been  rapid,  as  he  very  soon,  on  Viotti's 
recommendation,  obtained  the  post  of  accom- 
panyist  to  Marie  Antoinette,  which  he  held  up  to 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  In  1791  he 
entered  the  band  of  the  opera  as  assistant -leader 
and  solo-player.  From  1804  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Emperor  Napoleon's  private  band  imder  Pai- 
siello  and,  after  the  Restoi*ation,  of  the  Royal  band 
till  1830.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1S41.  Cartier 
was  a  good  violinist,  and  it  was  his  great  merit 


318 


CAETIER. 


CASINI. 


to  have  re\-ived  the  noble  traditions  of  the  old 
Italian  school  of  violin  ■  playing  by  publishing 
new  editions  of  the  works  of  Corelli,  Tartini, 
Nardini  and  other  great  masters,  which  at  that 
time  were  all  but  unknown  in  France,  He 
thereby  caused  not  only  his  o-wn  numerous  pupils 
but  all  the  young  French  violinists  of  his  time  to 
take  up  the  study  of  these  classical  works  for  the 
violin.  In  his  work  'L'art  du  violon'  (Paris 
1798  and  1 801)  Cartier  gives  a  comprehensive 
selection  from  the  violin  music  of  the  best  Italian, 
French,  and  German  masters,  which  is  rightly 
regarded  as  a  practical  history  of  violin-litera- 
ture in  the  1 7th  and  I  Sth  centuries. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  a  history  of 
violin-playing,  which  he  wrote,  has  never  been 
made  public.  His  compositions  are  of  no  im- 
portance. He  published  Sonatas  in  the  style  of 
LoUi,  Etudes,  and  Duos  for  violins.  F^tis  also  men- 
tions two  Operas,  two  Symphonies  and  Violin- 
concertos,  which  have  remained  in  MS. 

CARTOXI,  a  barytone  engaged  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1822,  at  a  salary  of  £700,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Camporese,  For  his  musical 
education  he  was  indebted  entirely  to  his  wife. 
He  made  his  fii'st  appearance  as  the  King  in 
Pacini's  *  II  Barone  di  Dolsheim,'  and,  although 
not  possessed  of  first-rate  talents,  was  a  respect- 
able performer,  [J,M.] 

CARULLI,  Ferdinando,  an  eminent  guitar- 
ist, born  at  Naples  1770,  died  in  Paris  1841. 
Though  self-taught  he  attained  a  perfection  of 
execution  hitherto  imknown  on  the  guitar,  and 
on  his  arrival  in  Paris  created  a  perfect  furore. 
In  the  space  of  twelve  years  he  published  300 
compositions,  including  a  'Method'  which  passed 
through  four  editions.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  '  L'Harmonie  appliquee  a  la  Guitare'  (Paris, 
1825),  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  accompanying, 
which  was  the  first  work  of  its  kind.     [M.  C.C.] 

CARUSO,  LuiGi,  bom  at  Naples  1754,  died 
at  Perugia  1822  ;  son  of  a  musician  at  Naples, 
studied  under  Nicolo  Sala,  composed  in  aU  sixty 
operas  (for  list  see  Fetis)  of  which  the  first  was 
'II  Barone  di  Trocchia'  (Naples,  1773),  and  the 
last  '  L' Awiso  ai  Maritati'  (Rome,  1810).  His 
'Artaserse'  was  performed  in  London  in  1774, 
He  also  composed  four  oratorios,  four  cantatas, 
and  masses,  etc.,  of  a  style  more  dramatic  than 
ecclesiastical.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  for  some 
time  in  Paris  and  Germany,  and  to  have  been 
conductor  at  Palermo,  He  had  a  brother  Em- 
manuele,  also  a  musician.  [M,C,C.] 

CASALI,  Giovanni  Battista,  Chapel-master 
of  St,  John  Lateran  in  Rome  from  1759  till  his 
death  1792.  An  opera  of  his,  'Campaspe,'  was 
produced  at  Venice  1 740.  Gr^try  was  his  pupil 
for  two  years  in  Rome,  but  Casali  did  not  de- 
tect his  talent,  and  sent  him  back  with  a  letter 
of  introduction  in  which  he  described  the  great 
opera  wTiter  as  'a  nice  fellow,  but  a  thorough  ass 
and  ignoramus  in  music'  Casali's  works  comprise 
4  masses,  motets,  magnificats,  and  many  other 
pieces  for  the  church.    He  wrote  in  a  very  pure 


style,  though  without  much  invention.  A  mass 
and  4  other  pieces  are  given  by  Liick  (Sammlung, 
1859),  and  an  '  O  quam  suavis,'  a  pretty  melodi- 
ous movement,  by  Novello,  from  Choron.  [G,] 
CASARINI,  SiGNORA,  sometimes  called  CA- 
SARINA,  an  Italian  soprano  engaged  in  London 
for  Handel's  operas  in  1748.  She  appeared  in 
*  Alexander  Balus'  and  *  Joshua.'  [J.  M.] 

CASE,  John,  M.D.,  a  native  of  Woodstock, 
was  a  chorister,  first  at  New  College  and  after- 
wards at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  subse- 
quently became  a  fellow  of  St.  John's  College, 
which  he  vacated  on  marriage,  when  he  esta- 
blished himself  in  Oxford  as  a  lecturer  to  private 
pupils  on  philosophy,  for  which  he  enjoyed  a 
high  and  deserved  reputation.  In  1586  he  pub- 
lished 'The  Praise  of  Musicke,'  and  in  1588 
'Apologia  Musices  tam  vocalis  tam  instrumen- 
talis  et  mixtae.'  Thomas  Watson  wrote  a  song 
in  his  praise,  which  was  set  to  music  by  William 
Byrd.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1599-1600,  [W,H.H.] 
CASENTINI,  SiGNORA,  a  good  singer  in  the 
comic  style,  appeared  at  the  Pantheon  in  London 
in  1 791,  taking  the  principal  part  in  Paisiello's 
'Locanda,'  and  other  operas.  Lord  Mount - 
Edgcumbe  describes  her  as  '  a  pretty  woman  and 
genteel  actress,'  In  93  she  had  married  Borghi, 
second  violin  at  the  opera,  and  was  singing  at 
the  King's  Theatre ;  but  she  was  not  in  good 
health,  and  her  voice  was  too  weak  for  that 
house.  Her  later  history  is  not  known.  [J.M.] 
CASINI,  Giovanni  Maria,  was  a  Florentine 
priest,  and  bom  towards  the  close  of  the  17th 
I  century.  Fdtis  gives  1675  as  the  date  of  his 
birth,  but  it  is  not  ascertained.  He  came  to 
Rome  early  in  life,  but  not  before  he  had  leamt 
i  the  elements  of  counterpoint  in  his  native  town. 
I  At  Rome  he  was  successively  the  pupil  of  Matteo 
'  Simonelli  and  Bernardo  Pasquini,  under  the  last- 
j  named  of  whom  he  perfected  himself  as  an  organ 
1  player.  The  only  post  which  he  is  known  to 
have  held  was  that  of  organist  in  the  cathedral 
of  Florence,  He  was  simply  a  perverse  man  of 
talent  who  elected  to  join  the  ranks,  and  to  add 
!  one  or  two  more  to  the  absurdities,  of  those 
musical  reactionists  who  tried  to  stop  the  pro- 
gress of  the  art  in  the  17th  century.  He  fol- 
lowed in  the  wake  of  Doni  Vicentino  and  Colonna 
in  endeavouring  to  revive  the  three  old  Greek 
'genera'  of  progression,  viz.  the  diatonic,  the 
chromatic,  and  the  enharmonic.  F^tis,  indeed, 
says  that,  as  several  enthusiastic  pedants  of  his 
class  had  done  before  him,  he  constructed  a 
clavecin  in  which  the  notes  represented  by  the 
black  keys  were  subdivided,  so  as  to  obtain  an 
exact  equalisation  of  the  semitones.  Baini  does 
not  carry  him  this  length,  but  only  states  him 
to  have  adopted  the  views  of  those  who  thus 
wasted  their  labour  and  ingenuity.  In  his  ao-* 
count  of  Casini  the  last-named  biographer  te 
us  that  the  most  celebrated  of  these  instrumen 
was  one  which  he  purchased  himself  from  mo- 
tives of  patriotism  to  prevent  such  a  curiosity 
being  taken  out  of  Italy.  It  was  a  cembalo, 
which  had  been  constructed  in  1606  at  the  ex- 


CATALAXI. 


319 


pense  of  Camillo  Gonzaga,  Count  of  Novellara. 
It  had  four  octaves,  each  divided  into  31  notes, 
and  as  the  highest  of  the  treble  was  in  octaves 
to  the  lowest  of  the  bass,  it  had  125  keys  in 
all,  black  and  white.  He  bought  with  it  a 
four-stringed  instrument,  noted  to  correspond 
with  it,  so  that  the  two  could  easily  be  tuned 
in  unison. 

Casini's  published  works  consist  of — a  volume 
of  motets  fior  4  voices  in  the  'stile  osservato,' 
intitxiled  'Johannis  Mariae,  Casini  Majoris  Ec- 
clesiae  Florentiae  modulatoris,  et  sacerdotio 
proediti,  Moduli  quatuor  vocibus  :  opus  primum. 
Komae,  apud  Mascardum,  1706.'  'Responsori 
per  la  Settimana  Santa,  a  4  voci,  op.  2,  Florence, 
C.  Bindi,  1 706.'  '  Motetti  a  4  voci  a  Cappella, 
ibid.  1 71 4.'  'Fantasies  and  Fugues  for  the 
Organ,  Florence,  17 14  '  A  motet  of  his  is 
given  by  Proske  in  'Musica  Divina,'  ii.  No. 
58.  [E.H.P.] 

CASSATION",  perhaps  implying  'farewell,' 
designates  a  piece  of  instrumental  music  of  the 
last  century,  for  the  open  air,  in  several  move- 
ments, much  like  the  Seben'ade  or  DrvzRTiMEyTO. 
In  Kochel's  Mozart  Catalogue  there  are  three, 
Noa.  62,  63,  99,  the  two  last  of  7  movements 
each.  [G.] 

CASSEL,  GuiLLAUirE.  bom  at  Lyons  1794, 
died  at  Brussels  1S36  ;  dramatic  singer  ;  studied 
first  tmder  Georges  Jadin,  and  then  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  xmder  Garat  and  Talma.  He  made 
his  debut  at  Amiens,  and  sang  at  various  places 
previous  to  his  appearance  at  the  Opera  Comique 
in  Paris,  where  he  remained  for  three  years.  At 
the  end  of  that  time  he  quarrelled  with  Pixere- 
court,  the  director,  and  retired  to  Belgium,  where 
he  settled  for  life.  After  a  five  years'  engage- 
ment in  Brussels  he  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1832,  and  became  a  teacher.  He  trained  many 
eminent  pupils,  including  Madame  Dorus-Gras. 
In  33  he  was  appointed  professor  of  singing  at 
the  Brussels  Conservatoire.  His  compositions 
were  unimportant,  but  he  was  successful  as  a 
teacher.  [M.C.C.] 

CASTAXETS.  A  pair  of  castanets  (or  castag- 
nettea)  consists  of  two  small  pieces  of  hard  wood, 
shaped  somewhat  like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon,  or  a 
gcaUop  shell.  These  are  hinged  together  by  a 
cord,  the  ends  of  which  pass  over  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  performer.  The  remaining 
fingers  strike  the  two  halves  together,  either  in 
single  strokes  or  in  trills  ;  the  instrument  emit- 
ting a  deep  hollow  click,  which,  although  not  a 
musical  note,  is  nevertheless  not  disagreeable  to 
the  ear.  The  performer  has  usually  a  pair  in 
each  hand.  It  is  a  Moorish  and  Spanish  in- 
strument, and  is  intended  for  accompanying 
dances.    Its  use  by  ballet-dancers  is  well  known. 

"When  required  to  be  played  in  the  orchestra, 
to  accompany  dance- music,  it  is  best  to  attach  a 
pair,  half  on  each  side,  to  a  flat  piece  of  hard 
wood,  ending  in  a  stick  about  eight  inches  long. 
By  shaking  this  apparatus,  the  required  effect  is 
produced,  without  the  necessity  of  fitting  the 


'  castanets  to  the  performer's  fingers,  who  gener- 
ally is  playing  some  other  instrument,  and  must 
suddenly  take  up  the  castanets  to  play  a  few 

I  bars. 

I     The  Spanish  name  is  Castanvela,  either  be- 
cause made  sometimes  from  the  wood  of  the 
chestnut -tree  castano)  or  from  some  fancied  re- 
I  semblance  to  the  two  halves  into  which  the  chest- 
I  nut  (casta fia)  naturally  divides  itself.  [Y.  de  P.] 

j  CASTELLI,  a  seconda  donna  engaged  at  the 
King's  Theatre  in  1825,  at  a  salary  of  £250. 
She  sang  the  part  of  Alma  in  '  11  Crociato'  with 
Velluti  in  25  and  26  ;  and,  in  the  latter  year,  also 
that  of  Cherubino  in  '  Le  Nozze.'  She  pleased 
the  public,  though  far  from  equalling  Caradori 
in  that  role.  She  was  engaged  again  in  1S2S, 
since  when  her  name  does  not  occur.        [J.  M.] 

CASTELLI,  Ignaz  Friedrich,  bom  at  Vienna 
1781,  died  there  1854;  German  dramatist  of 
;  great  popularity,  author  of  the  librettos  of 
Weigl's  '  Schweizer  Familie,'  and  Schubert's 
'  Versch women '  or  'Hausliche  Kjieg,'  and 
adaptc-r  amongst  others  of  Meyerbeer's  '  Hugue- 
nots.' From  181 1  held  the  post  of  'Hoftheater- 
dichter'  at  the  Kamthnerthor  theatre  in  Vienna. 
Founder,  and  from  1829  to  1840,  sole  editor  of 
the  'Allgemeiner  musikalischer  Anzeiger.'  He 
was  a  good  amateur  violinist,  and  was  greatly 
esteemed  and  beloved.  [M.C.C.] 

CASTEO,  J EAy  de,  composer  and  lutist.  In 
1570  he  was  at  Lyons,  and  in  1580  chapel  master 
to  the  Prince  of  Juliers.  He  composed  many 
sets  of  madrigals,  odes,  sonnets,  and  sacred  songs 
( 1 569-1 600).  One  collection,  'La  Fleur  des 
Chansons'  (Lou vain  and  Antwerp  1547)  con- 
tains, besides  compositions  of  his  own,  songs  by 
Severin,  Comet,  2s  oe  Faignent,  Clereau,  Cre- 
quillon,  Jacotin,  and  Jannequin.  For  list  see 
Fetis,  [M.C.C.] 

CASTEUCCI,  Pleteo,  pupil  of  Corelli,  and 
distinguished  violin  player,  bom  at  Eome  16S9. 
In  1 715  he  came  to  England  with  Lord  Bvir- 
lington  and  became  leader  of  Handel's  opera-band. 
He  had  a  special  reputation  as  performer  on  the 
ViOLETTA  MABLNA,  an  instrument  of  his  own 
invention.  In  Handel's  'Orlando'  is  an  air 
accompanied  by  two  Violette  marine  with  celli 
pizzicati,  'pergli  Signori  Castrucci'  (seethe  MS.) 
meaning  Pietro  and  his  brother  Prospero.  In 
Handel's  'Sosarme'  is  also  an  air  with  Violetta 
marina  obHgato.  In  1737  he  was  superseded  at 
the  opera  by  Festing — not  by  Clegg.  To  his 
undoubted  talent  Castmcci  added  an  amoimt  of 
charlatanism  surprising  in  a  pupil  of  Corelli's, 
though  paralleled  by  other  great  players,  Clement, 
Boucher,  Ole  Bull,  &c.  An  instance  of  these  is 
given  by  Bumey  (^Hist.  iv.  353  note).  He  died 
1769  in  great  poverty.  Castrucci  is  said  to 
have  been  the  original  of  Hogarth's  'Enraged 
musician';  but  that  is  now  known  to  be  in- 
tended for  Festing.  [P-I^-] 

CATALAXI,  As-GELiCA,  bom  Oct.  1779  at 
Sinigaglia,  where  her  father  was  a  tradesman. 


320 


CATALAXI. 


CATALAXI. 


About  the  age  of  1 2  she  was  sent  to  the  convent 
of  Santa  Lucia  at  Gubbio,  near  Rome,  where 
her  beautiful  voice  soon  became  a  great  attraction. 
In  its  full  freshness,  according  to  Fetis  and  all 
other  authorities,  it  must  ha.ve  been  one  of 
extraordinary  purity,  force,  and  compass,  going 
as  far  as  G  in  altissimo,  with  a  sweet  clear  tone. 
This  exquisite  quality  was  allied  to  a  marvellous 
truth  and  rapidity  of  execution.  No  singer  has 
ever  surpassed,  or  perhaps  equalled,  her  in  chro- 
matic scales,  whether  in  velocity  or  precision.  On 
leaving  the  convent,  into  which  she  had  been 
introduced  by  the  Cardinal  Onorati,  and  where 
the  congregation  could  frequently  not  be  pre- 
vented from  openly  applauding  her  splendid 
notes  in  the  services,  she  found  herself,  owing 
to  the  sudden  impoverishment  of  her  parents, 
compelled  to  perform  in  public.  Her  musical 
education  had  been  but  ill  cared  for  in  the 
convent,  where  she  passed  three  years ;  and  she 
had  contracted  bad  tricks  of  vocalisation,  which 
she  never  entirely  overcame,  even  after  hearing 
such  great  models  as  Marchesi  and  Crescentini. 
One  of  her  faults  was  that  she  could  never 
execute  certain  passages  without  a  very  per- 
ceptible oscillation  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  made 
them,  instead  of  being  even  and  smooth,  sound 
like  a  succession  of  staccato  passages  on  the 
violin.  In  spite  of  this  fault,  which  was  indeed 
more  within  the  criticism  of  connoisseurs  than 
of  the  public  generally,  her  voice  was  so  full, 
powerful,  and  clear,  her  intonation  so  puxe  and 
true,  and  her  instinctive  execution  of  difficult 
and  brilliant  music  so  easy  and  unfaltering,  that 
her  singing  had  a  charm  which  has  scarcely 
ever  been  equalled,  and  her  very  first  steps  in 
a  theatrical  career  were  marked  by  the  most 
extraordinary  success.  When  she  began,  the 
favourite  style  was  that  of  expressive  and 
pathetic  song,  and  in  this  she  never  produced  the 
effect  which  she  subsequently  made  in  bravura. 
Thus  at  Paris  she  failed  comparatively  in  a 
tender  song  of  Piccini's,  'Se'l  ciel  mi  divide,' 
though  shortly  after,  she  created  the  greatest 
enthusiasm  by  her  'Son  regina,'  by  an  air  of  Rode's 
with  variations,  concert i  for  the  voice,  and  other 
pieces  of  the  most  florid  execution.  In  1795,  at 
the  age  of  1 6,  she  obtained  her  first  engagement 
at  the  Fenice  at  Venice,  and  made  her  debut  as 
Lodoiska  in  the  opera  of  that  name  by  Mayer. 
Her  face,  figure,  and  voice,  assured  her  success, 
a  success  which  grew  day  by  day,  and  lasted  for 
nearly  thirty  years.  In  the  season  of  1798,  she 
sang  at  Leghorn  with  Crivelli,  Marchesi,  and 
!Mrs.  Billington ;  the  year  after,  at  La  Pergola 
in  Florence,  in  Nasolini's  '  Monima  e  Mitridate' ; 
and,  in  1801,  at  Milan,  in  the  '  Clitemnestra'  of 
Zingarelli,  and  Nasolini's  '  Baccanali.'  In  these 
early  efforts  her  effect  was  not  due  to  method  or 
skill ;  it  was  her  superb  voice  that  carried  all 
before  her.  From  ^lilan  she  went  to  Florence, 
Trieste,  Rome,  and  Naples,  exciting  everywhere 
the  same  astonishment  and  admiration. 

Her  reputation  now  reached  the  ears  of  the 
Prince  Regent  of  Portugal,  who  engaged  her, 
with  Mme,  Gafforini  and  Crescentini,  to  sing  at 


'  the  Italian  Opera  there,  and  she  arrived  about 
the  end  of  the  year  1S04.  Her  salary  was  24,000 
cruzados  (£3,000). 
!     Some  writers  have  said  that  she  derived  very 
great  advantage  from  the  instruction  of  Cres- 
centini, which,  indeed,  seems  more  than  likely ; 
but  Fetis,  on  the  authority  of  Crescentini  himself, 
contradicts  this  statement  categorically,  afBrming 
that  Crescentini  told  him  that  he  had  endeavoured 
.  to  give  her  a  little  advice,  which  she  had  seemed 
1  incapable  of  understanding.     It  was  here  that 
she  married  Yalabr^gue,  of  the  French  embassy ; 
but  she  never  quitted  her  name  of  Catalani 
before   the   public.     Her  husband,  a  stupid, 
ignorant  soldier,  appears  to  have  had  no  ideas 
beyond  helping  his  talented  wife  to  gain  the 
utmost  possible  amount  of  money  on  every 
occasion,  and  spending  it  for  her  afterwards. 
From  their  marriage  dates  one  of  the  worst  of 
the  many  speculations  that  have  been  based  on 
the  capital  of  a  grand  voice  and  great  personal 
'  charm.    They  went  first  to  Madrid,  and  then  to 
j  Paris,  where  she  sang  only  in  concerts,  but 
j  where  she  gained  even  more  fame  than  before. 

On  October  26,  1805,  Mme.  Catalani  signed 
I  her  first  engagement  (in  the  possession  of  the 
writer)  with  F.  Goold  and  W.  Taylor,  manager 
and  proprietors  of  the  King's  Theatre  in  the 
'  Haymarket,  for  the  season  from  September  15, 
j  1806,  to  August  1807,  at  a  salary  of  £2,000 
I  sterling,  with  'a  further  sum  of  £100  sterling 
;  to  defray  the  expenses  of  her  journey  to  London.' 
I  and  also  '  one  Benefit  Night  free  of  expence  in 
,  the  month  of  March,  at  which  a  new  opera  shall 
I  be  performed.'     Before  crossing,  however,  she 
;  gave  concerts  at  Madrid  and  Paris,  by  which 
;  she  gained  large  sums  of  money,  and  created  a 
deep  imfiression ;  indeed,  Napoleon  offered  her 
,  an  engagement  from  which  she  had  some  difficulty 
!  in  escaping,  in  order  to  fulfil  that  at  the  King's 
!  Theatre.     At  the  moment  of  her  arrival  in 
i  London,  Grassini  and  Mrs.  Billington  had  just 
I  retired ;  and,  as  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  says, 
j  'the  great,  the  far-famed  Catalani  supplied  the 
place  of  both,  and  for  many  years  reigned  alone, 
;  for  she  would  bea,r  no  rival,  nor  any  singer 
I  sufficiently  good  to  divide  the  applause.'  *It 
'  is  well  known,'  he  continues,  '  that  her  voice  is 
i  of  a  most  imcommon  quality,  and  capable  of 
'  exertions  almost  supernatural.   Her  throat  seems 
1  endued  (as  has  been  remarked  by  medical  men) 
I  with  a  power  of  expansion  and  muscular  motion 
I  by  no  means  usual,  and  when  she  throws  out  all 
!  her  voice  to  the  utmost,  it  has  a  volume  and 
j  strength  that  are  quite  surprising  ;  while  its 
j  agility  in  di^"isions,  running  up  and  down  the 
;  scale  in  semi-tones,  and  its  compass  in  jumping 
i  over  two  octaves  at  once,  are  equally  astonishing. 
It  were  to  be  wished,'  says  this  connoisseur  of 
the  old  school,  'that  she  was  less  lavish  in  the 
display  of  these  wonderful  powers,  and  sought  to 
please  more  than  to  surprise ;  but  her  taste  is 
vicious,  her  excessive  love  of  ornament  spoiling 
every  simple  air,  and  her  greatest  delight  (indeed 
her  chief  merit)  being  in  songs  of  a  bold  and 
spirited  character,  where  much  is  left  to  her 


CATALANI. 


CATALANI. 


321 


discretion  (or  indiscretion),  without  being  confined 
by  the  accompaniment,  but  in  which  she  can 
indulge  in  ad  libitum  passages  with  a  luxuriance 
and  redundancy  no  other  singer  ever  possessed, 
or  if  possessing  ever  practised,  and  which  she 
carries  to  a  fantastical  excess.'  The  opinions 
of  all  good  judges  were  nearly  the  same  with 
the  above ;  but  the  public  was  led  completely 
away  by  her  marvellous  powers.  She  made  her 
d^but  Dec.  15,  1806,  in  the  'Semiramide'  of 
Portogallo,  composed  for  her  expressly.  She 
appeared  also  in  '  Mitridate,'  'Elfrida,'  and  most 
unwillingly  in  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito,'  for  the 
strict  time  required  in  Mozart's  music,  and  the 
importance  of  the  accompaniments,  were  not 
suited  to  her  style.  She  was,  however,  the 
singer  who  introduced  to  the  English  stage 
his  'Nozze  di  Figaro,'  in  which  she  played 
Susanna  to  admiration.  In  the  'Orazi'  she 
performed  the  part  of  the  first  soprano,  Curiazio, 
that  of  the  first  woman  being  filled  by  Ferlendis. 
In  'Didone'  she  caused  the  role  of  Enea  to  be 
sung  by  Madame  Dussek,  who  was  entirely  un- 
fitted for  it ;  and,  in  another  opera,  she  made 
Madame  Dussek  act  the  first  woman's  part, 
choosing  for  herself  that  of  the  primo  uomo. 
Subsequently  she  assumed  also  the  place  of 
prima  huffa,  and  succeeded  equally  well  in  that 
line ;  singing  with  greater  simplicity  and  ease, 
she  was  by  some  preferred  in  comic  opera.  Her 
face  and  figure  suited  both  styles  ;  for  her  hand- 
some countenance  was  capable  of  great  varieties 
of  expression.  Her  gains  soon  became  enormous. 
She  was  the  great  attraction  of  Goold's  manage- 
ment, and  her  engagements  entailed  on  the 
theatre  an  expense  surpassing  anything  before 
experienced.  Mr.  Waters,  in  a  pamphlet  which 
he  published,  gives  the  total  amount  received  by 
her  from  the  theatre  in  1807,  including  benefits, 
at  £5,000,  and  her  total  profits  that  year,  with 
concerts,  provincial  tour,  etc.,  at  £16,700, — an 
immense  sum  to  be  received  in  such  a  period  for 
the  services  of  a  single  artist.  That  she  some- 
times found  a  difficulty  in  getting  payment  is 
not  surprising,  especially  from  such  a  manager 
as  Taylor.  Ebers  relates  that,  on  one  occasion, 
she  refused  to  sing  unless  a  debt  of  £1,000  due 
to  her  was  paid ;  and  that  he  gave  security  for 
this,  of  which  he  had  ultimately  to  pay  every 
farthing.  She  received  as  much  as  200  guineas 
for  sintjing  'God  save  the  King'  and  'Rule 
Britannia,'  and  at  a  single  festival  £  2,000,  Had 
she  practised  the  least  economy  she  must  have 
amassed  a  very  great  fortune  ;  but  this  she  did 
not  do.  It  is  said,  for  example,  that  the  con- 
sumption of  beer  by  her  servants  during  a  single 
year  amounted  to  £103.  More  serious  causes, 
i  however,  contributed  to  dissipate  these  riches  as 
j  fast  as  she  gained  them ;  for  her  husband  was 
I  passionately  addicted  to  gambling,  and  lost  vast 
sums  at  play.  She  remained  seven  years  in 
England,  where  she  finally  succeeded  in  becoming 
the  only  singer  of  eminence,  and  led  in  both 
lines ;  but  one  singer  does  not  constitute  an 
[  opera,  though  Valabrfegue  used  to  say  *Ma 
j    femme  et  quatre  ou  cinq  poupees, — voilk  tout 


ce  qu'il  faut.*  Neither  would  her  disposition 
endure  the  possibility  of  rivalry,  nor  the  ex- 
travagance of  her  increasing  demands  allow  any 
manager  to  engage  other  singers.  She  quitted 
the  theatre  at  the  end  of  the  season  of  1813, 
having  first  endeavoured  (unsuccessfully)  to 
purchase  it,  and  so  become  sole  proprietor,  sole 
manager,  and  sole  singer.  After  leaving  this 
stage,  she  for  many  years  never  trod  any  other, 
except  at  Paris,  where  she  obtained  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Italian  opera,  with  a  subvention  of 
160,000  francs;  but  the  undertaking  was  not 
fortunate.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon,  in  181 5, 
she  left  Paris,  going  first  to  Hamburg,  and  after- 
wards to  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  exciting 
everywhere  the  wildest  admiration  and  enthu- 
siasm. She  returned  to  France,  after  the 
Restoration,  by  Holland  and  Belgium.  On  her 
arrival  at  Paris,  she  resumed  the  direction  of 
the  Theatre  Italien,  and  established  the  same 
ruinous  system  which  had  destroyed,  for  a  time, 
opera  in  London.  Every  expense  of  scenery, 
orchestra,  and  chorus,  was  curtailed,  and  every 
singer  of  worth  excluded,  in  order  that  the  entire 
receipts  might  go,  with  the  subvention,  into  the 
purse  of  Valabrfegue.  This  was  not  all.  To  suit 
this  state  of  things  the  operas  were  arranged  in 
such  a  manner  that  little  of  the  original  but  the 
name  remained.  The  rest  consisted  of  variations 
by  Rode,  and  similar  things,  with  the  famous 
'  Son  regina,'  interpolated  in  place  of  the  concerted 
pieces  and  songs  which  had  been  cut  out.  In 
May  1816  Catalani  left  her  opera  in  the  hands 
of  managers,  and  went  to  Munich  to  give  some 
concerts  and  representations.  Thence  she  pro- 
ceeded to  Italy,  and  only  returned  to  Paris  in 
August  181 7.  In  the  next  April  she  left  her 
opera  entirely,  and  resumed  her  wanderings. 
Having  engaged  Mme.  Gail  to  accompany  her, 
as  Pucitta  had  done  in  London  and  Paris,  she 
started  for  Vienna.  No  sooner  had  they  arrived 
than  she  quarrelled  with  her  companion,  who 
returned  to  Paris.  Catalani  continued  her  tour 
alone,  and  it  lasted  nearly  ten  years.  In  1824 
she  returned  to  London,  performing  a  certain 
number  of  nights  with  no  regular  engagement. 
She  reappeared  in  'II  Nuovo  Fanatico  per  la 
Musica,'  an  opera  by  Mayer,  arranged  for  her. 
*  Her  powers  were  undiminshed,  her  taste  un- 
improved.' She  next  continued  her  wanderings 
on  the  continent.  In  1826  an  attempt  was  made 
by  Ebers  to  engage  her,  but  the  terms  proposed 
by  her  were  so  exorbitant  that  it  was  impossible 
to  consider  them  seriously.  Her  voice  was, 
however,  no  longer  what  it  had  been,  especially 
in  the  highest  part  of  her  register.  Though  still 
beautiful,  flexible,  and  strong,  it  was  losing 
gradually  a  little  of  these  qualities.  In  turn  she 
visited  Germany,  Italy,  and  Paris  once  more, 
where  she  sang  without  success ;  then  Poland, 
Russia,  and  the  north  of  Germany  again  in  1827. 
About  this  time  she  sang  for  the  last  time  at 
Berlin,  and  resolved  to  cease  singing  in  public. 
But  she  revisited  England  once  more  in  1828,  and 
sang  at  the  York  Festival.  Lord  jNIount-Edg- 
cumbe  heard  her  the  same  year  at  Plymouth,  and 


322 


CATALANI. 


CATCH  CLUB. 


describes  her  as  having  lost,  perhaps,  a  little  in 
voice,  but  gained  more  in  expression  :  as  electrify- 
ing an  audience  with  her  '  Kule  Britannia  and 
as  still  handsome,  though  somewhat  stout.  After 
a  time,  she  retired  to  a  villa  which  she  had 
bought  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Florence.  On 
the  stage,  she  is  described  as  having  always 
produced  an  imnatural  impression,  owing  to  an 
invincible  nervousness,  which  made  her  exaggerate 
the  effects  she  wished  to  create.  She  said  herself, 
that  it  was  as  painful  to  her  to  sing  in  the 
theatre  as  it  was  delightful  to  perform  at  a  con- 
cert. She  never  lost  her  simplicity  and  purity  of 
manners,  nor  her  piety,  modesty,  and  generosity. 
Her  charitable  deeds  were  innumerable,  and 
the  amount  of  money  earned  by  her  in  concerts 
for  such  pui-poses  alone  has  been  estimated  at 
2,000,000  francs.  At  her  residence  she  founded 
a  school  of  singing  for  young  girls.  Catalan! 
died  of  cholera  at  Paris,  Jime  12,  1849.    [J.  M.] 

CATAEINA  CORNAEO,  the  last  of  Doni- 
zetti's sixty-six  operas,  produced  at  Naples  in 
the  Carnival  of  1844,  and  performed  for  the  last 
time  in  1 845.  [G.] 

CATCH  originally  meant  simply  a  round  for 
three  or  more  voices  (unaccompanied),  written  out 
at  length  as  one  continuous  melody,  and  not  in 
score.  The  catch  was  for  each  succeeding  singer 
to  take  up  or  catch  his  part  in  time  ;  this  is 
evident  not  only  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
were  printed,  but  also  from  the  simple  and  ' 
innocent  character  of  the  words  of  the  oldest 
catches,  from  which  it  would  be  impossible  to 
elicit  any  ingenious  cross-reading.  But  in  course 
of  time  a  new^  element  was  introduced  into 
catches,  and  words  were  selected  so  constructed 
that  it  was  possible,  either  by  mis-pronunciation 
or  by  the  interweaving  of  the  words  and  phrases 
given  to  the  different  voices,  to  produce  the  most 
ludicrous  and  comical  effects.  The  singing  •  of 
catches  became  an  art,  and  was  accompanied  by 
gesture,  the  skill  with  which  they  were  sung  has 
become  a  tradition,  and  certainly  many  old 
specimens  are  so  difficult  that  they  must  have 
required  considerable  labour  and  practice  to  sing 
them  perfectly.  The  oldest  published  collections 
containing  catches  were — 

1.  'Pammelia:  Musicke's  Miscellanie,  or 
mixed  varietie  of  Pleasant  Roundelay es  and 
delightful  Catches  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10  parts 
in  one.  None  so  ordinarie  as  musicall,  none  so 
musicall  as  not  to  all  very  pleasing  and  accept- 
able. 1609.' 

2.  'Deuteromelia  :  or  second  part  of  Musicke's 
Melodic,  or  Melodious  Musick  of  Pleasant 
E-oundelaies.  K.  H.  Mirth,  or  Freemen's  songs, 
and  such  delightful  catches.  1609.' 

3.  'Melismata:  Musicall  Phansies  fitting  the 
court,  citie  and  countrey  Humours.    161 1.' 

Catches  were  most  in  vogue  in  the  reign  of 
the  dissolute  Charles  II,  and  as  much  of  the 
popular  literature  of  that  period  was  sullied  by 
indecency  and  licentiousness  it  is  not  surprising 
that  catches  were  contaminated  with  the  pre- 
vailing and  fashionable  vice;  the  more  than 


questionable  character  of  the  words  to  which 
many  of  the  catches  of  that  age  were  allied  has 
sufficed  to  ensure  the  banishment  of  a  large 
amount  of  clever  and  learned  musical  contrivance. 
In  later  times  Dr.  William  Hayes,  S.  Webbe, 
and  Dr.  Callcott  have  excelled  in  the  composition 
of  catches :  'Would  you  know  my  Celia's  charms' 
by  Webbe  is  a  well-known  example ;  *  Ah,  how, 
Sophia,'  and  'Alas  cry'd  Damon'  by  Callcott  are 
also  tolerably  well  known,  and  still  occasionally 
performed. 

Dr.  W.  Hayes  published  several  collections  of 
catches,  some  with  words  by  Dean  Swift,  and  in 
his  preface  to  the  first  set  (i  763)  says,  'the  Catch 
in  music  answers  to  the  Epigram  in  poetry, 
where  much  is  to  be  exprest  within  a  very  small 
compass,  and  unless  the  Turn  is  neat  and  well 
pointed,  it  is  of  little  value.'  [W.  H.  C] 

CATCH  CLUB.  This  society,  the  full  title 
of  which  was  'The  Noblemen  and  Gentlemen's 
Catch  Club,'  was  formed  in  1761  for  the  en- 
couragement of  the  composition  and  performance 
of  canons,  catches,  and  glees,  and  the  first  meeting 
took  place  in  November  of  that  year,  when  there 
were  present  the  Earls  of  Eglinton,  Sandwich, 
and  March,  Generals  Rich  and  Barrington,  the 
Hon.  J.  Ward,  and  Messrs.  H.  Meynell  and  R. 
Phelps.  These  gentlemen,  with  the  Duke  of 
Kingston,  the  Marquesses  of  Lome  and  Granby, 
the  Earls  of  Rochford,  Orford,  and  Ashbumham, 
Viscounts  Bolingbroke  and  Weymouth,  Lord 
George  Sutton,  Colonels  Parker,  Windus,  and 
Montgomery,  Sir  George  Armytage,  and  Messrs. 
H.  Pen  ton,  W.  Gordon,  and  J.  Harris,  who 
joined  in  1762,  were  the  original  members,  and 
all  subsequently  enrolled  were  balloted  for. 
Among  distinguished  persons  afterwards  admit- 
ted to  the  Club  were  George  IV  (elected  when 
Prince  of  Wales  in  1786),  William  IV  (elected 
when  Duke  of  Clarence  in  1789),  the  Dukes 
of  Cumberland  (1786),  York  (1787),  Cam- 
bridge  (1807),  and  Sussex  (1813).  The  pro- 
fessional members  elected  into  the  Society  of 
the  Catch  Club  included  Beard,  Battishill,  Ame, 
Hayes,  Atterbury,  Paxton,  S.  Webbe,  Piozzi, 
Knyvett,  Stevens,  Callcott,  Danby,  Greatorex, 
Bartleman,  R.  Cooke,  Horsley,  Goss,  Walmisley, 
and  Turle.  In  1763  the  Club  offered  its  first 
prizes,  one  for  two  catches,  a  second  for  two 
canons,  and  a  third  for  two  glees,  and  they  were 
awarded  to  Baildon,  Marella,  Dr.  Hayes,  and 
G.  Berg.  From  its  foundation  to  1794  the  prizes 
were  competed  for  annually,  and  among  the 
winners  were  Ame,  Hayes,  J.  S.  Smith,  Danby, 
S.  Webbe,  Lord  Mornington,  Paxton,  Atterbury, 
Dr.  Cooke,  R.  Cooke,  Dr.  Alcock,  Stevens, 
Spofforth,  and  Callcott.  In  1787,  in  consequence 
of  Dr.  Callcott  having  submitted  nearly  100 
compositions  in  competition  for  the  prizes,  a  re- 
solution was  passed  that  '  in  future  no  composer 
should  send  in  more  than  three  compositions 
for  one  prize.'  From  1794  to  181 1  no  prizes 
were  offered,  and  after  being  awarded  for  two 
years  they  were  again  discontinued,  until  in 
1821  they  were  once  more  revived,  a  gold  cup 
taking  the  place  of  the  medals.    The  rules  of 


CATCH  CLUB. 


CATHEDRAL  MUSIC.  323 


the  Club  required  the  members  to  take  the  chair 
in  turns  at  the  dinners  which  were  held  at  the 
Thatched  House  Tavern  every  Tuesday  from 
February  to  June,  except  in  Passion  and  Easter 
weeks.  The  successive  secretaries  of  the  Club 
were  Warren  (1761-94),  S.Webbe  (i  794-1 81 2), 
Sale  (1812-28),  R  Leete  (1828-36),  Jas.  Elliott 
(1836-52),  0.  Bradbury  (1852-73),  E.  Land 
(1859-76).  Webbe's  glees  '  Hail !  Star  of  Bruns- 
wick' and  'The  Mighty  Conqueror'  were  com- 
posed specially  for  George  IV,  who  invariably 
took  his  call  and  sang  in  his  glee ;  and  the  late 
Duke  of  Cambridge  attended  to  the  last  year  of 
his  life  and  rarely  omitted  his  call,  one  of  his 
favourite  glees  being  Webbe's  '  Glorious  Apollo.' 
In  1 861  the  Club  celebrated  its  centenary  with 
much  vigour,  and  to  commemorate  the  event 
offered  a  silver  goblet  for  the  best  four-part  glee, 
which  was  awarded  to  Mr.  W.  H.  Cummings  for 
*  Song  should  breathe.'  The  present  subscription 
is  ten  guineas  each  season,  and  the  meetings  are 
held  fortnightly  at  Willis's  Rooms  from  Easter 
to  July.  [C.  M.] 

CATEL,  Chables  Simon,  bom  June  1773  at 
I'Aigle  (Orne)  ;    began  his  studies  very  early 
under  Sacchini,  Gobert,  and  Gossec,  in  the  '  Ecole 
royale  de  chant  et  de  declamation,'  at  Paris. 
[CoNSEKVATOiRE  DE  MusiQUE,]   In  1 787  he  was 
made  accompanist  and  ' professeur-ad joint'  of 
the  School,  and  in  1790  accompanist  at  the 
Opera.    The  same  year  he  became  chief,  con- 
jointly with  Gossec,  of  the  band  of  the  Garde 
Nationale,  for  which  he  wi'ote  a  vast  quantity  of 
military  music,  which  was  adopted  throughout 
the  revolutionary  army.   His  first  work  of  public 
note  was  a  *De  profundis'  for  the  funeral  of 
Gouvion  in  1792.     Another  was  a  Hymn  of 
Victory  on  the  battle  of  Fleurus  (June  26,  94), 
written  for  chorus  with  wind  accompaniment 
only.    On  the  formation  of  the  Conservatoire  in 
95  Catel  was  made  professor  of  harmony.  He 
immediately  began  the  compilation  of  his  '  Traitd 
d'harmonie,'  which  was  published  in  1802,  and 
remained  for  many  years  the  sole  text  book  of 
France.    In  18 10  he  became  one  of  the  In- 
spectors of  the  Conservatoire,  a  post  which  he 
retained  till  the  suspension  of  that  institution  in 
1814.     In  17  he  was  elected  Member  of  the 
Institut,  in  the  room  of  Monsigny,  and  in  24 
Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    He  died 
at  Paris  Nov.  29,  1S30.   Catel  wrote  largely  for 
the  stage — 'Semiramis'  (1802),  'L'Auberge  de 
Bagn^res'  (1807),  *Les  Bayaderes'  (i8io),  and 
other  operas  in  1808,  18 14,  181 7,  and  18 18. 
These  have  the  merit  of  elegance  and  purity, 
but  they  were  not  successful ;  the  public  in- 
sisted on  recognising  Catel  as  a  savant  and  a 
professor,  and  prejudged  his  works  as  'learned 
music'    On  one  occasion  Napoleon,  who  had  a 
singular  taste  for  soft  and  inefi'ective  music,  had 
the  'Bayaderes'  performed  with  all  the  instru- 
ments muted  and  every  mark  of  expression  sup- 
pressed— a  very  severe  trial  for  any  opera.  Be- 
sides his  theatrical  and  military  music  Catel 
wrote  Symphonies  for  wind  only.  Hymns  and 
Choral  Pieces,  Quintets  and  Quartets  for  strings 


and  wind.  Songs,  Solfeggi,  etc. ;  but  it  is  by  his 
Treatise  on  Harmony,  by  his  great  practical  sense 
and  ability,  and  by  his  character  for  goodness 
and  probity  that  he  will  be  known  to  posterity. 

His  treatise  is  founded  on  those  of  Kirnberger 
and  Tiirk,  and  at  once  superseded  the  more 
artificial  and  complicated  theories  of  Rameau, 
which  had  till  that  time  reigned  supreme  in 
France.  [G.C.] 

CATELANT,  Angelo,  musician  and  writer 
on  music,  bom  at  Guastalla  March  30,  181 1. 
He  received  his  first  instruction  from  the  or- 
ganist of  the  place,  and  afterwards  at  Modena 
from  Giuseppe  Asioli  and  M.  Fusco.  In  31  he 
entered  the  Conservatoire  of  Naples,  then  under 
Zingarelli,  and  became  the  special  pupil  of 
Donizetti  and  Crescentini.  From  31  to  37  he 
was  director  of  the  theatre  at  Messina,  and 
finally  settled  at  Modena,  where  he  was  living 
a  few  years  ago  as  keeper  of  the  Este  Library. 
Catelani  is  the  author  of  three  or  four  operas,  as 
well  as  of  a  Requiem  and  other  pieces  of  church 
music  ;  but  his  claim  to  mention  rests  on  his 
archaeological  works — Notice  on  P.  Aron  (185 1) ; 
on  N.  Vincentino  (1851);  'Epistolario  di  autorl 
celebri  in  musica'  (1852-4) ;  '  Bibliografia  di  due 
stampe  ignote  di  0.  Petrucci  da  Fossombrone' 
(1856) — a  treatise  on  the  two  first  pieces  of 
music  printed  from  type ;  Delia  vita  e  delle 
opere  di  Orazio  Vecchi  (1858) ;  Ditto  di  Claudio 
Merula  da  Correggio  (i860) ;  Ditto  di  Alessandro 
Stradella  (Modena,  Vincenzi,  1866).  [G.] 

CATENACCI,  a  seconda  donna,  appeared  in 
1784  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  Anfossi's  '  Issipile,' 
in '  Le  due  Gemelle'  and  the  'Demofoonte'  of  Ber- 
toni.  She  was  re-engaged  in  1786,  and  sang  with 
Mara  and  Rubinelli  in  the  'Virginia'  of  Tarchi, 
under  the  direction  of  Cherubini.  [J.  M.] 

CATERS.  The  name  given  by  change  ringers 
to  changes  on  nine  bells.  The  word  should  prob- 
ably be  written  quaters,  as  it  is  meant  to  denote 
the  fact  that  four  couples  of  bells  change  their 
1  places  in  the  order  of  ringing.  [C.A.W.T.] 
I  CATHEDRAL  MUSIC.  Music  composed 
for  use  in  English  Cathedral  Service  since  the 
Reformation. 

Just  as  the  Reformed  Liturgy  was  composed 
of  prayers,  versicles,  responses,  and  other  ele- 
!  ments  which,  though  in  a  different  language, 
I  had  formed  the  basis  of  the  church  services  for 
I  centuries,  so  the  music  to  which  the  new  services 
j  were  sung  was  not  so  much  an  innovation  as  an 
I  inheritance  from  earlier  times  :  precedents  can 
be  found  for  the  greater  part  of  it  in  the  pre- 
i  Reformation  church  music.    The  truth  of  this 
will  appear  if  we  compare  the  style  of  church 
I  music  used  in  England  at  the  end  of  the  15th 
and  beginning  of  the  1 6th  centuries  with  what 
was  introduced  about  1550  as  an  accompaniment 
i  to  the  reformed  liturgy.    Our  inferences  as  to 
the  music  of  the  former  date  must  be  drawn 
chiefly  from  breviaries  and  antiphonaries  with 
musical  notes,  from  compositions  for  the  church, 
Buch  as  masses  and  motets,  and  from  treatises  on 
1  music.    We  learn  from  these  sources  that  the 

'  y  2 


824  CATHEDRAL  MUSIC. 


CATHEDRAL  MUSIC. 


psalms,  canticles,  versicles,  responses,  and  creeds 
were  sung  invariably  in  plainsong,  which  sig- 
nifies a  certain  specific  mode  of  chanting  in 
unison,  guided  by  definite  rules  that  can  still  be 
ascertained,  and  impljdng  to  a  great  extent  the 
use  of  certain  well-known  melodies  appropriated 
to  particular  parts  of  the  service.  Of  this  mode 
of  chanting  the  Gregorian  chants  used  at  the 
present  day  are  a  regular  form.  [Chant.]  So  far 
then  as  regards  simple  melody  we  are  fairly  well 
informed  as  to  pre-Reformation  church  music. 
But  there  is  less  certainty  as  to  the  use  of  har- 
mony. It  is  true  that  a  rude  style  of  part- 
singing,  called  'organising,'  had  been  known  for 
centuries  before  the  Reformation,  and  later  on 
the  development  of  counterpoint  had  resulted  in 
the  composition  of  masses  and  motets,  of  which 
we  have  specimens  by  English  composers,  e.g. 
Byrd,  Tavern  er,  Fayrfax,  and  Tye,  dating  from 
before  the  Reformation.  But  though  these  com- 
positions show  that  harmony  was  recognised  in 
English  church  music  before  1550,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  show  to  what  extent  they  were  used, 
and  whether  they  were  regularly  introduced  in 
the  way  that  anthems  by  various  composers  are 
now  employed  in  cathedral  service.  Possibly  at 
ferial  times  plainsong  may  have  predominated, 
and  at  festal  times  harmonised  compositions, 
chants,  and  canticles,  as  well  as  anthems,  may 
have  been  used  ;  though  these  would  interfere 
with  the  plainsong,  which  invariably  formed  the 
'  subject'  to  which  the  parts  were  adapted. 

Such  was  the  general  character  of  English 
church  music  as  it  was  found  by  the  reformers 
of  the  1 6th  century.  We  must  now  enquire  in 
what  way  it  was  dealt  with  by  them  in  the 
transition  from  the  Romish  to  the  reformed 
service,  and  in  what  form  it  appeared  after  the 
change  had  taken  place.  The  two  works  which 
directly  illustrate  the  mind  of  the  English  church 
as  to  the  musical  rendering  of  her  reformed  ser- 
vices are,  (i)  the  Litany  published  by  Cranmer 
v.ith  its  musical  notation;  (2)  the  more  im- 
portant work  containing  the  musical  notation  of 
the  remainder  of  the  then  Common  Prayer  Book, 
edited  by  John  Marbeck.  Now  both  these 
works  seem  to  show  that  the  aim  of  the  re- 
formers was  not  to  discard  but  to  utilise  the 
ancient  plainsong,  by  adapting  it  to  the  trans- 
lated services.  In  the  fiirst  place  the  music  of 
Cranmer's  litany  is  a  very  ancient  chant,  almost 
identical  with  that  appointed  for  the  Rogation 
days  in  the  Roman  processional,  and  with  that 
which  occurs  in  the  Salisbury  ritual  for  the  pro- 
cession of  peace  :  hence  we  see  that  it  was  from 
the  oldest  sources  that  Cranmer  obtained  the 
musical  setting  of  the  new  litany  in  English. 
Secondly,  the  music  of  Marbeck's  work  consists 
of  the  old  plainsong  simplified  and  adapted  to 
the  new  services.  Mr.  Dyce,  in  his  '  Preface  and 
Appendix  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,'  shows 
conclusively  that  Marbeck  intended  to  follow  the 
ancient  Salisbury  use  (the  great  standard  of 
English  choral  music)  note  for  note,  as  far  as  the 
rules  of  plainsong  would  permit ;  and  that  where 
hia  notation  varies  from  that  of  Salisbury,  the 


variation  is  due  to  the  difference  between  the 
English  and  Latin  syllables,  and  as  such  is 
merely  what  the  technical  rules  of  plainsong 
would  dictate. 

It  would  appear  then  that  as  regards  plainsong, 
the  Reformation  brought  little  or  no  change  to 
our  services;  the  ancient  melodies  were  preserved 
intact,  except  where  change  was  required  to 
adapt  them  to  the  new  liturgy. 

As  to  compositions  in  harmony,  these,  as  we 
saw  above,  had  been  undoubtedly  introduced  into 
the  service  to  some  extent  before  the  Refor- 
mation, but  were  sung  to  Latin  words.  During 
the  changing  times  of  Henry  VIII,  Edward  VI, 
Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  when  the  form  of  church 
service  was  not  yet  settled,  the  great  church 
composers  wrote  and  arranged  for  whatever  ser- 
vices were  established  at  the  time — for  the  Latin 
words  of  mattins,  vespers,  the  little  hours,  and 
the  mass,  or  for  the  English  canticles  of  Morning 
and  Evening  Prayer,  and  for  the  English  Com- 
I  munion  Service,  according  as  the  Romish  or 
Protestant  liturgy  was  recognised.  Sometimes, 
as  in  the  case  of  Byrd's  'Ne  irascaris,  Domine,' 
and  'Bow  thine  ear,  0  Lord,'  the  same  music 
was  set  to  the  two  languages,  or  what  had 
been  written  for  the  one  was  adapted  to  the 
other.  And  thus  the  change  of  ritual  may  be 
said  to  have  affected  compositions  in  harmony 
even  less  than  it  affected  the  mere  melodic  forms 
or  plainsong. 

Though  a  complete  scheme  for  the  musical 
service  was  set  forth  in  Marbeck's  book  (except 
for  the  litany,  which  Cranmer  had  already  sup- 
plied, and  the  Psalms,  which  no  doubt  Marbeck 
intended  to  be  sung  in  the  manner  he  indicated 
for  the  Canticles,  viz.  in  the  old  plainsong) ;  the 
canticles  and  other  parts  of  the  service  were  set 
very  frequently  in  harmony,  about  the  time  when 
Marbeck's  book  appeared.  All  the  church  mu- 
sicians whose  harmonised  compositions  remain  to 
us,  from  the  time  of  Edward  VI  onwards,  have 
set  the  canticles  anthemwise  as  'services';  and 
thus,  even  while  Marbeck's  was  the  only  au- 
thorised musical  -  service  book,  a  more  perfect 
system  was  displayed  alongside  of  it.  Hearers 
could  not  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  superiority  of 
harmonised  canticles  and  services  over  the  simple 
melodies  sung  in  unison,  of  which  Marbeck's 
book  consists.  Dr.  Jebb  considers  that  the  latter 
work  was  only  meant  as  an  elementary  and 
tentative  one,  and  that  it  never  became  au- 
thoritative. However  this  may  be,  it  was  super- 
seded by  a  work  containing  harmonized  com- 
positions, contributed  by  Tallis,  Shepherd,  Tav- 
emer,  and  some  others.  This  was  John  Day's 
book,  published  in  1560,  and  entitled,  '  Certaine 
Notes,  set  forth  in  foure  and  three  partes,  to  be 
sung  at  the  Morning,  Communion,  and  Evening 
Praier,  ....  and  unto  them  be  added  divers 
Godly  praiers  and  psalmes  in  the  like  forme.' 

The  latter  clause  leads  us  to  the  consideration 
of  the  anthem,  with  reference  to  which  Blunt 
(Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer) 
says  as  follows  : — 'It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the 
exact  time  when  the  practice  of  popular  hymn 


CATHEDEAL  MUSIC. 


CATLEY. 


825 


and  metrical  psalm  singing  established  itself 
in  connection  with  our  revised  ritual,  though 
independently  of  its  direct  authority.  Such 
singing  was  in  use  early  in  Elizabeth's  reign, 
having  doubtless  been  boiTowed  from  the  Pro- 
testants abroad.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
quasi-official  sanction  to  a  custom  which  it  would 
have  been  very  un%vise  to  repress,  it  was  ordained 
by  a  royal  injunction  in  the  year  1559,  that  while 
there  was  to  be  a  'modest  and  distinct  song  so 
used  in  aU  parts  of  the  common  prayer,  that  the 
same  might  be  understanded  as  if  it  were  read 
without  singing '  (in  other  words,  while  the  old 
traditional  plainsong  in  its  simplified  form  is  to 
be  employed  throughout  the  whole  service,  yet) 
•  for  the  comforting  of  such  as  delight  in  music 
it  may  be  permitted  tha^  in  the  beginning  or  at 
the  end  of  the  commo«^'^rayer  there  may  be  sung 
an  hymn  or  such  like  song,  to  the  praise  of 
Almighty  God,  in  the  best  melody  and  music 
that  may  be  devised,  having  respect  that  the 
sentence  of  the  hymn  may  be  understanded  & 
perceived.' 

This  injunction  gave  legal  authority  to  the 
setting  of  English  words  to  be  sung  anthemwise. 
The  first  anthems  written  for  the  Reformed 
Church  are  fuU,  i.  e.  sung  in  regular  alternation 
by  the  whole  choir;  they  resemble  the  motets 
of  the  Italian  Church,  which  furnished  models 
to  the  first  English  anthem-writers.  'Verse  an- 
thems', i.e.  those  in  which  certain  passages,  called 
verses,  were  sung  in  slower  time,  not  by  all  the 
voices  on  one  side  but  by  a  selected  number,  were 
introduced  about  1670  ;  though  Dr.  Jebb  informs 
the  writer  that  precedents  for  verse  anthems 
existed  in  the  pre-Reformation  service. 

As  principal  composers  of  cathedral  music 
from  the  Reformation  to  the  Rebellion  we  may 
select  Tye,  Tallis,  Farrant,  Shepherd,  Tavemer, 
Redford,"^  Morley,  Byrde,  Ball,  and  Gibbons.  The 
compositions  of  this  period  are  more  conspicuous 
for  technical  skill  than  for  musical  expression,  and 
no  difference  can  be  traced  between  the  secular 
and  the  sacred  style.  Dr.  Jebb  however  main- 
tains that  the  latter  was  at  least  national  and 
peculiar  to  this  country,  and  that  the  Church 
of  England  was  not  indebted  to  Palestrina ; 
which  statement  he  supports  by  urging  the 
similarity  of  the  style  of  Byrde  and  Tallis  to 
that  of  Robert  White,  who  was  anterior  to  the 
great  Italian  composer. 

Under  the  Commonwealth,  music,  except  in  the 
form  of  metrical  psalmody,  was  expelled  from 
English  churches;  it  was  restored  in  1660  by 
Charles  IT,  the  efi'ect  of  whose  French  tastes  ' 
upon  Cathedral  music   is  thus  described   by  j 
Tudway  (Bumey's  History,  vol.  iii.  443)  :  '  His  ' 
majesty  was  soon  tired  with  the  grave  and  ' 
solemn  way  which  had  been  established  by  Bird 
and  others,  and  ordered  the  composers  of  his  1 
chapel  to  add  symphonies  with  instruments  to  \ 
their  anthems ;  and  established  a  select  number 
of  his  private  music  to  play  the  symphony  and 
ritomellos  which  he  had  appointed.     The  old 
masters  of  music,  Dr.  Child,  Dr.  Gibbons,  Mr. 
Low,  etc.,  hardly  knew  how  to  comport  them- 


selves with  these  new  fangled  ways,  but  pro- 
ceeded in  their  compositions  according  to  the 
old  style.'  There  was  great  difficulty  during  the 
first  years  of  the  Restoration  in  finding  boys 
capable  of  singing  in  the  choirs,  since  the  art 
had  been  so  much  neglected  during  the  Pro- 
tectorate. Hawkins  (History  of  Music,  iv.  349) 
says  on  this  point,  '  Nay,  to  such  streights  were 
they  driven,  that  for  a  twelvemonth  after  the 
Restoration  the  clergy  were  forced  to  supply  the 
want  of  boys  by  cornets,  and  men  who  had 
feigned  voices.' 

It  appears  from  a  passage  in  the  life  of  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift  (Biographia  Britannica.  p.  4255), 
that  cornets  had  been  before  introduced ;  for  an 
allusion  is  made  to  the  '  solemn  music  with  the 
voices  and  organs,  cornets  and  sackbuts ' ;  and 
in  Stow's  Annals  (864),  we  read  that  at  the 
churching  of  the  Queen  after  the  birth  of  Mary 
daughter  of  James  I,  in  the  Royal  Chapel,  sundry 
anthems  were  sung  with  organ,  cornets,  sackbuts, 
and  other  instruments  of  music'  [See  Anthem, 
2nd  period.] 

'In  about  four  or  five  years  time'  says  Tudway, 
'some  of  the  forwardest  and  brightest  children 
of  the  chapel,  as  Pelham  Humphrey,  John  Blow, 
etc.,  began  to  be  masters  of  a  faculty  in  com- 
posing; this  his  majesty  greatly  encouraged,  by 
indulging  their  youthful  fancies.  In  a  few  years 
more,  several  others  educated  in  the  chapel, 
composed  in  this  style  ;  otherwise  it  was  vain  to 
please  his  majesty,'  The  peculiar  influence  here 
ascribed  to  Charles  II  may  be  traced  in  the 
works  of  Humphrey,  Blow,  Wise,  and  their  con- 
temporaries, in  the  too  evident  aim  at  efiect,  and 
the  mannerisms  and  exaggerated  ornaments  which 
characterise  them ;  even  the  great  genius  of 
Purcell  did  not  escape  the  effect  of  Charles's  fan- 
tastic tastes.  Many  of  his  finest  anthems  are 
disfigured  by  sjTnphonies  of  such  a  kind  as  were 
evidently  invented  merely  to  gratify  the  king's 
desire  for  French  mannerisms.  But  it  was  in 
the  1 8  th  century  that  the  lowest  musical  standard 
prevailed  in  the  service  of  the  church.  A  florid 
sing-song  melody,  with  a  trivial  accompaniment, 
was  the  type  to  which  everything  was  sacrificed, 
and  a  rage  set  in  for  objectionable  adaptations 
and  arrangements.  The  works  of  Nares  and 
Kent  may  be  taken  as  specimens  of  this  class, 
though  one  worthy  exception  should  be  noticed  in 
Dr.  Boyce. 

Within  the  last  25  years  choral  communions 
have  been  introduced  :  they  had  been  discarded 
at  the  Restoration,  from  which  time  up  to  1840 
the  Communion  Service  was  never  set  to  music 
except  in  so  far  as  parts  of  it,  e.  g.  the  Sanctus, 
and  the  Gloria,  were  arranged  as  anthems  and 
introits.  [E.  H.  D.] 

CATHERINE  GREY,  an  opera  in  3  acts ; 
libretto  by  Bunn  ;  music  by  Balfe.  Produced  at 
Drury  Lane  May  27,  1837,  the  composer  himself 
playing  the  Eaii  of  Hertford.  [G.] 

CATLEY,  Anne,  was  bom  in  1745 
alley  near  Tower  Hill,  of  very  humble  parents, 
her  father  being  a  hackney  coachman,  and  her 


326 


CATLEY. 


CArvrs-i. 


modier  a  washerwoman.  Endowed  with  great 
pemnuJ  beauty,  a  charming  voice,  and  a  natnral 
talent  for  singing,  she  gained  her  living  at  the 
early  age  of  lo  years  by  singing  in  the  public 
hoaaes  in  the  neighbourhood,  imd  aleo  for  the 
diversion  of  the  officers  quartered  in  the  Tower. 
AVhen  about  1 5  years  of  age  she  was  apprenticed 
by  her  father  to  William  Bates  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  regular  instruction  in  the  art  of 
singing,  Catley  binding  himself  in  the  penalty 
of  £200  for  her  due  fulfilment  of  the  covenants 
in  the  indenture.  She  made  rapid  progress,  and 
in  the  summer  of  1762  made  her  fiKt  appearance 
in  public  at  Vauxhall  Gardens,  On  Oct.  8  in 
the  same  year  she  appeared  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  as  the  Pastoral  Nymph  in  Dr.  Dalv^n  s 
alteration  of  Milton's  'Comus.'  Early  in  1763 
she  became  acquainted  with  Sir  Francis  Blake 
Ddaval,  a  young  baronet,  who  prevaile-i  on  her 
to  quit  the  house  of  Bates  and  reside  with  him. 
Desirous  of  obtaining  a  legal  control  over  her, 
Delaval,  in  April  1 763,  induced  Bates  to  consent 
to  an  arrangement  for  his  pupil  doing  some  act 
which  would  put  an  end  to  the  apprenticeship, 
Ddaval  paying  him  the  £200  penalty,  Mid  also 
the  amount  of  an  engagement  he  had  entered 
into  for  her  ging-iTig  during  the  smnmer  season  at 
Marylebone  Gardens.  She  was  then  colourably 
apprenticed  to  Delaval  to  be  taught  singing  by 
him.  Application  being  made  to  her  father,  who 
was  then  coachman  to  Barclay,  the  quaker,  of 
Cheapside,  for  his  concurrence,  he  consulted  his 
master,  who,  shocked  at  the  iniquity  of  the  trans- 
action, at  onoe  sent  Catley  to  his  attorney.  A 
habeas  corpus  was  obtained  for  Delaval  to  pro- 
duce Anne  Catley  before  the  Covat  of  King's 
Bench,  where  the  affidr  being  inquired  into,  the 
Court  ordered  that  Delaval,  Bates,  and  John 
Frayne,  an  attorney  emplojed  by  Delaval,  should 
be  prosecuted  far  conspiracy,  the  Chief  Justice, 
Lord  Mansfield,  denouncing  their  conduct  in 
strongly  indignant  language.  They  were  accord- 
ingly tried,  convicted,  and  fined.  In  the  summer 
of  1 763  Anne  Catley  fulfilled  her  engagement  at 
3Iarjrlebone  Gardens,  and  shortly  afterwards  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Macklin,  the  actcn-,  who  pro- 
cured her  an  engagement  at  Dublin,  where  she 
became  a  great  &yoarite.  O'KeefTe,  the  dramatist, 
who  became  acquainted  with  her  there,  says,  in 
his  amusing  *  Beminiscences,'  *  She  wore  her  hair 
plain  over  her  forehead  in  an  even  line  almost  to 
her  eyebrows.  This  set  the  fashion  in  Dublin, 
and  the  word  was  with  aU  the  ladies  to  have 
their  hair  CcUley-fied.^  He  elsewhere  observes, 
'3ie  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women  I 
ever  saw ;  the  expression  of  her  eyes  and  the 
smiles  and  dimples  that  played  round  her  lips 
and  cheeks  enchanting.  She  was  eccentric,  but 
had  an  excellent  heart.'  In  1770  she  returned 
to  England,  and  reappeared  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  on  Oct.  i  as  Rosetta  in  *  Love  in  a  Til- 
lage.' After  the  season  she  was  again  engaged 
at  Marylebone  Garden?,  where  she  app>eared  on 
July  30,  1 771,  and  sang  until  the  close  of  the 
season.  On  Feb.  6,  1773,  O'Hara's  burletta,  < 
'The  Golden  Pippin,'  was  produced  at  Covent 


Garden  Theatre.  MLss  Ca-iey  performed  the 
part  of  Juno  with  a  spirit  and  humour  that  ex- 
cited the  utmost  applause,  and  was  particularly 
admired  for  her  singing  of  two  of  the  songs,  viz. 
'  Push  about  the  jorum,' — the  tune  of  which  has 
been  used  for  an  almost  endle^  number  of  comic 
songs, — and  '  Where's  the  mortal  can  resist  me  V 
— 1^  tune  of  which,  slightly  varied,  has  long 
been  aasociated  with  the  Advent  Hymn.  Having 
amassed  an  independence  Miss  Catley  retired 
from  public  life  in  1 784-  She  died  Oct.  14, 1 789, 
at  the  house  of  General  LasceUes  (to  whom 
she  was  married),  near  Brentford.  The  public 
prints  of  the  day  eulogised  her  as  a  good 
mother,  a  chaste  wife,  and  an  accomplished 
woman.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CAURROY,  FBAy^oLS  Eustache  du,  Sieur 
de  St.  Fremin,  bom  at  Gerberoy  near  Beauvais 
1=49,  died  in  Paris  1609;  canon  of  the  S:e. 
ChapeUe  and  prior  of  St.  Aioul  de  Proving ; 
a  composer  of  great  merit  in  his  day.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  King's  band  in  1569. 
and  continued  in  office  during  the  reigns  of 
Charles  IX,  Henry  lU,  and  Henry  FV.  In  1599 
the  post  of  Surintendimt  de  la  Musique  du  Roi 
was  created  for  hiTn.  He  was  buried  in  the 
Church  des  Grands  Augnstins.  A  monument 
(destroyed  in  the  Revolution)  was  erected  to  his 
memory  by  his  successor  Xicolas  Forme,  with  an 
epitaph  by  his  friend  Cardinal  du  Perron.  Du 
Caurroy  was  called  by  his  contemporaries  '  Prince 
des  professeurs  de  musique,'  a  title  he  share-I 
with  Orlando  Lasso  and  Pale-trina.  His  com- 
positions include  'Missa  pro  defunctis,'  performed 
at  the  funerals  of  the  kings  of  France  until  the 
1 8  th  century ;  one  copy  only  exists  at  the  Biblio- 
theque  Xationale  in  Paris  ;  '  Preces  ecclesiasticae  * 
(Paris  1609%  'Precum  ecdesiasticarum  Ub.  2' 
(Paris  1609),  and,  published  by  his  grandnephew 
Andr^  Pitart,  'Fantaisies'  in  3,  4.  5,  and  6  parts 
(Paris  1610)  and  'Melanges  de  musique  '  (Paris 
1 610)  from  which  Bumey  prints  in  his  3rd  volume 
a  Noel  in  four  parts.  Du  Caurroy  has  been 
credited  with  the  airs  'Charmante  GabrieUe' 
,  and  '  Vive  Henri  IV.'  [M.  C.  C] 

I  CAUSTOX,  Thomas,  was  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  VI,  Mary, 
and  Elizabeth.  He  contributed  to  the  curious 
collection  published  by  John  Day,  the  eminent 
printer,  in  1 560,  in  separate  parts,  under  the  tide 
of  'Certain  Xotes,  set  forth  in  four  and  three 
parts,  to  be  sxing  at  the  Morning,  Communion,  and 
;  Evening  Prayer';  he  was  also  a  contributor  to 
;  the  collection  of  psalm  tunes  published  by  Day 
!  in  1 563  under  the  title  of  '  The  whole  Psalmes 
in  foure  parts,  which  may  be  sung  to  all  musical 
instruments.'  Some  of  his  compositions  are  stUl 
extant.  *  They  are  remarkable  for  purity  of  part 
writing  and  flowing  melody,  closely  resembling 
the  stjle  of  Orlando  Gibbons,  the  great  church 
composer  of  a  later  period.'  Causton  died  Oct. 
28,  1569.  A  'Venite  exultemus,'  and  a  Com- 
munion service  by  him  were  reprinted  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Jebb  some  years  since.       [W,  H^  H.] 

CAUVXN'I,  an  Italian  singer,  described  by 


CAVATLLE. 


Mot^idlier. 
of  his  gan  L 
to  aee  what 
bat  without 
there.  He^ 
petitkm  for  : 
the  royal  cL 
aendinater. 
for  parqpart- 
ccmmittee  : 
planatifflfw 
acoqit  Mb  ' 
was  first  Ds-T  -  .  . 
estaUished  in  Paris,  bui^:  : 
Madeleine,  and  many  : 
ia  the  proTinces. 

CAVA(XIO,  GiOYAXST, 
about  I5?6,  was  for  a 


ic  lever 

.  r.:.  -he 

-  nd 

,V.  z,z  P.] 
bom  at  Bezgamc 
singer  at  the  oonrt 
of  ManicK  and  after  Tiaithig  Bome  and  Tenioe 
settled  in  his  natiTe  town  as  maestro  at  the  ' 
CathediaL  Thence  after  23  years  service  he 
was  called  to  be  maestaro  at  S.  Mari&  Maggioce 
at  Eome,  where  he  remained  till  his  deaOi, 
Aug.  II,  1626.  CaTaodo  oontributed  to  a  col- 
lection of  Psalms,  dedicated  in  1 592  to  Palestrina. 
His  works  are  Magnificats,  Psalms,  Madrigals, 
etc.,  1581-1611.  (See  list  in  Fetis).  Some  of 
his  piec^  are  found  in  the  '  Parnassus  mnacns'  ' 
of  Bergameno.  [G.] 
CATAUEEL  Ehilio  del,  was  a  Bfflnan 
gentleman  of  good  family  and  fine  musical  p^- 
ceptions.  He  was  bom  abont  the  rear  1550,  I 
and  died  some  time  at  least  befwe  the  end  of 
-  :.e  1 6th  cemurv,  for  his  most  inqxirtant  work. 
La  Eappresentazione  di  Anima  e  di  Corpo,'  was 
performed  for  the  first  time  in  1600,  and  all  the 
accounts  of  him  agree  in  stating  that  it  was 
never  performed  in  his  lifetime.  He  spent  a 
great  portion  of  his  life  at  the  court  of  Ferdi- 
nand dei  Medicis,  who  appointed  him  to  the 
quaintly-named  office  of  '  Inspector-General  of 
the  Artists'  at  Florence.  There  he  lived  upon 
terms  of  intimacy  with  Giovanni  Bardi  of  Yer- 
nio,  Giulio  Caccini,  Yincenzo  Galilei,  Peri,  Corsi, 
and  Rinuccini,  a  group  of  accomplished  artists 
and  gentlemen,  who  were  bent  upon  freeing 
music  from  the  tnunmels  of  the  *  stile  osservato,' 
and  bringing  about  some  better  result  from  the 
union  of  instruments,  poetry,  and  the  human 
voice  than  had  up  to  thdr  time  been  achieved. 


was  the  t: 


whether  i: 
tionaf  the 
in  eazfy  tii 

asthe'tre 
A  dram 

the  deare  t 
saheervien: 
is  not  suTT  - 
have  parodu  r     l  - 
composed  :  - 
flleno,  n  3 
tazione,  m  : 
an  of  the- 
Idura  Gu: 
liaochesini 
named  cml  ; 
Guido^  of  L  -  .r_i. 

CAVAMEEa,  Kathaedta, 
bom  at  Wihiing,  Yienna^  1 761. 
age  she  was  placed  under  SaUeri 
connoiseurs  who  had  heard  her 
and  in  1775.  when  bareLy  14, 
the  Italian  Opera.    A  year 
Joe^h  fomided  a  German 
was  transferred.    As  C 
Yienna  her  name  is 
but  Mozart's  appr:  ^ 
first  rank.  In 
'she  was  a  sang 
be  proud';  and 
part  of  Constar. 
prano  part  in  '  Ii.v. :    r  ;  r  i.  ; 
Silberklang'  in  the  *'SchauspieM 
air  '  Mi  tradi'  in  *  Don  Giovanni. 
I  presentation  at  Yienna»  May  7, 


ont  of 

^1  H 


savs 
weU 


328 


CAVALIEEI. 


CECILIA. 


called  her  his  favourite  pupil,  and  wrote  the 
principal  parts  of  several  operas  for  her.  She 
sang  in  nearly  all  the  oratorios  produced  by  the 
Tonkiinstler-Societat  (now  the  Haydn -Verein), 
and  maintained  her  popularity  to  the  last, 
against  many  eminent  singers.  Her  voice  was 
of  considerable  compass,  and  she  was  a  culti- 
vated musician.  She  made  up  for  her  want  of 
personal  attractions  by  her  fascinating  manners. 
She  was  compelled  from  over-exertion  to  retire 
when  in  the  prime  of  life  (1793),  and  died  June 
30,  1 801.  [C.  F.  P.] 

CAVALLI,  PiETKO  Fkancesco,  eminent  com- 
poser of  the  1 7th  century,  born  at  Crema,  Venice, 
in  1599  or  1600.  His  real  name  was  Caletti- 
Bruni,  and  he  took  that  of  CavaUi  from  his 
patron.  In  161 7  he  became  singer  in  the  choir 
of  St.  Mark's  under  Monteverde  ;  in  1 640  organist 
of  the  second  organ,  in  65  organist  of  the  first 
organ  in  that  church ;  in  68  chapel-master, 
and  on  Jan.  14,  76,  he  died.  Of  his  church- 
music  nothing  has  been  published  beyond  a 
Mass,  Psalms,  and  Antiphons,  for  2  to  12  voices 
(Venice,  1656),  and  Vespers  for  8  voices  (ib. 
1675).  Santini  possessed  a  Eequiem  of  his  (sung 
at  Cavalli's  funeral)  for  8  voices  in  MS.  His 
operas  were  very  numerous.  He  began  to  write 
for  the  theatre  in  1637,  and  continued  so  to  do 
for  32  years.  There  were  then  five  theatres  in 
Venice,  and  Cavalli  was  fully  employed.  Fetis 
gives  a  list — evidently  incomplete — of  39  pieces. 
In  1660  he  was  called  to  Paris  for  the  marriage 
of  Louis  XIV,  and  produced  his  opera  of  'Xerse' 
in  the  Grand  Gallery  of  the  Louvre;  to  Paris 
again  in  1662  for  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees, 
when  he  brought  out  '  Ercole  amante ' ;  and  to 
Innspruck  for  the  fete  on  the  reception  of  Queen 
Christina.  His  wife  belonged  to  the  Sozomeni 
family ;  he  grew  rich  and  enjoyed  the  esteem 
and  affection  of  his  fellow-citizens.  He  took 
the  opera  from  the  hands  of  Monteverde,  and 
maintained  it  with  much  dramatic  power  and 
with  a  force  of  rhythm  before  unknowTi.  An  air 
by  CavalH  and  some  fragments  will  be  found  in 
Bumey's  'History,'  vol.  iv.  [G.] 

CAVATINA  originally  signified  a  short  song, 
but  has  been  frequently  applied  to  a  smooth 
melodious  air,  forming  part  of  a  grand  scena  or 
movement.  Thus  Mozart's  noble  scena  'Andro- 
meda' commences  with  a  recitative  'Ah,  lo 
previdi ! '  followed  by  an  Aria,  Allegro,  then 
more  recitatives  in  several  tempi,  and  lastly 
a  Cavatina,  Andantino  : — 


Several  examples  of  cavatine  may  be  found  in 
Bellini's  '  Sonnambula,' Meyerbeer's  '  Ugonotti,' 
and  other  well  -  known  operas.    The  word  is 


sometimes  used  for  a  complete  air  or  song,  as  in 
Gounod's  'Eomeo' — 'L' amour!  oui  son  ardeur 
a  trouble ' ;  and  in  '  Faust ' — '  Salve  dimora.'  In 
the  full  score  of  Mendelssohn's  'St.  Paul'  'Be  thou 
faithful  unto  death '  is  called  a  cavatina,  but  in 
the  vocal  scores  it  is  described  as  an  aria.  Bee- 
thoven has  given  this  title  to  the  second  slow 
movement,  Adagio  molto  esp^essivo,  in  his  great 
Quartet  in  B  b  (op. 130),  one  of  the  most  touching 
and  individual  pieces  to  be  found  in  all  his  works. 
It  consists  of  a  song  in  two  strains  in  E  flat  and 
A  flat,  an  episode  in  E  flat  minor  (expressive  of 
the  deepest  distress,  and  marked  in  the  autograph 
Beklemmt — choked  with  grief),  and  a  return  to 
the  original  strain.  [W.  H.  C] 

CAVENDISH,  Michael,  was  the  composer 
of  a  set  of  '  Ayres  for  four  Voyces,'  published 
in  1599.  He  contributed  a  madrigal — 'Come, 
gentle  swaines ' — to  '  The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,' 
1 60 1,  and  was  one  of  the  ten  composers  who 
harmonised  the  tunes  for  '  The  Whole  Booke  of 
Psalmes  with  their  wonted  Tunes  as  they  are 
song  in  Churches  composed  into  foure  parts,* 
published  in  1592  by  Thomas  Este.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  biography.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CAZZATI,  Maurizio,  bom  at  Mantua  about 
1620,  died  there  1677,  appointed  in  1657  Chapel- 
master  of  San  Petronio  in  Bologna.  He  resigned 
this  post  in  1674  on  account  of  a  violent  quarrel 
with  Aresti,  organist  of  the  same  church,  who  had 
severely  criticised  the  Kyrie  in  a  mass  of  Cazzati's. 
His  voluminous  compositions  (for  list  see  Fetis) 
comprise  masses,  psalms,  and  motets,  besides 
canzonets  and  airs.  One  of  his  motets  '  Sunt 
breves  mundi  Rosee '  was  printed  in  BaUard's  collec- 
tion for  1 71 2,  and  other  pieces  in  Profe's  'Geist- 
licher  Concerten'  (Leipsic  1641).        [M.'C.  C] 

CECILIA,  ST.,  Virgin  and  Martyr,  was  a 
young  Eoman  lady  of  noble  birth,  who,  being 
educated  in  the  Christian  faith,  vowed  to  lead  a 
celibate  life  and  to  devote  herself  to  the  service 
of  religion.  She  was,  however,  compelled  by  her 
parents  to  marry  Valerianus,  a  young  Eoman 
noble  and  a  Pagan,  with  whom  she  prevailed  so 
much  as  not  only  to  induce  him  to  respect  her 
vow,  but,  with  his  brother,  to  embrace  the 
Christian  faith.  Seized  and  brought  before  the 
Pagan  authorities,  and  refusing  to  abjure  their 
faith,  they  were  condemned  to  death,  the  brothers 
being  decapitated,  and  the  virgin-wife  placed  in 
a  dry  bath  with  fire  beneath,  which  failing  to 
terminate  her  existence  as  rapidly  as  her  per- 
secutors desired,  they  sent  an  executioner  to 
despatch  her  by  severing  her  head  from  her  body. 
These  events  occurred  at  Eome  about  229,  under 
Alexander  Severus,  according  to  most  writers, 
although  some  state  them  to  have  happened  in 
Sicily  under  Marcus  Aurelius  between  1 76  and 
180.  Her  house  at  Rome,  where  she  was  put  to 
death,  was  converted  into  a  church,  or  a  church 
was  built  over  it,  to  which  in  821  her  remains, 
with  those  of  her  husband  and  brother  and  other 
martyrs  were  translated.  This  church  was  re- 
paired and  sumptuously  embellished  in  1 599,  and 
a  monument  of  the  saint  erected. 


CECILIA. 


CELESTINO. 


329 


St.  Cecilia  has  long  been  regarded  as  the  tute- 
lary saint  of  music  and  musicians,  but  the  period 
at  which  she  was  first  so  looked  upon  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  There  is  a  tradition  that  an  angel 
by  whom  she  was  visited  was  attracted  to  earth 
by  the  charms  of  her  singing,  but  when  it  origi- 
nated is  equally  unknown.  Early  witers  make 
no  mention  of  her  skill  in  music  ;  even  as  late 
as  1594  a  long  Italian  poem  by  Castelletti,  en- 
titled '  La  Trionfatrice  Cecilia,  Vergine  e  Martire 
Komana,'  was  published  at  Florence,  which  does 
not  allude  to  it.  It  is  certain  however  that 
nearly  a  century  before  she  had  been  considered 
as  Music's  patroness,  for  in  1502  a  musical  society 
was  established  in  Louvain,  the  statutes  of  which 
were  submitted  to  the  magistrate  for  his  sanction. 
The  founders  desired  to  place  the  new  association 
under  the  patronage  of  '  St.  Job,'  but  the  magis- 
state  decided  that  it  should  be  put  under  the 
auspices  of  St.  Cecilia. 

For  a  very  long  time  the  custom  of  celebrating 
upon  St.  Cecilia's  festival  (Nov.  22)  the  praise  of 
music  by  musical  perfomiances  existed  in  various 
countries,  and  many  associations  were  formed  for 
the  purpose.  The  earliest  of  such  associations 
of  which  any  notice  has  been  found  was  estab- 
lished in  1 571,  at  Evreux  in  Normandy,  under 
the  title  of  'Le  Puy  de  Musique.'  A  solemn 
celebration  of  vespers  and  complin  took  place 
in  the  cathedral  on  the  vigil;  high  mass,  ves- 
pers and  complin  were  performed  on  the  feast 
day,  and  a  requiem  mass  for  the  souls  of  departed 
founders  on  the  morrow.  A  banquet  was  given 
after  mass  on  the  feast  day,  and  prizes  were 
awarded  for  the  best  motets,  part-songs,  airs, 
and  sonnets.  The  best  composers  of  the  day 
were  competitors  for  these  prizes,  and  amongst 
those  who  obtained  them  are  found  the  names 
of  Orlando  de  Lasso,  Eustache  du  Caurroy,  and 
Jacques  Salmon. 

It  was  a  century  later  before  any  similar  asso- 
ciation was  regularly  established  in  England.  In 
1683  a  body  of  persons  known  as  'The  Musical 
Society,'  held  the  first  of  a  series  of  annual  cele- 
brations. Their  practice  was  to  attend  Divine 
worship  (usually  at  St.  Bride's  church),  when  a 
choral  service  and  anthem  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniments (often  composed  expressly  for  the 
festival),  were  performed  by  an  exceptionally 
large  number  of  musicians,  and  a  sermon,  usually 
in  defence  of  cathedral  music,  was  preached. 
They  then  repaired  to  another  place  (coramonly 
Stationers'  Hall\  where  an  ode  in  praise  of  music, 
written  and  composed  expressly  for  the  occasion, 
was  performed,  after  which  they  sat  down  to  an 
entertainment.  These  odes  were  written  by 
Dryden  (16S7  and  1697),  Shadwell,  Congreve, 
D'Urfey,  Hughes,  and  other  less-known  writers, 
and  composed  by  Hemy  PurceU  (16S3  and  1692), 
Blow  (1684,  1 69 1,  1695,  and  1700),  Draghi,  Ec- 
cles,  Jeremiah  Clarke,  and  others  of  lesser  note. 
Purcell  produced  for  1694  his  'Te  Deum  and 
Jubilate  in  D,'  and  Blow  his  for  1695.  These 
celebrations  were  kept  uninterruptedly  (with  the 
exception  of  the  years  1686,  168S,  and  1689) 
until  1 703,  after  which  they  were  held  only  occa- 


sionally. Pope  wrote  his  fine  ode  in  1 708,  but  it 
was  not  set  to  music  until  1730,  and  then  in 
an  altered  and  abbreviated  form  by  Dr.  Greene, 
as  the  exercise  for  his  doctor's  degTce.  It  was 
first  set  in  its  original  form  about  1757  by  Wil- 
liam Walond,  organist  of  Chichester  cathedial, 
and  at  a  much  later  period  by  Dr.  Thomas  Busby. 
In  1736  Handel  reset  Dryden  s  'Alexander's 
Feast,'  originally  composed  in  1697  by  Jeremiah 
Clark,  and  in  1739  Dryden  s  first  ode,  originally 
set  in  1687  by  Draghi.  Odes  were  composed  at 
various  periods  by  Drs.  Pepusch  and  Boyce,  by 
Festing,  Samuel  Wesley,  and  others. 

About  the  same  time  that  the  London  celebra- 
tions were  established  similar  meetings  were  held 
at  Oxford,  for  wliich  odes  were  written  by  Addi- 
son, Yalden,  and  others,  and  set  by  Blow,  Daniel 
PurceU,  etc.  These  meetings  were  continued  until 
1708,  and  perhaps  later.  Other  places  followed 
the  example,  as  Winchester,  Gloucester,  Devizes, 
and  Salisbury.  At  the  latter  place,  in  1748 
(the  time  of  holding  it  having  previously  been 
changed),  the  meeting  was  extended  to  two  days, 
and  gradually  developed  into  the  modern  musical 
festival,  oratorios  being  performed  at  the  cathe- 
dral in  the  morning,  and  secular  concerts  at  the 
Assembly  Room  in  the  evening. 

There  are  some  records  of  a  musical  celebration 
having  taken  place  on  St.  Cecilia's  day  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1695,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  i&th 
century  several  took  place  in  St.  Patrick's  cathe- 
dral, Dublin. 

In  Paris  some  years  since  it  was  the  custom  to 
have  a  solenm  mass  performed  in  the  fine  church 
of  St.  Eustache  on  St.  Cecilia's  day,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Society  of  Artist  Musicians.  On 
these  occasions  a  new  mass,  composed  expressly 
by  some  eminent  musician,  was  usually  produced. 
Amongst  those  who  wi'ote  such  masses  were 
Adolph  Adam,  Niedermej^er  (1849),  Dietsch, 
Gounod  (1855),  and  Ambroise  Thomas  (1857). 

Musical  celebrations  on  St.  Cecilia's  day  are 
recorded  as  having  taken  place  at  various  periods 
in  Itdly,  Germany,  and  elsewhere.  Spohr  com- 
posed a  'Hynm  to  St.  Cecilia'  for  the  Cecilian 
Society  at  Cassel  in  1823,  and  Moritz  Hauptmann 
another  for  the  same  society  in  the  following  year. 

It  only  remains  to  allude  to  the  fact  of  St. 
Cecilia  haHng  long  been  a  favourite  subject  with 
poets  and  paintei-s :  from  Chaucer  to  Barry  Corn- 
wall, from  Eaffaelle  to  Delaroche,  her  story  has 
frequently  been  set  forth  in  verse  and  on 
canvas.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CELESTINO,  Eligio,  a  violin-player,  bom  at 
Kome,  1739.  Burney  heard  him  in  that  city  in 
1770,  and  considered  him  the  best  Eoman  violinist 
of  the  period.  In  1776  he  began  to  travel,  and 
settled  in  1781  at  Ludwigslust  in  Mecklenburg, 
as  leader  of  the  Ducal  band,  which  post  he  re- 
tained till  his  death  in  181 2.  When  sixty  years 
of  age,  Celestino  came  to  England,  and  met  with 
considerable  success.  In  Preston's  Catalogue 
(London,  1797),  we  find  of  his  composition  Six 
Sonatas  for  a  Violin  and  Bass  (op.  9),  and  three 
Duos  h,  Violino  e  Violoncello  (London,  Clementi, 
179S).  [PD.] 


3D0 


CELLO. 


CERONE. 


CELLO,  a  contraction  of  Violoncello. 

CEMBAL  D'AMORE  translated  is  'harpsi- 
chord of  love,'  but  according  to  Adlung  (*  Musica 
Mechanica '),  this  instrument  did  not  belong  to  the 
clavicembalo  or  harpsichord  genus,  but  to  that  of 
the  clavichord.  The  strings,  he  states,  were  as 
long  again  as  in  the  ordinary  clavichord,  and  the 
tangents  which  produced  the  tone  from  the  strings, 
instead  of  touching  them  near  to  their  left-hand 
terminations,  made  the  impact  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  their  whole  length  between  the  bridges, 
of  which  there  were  two  instead  of  one  as  in  the 
clavichord,  and  two  soundboards  of  unequal  forms 
and  dimensions.  Both  halves  of  the  strings  were 
thus  set  in  vibration  simultaneously,  which  ne- 
cessitated the  use  of  a  different  damping  contriv- 
ance to  the  simple  one  of  the  clavichord.  In  the 
cembal  d'amore  the  strings  lay  upon  the  damp- 
ing cloth,  instead  of  its  being  woven  between 
them,  and  small  wooden  uprights  supported  it. 
The  strings  were  therefore  damped  when  at  rest ; 
when  raised  upwards  by  the  tangents  they  were 
free  to  vibrate,  and  remained  so  as  long  as  the 
keys  were  pressed  down.  The  form  of  a  cembal 
d'amore  was  that  of  an  English  spinet  with  the 
keyboard  to  the  right  hand  of  the  player  instead 
of  the  left,  thus  reversing  the  extension  of  the 
instrument  laterally.  Adlung  attributed  to  it 
more  tone  than  the  ordinary  clavichord,  and 
more  capability  of  hehend  effect  by  the  gently 
reiterated  movement  of  the  key.  But  too  much 
pressure  on  the  key  would  affect  the  intonation 
as  in  a  clavichord.  In  estimating  its  dynamic 
power  he  places  the  cembal  d'amore  far  behind 
the  pianoforte,  though  beyond  the  clavichord. 
Mattheson  (Critica  Musica)  refers  to  it  and  to  a 
parallel  between  the  Florentine  (pianoforte)  and 
Freiberg  (cembal  d'amore)  in  a  bantering  tone. 
Gottfried  Silbermann  of  Freiberg  (1683-1753) 
invented  it,  and  Hahnel  of  Meissen  attempted 
to  improve  it  by  adding  a  '  Celestine '  register. 
Others,  as  Oppelmann  and  Hasse  of  Hamburg, 
made  the  instrument. 

Through  the  even  series  of  overtones  being 
banished  by  the  contact  with  the  first,  or  node 
at  the  half  length  of  the  string,  the  quality  of 
tone  or  timbre  must  have  tended  towards  that 
of  the  clarinet.  The  Rev.  J.  R.  Cotter,  of  Don- 
oughmore  Rectory,  Cork,  between  the  years  1840 
and  1865  endeavoured  to  obtain  this  effect  from 
a  pianoforte  which  he  had  constructed  in  Messrs. 
Broadwoods'  workshops,  by  making  a  'striking 
place'  at  the  middle  of  the  vibrating  length  of 
string.  In  this,  the  Lyrachord,  as  he  named  it, 
the  clarinet  quality  was  a  prominent  character- 
istic. [A.  J.  H.] 

CEMBALO  or  Cimbalo  (Italian^  a  dulcimer, 
an  old  European  name  of  which,  with  unimportant 
phonetic  variations,  was  Cymbal.  According  to 
Mr.  Carl  Engel  this  ancient  instrument  is  at  the 
present  day  called  cymhaly  by  the  Poles,  and  cym- 
halom  by  the  Magyars.  The  derivation  of  cembalo 
is  from  the  Greek  Kvptfirj  (Latin  cymha),  a  hollow 
vessel ;  and  with  the  Greeks  Kvix^aXa  were  small 
cymbals,  a  larger  form  of  this  ringing  instrument 


being  well  known  in  modem  military  bands. 
These  c;yTnbal8  and  bells  in  the  middle  ages  were 
regarded  as  closely  allied,  and  rows  of  bells  of 
different  sizes,  tintinnabala  or  glockenspiel,  were 
also  called  cyrahala.  Virdung  (151 1)  names 
zymheln  and  glochen  (cymbals  and  bells)  to- 
gether. It  was  most  likely  the  beU-like  tone  of 
the  wire  strings  struck  by  the  hammers  of  the 
dulcimer  that  attracted  to  it  the  name  of  cymbal 
or  cembalo.  It  is  explained  here,  however,  not 
only  for  the  meaning  dulcimer,  but  for  the 
frequent  use  of  the  word  'cembalo'  by  composers 
who  wrote  figured  basses,  and  its  employment  by 
them  as  an  abbreviation  of  clavicembalo.  The 
dulcimer,  or  cembalo,  with  keys  added,  became 
the  clavicembalo.  In  course  of  time  the  first  two 
syllables  being,  for  convenience  or  from  idleness 
in  speaking  or  writing,  dropped,  'cembalo'  also 
was  used  to  designate  the  keyed  instrument,  that 
is,  the  clavicembalo  or  harpsichord — just  as  cello 
in  the  present  day  frequently  stands  for  violoncello. 
In  the  famous  Passacadle  of  J.  S.  Bach,  '  cembalo' 
occurs  where  we  should  now  write  '  manual,'  there 
being  a  separate  pedal  part.  [See  Pedal.]  But 
we  know  from  Forkel  that  Bach  used  a  double 
'fiiigel '  or  clavicembalo,  having  two  keyboards  and 
obbligato  pedals,  as  well  as  the  organ  with  pedals. 
There  is  a  story  in  the  Decamerone  of  Boccaccio 
of  one  Dion,  who  being  asked  to  sing,  said  he 
would  if  he  had  a  cembalo.  The  early  date  of  this 
quotation  (1352-3)  has  led  to  much  difference  of 
opinion  among  musical  authorities  as  to  the  in- 
strument that  was  meant.  Burney  leans  to  a 
tambour  de  basque,  a  tambourine,  which  by  some 
caprice  had  been  designated,  some  time  or  other, 
cembalo.  Dr.  Rimbault  (Pianoforte,  p.  36)  main- 
tains that  it  was  a  small  clavichord,  but  for  this 
explanation  the  date  is  almost  too  early.  The 
opinion  of  Fetis,  that  it  was  a  dulcimer,  is  prob- 
ably the  true  one.  [Haepsichokd.]      [A.  J.  H.] 

CENERENTOLA,  LA,  opera  on  the  story  of 
Cinderella,  by  Rossini,  libretto  by  Feretti ;  pro- 
duced at  the  Teatro  Valle  in  Rome  at  the 
carnival,  181 7,  at  the  King's  Theatre,  London, 
(much  mutilated),  Jan.  8,  1820,  and  at  the 
Theatre  des  Italiens,  Paris,  June  8,  1822.  Its 
favourite  numbers  are  '  Miei  rampolli,'  'Un 
segreto  d'importanza,'  and  '  Non  piu  mesta.' 

'  Cinderella  .  .  .  with  the  music  by  Rossini ' 
was  produced  in  English  at  Covent  Garden, 
April  13,  1830  ;  but  it  was  a  mere  pasticcio, 
the  music  being  made  up  from  '  Cenerentola,* 
'Armida,'  'Maometto,'  and  'William  TeU.'  No 
better  adaptation  has  yet  been  made.  [G.] 

CERONE,  DoMEXico  Pietro,  priest,  bom  at 
Bergamo,  1566,  migrated  to  Spain  in  1592,  and 
entered  the  chapel  of  Philip  II  in  1593.  In 
1 608  he  left  Spain  for  Naples,  where  he  belonged 
to  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  was  living  in  1613. 
His  claim  to  mention  is  his  treatise  '  El  Melopeo,' 
a  folio  volume,  in  Spanish,  of  22  books  and  1 160 
pages  of  small  print  (Naples,  16 13),  a  work, 
according  to  the  account  of  Fetis,  valuable  in 
some  respects,  but  tedious,  confused,  and  unequal 
to  an  astonishing  degree.    It  is  founded  on  the 


CERONE. 


CHACONNE. 


831 


sj'stem  of  Zarlino;  indeed  there  is  some  reason 
to  believe  that  it  is  a  mere  redaction  of  a  work 
with  the  same  title  which  Zarlino  speaks  of  as 
having  completed  in  MS.,  but  which  has  totally- 
disappeared.  The  whole  edition  of  Cerone's 
work  is  said  to  have  been  lost  at  sea  except  13 
copies,  one  of  which  is  in  the  Ft'tis  library  of  the 
Bibliotheque  Eoyale  de  Belgique,  No.  5340.  [G.] 

CERTOX,  PiEKRE,  a  French  musician  of  the 
fir^t  half  of  tlie  1 6th  century  ;  master  of  the 
choir  at  the  Saint  Chapelle,  Paris ;  mentioned 
by  Rabelais  in  the  Nouveau  prologue  to  the  2nd 
book  of  Pantagruel.  A  list  of  his  works  is  given 
by  Fetis.  They  include  31  Psalms  (i,:;46); 
another  collection  of  the  same  (1552) ;  3  Masses 
( I  ) ;  I  Mass  U  5 5^  ;  i  Requiem.  A  Magnificat 
of'  his  is  found  in  a  collection  of  8  (Canticimi 
B.  M.  Yirginis  etc.  I559\  and  many  of  his 
motets  are  included  in  the  collections  of  Attaignant 
(1533-49),  Susato  (Antwerp,  1543-50),  Phalese 
(Louvain,  1558^,  and  Cipriani  (^Venice,  1544). 
In  the  'Collection  of  Ancient  Church  Music 
printed  by  the  Motet  Society'  (1843%  a  piece 
by  Certon  is  given  for  2  trebles  and  tenor,  to 
English  words,  which  is  very  melodious  and 
graceful,  and  with  a  marked  character  of  its 
own.  [G.] 

CERYETTO.  The  name  of  two  eminent  vio- 
loncello playei*s  of  the  last  century. 

1,  It  was  the  sobriquet  of  GiACOMO  BASSETi.bom 
in  Italy  16S2.  He  came  to  England  and  joined 
the  orchestra  of  Drury  Lane  in  172S.  The  ceUo 
was  not  then  known  in  England,  but  Cervetto, 
though  his  tone  is  said  to  have  been  coarse  and 
his  execution  not  remarkable,  made  it  a  popular 
instrument.  Probably  there  was  sometliing 
genial  and  attractive  in  the  personality  of  the 
man.  He  had  a  very  large  nose,  and  it  was  a 
favourite  joke  to  call  to  him  from  the  gallery, 
'  Play  up,  nosey ' — an  expression  still  heard  in 
the  theatres.  That  he  was  a  man  of  humour 
is  shewn  by  an  anecdote  given  in  the  books. 
Garrick  was  playing  a  drunken  man,  and  ended 
by  tin-owing  himself  into  a  chair.  At  this 
moment,  the  house  being  quite  still,  Cervetto 
uave  a  long  and  loud  ya\sTi,  on  which  Garrick 
started  up,  and  coming  to  the  footlights  de- 
manded furiously  what  he  meant.  '  I  beg  your 
pardon,'  said  Cervetto,  'but  I  always  gape  when 
I  am  particularly  enjoying  myself.'  He  became 
manager  of  Drury  Lane,  and  died  January  14, 
17S3,  over  100,  leaving  £20,000  to  his  son. 

2.  James,  who  was  bom  in  London  175S  or  9. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  when  1 1  yeare  old 
at  a  concert  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  when 
all  the  performers  were  children.  Among  them 
were  Giardini  (ii),  Gertrude  Schmiihling  (9) — 
afterwards  the  celebrated  Madame  Mara,  but 
then  a  ^-iolin  player — and  Miss  Biimey,  sister  of 
the  authoress  of  *  Evelina.'  (Pohl's  '  Haydn  in 
London,'  339.)  Up  to  the  death  of  his  father  he 
played  at  the  professional  concerts  and  other 
orchesti-as  of  the  day,  Crosdill  being  liis  only 
rival ;  but  after  that  event  he  retu-ed  upon  his 
fortune,  and  died  Feb.  5,  1837,  leaving  a  few 


unimportant  pieces  for  his  instrument  behind 
him.  [G.] 

CESTI,  AxTOXio,  was  an  ecclesiastic,  a  native 
of  Arezzo  according  to  Baini,  whom  Fetis  follows, 
but  of  Florence  according  to  Adami.  He  was 
I  born  about  1620,  and  in  due  course  became  a 
'  pupil  of  Carissimi.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
j  the  papal  choir  on  Jan.  i,  1660.  Bertiui  says 
I  that  he  was  subsequently  Maestro  di  Cappella  to 
!  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III. 

The  bent  of  Cesti's  genius  was  towards  the 
'  theatre,  and  he  did  much  for  the  progi-ess  of  the 
I  musical  drama  in  Italy.    Bertini  says  of  him — 
!  'Contribui  molto  ai  progressi  del  teatro  dram- 
'  matico  in  Italia,  riformando  la  monotona  sal- 
modia  che  aUova  vi  regnava,  e  transportando  ed 
adattando  al  teatro  le  cantate  inventate  dal  suo 
maestro  per  la  chiesa.'    That  he  owed  much  to 
his  master  Carissimi,  as  he  did  to  his  contempo- 
rary Cavalli,  whose  operas  were  then  in  vogue  at 
1  Venice,  cannot  be  doubted,  but  that  he  deserves 
to  be  dismissed  as  the  plagiarist  of  either  of 
,  them  is  untrue. 

j  Allacci  gives  the  following  list  of  the  opei-as 
of  Cesti — L'Orontea  ;  Cesare  Amante  ;  La  Dori ; 
Tito ;  La  Schiava  fortunata ;  Genserico :  this 
last  work  he  left  incomplete  at  his  death,  and 
j  it  was  finished  by  Domenico  Pai-tenio.  To 
I  these  Fetis  adds  Argene,  Argia,  and  H  Pomo 
'  d'Oro.  Bei-tini  and  Gerber  say  that  he  set 
Guarini's  'Pastor  Fido'  to  music,  but  the  work 
is  not  known  to  exist.  Dr.  Bumey  has  pre- 
served a  scene  from  'L  Orontea'  in  his  History 
of  Music,  and  Hawkins  has  done  the  like  by  a 
pretty  little  duet  for  soprano  and  bass,  called 
'Cara  e  dolce  e  liberta.'  The  Abbe  Santini 
had  a  collection  of  his  chamber  pieces,  and  the 
score  of  his  Dori ;  some  of  his  canzonets  were 
published  in  London  by  Pignani  in  1665  ;  and 
there  is  a  solitary  sacred  motet  by  him  in 
the  National  Library  at  Paris.  [E.H.P.] 

I  CEVALLOS,  Francisco,  Spanish  composer 
1  from  1535  to  1572,  canon  and  musical  director 
j  of  the  cathedral  at  Burgos.  Among  his  com- 
positions sftittered  throughout  Spain,  may  be 
,  mentioned  a  fine  mass  in  the  church  'Del  Pilar' 
'  at  Saragossa,  and  a  motet  •  Inter  vestibulum '  in 
I  Eslava's  Lii-a  Sacra  Hispaiia.  [M.  C.C.] 

!     CHACONNE  (Ital.  Ciaccona),  an  obsolete 

'  dance,  probably  of  Spanish  origin.    At  any  rate 

j  the  name  is  Spanish,  chaco7ia.  from  the  Basque 
chocu7ia,  'pretty'  (Littre').    The  chaconne  was  a 

'  dance  usually  in  3-4  time,  of  a  moderately  slow 
movement,  which  belonged  to  the  class  of  varia- 

I  tions,  being,  in  fact,  in  the  large  majority  of 
cases,  actually  a  series  of  variations  on  a  'ground 
bass,'  mostly  eight  bars  in  length.  It  closely  re- 
sembles the  Passacaglia,  the  only  difi"erences  being 
that  the  tempo  of  the  latter  is  somewhat  slower, 

=  and  that  it  begins  upon  the  third  beat  of  the 
bar,  whereas  the  chaconne  commences  upon  the 
first.  Among  the  most  celebrated  examples 
are  that  in  Bach's  fourth  sonata  for  violin 

[  solo,   and  the  two  (one  with   21  the  other 


332 


GHACONNE. 


CHANGE. 


with  62  variations)  in  Handel's  'Suites  de 
Pieces.'  As  a  modem  example  of  the  ohaconne 
(though  not  so  entitled)  may  be  instanced  Bee- 
thoven's 'thirty-two  variations  in  C  minor  on  an 
original  theme.'  Gluck  has  also  used  this  form, 
with  some  modifications,  in  the  ballet  music  of 
his  'Iphigenie  en  Aulide.'  In  Couperin's  'Pieces 
pour  le  Clavecin,'  edited  by  Brahms,  is  a  cha- 
conne  in  2-4  time.  [E.  P.] 

CHAIR  ORGAN,  a  corruption  of  choir  organ, 
in  use  in  the  last  century,  not  impossibly  arising 
from  the  fact  that  in  cathedrals  the  choir  organ 
often  formed  the  back  of  the  organist's  seat. 

CHALET,  LE.  A  comic  opera  of  three 
characters  and  in  one  act ;  the  libretto  by  Scribe 
and  Melesville,  the  music  by  A.  Adam — his  most 
popular  work.  It  was  produced  at  Paris  Sept. 
25,  1834.  [G.] 

CHALUMEAU.  Supposed  to  have  been  an 
old  instrument  of  the  clarinet  or  oboe  type,  now 
entirely  disused.  The  name  occurs  in  the  scores 
of  Gluck's  operas. 

The  word  is  also  used  for  the  lowest  register  of 
the  Clarinet.    [Clarinet.]  [W.  H.  S.] 

CHAMBER  MUSIC  is  the  name  applied  to 
all  that  class  of  music  which  is  specially  fitted 
for  performance  in  a  room,  as  distinguished  from 
concert  music,  or  dramatic  music,  or  ecclesiastical 
music,  or  such  other  kinds  as  require  many 
performers  and  large  spaces  for  large  volumes 
of  sound. 

It  was  early  recognised  as  a  special  department 
of  the  art,  as  we  find  Louis  XIV  with  a  '  Maitre 
de  la  Musique  de  la  Chambre  du  Roy,'  and  in 
Italy  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  Peri  and  Caccini  and  many  other  dis- 
tinguished composers  of  that  time  and  shortly 
after  produced  an  abundance  of  '  Cantate  da 
Camera'  and  'Madrigali  da  Camera,' which  were 
generally  pieces  for  a  single  voice  with  ac- 
companiment of  a  single  instrument.  These 
were  probably  the  most  important  part  of 
chamber  music  for  some  time,  but  tliey  changed 
their  character  by  degrees,  and  becoming  more 
extensive,  and  more  fitted  for  large  numbers  of 
performers,  passed  out  of  its  domain.  The  name 
is  now  more  generally  applied  to  instrumental 
music,  either  for  single  instruments  or  solo 
instruments  in  combination ;  though  it  is  still 
appropriate  to  songs,  and  vocal  pieces  for  a  few 
voices,  alone  or  with  a  simple  accompaniment. 

The  earliest  forms  of  instrumental  chamber 
music,  as  indeed  of  all  instrumental  music,  were 
the  dance  tunes,  and  the  collections  of  dance 
tunes  which  wei  e  called  suites ;  and  great 
quantities  of  these  exist  for  various  combinations 
of  instruments,  but  most  of  those  which  are  still 
well  known  are  for  'clavier'  alone.  These  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  sonata  or  'sound  piece,' 
which  is  the  type  of  the  greater  part  of  modem 
instrumental  music.  This  designation  is  now 
almost  entirely  restricted  to  works  for  pianoforte 
or  pianoforte  and  one  solo  instrument,  but  the 
first  sonatas  were  for  combinations  of  various 
instruments,  and  especially  for  strings ;  and 


works  of  this  kind  exist  by  many  of  the  great 
Italian  masters,  as  by  Corelli,  and  by  our  own 
Purcell,  whose  'Golden  Sonata'  for  two  violins 
and  bass  was  held  in  great  rejiutc.  It  is  some- 
what singular  that  the  name  should  have  been 
so  restricted,  as  the  works  which  we  now  know 
as  trios,  quartets,  quintets,  and  like  names 
designating  the  number  of  solo  instruments  for 
which  they  were  written,  are  always  in  the  same 
form  with  the  pianoforte  works  w^hich  we  c;ill 
sonatas,  and  the  legitimate  descendants  of  the 
earlier  combinafciom  of  instruments  which  went 
by  the  same  name.  Works  of  this  description 
form  a  very  considerable  portion  of  modem 
music  both  in  value  and  amount,  almost  all  the 
greatest  composers  of  the  last  hundred  years 
having  produced  some,  especially  Haydn,  Mozart, 
and  Beethoven.  The  latter  seemed  in  his  later 
years  to  regard  the  quartet  of  strings  as  one 
of  the  most  perfect  means  of  expressing  his 
deepest  musical  thoughts,  and  left  some  of  the 
greatest  treasures  of  all  music  in  that  form. 
In  the  present  day  the  most  popular  form  of 
instrumental  music  of  this  description  seems  to 
be  the  combination  of  pianoforte  and  strings,  as 
duos,  trios,  quartets,  etc.,  and  of  such  works 
great  quantities  are  constantly  produced  by  many 
distinguished  composers  of  Germany. 

Chamber  music  offers  such  signal  opportunities 
for  the  display  of  the  finest  qualities  of  great 
players  that  it  has  become  a  common  practice  to 
perform  it  in  large  concert  rooms  where  great 
numbers  of  people  can  come  together  to  hear  it, 
so  that  the  title  threatens  to  become  anomalous  ; 
but  it  so  aptly  describes  the  class  of  music  which  is 
at  least  most  fitted  for  performance  in  a  room  that 
it  is  not  likely  to  fall  into  disuse.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CHAMBONNIERES,  Jacques  Champion  de, 
son  of  Jacques  and  grandson  of  Antoine  Cham- 
pion, took  the  name  of  Chambonnieres  from  his 
wife's  estate  near  Brie,  was  first  harpsichord 
player  to  Louis  XIV.  Le  Gallois,  in  his  '  Lettre 
a  Mdlle.  Regnault'  (Paris  i68c),  says  Cham- 
bonnieres excelled  every  performer  of  his  day  in 
the  roundness  and  softness  of  his  touch.  He 
foi-med  the  school  of  harpsichord  players  which 
preceded  Rameau.  Among  other  pupils  he  taught 
Anglebert,  Le  Begue,  and  the  earlier  Couperins, 
of  which  celebrated  family  he  introduced  Louis 
to  the  court.  Chambonnieres  published  two  vol- 
umes of  harpsichord  music  (Paris  1670),  of  which 
the  first  is  in  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire 
and  the  second  at  the  Bibliothfeque  Nationale. 
These  pieces  are  elegant,  original,  and  cor- 
rectly harmonized.  He  died  in  or  soon  after 
1670.  [M.  C.  C] 

CHAMPION,  Antoine,  grandfather  of  Cham- 
bonnieres, an  eminent  organist  in  the  reign  of 
Henri  IV.  A  five-part  mass  of  his  and  a  book 
of  organ  pieces  (in  MS.)  are  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Munich.  His  son  Jacques  was  also  a  good 
organist  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.    [M.  C.  C-] 

CHANGE.  I.  The  word  used  as  the  short 
for  change  of  key  or  Modulation,  under  which 


CHANGE. 


CHANGE. 


333 


latter  head  a  fuller  account  is  given.  Changes  are 
commonly  spoken  of  as  of  three  kinds,  represent- 
ing three  degrees  of  abruptness. 

I.  The  Diatonic,  which  passes  from  one  key 
to  another,  nearly  related  to  it,  by  means  of  notes 
common  to  both,  as — 


n  r 

from  Bach's  Cantata, '  Freue  dich,  erldste  Schaar.' 

2.  The  Chromatic,  when  accidentals  appear 
which  are  not  common  to  both  keys,  as — 

Tu  suscipe  pro  animahus  illis. 


_l — 1 — 1_ 

¥=P-r 

4  w  J 

_J2_,_L^_J  

-J-l  J  J  1  i 

— •  \*~Tr:y  !• — 

from  Mozart's  Requiem. 

3.  The  Enharmonic,  where  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  fact  that  the  same  notes  can  be  called 
by  different  names,  which  lead  different  ways, 
and  consequently  into  unexpected  keys.  For 
instance,  the  dominant  7th  can  be  translated 
into  the  chord  of  the  augmented  6th,  and  by  that 
means  lead  into  very  remote  keys,  and  by  the 
universal  transformable  power  of  the  inversions 
of  the  minor  9th,  we  can  pass  from  any  one 
key  to  almost  any  other;  e.g.  in  Beethoven's 
'Leonore'  Overture  the  transition  from  E  major 
to  F  is  thus  manasfed — 


the  chord  *  being  resolved  as  if  it  had  been 
written  Bb,  Db,  G,  and  being  approached  as  if 


it  should  be  written  Ajf,  C#,  G.  Thus  there  is 
a  double  equivoque.  The  chord  as  it  is  approach- 
ed seems  to  be  an  inversion  of  the  minor  9th  of 
the  supertonic  of  E  ;  it  is  then  written  as  an  in- 
version of  the  chord  of  the  minor  9th  of  the 
dominant  in  the  key  of  D,  and  resolved  as  an 
inversion  of  the  minor  9th  of  the  dominant  of  F. 
A  more  obvious  instance  to  the  uninitiated  is  the 
following — 

A  A- 


PP 


from  Chopin's  Nocturne  in  G  minor  (op.  15), 
where  he  passes  from  Cjf  major  to  F  in  this 
manner.  [C.H.H.P.] 
II.  Change  is  the  term  applied  to  any  order 
in  which  bells  are  struck  other  than  the  usual 
order  in  which  rings  of  bells  are  arranged,  viz. 
the  diatonic  scale — struck  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest  bell;  and  Change  Ringing  Us  the  continual 
production  of  such  changes — without  any  repeti- 
tion— from  the  time  the  bells  leave  the  position  of 
rounds  (123456)  to  the  time  they  return  to 
that  position  again.  It  is  an  interesting,  and,  to 
many,  an  engrossing  art,  and  has  been  in  practice 
in  this  country,  it  is  supposed,  for  the  last  250 
years  ;  during  which  time  many  persons  of  rank 
and  education  have  practised  it  as  an  amusement, 
among  the  earliest  of  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Lord  Brereton,  and  Sir  Cliff  Clifton  in  about 
1630.  Change  ringing,  as  has  been  said,  is  the 
constant  production  of  changes  without  repetition 
from  the  time  that  the  bells  leave  the  position  of 
rounds  to  the  time  that  they  return  to  that  posi- 
tion again.  It  is  a  rule  that  every  bell  which 
can  change  its  position  should  do  so  in  order 
of  striking  at  each  successive  blow,  thus  : — 

1  2  3  4  5 


2  14  3  5 
2  4  15  3 


It  is  the  change  ringers'  and  the  composer's  object 
to  obtain  with  as  musical  a  combination  as  may 
be,  the  whole  of  the  changes  to  be  produced  on 
any  given  number  of  belis.  It  will  be  seen  by 
examining  the  following  figures  tliat  with  this 
simple  rule — that  every  bell  which  can  must 


1  Thiswork  being  a  Dictionary  of  Music,  a  longdescriptionof  the  art 
would  be  out  of  place,  and  we  must  tlierefore  refer  the  reader  to  the 
elementary  book  entitled  '  Change  Kinging '  by  Charles  A.  W.  Troyte, 
Esq.,  of  Uuntsham.  Devon  (Masters,  New  Bond  Street),  and  for  the 
more  advanced  stases  to  the  book  of  the  same  name  by  Mr.  William 
Banister  (t'oUard,  Exeter). 


334 


CHANGE. 


CHANGE. 


change  places — only  lo  changes  can  be  produced 
on  five  bells 

12345  54321 

  5  3  4  12 

21435  35142 
24153  31524 
42513  13254 
45231  12345 
It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  bells  work  in 
regular  order  from  being  first  bell  to  being  last, 
striking  two  blows  as  first  and  two  as  last :  this 
is  called  by  ringers  'hunting  up  and  down' — 
all  the  work  from  being  first  bell  being  called 
hunting  'up,'  till  she  becomes  the  last  striking 
bell,  and  the  reverse  being  termed  going  '  down.' 
A  bell  can  never  be  made  to  skip  a  place,  she 
must  always  be  rung  in  the  next  place  to  that  in 
which  she  last  struck.  This  being  the  rule, 
therefore,  that  bells  must  thus  change  places,  and 
it  having  been  shown  that  by  simply  doing  so 
only  TO  changes  of  the  I20  on  five  bells  (see 
Table)  can  be  produced,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
alter  the  rule  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  bells,  by 
making  fresh  ones  ;  and  these  rules,  being  more 
or  less  intricate,  comprise  the  methods  by  which 
peals  or  touches  are  produced.  For  the  purposes 
of  this  work  it  will  be  enough  to  glance  at  one  or 
two  of  those  in  most  general  use. 

The  Grandsire  method  is  supposed  to  be  the 
original  one,  and  shall  therefore  be  first  noticed. 
Taking  the  rule  above  given  as  to  plain  'hunting/ 
and  which  has  been  shown  to  produce  ten  changes 
only  on  five  bells,  it  is  by  this  method  thus 
altered  : — The  bell  that  leads  next  before  the 
treble  only  goes  up  into  3rd's  place  and  then 
goes  back  to  lead  again  ;  the  bells  in  fourths  and 
fifths  places  are  by  this  thrown  out  of  their  work, 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  follownng  diagram  at  the 
asterisk,  and  are  said  to  dodge  : — 


1  2  3  4  5 

2  13  5  4 

2  3  14  5 

3  2  4  1 

3  4  2  5 

4  3  5  2 

4  5  3  1 

5  4  13 


1  4  2 
5  2  4 

2  5  3 
15  4 
5  13 

2  3  1 

3  2  4 


By  following  this  rule  again  only  30  changes  of 
the  1 20  can  be  produced,  and  now  the  services  of 
the  conductor  have  to  be  called  in,  who  uses  the 
terms  'Bob'  or  '  Single  '  to  denote  the  changes  in 
work  shown  in  the  following  diagrams,  taking  up 
the  work  from  the  +  in  the  foregoing  one.  We 
will  in  the  first  show  the  working  of  a  Bob,  in 
the  second  that  of  a  Single, — these  changes  of 
course  always  taking  place  when  the  treble  is 
leading : — 


Bob' 


5  4  13  2 
5  14  2  3 
1  5  4  3  2 
1  4  5  2  3 
4  15  3  2 
4  5  12  3 


Single' 


5  4  13  2 
5  14  2  3 
1  5  4  3  2 
1  5  4  2  3 
5  14  3  2 
5  4  12  3 


treble,  are  thrown  out  of  their  plain  hunting 
work  ;  the  4th  and  5th  remain  below  3rd's  place, 
and  the  2nd  and  3rd  keep  changing  places:  in 
change-ringing  terms  the  4th  and  5th  are  said  to 
'make  places,'  and  the  2nd  and  3rd  are  said  to 
make  a  'double  dodge.'  It  is  by  calling  these 
bobs  and  singles  at  intervals  previously  settled  on 
that  the  conductor  is  able  to  produce  the  whole 
120  changes. 

This  method  is  much  and  generally  practised 
on  all  numbers  of  bells  from  5  to  12,  its  working 
being  exactly  the  same  on  all,  with  the  only 
difference  that  when  the  courses  of  the  bells  are 
altered  by  the  rule,  there  are  more  bells  to  dodge, 
and  the  arrangements  of  bobs  and  singles  become 
more  complicated.  It  is,  however,  considered 
better  suited  to  an  uneven  number  of  bells  with 
a  tenor  covering, — such  as  would  be  ten  bells 
when  only  the  first  nine  were  changing. 

The  Stedman  method  is  another  and  favourite 
method  among  change-ringers.  It  derives  its 
name  from  a  Mr.  Fabian  Stedman  by  whom  it 
was  invented  about  the  year  1640.  It  is  on  an 
entirely  different  principle  to  the  Grandsire 
method,  the  foundation  of  it  being  that  the  three 
first  bells  go  through  the  six  changes  of  which 
they  are  capable  (see  Table  of  Changes)  while  the 
bells  behind  'dodge'  ;  at  the  end  of  each  six 
changes  one  of  these  bells  going  up  to  take  part 
in  the  dodging,  and  another  coming  down  to  take 
its  place  in  the  changes.  It  is  an  intricate 
method,  and  our  space  will  not  allow  of  a  fuller 
explanation  ;  it  is  carefully  explained  in  Troyte's 
'  Change  Ringing,'  to  which  we  have  already  re- 
ferred. 

Treble  Bob.  There  are  many  variations  of  this 
which  is  usually  performed  on  an  even  number 
of  bells.  It  derives  its  name  firom  the  fact  that, 
instead  of  the  plain  hunting  course,  the  bells,  and 
more  especially  the  '  Treble,'  have  a  dodging 
course.  This  will  be  seen  by  the  following  dia- 
gram, and  for  further  explanation  we  must  again 
refer  to  Troyte's  '  Change  Ringing.' 


1  2  3  4  5 

6 

5  2 

6 

3  4  1 

2  5 

3 

6  14 

2  13  4  6 

5 

2  3 

5 

16  4 

1  2  4  3  5 

6 

3  2 

1 

5  4  6 

2  14  3  6 

5 

3  2 

5 

16  4 

2  4  16  3 

5 

2  3 

1 

5  4  6 

4  2  6  1  5 

3 

2  1 

3 

4  5  6 

4  2  16  3 

5 

I  2 

3 

4  6  5 

2  4  6  1  5 

3 

2  1 

4 

3  5  6 

2  6  4  5  1 

3 

1  2 

4 

3  6  5 

6  2  5  4  3 

1 

1  4 

2 

6  3  5 

6  2  4  5  1 

3 

4  1 

2 

6  5  3 

2  6  5  4  3 

1 

1  4 

6 

2  3  5 

2  5  6  3  4 

1 

4  1 

6 

2  5  3 

5  2  3  6  1 

4 

4  6 

1 

5  2  3 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  the  bells,  except  the 


The  foregoing  remarks  we  trust  will  explain 
the  general  meaning  of  the  term  '  Change  Ringing' 
as  used  technically.  The  following  I'able  shows 
the  number  of  changes  to  be  derived  from  any 
given  number  of  bells  up  to  12  (the  largest  num- 
ber ever  rung  in  peal),  the  names  given  to  such 


CHAXGE. 


CHAXSOX. 


335 


changes,  and  the  time  generally  allowed  for 
ringing  them  : — 


"1 

Name. 

No.  of 
Changes. 

£ 
3 

— 

-2 

i 

- 

3 

6 

4 

Singles  .... 

24 

1 

5 

Doubles  ... 

5 

6 

Minor  .... 

720 

SO 

Triples  .... 

5,040 

3 

8 

Major  .... 

40,320 

1 

4 

9 

Caters  (quaters) 

362,S80 

10 

12 

10 

Royal  .... 

3,628,800 

105 

11 

Cinques.   .  .  . 

39,916,800 

*3 

60 

12 

1 

Maximus  .   .  . 

479,001.600 

37 

355 

[C.A.W.T.] 


CHAXOT,  Fraxcois,  son  of  a  violin-maker, 
■was  bom  in  1787  at  Mirecourt  in  France.  He 
entered  the  army  as  an  engineer  under  the 
Empire,  but  quitted  it  after  the  Restoration. 
Returning  to  Mirecourt,  he  made  special  studies 
on  the  construction  of  the  violin,  and  ultimately 
built  one  which  deviated  considerablj-  in  form 
from  the  accepted  pattern.  Believing  that,  in 
order  to  make  every  part  of  the  instrument 
partake  equally  of  the  vibrations  of  the  sound,  the 
fibres  of  tiie  wood  should  be  preserved  in  their 
entire  length,  he  considered  the  comers  and 
curves  of  the  outline  as  so  many  obstacles  to 
the  propagation  of  the  waves  of  sound,  and 
accordingly  gave  his  violin  a  pear-shaped  form, 
resembling  that  of  the  guitar.  The  belly  he 
made  quito  flat,  and  left  out  the  soundpost 
altogether,  on  the  groimd  that  it  merely  served 
to  break  the  waves  of  sound,  while  in  reality  it 
transmits  them  from  belly  to  back. 

This  violin  (if  one  may  still  call  it  so),  the 
only  one  Chanot  ever  made,  he  submitted  to  the 
authorities  of  the  Institut  de  France.  After 
having  been  examined  by  a  committee  of  eminent 
men,  both  scientific  and  musical,  and  tried  against 
instruments  of  Guamerius  and  Stradivarius,  it 
was  pronounced  not  inferior  in  quality  to  the 
violins  of  these  great  makers.  (Rapport  de 
rinstitut,  in  the  *Moniteur,'  Aug.  22,  1817). 
It  is  difficult  to  account  for  this  decision,  which 
experience  quickly  proved  to  be  a  complete 
delusion,  as  all  instruments  made  after  the  new 
pattern  turned  out  of  indifferent  quality.  A 
brother  of  Chanot' s,  a  vioHn-maker  at  Paris,  for 
some  time  continued  to  make  ^•iolins  of  this  kind, 
but  was  soon  obliged  to  give  it  up.  This 
endeavour  to  improve  upon  the  generally  adopted 
pattern  of  the  great  Italian  makers,  resvdted, 
like  all  similar  attempts  before  and  since,  in 
complete  failure.    Chanot  died  in  1823.   [P.  D.] 

CHAXSOX.  The  French  chanson,  derived 
from  the  Latin  cantio,  cantionem,  is  a  little  poem 
of  which  the  stanzas  or  symmetrical  divisions  are 
called  'couplets.'  Being  intended  for  singing, 
the  couplets  are  generally  in  a  flowing  rhythm, 


and  written  in  an  easy,  natural,  simple,  yet 
lively  style.  As  a  rule,  each  couplet  concludes 
with  a  repetition  of  one  or  two  lines  constituting 
the  '  refrain ' ;  but  the  refrain  is  sometimes  sepa- 
rate, and  precedes  or  foUows  the  couplet,  in 
which  case  it  may  be  a  distich  or  quatrain,  or 
even  a  stanza,  of  different  rhythm  to  the  rest  of 
the  song.  The  history  of  the  chanson  would 
i  involve  a  review  of  the  whole  history  of  France, 
i  political,  literary,  and  social.  Suffice  it  to  say 
here  that  all  modem  songs  may  be  classed  under 
four  heads  —  the  'chanson  historique';  the 
*  chanson  de  metier ' ;  the  *  chanson  d'amo\ir ' ; 
and  the  *  chanson  bachique ' ;  four  divisions 
which  may  be  traced  in  the  ancient  poets. 

1,  The  historical  songs  may  be  subdivided 
into  four  classes,  sacred,  military,  national,  and 
satirical.  The  sacred  songs  include  the  'can- 
tique,'   the  '  noel,'   or  Christmas  carol,  the 

I  'hymne,'  and  also  the  'complainte,'  or  lament, 
and  the  '  chanson  de  solennites  politiques,'  com- 

;  posed  to  celebrate  an  accession  to  the  throne,  or 
other  public  event.  The  '  cantatas '  performed 
on  state  occasions  by  other  nations  took  their 

;  origin  from  these  '  chansons  de  solennites,'  The 
national  songs  of  France  are  entirely  modem. 
[See  YiTE  Hexki  IV  ;  Marseillaise  ;  Depart 
Chajn'T  du.  La  Paeisie>.'xe,  &c."I 

2.  The  '  chansons  de  metier,'  like  the  '  chan- 
sons militaires,'  were  originally  merely  cries. 
(Kastner,  'Les  Toix  de  Paris.')  Of  all  the 
popular  songs,  these  professional  chansons  are 
the  fewest  in  number,  and  the  least  interesting 

,  both  as  regards  words  and  music, 
j     3.  On  the  other  hand,  the  '  chansons  d' amour' 
;  are  innimierable  and  weU  worth  studying.  In 
them  the  French  poets  exhausted  all  the  re- 
sources of  rh}-thm.    The  *lai,'  an  elegiac  song, 
accompanied  by  the  rote,  harp,  or  vielle  (hurdy- 
gurdy) ;  the  'vfrelai,'  turning  entirely  on  two 
'  rhymes  ;  the  '  descort,'  in  which  the  melody,  and 
,  sometimes  the  idiom  changed  wnth  each  couplet ; 
the  'aubade,'  the  'chant  royal,'  the  'ballade,' 
the 'brunette,' the  'rondeau,'  and  the  'triolet,' 
,  are  all  forms  of  the  'chanson  amoureuse,'  which 
;  was  the  precursor  of  the  modem  '  romance.' 
I     4.  The  'chansons  bachiques'  are  also  remark- 
j  able  for   variety   of  rhythm,   and  many  of 
i  them  have  all  the  ease  and  flexibility  of  the 
j  '  couplets  de  facture '  of  the  best  vaudeville 
!  writers.    In  some  songs  the  words  are  more 
1  important,  in  others  the  music.     Hence  arose 
I  a  distinction  between  the  'note'  or  air,  and 
I  the  'chanson'  or  words.     The  old  chansons 
,  have  a  very  distinctive  character  ;  so  much  .so 
that  it  is  easy  to  infer  the  time  and  place  of 
their  origin  from  their  rhythm  and  style.  The 
I  popidar  melodies  of  a  country'  where  the  in- 
'  habitants  live  at  ease,  and  sing  merely  for 
amusement,  have  as  a  rule  nothing  in  common 
with  those  of  a  people  whose  aim  is  to  per- 
petuate the  memory  of  the  past.     The  songs 
too  of  those  who  live  in  the  plains  are  mono- 
tonous and  spiritless ;  whilst  those  of  moun- 
taineers are  naturally  picturesque,  impressive, 
and  even  sublime.    It  is  not  only  the  influence 


336 


CHA^-SON. 


CHANT. 


of  climate  wliicli  leaves  its  mark  on  tlie  songs  of 
a  people ;  the  spirit  of  the  age  has  a  great  effect, 
as  we  may  see  if  we  remark  how  the  chansons 
of  France  have  drawn  their  inspiration  mainly 
from  two  sources— church  music,  and  the  'chan- 
sons de  chasse.'  Even  in  its  songs,  the  influence 
of  the  two  privileged  classes,  the  clergy  and  the 
nobility,  was  felt  by  the  people.  Without  pur- 
suing this  subject  further,  we  will  merely  remark 
that  the  name  '  chansons  populaires '  should  be 
applied  only  to  songs  of  which  the  author  of 
both  words  and  music  is  unknown. 

It  is  also  important  to  distinguish  between 
the  anonvmous  chanson,  transmitted  by  tradi- 
tion, and  the  'chanson  musicale,'  by  which  last 
we  mean  songs  that  were  noted  down  from  the 
first,  and  composed  with  some  attention  to  the 
rules  of  art.  Such  are  those  of  the  Chatelain 
de  Coucy,  composed  at  the  end  of  the  12th 
century,  and  justly  considered  most  curious  and 
instructive  reHcs  in  the  history  of  music.  (Michel 
et  Peme,  '  Chansons  du  Chatelain  de  Coucy,' 
Paris,  1830).  Of  a  similar  kind,  and  worthy  of 
special  mention,  are  the  songs  of  Adam  de  la 
Halle,  of  which  some  are  in  three  parts.  (Cousse- 
maker,  'Adam  de  la  Halle,'  Paris,  1872).  True 
these  first  attempts  at  harmony  are  rude,  and 
very  different  from  the  '  Inventions  Musicales' 
of  Clement  Jannequin,  and  the  songs  for  one  or 
more  voices  by  the  great  masters  of  the  madrigal 
school ;  but  the  chanson  of  the  middle  ages  was 
nevertheless  the  parent  of  the  ariette  in  the 
early  French  operas-comique,  and  of  the  modem 
couplet ;  while  the  '  chanson  musicale'  in  several 
parts  is  the  foundation  of  choral  music  with  or 
without  accompaniment.  By  some  of  the  great 
Flemish  musicians  the  word  chanson  was  ex- 
tended to  mean  psalms  and  other  sacred  pieces. 
It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  French,  who 
are  so  rich  in  literary  collections  of  songs, 
should  have  at  present  no  anthology  of  '  chan- 
sons musicales '  in  notation,  where  might  be  seen 
not  only  '  Belle  Erembor'  and  '  I'Enfant-Gerard,' 
anonymous  compositions  of  the  1 2  th  century,  but 
the  best  works  of  the  troubadours  Adenez, 
Charles  d'Anjou,  Blondel,  Gace  Brules,  Colin 
Muset,  Thibault  IV,  Comte  de  Champagne,  and 
of  the  Xorman  and  Picard  trouveres  of  the  1 3th, 
14th,  and  15th  centuries.  One  great  obstacle  to 
such  a  work  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  chansons  of 
the  1 2th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries  were  so  often 
altered  in  transcribing.  It  is  however  much  to 
be  hoped  that  some  musician  of  taste  and 
erudition  will  before  long  place  within  our  reach 
the  'chansons  d 'amour,'  and  the  'chansons  a 
boire,'  which  have  been  the  delight  of  the  French 
from  the  middle  ages  downwards. 

The  best  works  on  the  subject  at  present 
are  : — 'Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,'  vol.  23  ; 
'  Les  Poetes  fran^ais'  (Cr^pet,  Paris,  4  vols.); 
Du  Mersan's  '  Chants  et  Chansons  populaires  de 
la  France  '  (Paris,  1848,  3  vols.),  with  accompani- 
ments by  Colet,  rot  in  the  style  of  the  chansons  ; 
Coussemaker's  '  Chants  populaires  des  Flamands 
de  France'  (Ghent,  1856);  Champfleury  and 
Wekerlin's  'Chansons  populaires  des  provinces 


de  France'  (Paris,  i860)  ;  Gagneur's  'Chansons 
populaires  du  Canada'  (Quebec,  1865);  Landelle's 
'Chansons  maritimes'  (Paris,  1865);  Xisard's 
'Des  Chansons  populaires'  (Paris,  1867).  Ca- 
pelle's  '  La  Cle  du  Caveau'  (4th  ed.  Paris,  1872)  ; 
and  Yerrimst's  'Eondes  et  Chansons  populaires 
illustrees'  (Paris,  1876).  In  the  last  two  works 
the  songs  are  not  always  correctly  given.  [G.C.] 

'  CHAXT.  To  chant  is,  generally,  to  sing; 
and,  in  a  more  limited  sense,  to  sing  certain 
words  according  to  the  style  required  by  musical 

I  laws  or  ecclesiastical  rule  and  custom ;  and  what 
is  thus  performed  is  styled  a  Chant  and  Chant- 
ing, Car<^««/rrr«u3,  or  C'a'/«^o/gmo.  Practically, 
the  word  is  now  used  for  the  short  melodies 
Bung  to  the  psalms  and  canticles  in  the  English 
Church.  These  are  either  'single,'  i.e.  adapted 
to  each  single  verse  after  the  tradition  of  16 
centuries,  or  'double,'  i.e.  adapted  to  a  couple 
of  verses,  or  even,  according  to  a  recent  still 
greater  innovation,  'quadruple,'  ranging  over 
four  verses. 

The  qualifying  terms  Gregorian,  Anglican, 
GaUican,  Parisian,  Cologne,  etc.,  as  applied  to 
the  chant,  simply  express  the  sources  from  which 
any  particular  chant  has  been  derived. 

It  is  historically  incorrectto  regard  the  structure 
j  of  ancient  and  modem  chants  as  antagonistic  each 
'  to  the  other.    The  famous  'Book  of  Common 
Praier  noted,'  of  John  Marbeck  (1559),  which 
contains  the  first  adaptation  of  music  to  the 
services  of  the  Reformed  Anglican  Church,  is 
an  adaptation  of  the  ancient  music  of  the  Latin 
ritual,  according  to  its  then  well-known  rules, 
mutatis  mutandis  to  the  new  English  transla- 
tions of  the  Missal  and  Breviary.    The  ancient 
I  Gregorian  chants  for  the  psalms  and  canticles 
'  were  in  use  not  only  immediately  after  the 
Eeformation,  but  far  on  into  the  17th  century; 
and  although  the  Great  EebeUion  silenced  the 
ancient  liturgical  service,  with  its  traditional 
chant,  yet  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  Eestora- 
tion  (1664)  the  well-known  work  of  the  Eev. 
James  Clifford,  Minor  Canon  of  S.  Paul's,  gives 
i  as  the  'Common  Tunes'  for  chanting  the  English 
Psalter,  etc.,  correct  versions  of  each  of  the  eight 
Gregorian  Tones  for  the  Psalms,  with  one  ending 
I  to  each  of  the  first  seven,  and  both  the  usual 
i  endings  to  the  eighth,  together  with  a  form  of 
j  the  Peregrine  Tone  similar  to  that  given  by 
!  Marbeck  ^.    Clifford  gives  also  three  tones  set  to 
well-known  harmonies,  which  have  kept  their 
footing  as  chants  to  the  present  day.    The  first 
'  two  are  arrangements  of  the  1st  Gregorian  Tone, 
4th  ending — the  chant  in  Tallis's  '  Cathedral 
Service'  for  the  Venite — with  the  melody  how- 
I  ever  not  in  the  treble  but  (according  to  ancient 
I  custom)  in  the  tenor.     It  is  called  by  Clifford 
'^Mr.  Adrian  Batten's  Time';  the  harmony  is 
I  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Tallis,  but  the 
treble  takes  his  alto  part,  and  the  alto  his  tenor. 
The  second,  called  'Christ  Church  Tune'  and  set 
for  I  St  and  2nd  altos,  tenor,  and  bass,  is  also  the 
same ;  except  the  third  chord  from  the  end — 

1  See  Table  of  chanta  In  'Acc.  harmonies  to  Brief  Directory.'  by 
Eer.  T.  Hfelmore.  App.  IL  No.  cxi. 


CHANT. 


CHANT. 


337 


Christ  Church  Tune. 


Clifford's  third  specimen  is  quoted  as  'Canter- 
bury Tune,'  and  is  that  set  to  the  Quicunque 
vult  (Athanasian  Creed)  in  Tallis's  'Cathedral 
Service' ;  but,  as  before,  with  harmonies  differ- 
ently arranged. 

Canterbury  Tune. 

1  C'l'iiitrr  Tenor 


cr — H§r 

1  Coitiiter  Tenor 


(  vniosoever  1 
\    wiU  be  j- 


Before  all  thin.ss  it  is  i 
neiT ssarv  that  he    }  Faith, 
hold  the  Catholic  -' 


It  has  all  the  characteristics  of  the  8th  Gre- 
gorian Tone,  with  just  such  variations  as  might 
be  expected  to  occur  from  the  lapse  of  time, 
and  decay  of  the  study  of  the  ancient  forms 
and  rules  of  Church  music. 

The  fourth  of  Clifford's  exainples  is  also  a  very 
good  instance  of  the  identity,  in  all  essential 
characteristics,  of  the  modern  Anglican  chant 
and  the  ancient  Gregorian  psalm  tones.  It  is 
an  adaptation  of  the  Sth  Tone,  ist  ending — the 
tone  beintr  in  the  Tenor : — 


The  Impei'ial  Tune, 


(  0  be  .iov- 1 

ful  in  the  >  all  ye  lands:  i  pladnesj,   \  pre-sence  with  a  song. 


\  lul  in  me 
I    Lord  ) 


and  come  | 
I  before  his  J 


The  work  published  in  1 66 1  by  Edward  Lowe, 
entitled  'Short  Directions  for  the  Performav  :e 
of  Cathedral  Ser%nce'  (^2nd  ed.,  i664\  also  gi\es 
the  whole  of  the  tones,  and  nearly  all  their 
endings,  according  to  the  Roman  Antiphonarium, 
and  as  Lowe  had  sung  them  before  the  Rebellion 
when  a  chorister  at  Salisbury.  He  also  gives 
the  harmonies  quoted  above  as  the  'Imperial' 
and  *  Canterbui-y  *  tunes,  and  another  harmony  of 
the  Sth  Tone,  short  en  ling  (Marbeck's  'Veni'te') 
with  the  plainsong  in  the  bass. 

The  '  Introduction  to  the  Skill  of  Music,*  by 
John  Play  ford  i^bom  i6i3\  in  its  directions  for 
the  '  Or<.ler  of  Performing  the  Divine  Service  in 
Cathedrals  and  Collegiate  Chapels'  confirms  the 
above  statements.  Pla\-foril  gives  seven  specimens 
of  psalm  tones,  one  for  each  day  of  the  week, 
with  •  Canterbury'  and  the  '  Imperial'  tunes  in 


'  four  parts,  proper  for  Choirs  to  sing  the  Psalms, 
Te  Deum,  Benedictus,  or  Jubilate,  to  the  organ.' 

The  Rev.  Canon  Jebb,  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  'Collection  of  Choral  Uses  of  the  Churches 
of  England  and  Ireland'  (Preface,  p.  lo),  gives 
from  the  three  writers  quoted  and  from  Morley's 
'Introduction'  {1^97^  a  table  of  such  old  English 
chants  as  are  evidently  based  upon  or  identical 
with  the  Gregorian  psalm  tones. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  also  that  in  the 
earliest  days  of  the  Reformation  on  the  Conti- 
nent, books  of  music  for  the  service  of  the 
Reformed  Church  were  published,  containing 
much  that  was  founded  directly  upon  the  Gre- 
gorian plainsong ;  and  it  was  chiefly  through  the 
rage  for  turning  everything  into  metre  that  the 
chant  proper  fell  into  disuse  among  Protestant 
communities  on  the  Continent.  See  the  'Neu 
Leipziger  Gesangbuch'  of  Vopelius  (Leipzig  1682). 

The  special  work  for  the  guidance  of  the  clergy 
of  the  Roman  Church,  and  all  members  of  canon- 
ical choirs,  in  the  plainsong  which  they  have 
specially  to  chant,  is  called  the  Dircctorium  Chori. 
The  present  Directorium  correspontls  to  the 
famous  work  prepared  by  Guidetti  (1582),  with 
the  aid  of  his  master  Palestrina.  But  as  is  the 
case  in  most  matters  of  widespread  traditional 
usance,  differences  are  found  between  the  books 
of  present  and  past  liturgical  music,  not  simply 
in  different  countries  and  centuries,  but  in  different 
dioceses  of  the  same  country  and  the  same  century. 
The  York,  Herefoi'd,  Bangor,  and  Lincoln  '  uses' 
are  named  in  our  Prayer  Book,  as  is  also  that  of 
Salisbury,  which  obtained  a  foremost  place  of 
honour  for  the  excellence  of  its  church  chant. 
Our  own  chants  for  the  responses  after  the  Creed, 
in  the  matins  and  vespers  of  English  cathedrals, 
are  the  same  to  the  present  day  with  those  foimd 
in  the  most  ancient  Sarum  Antiphonary,  and 
differ  slightly  from  the  Roman. 

The  psalm  tone,  or  chant,  in  its  original  and 
complete  form,  consists  of  (i)  An  Intonation  at 
the  beginning,  followed  by  a  recitation  on  the 
dominant  of  its  particular  mode;  {2)  A  Media- 
tion, a  tempo,  closing  with  the  middle  of  each 
verse  ;  (3)  Another  recitatio  n  upon  the  dominant 
with  a  Termination  completing  the  verse,  as  in 
the  following— the  Third  Tone  :— 

In'.oriation.  Mediation.  Termination. 


In  the  modem  Anglican  chants  the  Intonation 
has  been  discarded,  and  the  chant  consists  of  the 
Mediation  and  Termination  only. 

When  the  tune  or  phrase  coincides  with  a 
single  verse  of  the  psalm  or  canticle  it  is  styled 
a  '  single  chant,'  as  are  all  those  hitherto  cited. 
At  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  as  already 
stated,  the  Gregorian  chants  were  still  commonly 
used,  till  lighter  tastes  in  music  and  the  lessened 
numbers  of  men  in  catheilral  choirs  led  to  the 
composition  of  new  treble  chants  and  a  rage  for 
variety.  Some  of  these,  which  bear  such  names 
as  Farrant,  Blow,  and  Croft,  are  fine  and  appro- 
priate compositions.     But  a  different  feeling 


338 


CHANT. 


CHAPELLE. 


gradually  arose  as  to  the  essential  character  of 
church  music;  double  chants,  and  pretty  melodies 
with  modern  major  or  minor  harmonies,  came  to 
be  substituted  for  the  single  strains,  the  solemn 
and  manly  recitation  tones,  and  the  grand 
harmonies  of  the  1 6th  century.  The  Georgian 
period  teemed  with  flighty  chants,  single  and 
double  ;  many  of  which  can  hardly  be  called 
either  reverential  or  beautiful— terms  which  no 
one  can  apply  to  the  following  (by  Camidge,) 
still  in  frequent  use,  and  by  no  means  the  worst 
that  might  be  quoted  : — 


—  J        J  1 — u 

But  however  objectionable  this  practice  may 
be  regarded,  it  must  be  confessed  that  many 
very  charming  melodies  have  been  produced 
on  the  lines  of  the  modern  double  chant  by 
modern  composers  of  great  eminence.  The 
following  by  Dr.  Crotch  is  remarkable  for  its 
grace  and  elegance,  as  well  as  for  the  severity  of 
the  contrapuntal  rule  to  which  the  quondam 
Oxford  professor  has  subjected  himself  in  its 
construction  (per  recte  et  retro).  Each  of  the 
four  parts  in  the  former  half  of  the  chant  has  its 
notes  repeated  backwards  in  the  corresponding 
bars  of  the  second  half. 


i  t 

1  \ — '  ' 

■i  ' 

'  r 

4 

1  1 

— (S— 

It  remains  to  add  a  few  remarks  on  the 
arrangement  of  the  words  in  chanting. 

That  the  principles  of  the  old  Latin  chanting 
were  adopted  in  setting  the  music  to  the  new 
English  liturgy  and  offices,  is  evident  from  every 
text-book  of  English  chanting  from  Archbishop 
Cianmer's  letter  to  Henry  VIII  and  from  Mar- 
beck  downwards,  as  long  as  any  decent  knowledge 
of  the  subject  remained  in  English  choirs.  Little 
by  little,  however,  the  old  rules  were  entirely 
neglected  ;  generally  speaking,  neither  the  clergy 
nor  the  lay  members  of  the  English  choirs  knew 
anything  more  about  chanting  than  the  oral 
traditions  of  their  own  churches ;  thus  things 
grew  gradually  worse  and  worse,  till  no  rule  or 
guide  seemed  left ;  choirmen  and  boys  took  their 
own  course,  and  no  consent  nor  unity  of  eflect 


remained,  so  far  as  the  recitation  and  division 
of  the  words  were  concerned. 

On  the  revival  of  Church  principles  in  1830- 
1840  our  own  English  documents  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal chanting,  and  the  pre-Reformation  sources 
from  which  they  were  derived,  began  to  be 
studied.  Pickering  and  Rimbault  each  re-edited 
Marbeck.  Dyce  and  Burns  published  an  adap- 
tation of  his  plainsong  to  the  Prayer  Book. 
Oakley  and  Redhead  brought  out  the  'Laudes 
diumse'  at  the  chapel  in  Margaret  Street, 
London.  Heathcote  published  the  Oxford 
Psalter,  1845.  Helmore's  'Psalter  Noted'  (1849- 
50)  took  up  Marbeck's  work,  at  the  direction 
after  the  Venite — 'and  so  with  the  Psalms  as 
they  be  appointed'  —  and  furnished  an  exact 
guide  for  chanting  according  to  the  editor's  view 
of  the  requirements  of  the  case.  Moreton  Shaw, 
Sargent,  and  J.  B.  Gray  also  published  Gregorian 
Psalters. 

Meantime  the  modern  Anglican  chant  was 
being  similarly  cared  for.  Numerous  books,  be- 
ginning with  that  of  Mr.  Janes  (1843),  issued 
from  the  press,  giving  their  editors'  arrangement 
of  the  syllables  and  chant  notes  for  the  Psalter 
and  Canticles.  Among  the  most  prominent  of 
these  may  be  mentioned  Mr.  Hullah's  *  Psalms 
with  Chants '  (i  844) ;  Helmore's  '  Psalter  Noted' 
(1850);  the  Psalter  of  the  S.P.C.K.  edited  by 
Turle  (1865);  the  'English  Psalter'  (1865); 
the  'Psalter  Accented'  (1872);  the  'Cathedral 
Psalter'  (1875) ;  Psalters  of  Ouseley,  Elvey, 
Gauntlett,  Mercer,  Doran  and  Nottingham,  Hey 
wood  and  Sargent.  Among  these  various  publi- 
cations there  reigned  an  entire  discrepancy  as 
to  the  mode  of  distributing  the  words.  Beyond 
the  division  of  the  verse  into  two  parts  given 
in  the  Psalms  and  Canticles  of  the  Prayer  Book, 
no  pointing  or  arrangement  of  the  words  to  the 
notes  of  the  chant  has  ever  been  put  forward  by 
authority  in  the  Anglican  Church,  or  even  widely 
accepted.  Each  of  the  editors  mentioned  has 
therefore  followed  his  own  judgment,  and  the 
methods  employed  vary  from  the  strictest  syllabic 
arrangement  to  the  freest  attempt  to  make  the 
musical  accent  and  expression  agree  with  those 
which  would  be  given  in  reading — which  is  cer- 
tainly the  point  to  aim  at  in  all  arrangements  of/' 
words  for  chanting,  as  far  as  consistent  with  fit- 
ness and  common  sense.  It  may  be  hoped  that 
the  increased  attention  given  to  this  important 
subject,  may  lead  to  the  use  of  those  guide  books 
only  which  best  reconcile  the  demands  of  good 
reading  and  good  singing.  [T.  H.] 

CHANTERELLE,  a  French  term  for  the 
upper  or  E  sti-ing  of  the  violin — that  on  which 
the  melody  is  usually  smuj.  [G.] 

CHAPE AU  CHINOIS.  [Chinese  Pavilion.] 

CHAPELLE,  originally  the  musicians  of  a 
chapel,  and  now  extended  to  mean  the  choir  or 
the  orchestra,  or  both,  of  a  church  or  chapel 
or  otlier  musical  establishment,  sacred  or  secular. 
The  maitre  de  chapelle  is  the  director  of  the 
music.  In  German  the  word  Kapelle  or  Capelle 
is  used  more  exclusively  for  the  private  orchestra 


CHAPELLE. 


CHAPPELL  &  CO.  330 


of  a  prince  or  other  great  personage,  and  the 
Kapell-meister  is  the  conductor  or  director.  Cap- 
pella  pontificale  is  the  term  for  the  whole  body 
of  singers  in  the  Pope's  service,  the  cantatoii 
cappellani,  the  cantatori  apostolici,  and  the  can- 
tatori  pontificali. 

The  vt^ord  '  capella'  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  cape  of  S.  Martin,  on  which  solemn  oaths 
used  to  be  taken.  Thence  it  came  to  mean  the 
building  containing  the  cape,  and  thence  the 
musicians,  also  the  vestments,  and  the  vessels  of 
the  bui  Iding.  [G.] 
CHAPELS  ROYAL.  Bodies  ofclergy  and  lay- 
clerks  who  minister  at  the  courts  of  Christian 
luonarchs ;  and  also  the  places  in  which  they 
w  orship.  There  are  several  in  England — viz.,  at 
St.  James's  Palace,  Whitehall,  and  St.  George's, 
\Viudsor,  etc.  From  the  '  Liber  Niger  Domas 
IJegis'  (1461),  the  earliest  known  record  on  the 
subject,  we  learn  that  in  Edward  IV's  reign 
there  was  a  well-established  Chapel  Royal,  con- 
sisting of  a  dean  ;  a  confessor  to  the  household ; 
24  chaplains  and  clerks  variously  qualified — by 
skill  in  descant,  eloquence  in  reading,  and  ability 
in  organ-playiug ;  2  epistlers,  ex-choi'ister-boys ; 
8  children  ;  a  master  of  the  grammar  school ;  ! 
and  a  master  of  the  children,  or  master  of  song. 

The  term  Chapel  Royal  is  now  usually  applied 
to  that  at  St.  James's  Palace.     The  chapel  is 
between  the  Colour  Court  and  the  Ambassadors'  ; 
Court.    The  establishment  consists  of  the  Dean,  ; 
the  Lord  High  Almoner  ;  the  Clerk  of  the  Closet,  i 
and  2  deputies ;  the  sub-dean ;   48  chaplains ;  , 
S  priests  in  ordinary,  a  master  of  the  children ; 
one  lay  composer ;  one  lay  organist  and  chapel-  , 
master  or  choir-master ;  8  lay  gentlemen  and  10 
boys  ;  i  sergeant  of  the  vestry ;  I  groom  of  ditto ;  I 
and  other  attendants.  [ 
The  service  is  a  full  choral  one,  at  10  a.m.,  I 
12  noon,  and  5.30  p.m.  on  Sundays,  and  at 
II  a.  m.  on  feast-days.    The  boys  are  educated 
at  the  cost  of  the  chapel,  and  as  a  rule  sing 
there  only.    The  chief  musical  posts  of  the  es- 
tablishment are  at  present  held  as  follows  : — 
Master  of  the  Chikken,  Rev.  Thos.  Helmore, 
one  of  the  priests  in  ordinary ;  Composer,  Sir 
John  Goss ;   Organist  and  Choir-master,  Mr. 
C.  S.  JekyU. 

The  Chapel  Royal  at  Whitehall  (Banqueting 
House)  is  under  the  same  chief  officers  as  St. 
James's — but  is  now  attended  only  once  a  year 
by  the  choir  of  that  establishment  in  the  special 
service  of  Maundy  Thursday,  on  the  afternoon 
of  Thursday  in  Holy  Week,  when  gifts  called 
'Benevolences'  are  distributed  by  the  Lord 
High  Almoner  to  certain  poor  people,  as  many 
in  number  as  the  sovereign  is  years  old. 
The  ceremony  is  a  relic  of  a  service  which 
included  washing  the  feet  of  the  poor,  of  the  same 
nature  with  that  performed  by  the  Pope  on  the 
same  day.  That  part  of  it,  however,  as  well  as 
the  distribution  of  fish  and  bread  before  the 
second  lesson,  has  long  been  discontinued. 

The  following  special  anthems  were  formerly 
sung  in  the  course  of  the  service  : — '  Hide  not 
thou  thy  face  from  us,  0  Lord'  (Earrant), 


'Prevent  us,  O  Lord'  (Byrd),  'Call  to  re- 
membrance, 0  Lord '  (Earrant),  '  0  praise  the 
Lord  all  ye  heathen'  (Croft).  They  are  now 
varied  each  year. 

The  Chapel  Royal  of  the  Savoy  (Strand)  is 
a  Chapel  Royal  in  name  only.  The  appointment 
of  minister  is  in  the  gift  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster, 
and  the  service  is  dependent  on  the  taste  or 
ability  of  the  minister,  as  in  any  other  ordinary 
chapel.  [T.H.J 

CHAPERONS  BLANCS,  LES.  A  comic 
opera  in  three  acts ;  the  libretto  by  Scribe,  the 
music  by  Auber.  Produced  in  Paris  April  9, 
1836.  [G.] 

CHAPPELL  &  CO.  This  musical  firm  com- 
menced business  in  January  1812,  at  124  New 
Bond  Street,  previously  tenanted  by  Goulding, 
D'Almaine,  &  Co.  The  firm  consisted  of  Samuel 
Chappell,  John  Baptist  Cramer,  and  Francis  Tat- 
ton  L,atour.  At  the  expiration  of  seven  years, 
J.  B.  Cramer  retired,  and  Chappell  &  Co.,  re- 
quiring more  space,  removed  to  a  nearly  opposite 
house,  50  New  Bond  Street.  Recent  enlargements 
have  increased  the  premises  to  three  houses 
in  Bond  St.,  and  the  site  of  a  former  stable- 
yard  as  well  as  of  large  back  gardens  of  three 
houses  in  George  Street.  The  first  partnership 
is  noticeable  lor  the  establishment  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  all  the  business  arrangements 
for  which  were  made  at  No.  1 24.  Mr.  Chappell 
further  lent  his  house  for  the  meetings  of  the 
Directors,  and  refreshed  the  weary  ones.  J.  B. 
Cramer  was  then  at  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  and 
the  spirit  would  sometimes  move  him  to  play 
until  one,  two,  or  three  in  the  morning,  to  the 
great  delight  of  his  auditors.  When  the  society 
had  become  firmly  established,  a  silver  teapot 
was  presented  to  the  lady  of  the  house.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  term  of  partnership  (1826), 
Latour  withdrew,  and  carried  on  a  separate  busi- 
ness until  1830,  when  he  sold  it  to  his  former 
partner.  Samuel  Chappell  died  Dec.  1834,  and 
the  business  was  then  carried  on  for  the  widow 
by  her  sons, — William,  the  eldest,  being  25  years 
old.  Desiring  to  propagate  a  knowledge  of  the 
music  of  the  Madrigalian  era,  William  (in  1 840) 
projected  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society,  which 
held  its  meetings  and  rehearsals  at  No.  50.  He 
edited  Dowland's  songs  for  the  Society,  and  also 
edited  and  published  (1838-40)  a  'Collection  of 
National  English  Airs,'  giving  their  pedigrees  and 
the  anecdotes  connected  with  them,  with  an 
essay  on  minstrelsy  in  England.  This  was  after- 
wards expanded  into  his  '  Popular  Music  of  the 
Olden  Time'  (2  vols.  1855-59).  The  business 
was  greatly  extended  by  Thomas  Chappell,  under 
a  family  arrangement  by  which  his  elder  brother 
left,  and  bought  the  half  of  the  business  carried 
on  under  the  name  of  Cramer  &  Co.,  with  the  late 
T.  F.  Beale  as  his  partner.  It  was  under  Thos. 
Chappell's  management  that  the  great  extension 
i  of  the  buildings  took  place,  and  he  was  the  pro- 
jector of  the  jNlonday  Popular  Concerts,  and  the 
I  Saturday  Popular  Concerts  which  sprang  out  of 
i  them,  both  of  which  have  owed  their  success  in 

Z  2 


340  CHAPPELL  &  CO. 


CHAULIECf. 


great  measure  to  the  management  of  S.  Arthur 
Chappell,  the  younger  brother,  [Monday  Popu- 
lar Concerts.]  A  large  concert-room  had  been 
much  wanted  at  the  west  end  of  London,  and 
St.  James's  Hall  was  projected  and  carried  out 
mainly  by  the  Chappells. 

The  pianoforte  factory  of  Chappell  and  Co.  is 
in  Chalk  Farm  Road.  The  average  of  manu- 
facture is  from  25  to  30  pianos  per  week.    [W.  C] 

CHAPPINGTON,  John,  built  an  organ  in 
1597  for  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.    [V.  de  P.] 

CHAPPLE,  Samuel,  was  born  at  Crediton, 
in  1775.  Whilst  an  infant  he  was  deprived  of 
sight  by  small-pox.  At  an  early  age  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  the  violin,  and  when  about 
fifteen  was  taught  the  pianoforte  by  a  master 
named  Eames,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Thomas, 
a  scholar  of  John  Stanley — all  blind  men.  In 
1795  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Ashburton, 
where  he  continued  for  upwards  of  forty  years. 
He  composed  and  published  many  anthems,  songs, 
glees,  and  pianoforte  sonatas.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CHARACTERISTIC.  This  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  music  which  is  designed  as  the 
expression  of  some  special  sentiment  or  cir- 
cumstance. Thus  in  vocal  music,  if  the  melody 
is  appropriate  to  the  words,  we  may  speak  of  the 
'characteristic  setting  of  the  text.'  In  instrumental 
music,  also,  the  word  may  be  used  where  what 
is  known  as  'local  colouring'  is  introduced  ;  e.g. 
the  'Ranz  des  vaches'  movement  in  Rossini's 
overture  to  'Guillaume  Tell*  might  be  properly 
described  as  'characteristic'  The  term  is  also 
occasionally  applied  to  programme  music.  Bee- 
thoven's sonata  'Adieu,  Absence,  and  Return* 
is  frequently  entitled  the  'Senate  Caracteristique,' 
though  it  does  not  appear  that  the  title  was 
given  by  the  composer.  He  has,  however,  him- 
self used  it  for  the  overture  to  Leonore,  published 
as  op.  138.  (See  Nottebohm's  '  Them.  Verzeich- 
niss.')  Spohr's  4th  S,ymphony  is  entitled  '  Die 
Weihe  der  Tone  ;  charakteristisches  Tonge- 
malde,'  &c.  [E.  P.] 

CHARD,  George  "William,  Mus.  Doc,  was 
born  about  1765.  He  received  his  early  musical 
education  in  the  choir  of  St.  Paul's  under  Robert 
Hudson,  Mus.  Bac  In  1 787  he  became  lay  clerk 
of  Winchester  Cathedral,  and  some  years  later 
was  appointed  organist  of  that  church  and  of  the 
adjacent  college.  In  181 2  he  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge.  He  composed 
Bome  church  music  and  other  sacred  pieces,  some 
of  which  have  been  published,  and  some  songs 
and  glees  ;  of  the  latter  he  published  '  Twelve 
Glees,  for  three,  four,  and  five  voices.'  He  died 
May  23,  1849,  aged  84.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CHARITY  CHILDREN,  Meeting  at  St. 
Paul's.  A  festival  service  attended  by  the 
children  of  the  old  charity  schools  of  the  metropolis, 
is  held  annually  in  June  under  the  dome  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  the  children  taking  a  prominent 
part  in  the  singing.  The  first  of  these  festivals 
was  held  in  1704,  on  the  Thursday  in  Whitsun- 
week,  at  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn;  the  second  in 


1705  at  St.  Sepulchre's,  where  the  service  took 
place  until  1738,  when  it  was  held  at  Christ 
Church,  Newgate  St.,  and  was  continued  there 
until  t8oi.  In  that  year  the  children  met 
at  the  cathedral,  where  the  services  have  since 
been  held,  except  in  i860  when  the  cathedral 
was  under  repair  and  the  schools  assembled  on 
the  Handel  orchestra  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  On 
April  23,  1789,  the  children  met  at  St.  Paul's, 
when  George  the  Third  went  in  state  to  return 
thanks  for  his  restoration  to  health ;  and,  earlier 
still,  on  July  7,  1713.  at  the  thanksgiving  for 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  they  were  assembled  in  the 
streets.  The  effect  of  the  music  has  been  recorded 
by  many  eminent  musicians,  including  Haydn, 
in  whose  memorandum  book  in  the  Conserva- 
toire at  Vienna  there  is  a  note  on  the  service, 
quoting  Jones's  double  chant  (Pohl's  '  Haydn 
in  London,'  212),  and  Berlioz,  who  was  present 
in  1851  ('Soirees  de  rOrchestre,'  No,  21).  The 
number  of  the  children  varies,  but  is  generally 
between  5000  and  6000 ;  they  are  arranged  in 
an  amphitheatre  constructed  for  the  occasion 
under  the  dome.  The  service,  Avhich  includes 
the  Hallelujah  Chorus,  is  accompanied  by  the 
organ,  trumpets,  and  drums.  Up  to  1863  the 
113th  psalm  had  been  sung  before  the  sermon, 
but  in  that  year  Mendelssohn's  'Sleepers,  wake' 
was  substituted  for  it.  In  1865  Sir  John  Goss 
wrote  a  unison  setting  of  the  '  Te  Deum,'  which 
took  the  place  of  Boyce  in  A,  and  in  1866  he 
wrote  a  '  Jubilate '  in  the  same  form.  Among 
the  conductors  have  been  Mr.  Bates,  Mr.  H. 
Bucldand,  and  Mr.  Shoubridge.  [C.  M.] 

CHARLES  THE  SECOND.  An  English 
opera  in  two  acts ;  the  words  by  Desmond  Ryan, 
the  music  by  Macfarren.  Produced  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre  Oct.  27,  1849.  [G.] 

CHASSE,  A  LA,  a  term  applied  to  music  which 
intentionally  imitates  hunting  or  contains  horn 
passages  suggesting  it.  Such  are  Mehul's  over- 
ture to  '  Le  Jeune  Henri,'  the  hunting  choruses 
in  '  The  Seasons,'  and  in  '  Der  Freischutz.'  But 
this  does  not  excuse  the  French  publisher  who 
entitled  Beethoven's  overture  in  C  (op.  115)  'La 
Chasse,'  because  of  a  passage  for  two  horns 
in  the  introduction,  or  the  German  publisher 
who  followed  him  in  designating  it  'Jagd- 
ouverture,'  [G.] 

CHATTERTON,  John  Balsir,  eminent  harp- 
ist, born  at  Norwich  1810,  studied  under  Bochsa 
and  Labarre ;  succeeded  Bochsa  as  professor  of  the 
harp  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1844  was 
appointed  harpist  to  the  Queen.  He  retained 
both  appointments  till  his  death,  which  took  place 
in  London  in  1871.  Chatterton  wrote  much  for 
the  harp,  chiefly  operatic  selections.    [M.  C.  C] 

CHAULIEU,  Charles,  bom  in  Paris  1788, 
died  in  London  1849,  pianist;  studied  in  the 
Conservatoire  under  Adam  and  Catel.  In  his 
earlier  years  he  was  a  good  teacher,  but  failed  to 
keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  execution.  In 
1840  he  settled  in  London.  He  arranged  an 
immense  quantity  of  opera  air.s  for  the  pianoforte. 


CHAULIETJ, 


CHERUBINI. 


341 


and  composed  sonatas,  caprices,  rondeaux,  and  a  I 
collection  of  studies  called  '  L'Indispensable '  for 
the  same  instrument.  He  contributed  well-written 
articles  to  '  Le  Pianiste '  a  musical  journal  (Paris  ' 
1834  and  1835).  [M.  C.  C]  j 

CHAUNTER.  The  highest  pipe  of  the  bagpipe,  | 
from  which  the  'chaunt'  or  melody  is  produced,  j 
as  opposed  to  the  drones,  which  each  speak  only 
to  ft  single  note.    [Bagpipe.]  [W.  H.  S.]  ' 

CHECK  (Fr.  VAttrape,  La  Chaise;  Ital.  | 
Bibatto  or  Paramartello ;  Ger.  Fdnger),  an  im-  1 
portant  member  in  the  action  of  a  grand  piano- 
forte, consisting  of  an  upright  of  thick  wire,  bearing 
an  almost  spade -shaped  head  of  leather  or  some 
light  wood  covered  with  leather.  It  is  fixed  in  the 
back  part  of  the  key  behind  the  hammer,  and  its  | 
duty  is  to  catch  the  hammer  when  it  falls  a  certain  j 
distance  away  from  the  string,  and  hold  it  until  1 
it  is  released  by  the  finger  of  the  player  allowing 
the  key  to  rise.  In  cottage  pianofortes  or  pianinos  1 
that  have  check  actions  the  check  is  placed  be-  { 
fore  the  hammer,  and  a  stud  projecting  from  the  j 
butt  of  the  hammer  comes  in  contact  with  the  1 
check.    [Pianoforte.]  [A.  J.  H.]  | 

CHEESE,  G.  J.,  organist  of  Leominster  in  | 
1 771,  and  subsequently  organist  and  professor  of  | 
the  pianoforte  in  London,  published  '  Practical 
Rules  for  Playing  and  Teaching  the  Pianoforte 
and  Organ.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

CHELARD,  HiPPOLYTE  Andre  Jean  Bap- 
tists, bom  Feb.  i,  1789,  in  Paris,  son  of  a 
musician  at  the  Grand  Opera,  was  destined  for 
the  musical  profession  from  his  childhood,  and 
studied  at  the  Conservatoire  under  R.  Kreutzer 
for  the  ^dolin,  and  Gossec,  Mehul,  and  Cherubini 
for  composition.    Having  won  the  '  Grand  Prix ' 
for  composition  he  went  to  Italy,  and  studied 
church  music  under  Baini  and  Zingarelli  in 
Rome,  and  dramatic  music  under  Pai:;iello  and 
Fioravanti  at  Naples.     He  produced  his  first 
work,  a  comic  opera,  *La  casa  da  vend  ere,'  at 
Naples  in  181 5.    On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
became  a  violinist  at  the  Grand  Opera,  and  gave 
lessons,  composing  diligently  at  the  same  time. 
After  infinite  trouble  his  tragic  opera  of  'Mac- 
beth' (libretto  byRouget  de  I'lsle)  was  produced 
at  the  Grand  Opera  (June  29,  1827),  but  it  was 
soon  removed  from  the  boards,  and  Chelard  left 
Paris  for  Munich,  where  the  success  of  'Macbeth' 
was  so  decided,  that  the  King  of  Bavaria  made 
him  his  chapel-master.     He  returned  to  Paris, 
and  remained  there  till  the  Revolution  of  1830 
drove  him  back  to  Munich  to  become  widely 
known  as  a  composer  and  leader.    In  1831  he 
led  the  Thuringian  Festival  at  Erfurt.    In  1832 
and  1833  he  was  in  London  conducting  the 
German  opera   company,  of  which  Schroder- 
Devrient,  and  Haitzinger  were  members.^  In 
1836  he  was  employed  as  theatre  and  concert 
director  at  Augsburg,  and  in  1840  succeeded 
Hummel  as  court  Kapellmeister  at  Weimar. 
One  of  the  events  of  this  time  was  the  arrival  of 
Berlioz  in  1843  ;  and  it  is  pleasant  to  remember 

*  Fetis  says  that  Malibran  sang  in  his  '  Student '  in  1834. 


that  it  was  Chelard  who  urged  the  eccentric 
Frenchman  to  visit  Mendelssohn  at  Leipsic,  and 
'made  him  blush'  at  the  suggestion  that  his  old 
friend  would  probably  not  be  glad  to  see  him. 
('Voyage  musicale,'  Lettre  4.)  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Liszt  in  1852,  but  he  continued  to 
the  close  of  his  life  at  Weimar,  and  died  in 
1 861.  He  composed  several  other  operas,  but 
none  so  successful  as  'Macbeth.'  'Hermanns- 
Schlacht'  (Munich,  1835)  is  a  solid  and  carefully 
written  work  in  the  German  style.  His  operas, 
though  full  of  merit,  and  effective  in  their  day, 
are  no  longer  performed  ;  the  overture  to  '  Mac- 
beth'  alone  is  occasionally  heard  at  concerts. 
W^hile  he  clung  to  the  style  of  French  romantic 
opera,  he  strove  somewhat  ostentatiously  to  adopt 
that  of  the  German  school.  But  he  wanted  the 
power  to  enable  him  to  weld  these  conflicting 
elements  into  a  harmonious  whole.  [A.  M.] 
CHELL,  William,  Mus.  Bac,  successively 
lay  vicar,  prebendary,  and  precentor  of  Hereford 
Cathedral,  graduated  in  music  at  Oxford  in 
1524.  He  was  author  of  two  works,  entitled 
'Musicae  practicae  Compendium,'  and  'de  Pro- 
portionibus  Musicis.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

CHERUBINI,  Maria  Luigi  Carlo  Zenobi 
Salvatore,  born  in  Florence,  Sept.  14,  1760, 
son  of  a  musician  at  the  Pergola  theatre.  His 
musical  faculty  was  evident  from  the  first.  'I 
began,'  says  he,  in  the  Preface  to  his  autograph 
Catalogue,  'to  learn  music  at  six,  and  compo- 
sition at  nine.  The  first  from  my  father,  the 
second  from  Bartolomeo  and  Alessandro  Felici, 
and  after  their  death  from  Bizzarri  and  J.  Cas- 
trucci,'  His  first  woi'k  was  a  Mass  and  Credo 
in  D,  for  four  voices  and  accompaniment,  and 
by  the  time  he  was  sixteen  he  had  composed 
3  Masses,  2  Dixits,  a  Magnificat,  a  Miserere, 
and  a  Te  Deum,  besides  an  Oratorio,  3  Cantatas, 
and  other  smaller  works.  In  1777  or  8  the 
Grand  Duke,  afterwards  the  Emperor  Leopold  II, 
granted  him  an  allowance  that  he  might  study 
under  Sarti  at  Bologna.  Thither  Cherubini 
went,  and  there  he  remained  for  four  years, 
thoroughly  acquiring  the  old  Italian  contra- 
puntal style,  and  gaining  that  proficiency  in 
polyphonic  writing  in  which  no  composer  since 
his  time  has  equalled  him,  unless  it  be  Men-^ 
delssohn.  The  compositions  given  in  the  Cata- 
logue^ under  1778  and  9  are  all  Antiphons 
written  on  Canti  fermi,  a  la  Palestrina.  With 
the  early  part  of  1 780,  however,  this  stops.  His 
first  opera,  '  Quinto  Fabio,'  was  written  during 
that  summer  and  produced  at  Alessandria,  and 
for  the  next  foiu^een  years  operas  and  dra- 
matic music  seem  to  have  engaged  almost  his 
entire  attention: — 1782,  'Armida'  (Florence), 
'  Adriano  in  Siria '  (Leghorn),  '  II  Messenzio ' 
(Florence);  1783,  'II  Quinto  Fabio'  (Rome), 
*Lo  sposo  di  tre'  (Venice);  1784,  'L'Idalide' 

1  The  Catalogue  referred  to  here  and  elsewhere  in  this  article  was 
compiled  by  Cherubini  himself,  with  an  tnteresting  Preface,  and 
published  after  his  death  by  Bottee  de  Ti,ulmon,  under  the  title  of 
'  Notice  des  manu5crits  autographes  de  la  musique  compoj^ee  par  feu 
M.  L.  C.  Z.  S.  Cherubini,  etc.,  etc.,  Paris,  chez  les  principaux  Editeurs 
de  musique,*  1843.  It  has  been  reprinted  by  Mr.  Bellasis  in  hu 
'  Memorials.' 


842 


CHERUBINI. 


CHERUBINL 


(Florence"),  'L' Alessandro  nell'  Indie'  (Mantua). 
These  operas  must  have  made  his  name  known 
all  over  Italy.  In  1784  he  was  invited  to 
London,  and  wrote  *La  Finta  Principessa' 
(1785),  and  'Giulio  Sabino'  (1786),  for  the 
King's  Theatre,  but  without  success.  He  also 
made  large  additions  to  Paisiello's  '  Marchese 
Tulipano,'  and  other  operas  then  on  the  stage 
in  London.  He  was  much  noticed  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  and  held  the  post  of  Composer  to  the 
King  for  one  year.  In  July  1786  he  left  London 
for  Paris,  where  he  seems  to  have  remained  for 
the  whole  of  the  next  year,  very  much  feted  and 
liked.  In  the  winter  of  1787-8  he  brought  out 
his  eleventh  opera  at  Turin,  'Ifigenia  in  Aulide.' 
He  then  returned  to  Paris,  which  from  that  time 
became  his  home.  His  first  opera  in  Paris  was 
'Demophon,'  to  Marmontel's  libretto,  Dec.  5, 
1788.  In  this  opera  he  broke  loose  from  the 
light  and  trivial  vein  of  the  Neapolitan  school, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  grand  style  which 
he  himself  afterwards  so  fully  developed.  Mean- 
while he  was  fully  employed.  Leonard,  Marie 
Antoinette's  coiffeur,  had  obtained  permission  to 
found  an  Italian  Opera,  and  Cherubini  received 
the  entire  musical  direction  of  it.  During  the 
years  1789-92,  he  conducted  the  so-called 
'  Bouffons '  at  the  Theatre  de  la  Foire  St.  Ger- 
main, in  operas  of  Anfossi,  Paisiello,  Cimarosa, 
and  other  Italians,  besides  writing  a  great 
number  of  separate  pieces  in  the  same  style 
for  insertion  into  these  works.  At  the  same 
time  he  was  eagerly  pushing  on  in  the  path 
opened  by  'Demophon.'  On  the  i8th  of  July, 
1 791,  he  brought  out  'Lodoiska,'  a  decided  step 
in  advance.  The  effect  produced  by  his  new 
style,  with  its  unusual  harmonic  combinations 
and  instrumental  effects,  was  both  startling 
and  brilliant,  and  took  the  composers  of  the 
day  completely  by  surprise.  '  Lodoiska '  was 
followed  by  a  series  of  operas  in  which  he 
advanced  still  further.  'Koukourgi'  (1793)  re- 
mained in  MS.  to  be  afterwards  adapted  to 
*Ali  Baba';  but  'Elisa'  (Dec.  13,  1794), 
'Medde'  (March  13,  97),  *L'  Hotellerie  Por- 
tugaise'  (July  25,  98),  *Les  deux  Journees' 
(Jan.  16,  1800),  known  in  Germany  as  *Der 
Wassertrager,'  as  well  as  a  number  of  small 
one-act  works,  such  as  'Anacreon'  (1803),  and 
*Achille  k  Scyros/  both  ballet-operas  and  both 
masterpieces,  show  how  unceasing  was  his 
activity,  and  how  much  he  must  have  pleased 
the  opera-goers.  But  though  successful  with 
the  public,  his  pecuniary  position  was  anything 
but  satisfactory.  When  the  'Conservatoire  de 
Musique'  was  founded  in  1795,  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  three  'Inspecteurs  des 
£tudes,'  an  appointment  by  no  means  commen- 
surate with  his  genius  and  artistic  position, 
chiefly  no  doubt  because  of  Napoleon's  dislike 
to  him,  a  dislike  which  the  Emperor  took  no 
pains  to  conceal.  Cherubini's  nature,  at  all 
times  grave,  not  to  say  gloom}?,  became  visibly 
depressed  under  these  circumstances,  and  he 
began  to  lose  all  pleasure  in  his  profession.  In 
1795  he  married  Madlle.  Cecile  Tourette,  a  step 


not  likely  to  diminish  his  anxieties.  He  there- 
fore willingly  accepted  an  offer  to  write  an  opera 
for  the  Imperial  Theatre  at  Vienna,  where  he 
arrived  early  in  July  1805.  Here  he  made 
acquaintance  with  Beethoven,  whose  deafiiess 
was  not  then  so  great  as  to  be  an  obstacle  to 
conversation,  and  the  two  were  often  together. 
Beethoven  esteemed  Cherubini  above  all  the  then 
living  writers  for  the  stage,  and  his  vocal  music 
was  much  influenced  by  him.  What  Cherubini 
thought  of  Beethoven's  music  is  not  so  clear. 
He  was  present  at  the  first  performances  of 
'Fidelio,'  but  beyond  his  remarks  that  no  one 
could  tell  what  key  the  overture  was  in,  and 
that  Beethoven  had  not  suflBciently  studied 
writing  for  the  voice,  nothing  is  known.  'II 
etait  toujours  brusque,'  was  his  one  answer  to 
enquiries  as  to  Beethoven's  personal  character- 
istics. (See  Schindler's  'Beethoven,'  i.  118,  also 
p.  184  of  this  Dictionary.) 

The  'Wassertrager'  was  performed  shortly 
after  Cherubini's  arrival,  and  'Faniska'  pro- 
duced Feb.  25,  1806.  But  it  was  a  poor  time 
for  operas  in  Vienna.  The  war  between  Austria 
and  France  broke  out  immediately  after  his 
arrival;  Vienna  was  taken  on  Nov.  13,  and 
Cherubini  was  soon  called  upon  to  organise  and 
conduct  Napoleon's  soirees  at  Schonbrunn.  But 
his  main  object  at  Vienna  was  frustrated,  and  he 
returned  to  France.  His  mind  became  so  much 
embittered  as  to  affect  his  health.  Whilst  living 
in  retirement  at  the  chateau  of  the  Prince  de 
Chimay,  his  friends  entreated  him  to  write  some 
sacred  music  for  the  consecration  of  a  church 
there ;  for  a  long  time  he  refused,  but  at  last 
set  to  work  secretly,  and  surprised  them  with  the 
Mass  in  F  for  three  voices  and  orchestra  (1809). 
With  this  work  a  new  epoch  opens.  It  is  true 
that  both  in  1809  and  18 10  we  find  one-act 
operas  (*  Pimmalione,'  Nov.  30,  1809,  '  Le 
Crescendo,'  Sept.  i,  1810),  that  in  181 3  he  wrote 
the  '  Abenc^rages,'  and  even  so  late  as  1833  '  Ali 
Baba,'  but  the  fact  remains  that  after  1809  sacred 
music  was  Cherubini's  main  occupation.  Besides 
a  number  of  smaller  sacred  pieces  for  one,  two, 
three,  or  more  voices,  with  orchestra,  organ,  or 
quartet,  the  Catalogue  for  the  years  1816-25 
contains  the  '  Messe  Solennelle'  in  C  (March  14, 
1 81 6),  a  'Gloria'  in  Bb,  a  'Credo'  in  D,  the 
'Messe  des  Morts'  (Requiem)  in  C  (all  1817)  ; 
the  'Messe  Solennelle'  in  E  (1818)  ;  that  in  G, 
and  a  'Kyrie'  (both  1819);  that  in  Bb  (Nov. 
1821)  ;  a  'Kyrie'  in  C  minor  (Sept.  13,  1823) ; 
the  Coronation  Mass  for  3  voices  (April  29, 
1825) ;  and  lastly  the  '  Requiem '  in  D  for  men's 
voices  (Sept.  24,  1836). 

During  ihe  hundred  days  Napoleon  made  him 
Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  ;  and  shortly 
after,  under  Louis  XVIII,  he  was  elected  member 
of  the  'Institut,'  and  in  1816  was  appointed 
jointly  with  Lesueur  'musician  and  superin- 
tendant  of  the  King's  Chapel,'  with  a  salary  of 
3,000  francs.  Thus  almost  at  once  did  honour, 
position,  and  income,  all  fall  upon  him.  In  1822 
he  became  Director  of  the  Conservatoire,  and 
the  energy  which  he  threw  into  his  new  work 


CHERUBINI. 


CHERUBINI. 


343 


is  shown  by  the  'Solfeges  pour  Texamen  de 
r^lcole,'  which  fill  the  Catalogue  during  the  next 
few  years,  and  by  the  '  Cours  de  Contrepoint  et 
de  la  Fugue,'  which  was  published  in  1835. 
Nor  are  these  years  barren  in  instrumental 
works.  In  1815  the  Philharmonic  Society,  then 
recently  formed,  offered  him  the  sum  of  £200 
for  a  symphony,  an  overture,  and  a  vocal  piece, 
and  at  their  invitation  he  paid  a  second  visit  to 
London,  He  arrived  in  March ;  the  Symphony 
(in  D)  was  finished  on  April  24,  and  played  on 
the  1st  of  May.  It  was  afterwards  (in  1829) 
scored  as  a  quartet.  The  Overture  was  per- 
formed at  the  concert  of  the  3rd  of  April,  and 
another  MS.  overture  on  May  29.  In  addition 
to  these  the  Catalogue  shows  a  Funeral  March 
for  full  orchestra  (March  1820);  a  march  for 
'Faniska'  (May  15,  iS.^ii);  six  string  quartets, 
viz.  in  Eb  (18 14),  in  C,  from  the  Symphony,  with 
a  new  Adagio  (1829),  in  D  (July  31,  1834),  in 
E  (Feb.  12,  1835),  in  F  (June  28,  1836),  in 
A  minor  (July  22,  1837);  and  a  string  quintet 
in  E  minor  (Oct.  28,  1S37).  Cherubini  died  on  ' 
the  isth  of  May,  1842,  highly  honoured  and  I 
esteemed.  In  addition  to  the  works  above  | 
mentioned  he  wrote  several  operas  in  con-  | 
junction  with  other  composers,  such  as  '  Blanche 
de  Provence'  in  1 821,  to  celebrate  the  baptism 
of  the  Due  de  Bordeaux,  with  Boieldieu,  Paer, 
Berton,  and  Kreutzer;  also  a  great  number  of 
canons  for  two,  three,  or  more  voices.  The 
catalogue  contains  in  all  305  numbers,  some  of 
them  very  voluminous,  besides  a  supplementary 
list  of  thirty  works  omitted  by  Cherubini,  as 
well  as  eighteen  volumes  (some  of  them  of  more 
than  400  pages)  of  music  by  various  Italian 
writers,  copied  out  by  the  great  composer  himself, 
a  practice  which  he  admits  to  have  learned  from 
his  old  master  Sarti. 

Cherubini's  artistic  career  may  be  divided 
into  three  periods.  The  first,  1 760-1791,  when 
he  was  writing  motets  and  masses  h,  la  Pales- 
trina,  and  operas  in  the  light  Neapolitan  vein, 
or  may  be  called  his  Italian  period.  The  second 
Operatic  period  opens  with  'Lodoiska,'  though 
the  beginning  of  the  change  is  apparent  in 
'  Demophon  '  (i  788")  in  the  form  of  the  concerted 
pieces,  in  the  entrances  of  the  chorus,  and  the 
expressive  treatment  of  the  orchestra.  'Lodo- 
iska' however  shows  an  advance  both  in  inspi- 
ration and  expression,  'Medee'  and  'Les  deux 
Journees '  form  the  climax  of  the  operatic  period. 
In  the  former  the  sternness  of  the  characters, 
the  mythological  background,  and  above  all  the 
passion  of  Medea  herself,  must  have  seized  his 
imagination,  and  inspired  him  with  those  poig- 
nant, almost  overpowering  accents  of  grief, 
jealousy,  and  hatred  in  which  'Medee'  abounds. 
But  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  that  the  interest 
rests  mainly  in  ]Medea,  that  there  is  a  monotony 
in  the  sentiment,  and  that  the  soliloquies  are 
tedious ;  in  a  word  that  in  spite  of  all  its  force 
and  truth  the  opera  will  never  connnand  the 
wide  appreciation  which  the  music  as  music 
deserves.  The  '  Deux  Journees '  forms  a  strong 
contrast  to  '  Med^e,'  and  is  a  brilliant  example 


of  Cherubini's  versatility.  Here  the  sphere  of 
action  is  purely  human,  simple,  even  plebeian, 
and  it  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  art  with 
which  Cherubini  has  laid  aside  his  severe  style 
and  adapted  him.self  to  the  minor  forms  of 
the  arietta  and  couplet,  which  are  in  keeping 
with  the  idyllic  situations.  The  finales  and 
other  large  movements  are  more  concise,  and 
therefore  more  within  the  range  of  the  general 
public,  and  there  is  an  ease  about  the  melodies, 
and  a  warmth  of  feeling,  not  to  be  found  else- 
where in  Cherubini.  This  period  closes  with 
the  '  Abencerages '  in  1813,  for  *Ali  Baba,' 
though  completed  in  1833,  was  largely  founded 
on  'Koukourgi'  (1793).  The  third  period,  that 
of  his  sacred  compositions,  dates  properly  speak- 
ing from  his  appointment  to  the  Chapelle  Eoyale 
in  1 81 6,  though  it  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  Mass  in  F  (1809),  which  is  important 
as  being  the  first  sacred  work  of  his  mature 
life,  though  it  is  inferior  to  that  in  A,  and 
esj)ecially  to  the  Requiem  in  D  minor.  The 
three  part  writing  in  the  Mass  in  F  seems 
scarcely  in  keeping  with  the  broad  outlines  of  the 
work,  and  the  fugues  are  dry  and  formal.  That 
in  A,  also  for  three  voices,  is  concise,  vocal,  and 
eminently  melodious.  The  Requiem  in  C  minor 
is  at  once  his  gTeatest  and  most  famous  work. 
The  Credo  for  eight  voices  a  capella  is  an  aston- 
ishing instance  of  command  of  counterpoint,  and 
shows  how  thoroughly  he  had  mastered  the  style 
of  Palestrina,  and  how  perfectly  he  could  adapt 
it  to  his  own  individual  thoughts.  Technique 
apart,  it  ranks  below  his  other  great  sacred 
w^orks.  It  is  probable  that  Cherubini  intended 
it  to  be  considered  as  a  study,  for  only  two  num- 
bers were  published  during  his  life-time,  viz.  the 
concluding  fugue  'Et  vitam,'  and  an  elaborately 
developed  'Ricerca'  in  eight  parts  with  one  chief 
subject  and  three  counter-subjects,  in  which  all 
imaginable  devices  in  counteipoint  are  employed. 
In  estimating  Cherubini's  rank  as  a  musician, 
i  it  must  be  remembered  that  though  he  lived  so 
!  long  in  Paris,  and  did  so  much  for  the  develop- 
ment of  French  opera,  he  cannot  be  classed  among 
j  French  composers.  His  pure  idealism,  which 
resisted  the  faintest  concession  to  beauty  of 
sound  as  such,  and  subjugated  the  whole  appa- 
ratus of  musical  representation  to  the  idea ;  the 
serious,  not  to  say  dry,  character  of  his  melody, 
his  epic  calmness — never  overpowered  by  cir- 
I  cumstances,  and  even  in  the  most  passionate 
moments  never  exceeding  the  bounds  of  artistic 
moderation — these  characteristics  were  hardly 
likely  to  make  him  popular  with  the  French, 
especially  during  the  excitement  of  the  Revo- 
lution, His  dramatic  style  was  attractive  from 
the  novelty  of  the  combinations,  the  truth  of  the 
dramatic  expression,  the  rich  harmony,  the 
peculiar  modulations  and  brilliant  instrument- 
ation, much  of  which  he  had  in  common  with 
Gluck.  But  his  influence  on  French  opera  was 
only  temporary.  No  sooner  did  Boieldieu  appear 
with  his  sweet  pathetic  melodies  and  delicate 
harmonies,  and  Auber  with  his  piquant  ele- 
gant style,  than  the  severer  muse  of  Cherubini, 


344 


CHERUBINI. 


CHIABRAN. 


dwelling  in  a  realm  of  purer  thought,  dropped 
its  hold  on  the  public.  His  closest  tie  with  the 
French  school  arose  from  the  external  accident 
of  his  connection  with  the  Conservatoire,  where 
he  had  the  formation  of  all  the  important  French 
composers  of  the  first  half  of  the  century.  It 
was  in  Germany  that  his  works  have  met  with 
the  most  enduring  appreciation.  His  church 
music,  'Medee,'  and  the  'Deux  Joumees,'  still 
keep  their  hold  on  the  German  public.  One 
of  the  first  things  Mendelssohn  did  after  he  felt 
himself  safe  in  the  saddle  at  Diisseldorf  was  to 
revive  the  latter  opera,  and  to  introduce  the 
mass  in  C  in  the  church.  Six  months  later  he 
brought  forward  one  of  the  Eequiems,  and  when 
he  had  to  conduct  the  Cologne  Festival  in  1835 
it  is  to  Cherubini's  MS.  works  that  he  turns  for 
something  new  and  good.  A  reference  to  the 
Index  of  the  Leipzig  Allgem.  musikalische 
Zeitung  will  show  how  widely  and  frequently 
his  works  are  performed  in  Germany.  In 
England,  too,  the  operas  just  named  have  been 
revived  within  the  last  few  years,  and  the  opera- 
overtures  are  stock  pieces  at  all  the  best 
concerts.  Cherubini  forms  the  link  between 
classic  idealism  and  modem  romanticism.  His 
power  of  making  the  longest  and  most  elaborate 
movements  clear  is  very  remarkable,  especially 
when  combined  with  the  extraordinary  facility 
of  his  part-writing  ;  while  his  sense  of  form  was 
almost  as  perfect  as  Mozart's,  though  he  cannot 
compare  with  Mozart  in  the  intensity  of  his 
melodic  expression,  or  in  the  individuality  vnth 
which  Mozart  stamped  his  characters.  In  the 
technique  of  composition,  and  in  his  artistic  con- 
ception and  interpretation,  he  shows  a  certain 
affinity  to  Beethoven,  more  especially  in  his 
Masses.  His  greatest  gift  was  perhaps  the 
power  of  exciting  emotion.  His  style  had  a 
breadth  and  vigour  free  from  mannerism  and 
national  peculiarities.  It  was  in  his  sacred 
music  that  he  was  most  free  to  develope  his 
individuality,  because  he  could  combine  the 
best  points  in  his  operas  with  masterly  coun- 
terpoint. When  we  consider  the  then  deplorable 
state  of  church  music,  it  is  difficult  to  exaggerate 
the  importance  of  the  change  he  wrought. 

The  latest  and  most  complete  work  on  Cheru- 
bini is  the  biography  of  Mr.  Edward  Bellasis, 
'Cherubini  :  Memorials  illustrative  of  his  Life,' 
London,  1874;  the  preface  to  which  contains 
a  list  of  the  principal  authorities,  including 
Cherubini's  own  Catalogue,  of  which  the  title 
has  been  already  given  in  full.  For  personal 
traits  and  anecdotes — and  in  the  case  of  Cheru- 
bini these  are  more  than  usually  interesting  and 
characteristic — the  reader  should  consult  the 
article  in  F^tis's  'Biogi-aphie  universelle'  and 
Berlioz's  'Memoirs,'  also  an  article  by  Hiller, 
which  appeared  in ' Macmillan's  Magazine,'  July 
1875,  and  afterwards  in  his  'Musikalisches  und 
Personliches,'  1876.  His  portrait  by  Ingres  is 
in  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg,  Paris.  He 
left  one  son  and  two  daughters,  the  younger 
of  whom  was  married  to  Hippolyte  Rossellini 
of  Florence.  [A.  M.] 


!     CHEST-VOICE.   That  no  voice  is 'produced' 
throughout  its  extent,  in  precisely  the  same 
manner,  is  certain.    The  results  of  the  different 
manners  of  vocal  'production' — three  in  number 
— are  sometimes  spoken  of  in  England  as  '  chest- 
I  voice,'  'head- voice,'  and  'falsetto.'    The  classifi- 
,  cation  and  terminology  adopted  by  the  French, 
viz.    'first,   second,  and   third  registers,'  are 
however  much  to  be  preferred,  since  the  causes 
of  the  variety  of  timhre  they  indicate,  of  which 
little  is  known,  are  left  by  them  unassumed.  The 
average  compass  of  each  vocal  register  is  perhaps 
naturally  an  octave  ;  but  the  facility  with  which 
I  the  mode  of  production  natural  to  one  register 
]  can  be  extended  to  the  sounds  of  another  renders 
this  uncertain.     By  'chest-voice'  is  commonly 
understood  the  lowest  sounds  of  a  voice,  and  any 
others  that  can  be  produced  in  the  same  manner  ; 
in  other  words,  the  'first  register.'  [J.  H.] 

CHEVAL  DE  BRONZE,  LE.  A  comic 
opera  on  a  Chinese  subject,  in  three  acts ;  words 
by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the 
Opera  Comique  March  23,  1835.    On  Sept.  21, 

1857,  it  was  reproduced  with  additions  in  four 
acts  at  the  Academie  (Grand  Opera). 

As  '  The  Bronze  Horse '  it  has  been  often 
played  on  the  London  boards  since  Jan.  5,  1836, 
when  it  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane.  [G.] 
CHEVALIER,  played  the  violin  and  the  quint, 
a  kind  of  viol,  in  the  private  band  of  Henri  IV 
and  Louis  XIII,  and  composed  in  whole  or  in 
I  part  between  the  years  1587  and  161 7  no  less 
than  34  court  ballets,  according  to  a  list  drawn  up 
by  Michel  Henry,  one  of  Louis  XIII's  24  violins, 
and  now  in  the  Bibliotheque  at  Paris.  [M.C.C.] 
CHEZY,  WiLHELMiNE  (or  Helmine)  Chris- 
;  TINE  VON,  a  literary  lady  of  very  eccentric  life, 
;  nee  von  IQencke  1783,  at  Berlin,  married  at  16, 
:  and  divorced  the  next  year;  married  again  at 
1  22,  in  Paris,  to  Antoine  L.  de  Chezy,  a  well- 
known  Orientalist,  and  was  divorced  again  in 
1 8 10.    She  spent  the  rest  of  her  life  between 
Heidelberg,  Berlin,  Dresden,  Vienna  (1823-28), 
Munich  and  Paris,  and  died  at  Geneva,  1856. 
\  Her  claim  to  notice  here  is  her  having  written 
the  play  of  '  Rosamunde,'  for  which  Schubert 
composed  his  music,  and  the  libretto  of  '  Eury- 
anthe'  for  Weber.     In  neither  case  was  the 
genius  of  the  musician  sufficient  to  save  the 
piece  from  failure.    See  Hellbom's  '  Schubert,' 
chap,  xi ;   Max  M.  von  Weber's  '  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber'  (1864),  ii.  371,  517,  522,  &c. ;  and 
her  own  '  Unvergessenes  ...  an  meinem  Leben,' 

1858.  [G.] 
CHIABRAN,  Francesco  (alias  Chabran,  or 

Chiabrano),  a  violin-player,  was  born  in  Pied- 
mont about  1723.  He  was  a  nephew  and  pupil 
of  the  celebrated  Somis.  In  1747  he  entered 
the  royal  band  at  Turin,  and  about  the  year 
1 75 1  appears  to  have  gone  to  Paris,  where  his 
brilliant  and  lively  style  of  playing  created 
a  considerable  sensation.  His  compositions  show 
that  his  character  as  a  musician  was  somewhat 
superficial,  and  wanting  in  true  artistic  earnest- 
ness.   Th »  three  sets  of  sonatas  which  he  pub- 


CHIABRAN. 


CHIMENTI. 


345" 


lished  in  1756  and  the  following  years  are  flimsy 
iu  construction  and  devoid  of  ideas,  and  appear 
to  be  intended  merely  to  give  the  player  an 
opportunity  of  displaying  his  proficiency  in  the 
execution  of  double  stops,  staccato  passages, 
hai-monics,  and  other  technical  difficulties.  He 
occasionally  indulges  in  realistic  traits  of  de- 
scriptive music. 

If  we  consider  that  Chiabran,  through  Somis, 
was  indirectly  a  pupil  of  Corelli,  his  deterioration 
from  the  noble  style  of  that  great  master  is 
really  astonishing,  though  not  without  parallel  in 
the  present  day,  when  the  traditions  of  the  great 
Paris  school  of  Eode.  Kreutzer,  and  Viotti  appear 
almost  equally  forgotten  in  France.  [P.  D.] 

CHICKERING.  Messrs.  Chickering  and 
Sons,  pianoforte-makers  of  Boston  and  New 
York,  IJ.  S.  They  claim  to  be  the  earliest  ex- 
isting American  house,  and  the  first  to  have 
obtained  any  prominence.  According  to  infor- 
mation supplied  by  Messrs.  Chickering,  the  first 
pianoforte  made  in  America  was  upon  an  English 
model,  probably  one  of  Broadwood's.  It  was 
made  by  Benjamin  Ci-ehorne,  of  Milton,  U.S., 
before  the  year  1S03.  From  that  year  the  con- 
struction of  American  pianofortes  was  persist- 
ently carried  on,  but  without  any  material  de- 
velopment until  a  Scotchman  named  James 
Stewart,  afterwards  known  in  Loudon  through 
his  connection  with  Messrs.  Collard  and  Collard, 
gave  an  impetus  to  the  American  home-manu- 
^icture.  Stewart  induced  Jonas  Chickering  to 
join  him.  but  two  years  after,  Stewart  re- 
turned to  Europe,  when  Chickering  was  left 
upon  his  own  account.  The  year  given  as 
that  of  the  actual  establishment  of  the  Chick- 
ering firm  is  1S23.  Two  years  subsequent  to 
this.  Alpheus  Babcock,  who  had  served  his  time 
with  Crehorne,  contrived  an  iron  frame  for  a 
square  pianoforte,  with  the  intention  to  com- 
pensate for  changes  of  temperature  affecting  the 
strings,  for  which  he  took  out  a  patent.  Whether 
this  was  suggested  by  an  improvement  with  the 
same  object  patented  in  London  in  1S20  by  James 
Thom  and  William  Allen,  or  was  an  independent 
idea  is  not  known,  but  B;ibcock"s  plan  met  with  no 
immediate  success.  However,  this  attempt  at 
compensation  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modem 
equipoise  to  the  tension  in  America  as  Allen's 
did  in  England.  Jonas  Chickering  produced 
a  square  pianoforte  with  an  iron  frame  com- 
plete, except  the  wrest-pin  block,  in  1S37.  Iroiii 
1S40  this  principle  was  fostered  by  Messrs. 
Chickering,  and  applied  to  grand  pianofoi-tes  as 
well  as  square,  and  has  since  been  adopted,  by 
other  makei^s  in  Americiv  and  Europe.  For  fur- 
ther j\articulars  of  the  American  construction, 
see  Pianoforte  and  Steixwat.         [A.  J.  H.] 

CHILCOT,  Thomas,  was  organist  of  the  Ab- 
bey  Church,  Bath,  from  1733  until  late  in  the 
last  century,  and  the  first  master  of  Tliomas 
Linley,  the  composer.  He  produced  '  Twelve 
English  Songs,  the  words  by  Shakspeare  and 
other  celebrated  poets  two  sets  of  harpsichonl 
concertos,  and  other  works.  [W.  H.  H.] 


I  CHILD,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  was  born  at 
'  Bristol  in  1606,  and  received  his  musical  edu- 
cation as  a  chorister  of  the  cathedral  there  under 
El  way  Bevin,  the  organist.  In  1631  he  took 
[  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  and 
i  in  1632  was  appointed  one  of  the  organists  of  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  in  the  room  of  Dr. 
John  Mundy,  and  shortly  afterwards  one  of  the 
organists  ot  the  Chapel  Royal.  About  1660  he 
was  appointed  chanter  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and 
one  of  the  king's  private  musicians.  On  July  8, 
'  1663,  he  proceeded  Doctor  of  Music  at  Oxford, 
his  exercise  being  an  anthem  which  was  per- 
formed in  St.  Mary's  church  on  the  13th  of  the 
same  month.  He  died  at  Windsor,  March  23, 
1697,  in  the  91st  year  of  his  age,  and  was  interred 
in  St.  George's  Chapel,  where  a  tablet  to  his 
niemorj'  is  placed.  Dr.  Child  published  in  1 639,  in 
separate  parts,  engraven  on  small  oblong  copper 
plates,  a  work  entitled  '  The  first  set  of  Psalms 
of  iii  voyces,  fitt  for  private  chapels,  or  other 
private  meetings  with  a  continual  basse,  either 
for  the  Organ  or  Theorbo,  newly  composed  after 
the  Italian  way,'  and  consisting  of  twenty  short 
anthems  for  two  trebles  and  a  bass,  the  words 
selected  from  the  Psalms.  This  work  was  re- 
printed, with  the  same  title,  in  1650,  and  was 
again  reproduced,  from  the  same  plates,  in  1656, 
but  with  the  title  changed  to  '  Choise  Musick  to 
the  Psalmes  of  David  for  Three  Voices,  with  a 
Continuall  Base  either  for  the  Organ  or  Theorbo.' 
His  other  published  works  consist  of  '  Divine 
Anthems  and  vocal  compositions  to  several  pieces 
of  Poetry';  Catches  in  Hilton's  'Catch  that 
Catch  can,'  1652,  and  Pla\-ford's  'Musical  Com- 
panion,' 1672  ;  and  some  compositions  in  '  Court 
Ayres.'  Several  of  his  Church  Services  and  An- 
thems are  printed  in  the  collections  of  Boyce 
and  Arnold,  in  Smith's  '  Musica  Antiqua,'  and 
elsewhere,  and  many  more  are  extant  in  manu- 
script in  the  choir  books  of  various  cathedrals 
and  the  collection  made  by  Dr.  Tudway  for  Lord 
Oxford.  His  Service  in  D  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
writing  in  the  imitative  style,  ^vith  much  pleas- 
ing melody,  a  feature  which  distinguishes  Child's 
music  generally.  Dr.  Child  did  a  munificent 
act  which  ought  not  to  be  left  unnoticed.  His 
salary  at  Windsor  having  fallen  greatly  into 
arrear,  he  told  the  Dean  and  Chapter  that  if 
they  would  pay  him  the  amount  due  to  him 
he  would  repave  the  body  of  the  choir  of  the 
chapel.  The  bait  took,  the  arrears  were  dis- 
charged, and  the  Doctor  fulfilled  his  promise. 
His  generosity  likewise  manifested  itself  on 
other  occasions.  He  gave  £20  towards  building 
the  Town  Hall  at  Windsor,  and  bequeathed  £50 
to  the  corporation  to  be  applied  in  charitable 
purposes.  A  portrait  of  Dr.  Child,  painted  in 
1663,  shortly  after  taking  his  doctors  degree, 
was  presented  bv  him  to  the  Music  School  at 
Oxford.  '  [W.  H.  H  ] 

CHIMEXTI.  Margarita,  detta  la  Droghi- 
ZRIXA,  a  distinguished  singer,  the  origin  of  whose 
sobriquet  is  unknown.  She  was  engaged  in 
London  in  1737.  siruring  the  part  of  secon'io  ucmo 
in  Handel's  'Fanunondo.'    She  had  arrived  at 


34g 


CHIMENTT. 


CHIEOPLAST. 


the  end  of  1736,  for  tlie  'London  Daily  Post' 
of  Nov.  18  announces  that  'Sg'^.  Merighi,  Sg*. 
Chimenti,  and  la  Francesina,  had  the  honour  to 
sing  before  Her  Majesty,  the  Duke,  and  the 
Princesses  at  Kensington  on  Monday  night,  and 
met  mth  a  most  gracious  reception.'  'Fara- 
mondo'  was  only  played  five  times.  In  1738 
Chimenti  appeared  as  Atalanta  in  '  Serse,'  which 
had  no  better  fortune  than  Faramondo.  She 
played  also  Absirto  in  'La  Conquista  del  Velo 
d'Oro'  by  Pescetti  in  the  same  year,  after  which 
her  name  is  not  found  again.  [J.  M.] 

CHIMING.  A  bell  is  said  to  be  chimed  when 
she  is  swung  through  the  smallest  part  of  a  circle 
possible  so  as  to  make  the  clapper  strike ;  or  when 
a  separate  hammer  is  fixed  apart  from  her  and 
she  is  struck  by  it.  There  are  many  different 
machines  in  use  by  which  one  man  can  chime  any 
number  of  bells  :  of  these  the  best,  perhaps,  is 
that  invented  by  the  Rev.  H.  T.  Ellacombe  of 
Clyst  St.  George,  Devon,  which  is  put  up  by 
Messrs.  Warner  and  Sons,  Cripplegate,  London. 
There  are  also  such  machines  patented  by  nearly 
all  good  bell -founders. 

The  plan  adopted  in  many  towers  of  fastening 
the  rope  of  the  bell  to  the  clapper  for  this  purpose 
is  a  most  dangerous  practice  and  ought  never  to 
be  allowed,  many  fine  bells  having  been  cracked 
in  this  way.  Even  if  no  actual  damage  is  done  j 
the  gear  of  the  bell  is  twisted  and  strained  by  1 
the  misapplication  of  the  rope.  It  is  called 
'  Clocking '  the  beU.  [C.  A.  W.  T.] 

CHINESE  PAVILION,  CHINESE  CRES- 
CENT, OK  CHAPEAU  CHINOIS.  This  con- 
sists of  a  pole,  with  several  transverse  brass 
plates  of  some  crescent  or  fantastic  form,  and 
generally  terminating  at  top  with  a  conical 
pavilion  or  hat,  whence  its  several  names.  On 
all  these  parts  a  number  of  very  small  bells  are 
hung,  which  the  performer  causes  to  jingle,  by 
shaking  the  instrument,  held  vertically,  up  and 
down.  It  is  only  used  in  military  bands,  and 
more  for  show  than  use.  [V.  de  P.] 

CHIPP,  Edmund  Thomas,  Mus.  Doc.  Cantab., 
eldest  son  of  the  late  T.  P.  Chipp  (well  known 
as  the  player  of  the  '  Tower  drums '),  born  Chri.st- 
mas  Day,  1823,  educated  in  her  Majesty's  Chapel 
Royal,  St.  James's,  Studied  the  violin  under 
Nadaud  and  Tolbecque,  and  entered  the  Queen's 
private  band  in  1844.  Became  known  as  an 
organist  of  some  repute,  and  in  47  succeeded 
Dr.  Gauntlett  at  St.  Olave's,  a  position  he  re- 
signed on  being  elected  organist  to  St.  Mary-at- 
Hill,  Eastcheap.  On  Mr.  Best's  retirement  from 
the  Panopticon,  Mr.  Chipp  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed him  as  organist,  and  retained  the  appoint- 
ment until  the  close  of  that  institution.  He 
was  invited  to  become  organist  to  Holy  Trinity, 
Paddington,  where  he  remained  until  his  appoint- 
ment as  organist  of  the  Ulster  Hall,  Belfast,  in 
62.  In  66  he  was  appointed  organist  to  the  Kin- 
Tiaird  Hall,  Dundee,  and  also  to  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Edinburgh.  In  the  following  year  the 
position  of  organist  and  Magister  Choristarum 


to  Ely  Cathedral  was  offered  him,  a  position 
which  he  still  (1877)  occupies. 

The  works  produced  by  this  composer  are  the 
Oratorio  of  'Job';  'Naomi,  a  Sacred  Idyl';  a 
book  of  24  sketches  for  the  organ,  and  various 
minor  works,  songs,  etc. 

CHIROPLAST.  An  apparatus  designed  to 
facilitate  the  acquirement  of  a  correct  position  of 
the  hands  on  the  pianoforte.  It  was  the  invention 
of  J.  B,  Logier,  and  was  patented  in  1814. 

It  consisted  of  a  wooden  framework  which  ex- 
tended the  whole  length  of  the  keyboard,  and 
was  firmly  attached  to  the  same  by  means  of 
screws.  At  the  front  of  the  keyboard,  and 
therefore  nearest  the  player,  were  two  parallel 
rails,  between  which  the  hands  were  placed. 
The  wrists  could  thus  be  neither  raised  nor 
lowered,  but  could  only  move  from  side  to  side. 
At  a  suitable  elevation  above  the  keys,  and 
about  six  inches  behind  the  parallel  rails,  was  a 
brass  rod  extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
framework,  and  carrying  the  so-called  'Finger 
Guides.'  These  were  two  brass  frames,  which 
could  be  moved  along  the  rod  to  any  part  of  the 
keyboard,  each  having  five  divisions,  through 
which  the  thumb  and  four  fingers  were  intro- 
duced. The  divisions  were  formed  of  thin  plates 
of  metal,  which  exactly  corresponded  to  the 
divisions  between  the  keys  of  the  instrument. 
They  hung  in  a  vertical  position  from  the  brass 
frames  above  mentioned  to  very  nearly  the  level 
of  the  keys,  and  of  course  prevented  the  fingers 
from  moving  in  any  but  a  vertical  direction. 

To  the  top  of  each  finger- guide  was  attached 
a  stout  brass  wire  with  regulating  screw,  which 
pressing  against  the  outside  of  the  wrist,  kept 
the  hand  in  its  proper  position  with  regard  to  the 
arm.  In  addition,  there  was  a  board  ruled  with 
bass  and  treble  staves,  called  the  gamut  board, 
to  be  placed  on  the  music- desk,  on  which  each 
note  throughout  the  entire  compass  of  the  instru- 
ment was  found  written  precisely  above  its  cor- 
responding key.  This  was  believed  to  be  of 
great  service  in  teaching  the  names  of  the  notes. 

The  chiroplast  was  designed  to  assist  Logier 
in  the  instruction  of  his  little  daughter,  seven 
years  of  age.  He  was  then  living  in  Ireland, 
and  the  result  so  fully  answered  his  expecta- 
tions that  he  determined  to  repair  to  Dublin 
(about  1 8 14)  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  the 
propagation  of  his  system.  Here  his  success  was 
so  considerable,  that  he  soon  took  the  highest 
position  as  a  pianoforte  teacher. 

His  method  included  two  novelties  —the  use  of 
the  chiroplast,  and  the  plan  of  making  several 
pupils,  to  the  number  of  twelve  or  more,  play  at 
the  same  time  on  as  many  pianofortes.  To  this 
end  he  wrote  a  number  of  studies,  which  were 
published  in  his  'First  Companion  to  the  Royal 
Chiroplast,'  and  other  works,  in  which  several 
studies,  of  various  degrees  of  difficulty,  were 
capable  of  being  played  simultaneously.  About 
this  part  of  the  method  great  diversity  of  opinion 
existed.  Many  critics  could  perceive  nothing  but 
evil  in  it.  Spohr,  however,  in  a  letter  written 
from  London  to  the  'Allgemeine  musikalische 


CmEOPLAST. 


CHITARROXE. 


347 


Zeitung,'  in  1820,  expresses  himself  favourably 
upon  it.  He  was  present  at  an  examination  of 
IrtTgier's  pupils,  and  writes — 'when  a  new  study 
was  begun  in  quick  tempo,  the  less  advanced 
pupils  were  unable  to  get  in  more  than  a  note  or 
I  two  in  each  bar,  but  by  degrees  they  conquered 
I  more  :ind  more  of  the  difficulties,  and  in  a  shorter 
time  than  one  could  have  believed  possible  the 
study  went  well.' 

By  the  terms  of  his  patent,  Logier  exercised 
the  right  of  granting  permission  to  other  profes- 
sors to  make  use  of  the  chiroplast  and  his  system, 
for  which  they  paid  high  terms.  In  i Si 6  he  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  so  many  professors  of  the 
excellences  of  his  method,  that  chiroplast  aca- 
demies were  established  in  the  provinces,  and 
Samuel  Webbe,  at  that  time  in  great  vogue,  com- 
menced teaching  the  system  in  London. 

So  much  success  was  not  allowed  to  pass  un- 
challenged, and  hostile  criticisms  found  expres- 
sion in  a  number  of  pamphlets,  some  respectable, 
some  merely  abusive.  Of  these  the  principal 
were  an  article  in  the  '  Quarterly  Musical  Mag- 
azine and  Review,'  i.  3  ;  'General  Observations,' 
etc.  (Edinburgh,  R.  Burdie,  1S17);  and  '  Stric- 
tures on  Mr.  Loeier's  System  .  .  .,'  by  H.  de 
Monti  ^Glasgow,  W.  Tumbull\ 

Feeling  that  these  publications  were  likely  to 
injure  him  Logier  determined  to  invite  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  other  mu- 
sicians, to  attend  an  examination  of  Webbe's 
pupils  in  London  on  Xov.  17,  1S17.  The  results 
of  this  examination  were  published  by  him  in  a 
pamphlet  entitled  'An  Authentic  Accotmt,  etc., 
by  J.  B,  Logier'  ^London,  Hunter,  iSiS\ 

This  was  answered  in  a  new  pamphlet,  'An 
exposition  of  the  Xew  System  ....  published  by 
a  Committee  of  Professors  in  London'  (London, 
Budd  and  Calkin,  iSiS\  The  comminee  was 
chosen  from  among  those  who  had  attended  the 
examination  on  Xov.  17,  and  consisted  of  29  of 
the  most  distinguished  musicians  of  the  day — 
Sir  George  Smart,  Drs.  Camaby,  Crotch,  and 
Smith.  Messrs.  Attwood,  Ayrton.  Beale,  Bur- 
rows, Francois  Cramer,  Dance,  Ferrari,  Great- 
orex,  Griffin,  Hawes.  William  Horsley,  Hull- 
mandel,  Knwett,  C.  Knyvett,  jun,,  Latour, 
Mazzinghi,  Xeate,  Vincent  Novello.  Potter, 
Eies,  Sherrington,  Scheener,  Walmisley,  T. 
Welch,  WiUiams. 

Logier  rejoined  in  a  not  very  temperate  tract — 
'  A  Refutation  of  the  Fallacies  and  Misrepre- 
sentations,' etc. 

For  some  time  after  this,  pamphlets  in  abund- 
ance made  their  appearance.  One  of  the  most 
bitter  was  an  article  written  by  KoUmann,  or- 
ganist to  the  German  Chapel.  St.  James's,  to  the 
'Allgemeine  musikalisohe  Zeitung'  in  Nov.  1S21, 
and  published  at  the  same  time  in  English,  in 
which  the  writer  is  candid  enough  to  say  that  he 
believes  the  principal  secret  of  Logier' s  system  is 
to  rob  all  other  professors  of  their  pupils. 

On  the  other  side,  Spohr,  in  the  letter  already 
quoted,  says,  '  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  chiro- 
plast fulfils  its  purpose  of  inducing  a  good  posi- 
tion of  the  hands  and  arms,  and  is  of  great 


service  to  Hen*  Logier,  who  has  to  look  after 
thirty  or  forty  children  plapng  at  once.'  And  in 
1 82 1  Franz  Stoepel,  who  was  sent  to  London  by 
the  Prussian  government  to  examine  into  Logier  s 
system,  made  so  favourable  a  report  that  Logier 
was  invited  to  Berlin,  where  in  1822  he  es- 
tablished a  chiroplast  school,  which  was  so  suc- 
cessful that  the  King  propvosed  to  him  to  instruct 
twenty  professors  in  his  method,  with  the  view 
of  spreading  it  over  the  whole  of  Prussia.  Logier 
accordingly  remained  three  years  in  Berlin, 
visiting  London  at  intervals.  Meantime  the  chiro- 
plast was  introduced  into  many  of  the  leading 
towns  of  Germany,  In  Pari?,  Zimmermann,  pro- 
fessor of  the  pianoforte  at  the  Conservatoire,  had 
classes  on  the  system,  but  in  England  it  gradually 
died  out,  until  it  may  be  doubted  if  a  single  pro- 
fessor remain.?  who  employs  the  method,  though 
the  apparatus  is  still  occasionally  to  be  met  with 
at  sales  of  secondhand  instruments. 

The  chief  drawback  to  the  chiroplast,  apart 
from  the  risk  of  the  hands  falling  into  bad  posi- 
tions when  the  support  was  withdrawn,  wa.s  the 
fact  that  the  thumb  could  not  be  passed  under 
the  fingers,  nor  the  fingers  over  the  thumb,  as  in 
scale -playing.  Kalkbrenner,  who  joined  Logier  in 
the  establishment  of  a  chiroplast  class  in  1 81 8,  per- 
ceived this,  and  in  consequence  adopted  his  so- 
called  hand-guide,  which  consisted  simply  of  the 
lower  rail  or  wrist -supp)ort  of  the  chiroplast,  with- 
out the  finger-guides,  in  which  simplified  form  it  is 
manufactured  and  sold  at  the  present  day  {iS~';). 
By  another  modification  the  hand  was  placed  in 
a  sliding  wooden  mould,  made  to  fit  the  palm,  and 
secured  by  a  small  strap  which  passed  over  the 
t-ack  of  the  hand,  thus  allowing  free  movement 
of  the  hand  along  the  keyboard,  and  of  the  thumb 
xmder  the  fingers. 

That  Logier's  proceedings  were  not  free  from 
charlatanism  may  he  inferred  from  the  fact  of  the 
establishment  in  Dublin  of  a  '  Chiroplast  Club,' 
with  a  special  bunon:  and  that  his  pretensions 
were  extravagant  may  be  gathered,  from  his 
remark  to  Mazzinghi,  that  he  '  considered  him- 
self an  instrument,  in  the  hands  of  Providence, 
for  changing  the  whole  system  of  musical  in- 
struction.' Still,  the  object  in  view  was  good,  and 
the  attention  drawn  to  the  subject  cannot  fail  to 
have  exercised  a  beneficial  influence  on  pianoforte 
teaching.  ^F.  T.] 

i     CHITAREOXE  (Ital.,  augmentative  of  Chi- 

'  tan-a^'.  A  the-.^rbo,  or  double-necked  lute  of  great 
length,  with  wire  strings  and  two  sets  of  tuning- 
pegs,  the  lower  set  having  twelve,  and  the  higher 
eight  strings  attached ;  the  unusual  extension  in 
length  affording  greater  development  to  the  bass 
of  the  instrument.  The  Italian  chitarra  was  not 
stnmg  with  catgut  like  the  Spanish  guitar,  but 
with  wire,  like  the  German  cither  and  the  old 
English  cithern.  The  chitarrone,  as  implied  by 
the  suffix,  was  a  large  chitarra.  Like  its  cousin 
the  archlute  it  was  employed  in  Italy  in  the  1 6th 
century  with  the  clavicembalo  and  other  instru- 

j  ments  to  accompany  the  voice,  forming  a  band. 

I  the  nutty,  slightly  bitter  timbre  of  which  must 


548 


CHITARROXE. 


CHLADXI. 


have  been  very  sympathetic  and  agreeable.  Lists 
of  these  earliest  orchestras  are  extant,  notably 
one  that  ■wras  got 
together  for  the 
performance  of 
Monteverde's  *  Or- 
feo '  in  1607,  in 
which  appear  two 
chitarroni.  The 
very  fine  specimen 
of  this  interesting 
instrument  here  en- 
graved is  in  the 
South  Kensington 
Museum.  The 
length  of  it  is 
5  feet  4  inches.  It 
is  inscribed  inside 
'Andrew  Taus  in 
Siena,  1621.'  In 
the  photographs 
published  by  the 
Liceo  Comunale  di 
Musica  of  Bologna, 
the  appHcations  of 
the  names  chitar- 
rone  and  archlute 
—  possibly  by  an 
oversight  —  are  re- 
versed. [Archlute, 
Cither,  Lute,  The- 
orbo.] [A.J.H.] 

CHLADNI, 

Erxst  Florexs 
Friedrich,  who 
has  been  called  the 
father  of  modem 
acoustics,  was  bom 
at  Wittemberg  in 
1756.  His  father 
was  a  stern  edu- 
cator, and  his 
youth  was  conse- 
quently spent  in 
close  application  to 
the  study  of  a  va- 
riety of  subjects,  of 
which  geography 
seems  to  have  been 
the  chief,  and  mu- 
sic very  subordi- 
nate, for  he  did 
not  begin  to  study 
the  latter  consist- 
ently till  he  was  1 9. 
At  the  college  of 

Grimma  he  studied  law  and  medicine,  apparently 
uncertain  to  which  to  apply  himself.  At  Leipzig 
in  1782  he  wa-  made  doctor  of  laws,  but  soon 
abandoned  that  position  and  the  studv  of  juris- 
prudence to  apply  himself  exclusively  to  physical 
science.  His  attention  was  soon  drawn  to  the 
imperfection  of  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
sound,  and  he  determined  to  devote  himself  to 
their  investigation.  His  first  researches  on  the 
vibrations  of  round  and  square  plates,  beUs,  and 


rings,  were  published  as  early  as  1 787.  It  was 
in  connection  with  these  that  he  invented  the 
beau-tiful  and  famous  experiment  for  showing  the 
modes  of  vibration  of  metal  or  glass  plates,  by 
scattering  sand  over  the  surface. 

His  researches  extended  over  a  considerable 
,  part  of  the  domain  of  acoustics ;  embracing,  be- 
sides those  mentioned  above,  investigations  on 
■  longitudinal  vibrations,  on  the  notes  of  pipes 
when  filled  with  different  gases ;  on  the  theory 
of  consonance  and  dissonance  ;   the  acousticjd 
properties  of  concert-rooms  ;  and  the  distribution 
,  of  musical  instruments  into  classes.    With  short- 
I  sightedness  characteristic  at  once  of  the  greatest 
I  and  least  of  mortals,  he  thought  the  noblest 
I  thing  to  do  would  be  to  invent  some  new  instru- 
j  ment  on  a  principle  before  unknown.    To  this 
j  object  he  himself  said  that  he  devoted  more  time, 
1  trouble  and  money,  than  to  his  great  scientific 
j  researches.    The  result  was  first  an  instrument 
I  which  he  called  Euphon,  which  consisted  chiefly 
i  of  small  cylinders  of  glass  of  the  thickness  of  a 
[  pen,  which  were  set  in  vibration  by  the  moistened 
!  finger.    This  he  afterwards  developed  into  an 
I  instrument  which  he  called  the  Clavi-cylinder, 
j  and  looked  upon  as  the  practical  application  of 
his  discoveries,  and  the  glory  of  his  life.    In  form 
it  was  like  a  square  pianoforte,  and  comprised 
four  and  a  half  octaves.  The  sound  was  produced 
by  friction  from  a  single  glass  cylinder  connected 
with  internal  machinery-,  by  which  the  differences 
of  the  notes  were  produced.     Its  advantages 
were  said  to  be  the  power  of  prolonging  sound 
and  obtaining  'crescendo'  and  'diminuendo'  at 
pleasure.    After  1S02,  when  he  published  his 
'Treatise  on  Acoustics,'  he  travelled  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  taking  his  clavi-cylinder  with 
him,  and  lecturing  upon  it  and  on  acoustics.  In 
Paris,  in  iSoS,  he  was  introduced  to  Xapoleon 
hy  Laplace.     The  Emperor  with  characteristic 
appreciation  of  his  importance  gave  him  6000 
francs,  and  desired  him  to  have  his  great  work 
translated  into  French,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
nation.     This  work  he  undertook  himself,  and 
in  1809  it  was  pubHshed  with  a  short  auto- 
biography prefixed,  and  dedicated  to  Napoleon. 
After  this  he  resumed  his  travels  and  lectures 
for  some  years.    His  labours  in  science,  mostly 
but  not  exclusively  devoted  to  acoustics,  con- 
tinued up  to  the  year  of  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened suddenly  of  apoplexy  in  1S27. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  more  important 
works  in  connection  with  acoustics,  in  the  order 
of  their  appearance. 

1.  Entiieckungen  uber  die  Theo-  '  des  Consonirens  und  Dissonirens 
rie  des  Klanpes.  17S7.  |  lirOl  (?) 

2.  Ueber  die  Langentone  einer  I    6.  Nachricht   von   dem  Clavi- 
'  cylinder,  einen  neugefuudenen  In- 


Saite.  1792. 

3.  Ueber  die  longitudinal 
Schwingungen  der  Saiten  und 
Stucke.  1796. 

4.  Ueber  drehende  Schwingun- 
gen  eines  States. 

5.  BeitrSge  mr  Befbrderung 
eines  bess^ra  Vortrags  des  Kiang- 
lehre.  1797. 

6.  Ueber  die  Tone  elner  Ffeife  in 
verschiedenen  Gasarten. 

7.  Eine  neue  Art  die  Geschwin- 
digkeit  des  Schwlngungen  bei 
einem  jeden  Tone  durch  den 
Angeschein  in  bestiramen.  ISOO. 


&  Ueber  die  Wahre   Ursache  l&n. 


strumeute.  1SOO(?) 

10.  Zweite  Xachricht  von  dem 
Clavicylinder,  und  einem  neue 
Baue  desselben.  1S37  (?) 

IL  Die  Akustik.  Breitkopf  und 
mrtel.  1RI2. 

12.  Xeue  BertrSge  zur  Ak-ustik. 
lb.  1817. 

13.  Beitrage  lur  praktLschen 
Akustik.  etc  (with  remarks  on  the 
construction  of  instruments).  lb. 
1821. 

14.  Kurze  Uebersicht  der  SchaU- 
and  Klaag-gelehre,  etc  Schott. 


[C.H.H.P.J 


CHOICE  OF  HERCULES. 


CHOPIN. 


349 


CHOICE  OF  HERCULES,  THE,  a  'musical  | 
interlude '  lor  solos  and  chorus ;  the  words  from  ! 
Spenser's  Polymetis;    the  music   by   Handel,  [ 
partly  adapted  from  his  Alcestes.  Autograph 
in  Buckingham  Palace — begun  June  28,  1750, 
finished  July  5,  1750;  but  last  chorus  added 
afterwards.   Produced  at  Covent  Garden,  March 
I,  1751. 

CHOIR,  often  pronounced  Quire.  The  part  of 
the  church  east  of  the  nave,  in  which  the  services 
are  celebrated.  The  term  is  now  almost  restricted 
to  cathedrals  and  abbey  churches,  'chancel' 
being  used  for  the  same  part  of  an  ordinary 
church.  'Choir'  is  also  used  for  the  singers  in 
churches  of  all  kinds  ;  and  for  the  portions  into 
which  a  chorus  is  divided  when  the  composition 
is  written  for  two,  three,  or  any  other  number  ' 
of '  choirs.'  [G.] 

CHOIR  ORGAN.  The  name  given  to  the 
small  organ  which,  in  cathedral  and  other  churches, 
used  to  hang  suspended  in  front  and  below  the 
larger  or  Great  Organ.  It  derived  its  name  from 
its  emplo}Tiient  to  accompany  the  vocal  choir  in 
the  chief  portions  of  the  Choral  Service  except 
the  parts  marked  '  Full,'  and  the  '  Glorias,'  which 
were  usually  supported  by  the  'Loud  Organ'  as 
it  was  sometimes  called.  The  choir  organ  was 
generally  of  very  sprightly  tone  however  small  it  < 
might  be ;  one  of  three  stops  only  not  unfre-  I 
quently  consisting  of  the  following  combination — 
Stopped  Diapason,  Principal,  Fifteenth.  I 

Father  Smith's  choir  organ  at  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  (1694-7),  the  most  complete  he  ever 
made,  had  the  following  eight  stops  : — Stopped 
Diapason  (Wood), Principal,  Flute  (Metal),  Gems- 
horn  Twelfth,  Fifteenth,  Mixture  III  ranks, 
Cremona  (through).  Vox  humana  (through).  i 

Since  the  development  of  the  swell  organ 
within  the  last  50  years,  the  choir  organ  has  had 
to  yield  its  position  to  its  more  attractive  rival  | 
the  *  second '  manual,  and  now  occupies  the 
place  of  '  third.'  It  is  nevertheless  of  so  useful 
and  convenient  a  nature,  that  it  cannot  be 
omitted  without  its  absence  being  constantly  felt. 
[Chair  Organ.]  [E.  J.  H.] 

CHOPIN,  Francois  Frederic,  was  born 
March  i,  1809  (not  1810,  as  has  been  fre- 
quently stated  and  even  inscribed  on  his  tomb- 
stone', at  Zela  Zowa  Wola,  ia  village  six  miles 
from  Warsaw,  in  Poland  ;  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  1 7, 
1849,  and  was  buried  at  the  cemetery  of  the 
Pere-la- Chaise,  between  the  graves  of  Cherubini 
and  Bellini.  Robert  Schumann,  when  reviewing 
Chopin's  Preludes  for  the  '  Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir 
musik,'  in  1839,  called  him  'the  boldest  and 
proudest  poetic  spirit  of  the  times!'  (Ges. 
Schriften,  iii.  122)  ;  he  might  have  added  with 
at  least  equal  truth,  and  in  the  face  of  all  con- 
temporary opposition,  that  Chopin  was  a  legiti- 
mately trained  musician  of  quite  exceptional 
attainments,  a  pianist  of  the  very  first  order, 
and  a  writer  for  the  p'anoforte  preeminent 
beyond  comparison — a  great  master  of  style, 
a  fascinat'ng  melodist,  as  well  as  a  most  origi- 
nal manipulator  of  puissant  and  refined  rhjiihin 


and  harmony.  As  he  preferred  forms  in  which 
some  sort  of  rhythmic  and  melodic  type  is  pre- 
scribed at  the  outset,  —  such  as  the  Mazurka, 
Polonaise,  Valse,  Bolero,  Tarantelle,  &c.,  he 
virtually  set  himself  the  task  of  saying  the  same 
sort  of  thing  again  and  again;  yet  he  appears 
truly  inexhaustible.  Each  Etude,  Prelude,  Im- 
promptu, Scherzo,  Ballade,  presents  an  aspect 
of  the  subject  not  pointed  out  before  ;  each 
has  a  raison  d\tre  of  its  own.  With  few  ex- 
ceptions, all  of  which  pertain  to  the  pieces 
written  in  his  teens,  thought  and  form,  matter 
and  manner,  shades  of  emotion  and  shades  of 
style,  blend  perfectly.  Like  a  magician  he  ap- 
pears possessed  of  the  secret  to  transmute  and 
transfigure  whatever  he  touches  into  some 
weird  crystal,  convincing  in  its  conformation, 
transparent  in  its  eccentricity,  of  which  no 
duplicate  is  possible,  no  imitation  desirable. 
He  was  a  great  inventor,  not  only  as  regards 
the  technical  treatment  of  the  pianoforte,  but 
as  regards  music  per  se,  as  regards  composi- 
tion. He  spoke  of  new  things  well  worth 
hearing,  and  found  new  ways  of  saying  such 
things.  The  emotional  materials  he  embodies 
are  not  of  the  very  highest ;  his  moral  nature 
was  not  cast  in  a  sublime  mould,  and  his  in- 
tellect was  not  of  the  profoundest ;  his  bias  was 
romantic  and  sentimental  rather  than  heroic 
or  naive — but  be  his  material  ever  so  exotic, 
he  invariably  makes  amends  by  the  exquisite 
refinement  of  his  diction.  He  is  most  careful 
to  avoid  melodic,  rhythmic,  or  harmonic  com- 
monplaces ;  a  vulgar  melody  or  a  halting  rh}i;hm 
seem  to  have  been  instinctively  revolting  to 
him ;  and  as  for  refined  harmony,  he  strove 
so  hard  to  attain  it,  that  in  a  few  of  his  last 
pieces  he  may  be  said  to  have  overshot  the 
mark,  and  to  have  subtilised  his  progressions 
into  obtuseness. 

The  list  of  his  works  extends  only  up  to 
op.  74,  and  when  bound  up  in  a  few  thin  vo- 
lumes Chopin  is  "certainly  not  formidable,  yet 
his  published  pieces  represent  an  immense 
amount  of  care  and  labour.  With  regard  to 
rare  musical  value,  originality  and  perfection 
of  style,  the  solo  pieces  might  be  classed  as 
follows  ;  —  Etudes  and  Preludes  ;  Mazurkas 
and  Polonaises ;  Ballades  and  Scherzi ;  Noc- 
turnes and  Yalses;  etc.  The  two  concertos  are 
highly  interesting  as  far  as  the  treatment  of 
the  solo  part  is  concerned,  but  the  orchestration 
is  poor. 

During  Chopin's  lifetime  it  seems  to  have 
been  a  fixed  notion  with  the  generality  of  musi- 
cians that  he  was  a  sort  of  inspired  .-imateur, 
who  could  not  be  classed  with  professional 
academically  trained  musicians.  Liszt's  singular 
and  clever  essay,  '  Frederic  Chopin,'  did  not 
mend  matters  much — for  Liszt  too,  though  he 
of  all  men  knew  best  how  eminent  a  musician 
Chopin  was,  chose  to  accent  the  poetical,  lo- 
mantic  side  of  his  individuality.  Liszt  was, 
moreover,  led  into  errors  of  fact  by  the  paucity 
of  authentic  biographical  materials.  The  truth 
about  Chopin's  biith,  family,  health,  character, 


350 


CHOPIN. 


CHORAGUS. 


friendships,  early  training,  and  the  dawn  of  his 
career  as  a  player  and  composer,  was  not  known 
till  the  publication  of  Moritz  Karasowski's  re- 
cent and  trustworthy  biography  (Dresden  1877, 
Eries).  A  Polish  emigrant,  '  Grzymala,'  who 
was  amongst  Chopin's  early  acquaintances  at 
Paris,  seems  answerable  for  the  various  mis- 
statements in  the  contemporary  Dictionaries, 
and  in  Liszt's  essay.  The  assertion  for  in- 
stance that  Prince  Radziwill,  the  composer  of 
tolerable  music  to  Goethe's  'Faust,'  had  de- 
frayed the  expenses  of  Chopin's  schooling,  is  as 
much  without  foundation  as  the  sentimental 
talk  about  Chopin's  extreme  feebleness  and 
continuous  ill-health.  Both  Liszt,  and  George 
Sand  (in  her  memoirs),  chose  to  paint  Chopin  as 
a  feeble  youth  continually  at  death's  dooi\  living 
in  an  atmosphere  of  moonshine  and  sentimentality. 
The  truth  was  quite  the  reverse.  He  was  not 
a  robust  person,  but  he  did  not  know  a  moment's 
illness  before  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  when 
the  germs  of  bronchitis  and  consumption  deve- 
loped rapidly  under  the  late  hours  and  excite- 
ment of  Parisian  life. 

As  a  young  man  he  was  fresh  and  lively, 
ready  for  all  kinds  of  fun  and  frolic,  a  good 
mimic  and  caricaturist,  and  quite  strong  enough 
to  stand  long  journeys  in  rough  German  stage- 
coaches. There  are  records  of  his  visits  to 
Berlin,  Dresden,  Dantzig,  Leipzig,  Vienna,  &c., 
ere  he  was  twenty.  Nicolas  (Dhopin,  his  father, 
a  Frenchman  by  birth  and  extraction,  a  native 
of  Nancy,  came  to  Warsaw  as  a  private  tutor. 
He  became  professor  at  the  Lycee  of  Warsaw, 
and  kept  a  select  private  school  of  his  own, 
where  young  men  of  good  families  were  brought 
np,  together  with  his  son  Frederic.  The  mother, 
Justine  Kryzanowska,  was  of  a  pure  Polish 
family,  and  seems  to  have  transmitted  to  her 
son  the  peculiar  sensitiveness  of  her  Sclavonic 
temperament.  In  1818,  when  barely  nine, 
Frederic  played  a  concerto  by  Gyrowetz,  and 
improvised  in  public.  His  first,  very  early 
compositions,  were  dances :  Polonaises,  Mazur- 
kas, and  Valses,  A  native  of  Bohemia,  Zwyny, 
and  a  learned  German,  Joseph  Eisner,  director 
of  the  school  of  music  at  Warsaw,  composer  of 
much  mediocre  church  music,  &c,,  a  sound  mu- 
sician, and  it  is  always  said  a  devoted  student  of 
Bach  (1,  e.  of  what  little  was  then  and  there 
known  of  Bach),  were  his  masters  and  subse- 
quently his  friends.  At  nineteen,  a  finished 
virtuoso,  equal  if  not  superior  to  all  contem- 
poraries except  Liszt,  Chopin  started  with  his 
two  concertos  and  some  minor  pieces,  via  Vienna 
and  Munich,  where  he  gave  concerts,  for  Paris, 
ostensibly  on  his  way  to  England,  But  he 
settled  in  Paris,  and  rarely  stirred  from  thence. 
He  used  to  say  that  his  life  consisted  of  an 
episode,  without  a  beginning  and  with  a  sad 
end.  The  episode  was  this  :  at  Liszt's  instiga- 
tion, in  1836,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Madame  George  Sand,  and  was  completely  fasci- 
nated and  absorbed.  In  the  autunm  of  38, 
when  he  had  begun  to  suffer  from  bronchitis, 
Madame  Sand  took  him  to  Majorca,  where  they 


spent  the  winter,  and  where  she  nursed  and 
loved  him,  for  which  kindness  he  was  profuse  in 
expressions  of  gratitude  to  the  end  of  his  davs. 
Soon  after  their  return  to  Paris  she  put  him 
into  one  of  the  least  attractive  of  her  novels, 
'Lucrezia  Floriani,'  under  the  name  of  Prince 
Karol,  whom  she  depicts  as  a  highflown,  con- 
sumptive, and  exasperating  nuisance,  and  left 
him  after  some  eight  years  of  sentimental  ame- 
nities to  his  cough  and  his  piano.  Barring 
a  couple  of  '  short  visits  to  England,  and  one 
to  Scotland  shortly  before  his  death  in  49,  he 
lived  a  retired  yet  far  from  quiet  life  in  Paris, 
giving  lessons,  practising,  and  at  intervals  com- 
posing— the  spoiled  child  of  a  small  circle  of 
sympathising  admirers.  But  it  was  no  ig- 
noble retirement,  as  the  names  of  some  of  his 
Parisian  friends,  such  as  Liszt  and  Berlioz, 
Balzac  and  Bellini,  Adolph  Nourrit  and  Heine, 
Ernst,  Delacroix,  and  Meyerbeer,  sufficiently 
attest, 

Chopin's  works  include  2  Concertos  for  Piano 
and  Orchestra ;  i  Trio  for  Piano  and  Strings  ; 
2  Duos  for  Piano  and  Cello,  For  Piano  Solo  3 
Sonatas  ;  2  7  Etudes ;  5  2  Mazurkas  ;  2  5  Pre- 
ludes ;  19  Nocturnes;  13  Waltzes;  12  Polo- 
naises ;  5  Eondos ;  4  Scherzos ;  4  Ballades ; 
4  Fantaisies ;  3  Eccosi-aises ;  4  Impromptus  ; 
4  sets  of  Variations ;  a  Barcarole  ;  a  Berceuse  ; 
aKrakoviak;  a  Bolero;  aTarantelle;  a  Funeral 
March  ;  an  Allegro  de  concert,  also  a  Rondeau 
for  2  Pianos,  and  16  Polish  songs,  in  all  74  num- 
bered and  7  unnumbered  works.  By  far  the 
best  edition  is  Carl  Klindwnrth's,  published  at 
Moscow,  There  is  a  Thematic  Catalogue,  pub- 
lished by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  [E.  D.] 

CHORAGUS.  A  titular  functionary  in  the 
University  of  Oxford,  who  derives  his  name  from 
the  leader  of  the  chorus  in  the  ancient  Greek 
drama  (xopa7os).  In  the  year  1626,  Dr.  William 
Heather,  desirous  to  ensure  the  study  and  practice 
of  music  at  Oxford  in  future  ages,  established  the 
offices  of  Professor,  Choragus,  and  Coryphaeus,  and 
endowed  them  with  modest  stipends.  The  Pro- 
fessor was  to  give  instruction  in  the  theory  of 
music  i  the  Choragus  and  the  Coryphaeus  were  to 
superintend  its  practice.  'Twice  a  week,'  say  the 
ordinances  of  Dr,  Heather,  'is  the  Choragus  to 
present  himself  in  the  Music  School  and  conduct 
the  practice,  both  vocal  and  instrumental,  of  all 
who  may  choose  to  attend,'  The  instruments  to  be 
used  by  the  students  at  these  performances  were 
furnished  out  of  Dr.  Heather's  benefactions ; 
provision  was  made  for  obtaining  treble  voices, 
and  everything  requisite  to  the  regular  and  prac- 
tical cultivation  of  music  as  one  of  the  academic 
studies  appeared  to  have  been  devised.  Yet  Dr. 
Heather  must  have  had  certain  misgivings  as  to  the 
future  of  his  institutions,  for  he  enacts  that  'if  no 
one  shall  attend  the  meetings  in  the  Music  School, 
then  the  Choragus  himself  shall  sing  with  two 
boys  for  at  least  an  hour,'  Little  as  I)r.  Heather 
asked  of  posterity,  he  obtained  still  less.  The 

1  One  of  these  was  during  the  Eevolution  of  '48.  He  gave  two  con- 
certs in  London,  at  tlie  houses  of  Mr.  f-artoris  and  Lord  Falmouth, 
and  played  at  Guildhall  at  the  Tolish  Ball  in  November. 


CHORAGUS. 


CHORAL  FANTASIA.  351 


practices  ceased  ;  the  instruments  were  dispersed, 
and  their  remnant  finally  broken  up  by  the  au- 
thorities as  old  lumber ;  and  no  Choragus  has 
either  conducted  or  sung  in  the  Music  School 
within  the  memory  of  man.  The  history  of  this 
well-meant  endowment  may  point  either  to  the 
indifference  and  mismanagement  of  a  University, 
or  to  the  doubtful  vitality  of  official  attempts 
to  foster  a  free  art.  Of  late  years  the  Choragus 
has  been  charged,  along  with  the  Professor,  with 
the  conduct  of  the  examinations  for  musical  de- 
grees. The  emoluments  of  the  office,  derived  in 
part  from  the  above-mentioned  endowment,  in 
part  from  fees  paid  on  examination,  amount  in 
all  to  an  insignificant  total.  [C.  A.  F.] 

CHORALE  (Ger.  Chontl,  and  (?bra?e),  a  sacred 
choral  song  (cantus  choralis)  which  may  almost 
be  said  to  belong  exclusively  to  the  reformed 
church  of  Germany,  in  which  it  originated. 
Luther  introduced  a  popular  element  into  wor- 
ship by  writing  hymns  in  the  vernacular  and 
wedding  them  to  rhythmic  music,  which  should 
appeal  to  the  people  in  a  new  and  more  lively 
sense  than  the  old-fashioned  unrhythmic  church 
music.  The  effect  was  as  great  (with  all  due 
respect  to  the  different  quality  of  the  lever)  as 
the  Marseillaise  in  France  or  Lillibullero  in  Eng- 
land, or  Auber  s  Masaniello  and  the  Braban9onne 
in  Brussels  ;  for  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  no 
insignificant  share  in  the  rapid  spread  of  the 
new  ideas  was  owing  to  these  inspiriting  and 
vigorous  hymns,  which  seemed  to  burst  from  the 
hearts  of  the  enthusiastic  and  earnest  men  of 
W'hom  Luther  was  the  chief.  The  movement 
passed  rapidly  over  Germany,  and  produced  in  a 
short  time  a  literature  of  sacred  hjTiins  and 
tunes  which  cannot  be  surpassed  for  dignity  and 
simple  devotional  earnestness.  Luther  and  his 
friend  Walther  brought  out  a  collection  at  Erfurt 
in  1524,  which  was  called  the  *  Enchiridion,'  or 
hand-book.  Though  not  absolutely  the  first,  it 
was  the  most  important  early  collection,  and  had 
a  preface  by  Luther  himself.  A  great  number 
of  collections  appeared  about  the  same  time  in 
various  parts  of  Germany,  and  continued  to  ap- 
pear till  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  century,  when, 
from  political  as  well  as  religious  circumstances, 
the  stream  of  production  became  sluggish,  and 
then  shortly  stopped  altogether. 

The  sources  of  the  chorales  were  various  ; 
great  numbers  were  original,  but  many  were 
adapted  fi-om  the  old  church  tunes,  and  some 
were  from  altogether  secular  sources.  For  in- 
stance, the  chorale  'Der  Du  bist  drei'  is  from  the 
ancient  *0  beata  lux  Trinitatis';  and  'Allein 
Gott  in  der  Hoh  sei  Ehr,'  which  Mendelssohn 
uses  in  a  modified  form  in  '  St.  Paul,'  is  also 
based  upon  a  hymn  of  the  Roman  church.  On 
the  other  hand  '  Herr  Christ  der  einig'  Gott's 
Sohn'  is  taken  from  a  secular  tune  '  Ich  hort'  ein 
Friiulein  klagen';  and  'Herzlich  thut  mich  ver- 
langen,'  which  appears  several  times  in  Bach's 
•  Matthaus-Passion' — for  instance  to  the  words 
*0  Haupt  voU  Blut  und  Wunden' — is  taken 
from  a  secular  tune  '  ^lein  Gemuth  ist  mir 
verwirret.'    Of  many  of  them  it  is  difficult  to  fiy 


the  origin.  That  generally  known  in  England 
as  Luther's  Hymn  (Es  ist  gewisslich)  cannot  with 
probability  be  attributed  to  him  ;  but  there  seems 
no  doubt  that  the  famous  'Ein'  feste  Burg,'  which 
Meyerbeer  took  as  the  text  of  'The  Hugue- 
nots,' and  Mendelssohn  used  in  his  Reformation 
Symphony,  Wagner  in  his  'Kaiser  Marsch,'  and 
Bach  in  various  ways  in  his  Cantata  to  the 
same  words,  is  really  by  the  great  reformer. 
The  most  prolific  composer  of  chorales  was 
Johann  Criiger,  who  was  born  some  time  after 
Luther's  death.  One  of  his,  '  Nun  danket  alle 
Gott,'  is  best  known  in  England  from  its  use 
by  Mendelssohn  in  his  '  Lobgesang.' 

The  chorale  which  Mendelssohn  uses  in  '  St. 
Paul,*  at  the  death  of  Stephen,  is  by  Georg 
Neumark,  who  also  wrote  the  original  words 
to  it.     In  the  preface  to  Bennett  and  Gold- 
schmidt's  'Chorale-book  for  England'  this  tune 
is  said  to  have  been  so  popular  that  in  the 
course  of  a  century  after  its  first  appearance  no 
i  less  than  400  hjonns  had  been  written  to  it. 
I     A  very  famous  collection  of  tunes  was  pub- 
'  lished  in  Paris  in  1565  by  Claude  Goudimel. 
j  Most  of  these  soon  found  their  way  into  the 
I  German   collections,    and   became  naturalised. 
I  Among  them  was  the  tune  known  in  England  as 
j  the  '  Old  Hundredth.'    Its  first  appearance  seems 
to  have  been  in  a  French  translation  of  the 
Psalms  with  music  by  Marot  and  Beza,  pub- 
lished at  Lyons  in  1563.    Many  of  the  tunes 
'  in   Goudimel's   collection  were  from  secular 
I  sources. 

I  The  custom  of  accompanying  chorales  on  the 
organ,  and  of  playing  and  writing  what  were 
called  figured  chorales,  caused  great  strides  to  be 
made  in  the  development  of  harmony  and  coun- 
i  terpoint,  and  also  in  the  art  of  plajang  the 
I  organ  ;  so  that  by  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th 
century  Germany  possessed  the  finest  school  of 
organists  in  Europe,  one  also  not  likely  to  be 
surpassed  in  modern  times.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

CHORAL  FANTASIA.    A  composition  of 
Beethoven's  (op.  80)  in  C  minor,  for  piano  solo, 
orchestra,  solo  quartet  and  chorus.    It  is  in  two 
'  sections — an  *  Adagio  '  and  a  'Finale,  Allegro.' 
I  The  Adagio  is  for  piano  solo  in  the  style  of  an 
:  improvisation ;  indeed  it  was  actually  extern- 
I  porised  by  Beethoven  at  the  first  performance, 
,  and  not  written  down  till  long  after.    The  Or- 
chestra then  joins,  and  the  Finale  is  founded  on 
the  melody  of  an  early  song  of  Beethoven's — 
'  Gegenliebe' — being  the  second  part  of  '  Seufzer 
eines  Ungeliebten '  (1795) — first,  variations  for 
piano  and  orchestra,  Allegro  ;  then  an  Adagio  ; 
then  a  Marcia,  assai  vivace  ;  and  lastly,  an  Alle- 
gretto in  which  the  solo  voices  and  chorus  sing 
the  air  to  words  by  Ku finer  in  praise  of  music. 
The  form  of  the  piece  appears  to  be  entirely 
original;  and  it  dei-ives  a  special  interest  from 
I  its  teing  a  precursor  of  the  Choral  SjTiiphony. 
I  In  both  the  finales  are  variations  ;  the  themes  of 
,  the  two  are  strikingly  alike  ;  certain  passages  in 
I  the  vocal  part  of  the  Fantas'a  predict  those  in 
the  SNTnphony  (compare  '  und  Kraft  vermiihlen ' 
I  with  'iiberm  Stemenzelt') ;  and  lastly,  there  is 


352  CHORAL  FAXTASIA. 


CHORLEY. 


the  fact  that  Beethoven  speaks  of  the  finale  of 
the  Svmphonv  .as  '  in  the  same  style  a^  the  Fan- 
tasia but  far  more  extended '  (Letter  to  Probst, 
March  lo,  1824^.  It  was  first  performed  by 
Beethoven  himself,  at  the  Theatre  an  der  "Wien, 
Dec.  22.  1S08  ;  published  July  iSii  ;  dedicated 
to  the  King  of  Bavaria.  Its  fii'st  appearance  in 
the  Philharmonic  programmes  is  May  S,  1S43 —  ' 
repeated  on  22nd — Mrs.  Anderson  pianist  both  ' 
times.  Sketches  for  the  Fantasia  are  said  to 
exist  as  early  as  iSoo,  with  those  for  the  6 
Quartets  (op.  iS>,  and  the  C  minor  Symphony 
(Thayer,  Chron.  Yerzeichniss,  no.  142).  [G.] 

CHORAL  HARMONIC  SOCIETY.  The 
members  of  this  amateur  society  met  at  the 
Hanover  Square  Rooms  for  the  practice  of 
concerted  vocal  and  instrumental  music.  In 
1837  Mr.  Dando  was  the  leader,  Mr.  Holdemess 
the  conductor,  and  Mr.  Bevington  the  organist. 
The  programmes  usually  included  a  glee  or 
madrigal  with  symphonies,  overtures,  and  vocal 
solos.  [C.  M.] 

CHORAL  HARMONISTS'  SOCIETY.  An 
association  of  amateurs  devoted  to  the  performance 
of  great  choral  works  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ments;  held  its  first  meeting  at  the  Xew  London 
Hotel.  Bridge  street,  Blackfriars.  Jan.  2,  1833, 
and  the  sub^equent  ones  at  the  London  Tavern 
until  the  last  Concert,  April  4,  1851,  twelve 
months  after  which  the  Society  was  dissolved. 
It  had  a  full  band  (containing,  in  1838,  14  violins, 
6  violas,  3  cellos,  3  basses,  with  complete  wind) 
and  chorus.  The  solo  sincrers  were  professionals — 
Qara  Xovello,  Miss  Birch.  Miss  Dolby,  Mr. 
J.  A.  Xovello,  etc.  Its  conductors  were  Messrs.  , 
Y.  Xovello,  Lucas,  Xeate,  and  Westrop  ;  leader 
Mr.  Dando.  The  programmes  were  excellent. 
Among  the  works  performed  were  Beethoven's 
Mass  in  D  (April  i,  183Q,  and  again  April  i, 
1844),  Haydn's  Seasons,  Mendelssohn's  Walpur- 
gisnight,  etc. 

The  Choral  Harmonists  were  a  secession  from 
the  City  of  Loxdox  Classical  Harmonists, 
who  held  their  first  meeting  April  6,  1831, 
and  met  alternately  at  Fam  s  music  shop, 
72  Lombard  Street,  and  the  Horn  Tavern,  Doc- 
tors' Commons.  Mr.  T.  H.  Severn  was  conductor, 
and  Mr.  Dando  leader,  and  the  accompaniments 
were  arranged  for  a  septet  string  band.  Among 
the  principal  works  thus  given  were — Oi  eron, 
Spohr's  Mass  in  C  minor,  and  '  Letzten  Dinge,' 
a  selection  from  Mozart's  Idomeneo,  etc.  Hie 
name '  City  of  London'  was  intended  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Classical  Harmonists,  a  still  older 
society,  meeting  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern, 
Strand,  of  which  ^Mr.  Griffin  and  ]Mr.  Y.  Xovello 
were  conductors.  [CM.] 

CHORAL  SYMPHONY.^  The  ordinary 
English  title  for  Beetlioven's  9th  Symphony 
(op.  12^)  in  D  minor,  the  Finale  of  which  is  a 
chain  of  variations  for  solos  and  chorus.  Fr. 
*Syniphonie  avec  Choeurs.'  Beethoven's  own 
title  is  'Sinfonie  mit  Schluss-Chor  iiber  Schil- 
ler's Ode  An  die  Freude.'  The  idea  of  com- 
posing Schiller's  Ode  to  Joy  'verse  by  ver.-e,' 


occurred  to  Beethoven  as  early  as  1792  (see 
p.  166  a)  ;  but  no  traces  remain  of  music  to  it  at 
that  date.  In  i8ii  we  find  a  sketch  for  an 
'  Ouverture  Schiller,'  with  the  opening  words  of 
the  ode  set  to  notes  (Thayer,  Chr.  Yerz.  no.  238), 
but  no  further  mention  of  it  has  been  disco verevi 
till  1822.  The  first  allusion  to  the  Symphony 
in  D  minor  is  as  the  third  of  three  which  he  pro- 
jected while  writing  nos.  7  and  8  in  1812  (p.  1S6 
b^.  The  first  practical  beginning  was  made  in 
1817,  when  large  portions  of  the  first  movement 
and  the  Scherzo  are  found  in  the  sketch-books. 
The  Finale  was  settled  to  be  choral,  but  Schil- 
ler's Ode  is  not  named  till  after  the  revival  of 
Fidelio,  in  Xov.  1822.  It  then  appears  in  the 
sketch-books.  After  inventing  with  infinite 
pains  and  repetitions  the  melody  of  the  Finale, 
and  apparently  the  variations,  a  mode  had  to  be 
discovered  of  connecting  them  with  the  three 
preceding  movements.  The  task  was  one  of  very 
great  difficulty.  The  first  solution  of  it  was  to 
make  the  bass  voice  sing  a  recitative,  'Let  us 
sing  the  song  of  the  immortal  Schiller.'  This 
was  afterwards  changed  to  '  0  friends  not  these 
tones'  {i.e.  not  the  tremendous  discords  of  the 
Presto  3-4 — which  follows  the  Adagio — and  of 
the  Allegro  assai),  '  Let  us  sing  something  plea- 
santer  and  fuller  of  joy,'  and  this  is  immediately 
followed  by  the  Chorus  *  Freude,  Freude.'  The 
whole  of  this  process  of  hesitation  and  invention 
and  finnl  success  is  depicted  in  the  most  unmis- 
takeable  manner  in  the  music  which  now  inter- 
venes between  the  Adagio  and  the  choral  portion 
of  the  work,  to  which  the  reader  must  be  re- 
ferred. 

The  Symphony  was  commissioned  by  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  (,Xov.  10,  1822),  for  £50,  and 
they  have  a  MS.  with  an  autograph  inscription, 
'Grosse  Sinfonie  gescbrieben  fiir  die  Philhar- 
monische  Gesellschaft  in  London  von  Ludwig 
van  Beethoven.'  But  it  was  performed  in 
Yienna  long  before  it  reached  the  Society,  and 
the  printed  score  is  dedicated  (by  Beethoven to 
Frederic  William  III,  King  of  Prussia.  The 
autograph  of  the  first  3  movements  is  at  Berlin, 
with  a  copy  of  the  whole  carefully  corrected  by 
Beethoven. 

The  first  performance  took  place  at  the  Kamth- 
nerthor  Theatre,  May  7,1824.  First  performance 
in  London,  by  the  Philharmonic  Society,  March 
21,  1825.  At  the  Paris  Conservatoire  it  was 
played  twice,  in  1832  and  34,  half  at  the  beginning 
and  half  at  the  end  of  a  concert.  At  Leipzig, 
on  March  6,  1826,  it  was  played  from  the 
]  arts  alone  ;  the  conductor  having  never  seen  the 
score !  [G.] 

CHORD  is  the  simultaneous  occurrence  of 
several  musical  sounds,  producing  harmony,  such 
as  the  'common  chord,'  the  churd  of  the  sixth, 
of  the  dominant,  of  the  diminished  seventh,  of 
the  ninth,  etc.,  etc.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

CHORLEY,  Henry  Fothergill,  journalist, 
author,  and  art  critic,  was  born  Dec.  15.  1808, 
at  Blackley  Hurst,  in  Lancashire.  Sprung  firom 
an  old  Lancashire  family,  he  had  a  self-willed. 


CHORLEY. 


CHOROX: 


353 


eccentric  character,  and  an  erratic  temperament, 
common  to  most  of  its  members,  which  accorded 
ill  with  the  rigid  tenets  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
to  which  they  belonged.  At  8  years  of  age  he 
lost  his  father,  and  he  received  afterwards  a 
somewhat  desultory  education,  first  at  the  hands 
of  private  tutors,  and  then  at  a  day-school  at 
St.  Helen's.  School,  however,  was  intolerable  to 
him.  At  an  early  age  he  was  removed,  and 
placed  in  a  merchant's  office.  This  suited  him 
as  little.  The  only  approach  to  systematic  teach- 
ing in  music  which  he  ever  received  was  from 
J.  Z.  Herrmann,  afterwards  conductor  of  the 
Liverpool  Philharmonic  Society.  It  soon  be- 
came evident  that  nothing  like  executive  profi- 
ciency was  to  be  attained  by  him,  and  this  he 
had  the  sense  to  perceive  and  acknowledge. 
Music,  however,  remained  his  leading  passion. 
He  fi-equented  all  the  performances  within  reach ; 
and  his  notes  of  these  in  his  journal  bear  witness 
to  the  steady  growth  of  his  judgment.  In  Sep- 
tember 1S30  he  made  his  first  appearance  in 
the  columns  of  the  'Athenaeum,'  and  shortly 
after  was  received  upon  its  staff.  He  then 
settled  in  London,  and  continued  to  write  for 
the  Athenaeum  until  within  a  few  years  of  his 
death  in  1872.  The  work  entrusted  to  him  was 
very  varied,  and  shows  how  high  an  estimate  of 
his  ability  must  have  been  formed  by  its  shrewd 
editor,  before  an  untried  youth  could  have  been 
selected  to  criticise  such  authors  as  Moore,  Lan- 
dor,  Southey,  Crabbe,  Mrs.  Hemans,  William  and 
Mary  Howitt,  and  Mrs.  Jameson ;  or  to  write 
the  obituary  notice  of  Coleridge.  In  all  this 
he  acijuitted  himself  admirably,  but  naturally 
made  some  enemies,  partly  through  the  criti- 
cisms of  other  writers  being  attributed  to  his 
pen.  At  the  same  time  he  attempted  composi- 
tion in  other  branches  of  literature  —  novels, 
dramas,  biographies,  and  poems.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  '  Sketches  of  a  Seaport  Town' 
(1834)  ;  'Conti,  the  Discarded'  (1835)  ;  'Memo- 
rials of  Mrs.  Hemans'  (,1836) ;  'The  Authors  of 
England'  (1838);  'The  Lion,  a  Tale  of  the 
Coteries'  (1839) ;  '  Music  and  Manners  in  France 
and  North  Germany'  (1841);  'Old  Love  and 
New  Fortune'  (1S50),  a  five-act  play  in  blank 
verse;  '  Pomfret' (1845) ;  '  The  Lovelock' (1854) ; 
'Duchess  Eleanour'  (1866).  He  dramatised  G. 
Sand's  '  L'Uscoque,'  set  to  music  by  Benedict ; 
for  whom  also  he  wrote  the  libretto  of  'Eed 
Eeard.'  Besides  translating  many  foreign  libretti, 
he  wrote  the  original  word-books  of  one  version 
of  the  'Amber  Witch'  (Wallace),  of  '^Tiite 
Magic'  (Biletta),  of  the  'May  Queen'  (Bennett), 
'Judith'  and  'HohTood'  (Leslie),  'St.  Cecilia' 
(Benedict^  '  Sapphire  Necklace '  and  '  Kenil- 
worth'  (Sullivan),  and  words  for  many  songs  by 
Meyerbeer,  Goldschmidt,  Gounod,  Sullivan,  etc. 
He  will  be  best  remembered,  how^ever,  as  a 
musical  critic.  Within  a  year  of  his  joining  the 
staff  of  the  'Athenaeum'  he  had  that  department 
entrusted  entirely  to  him,  which  he  did  not  give 
up  till  1868.  His  two  published  works  which 
will  live  the  longest  are  those  which  contain 
the  deliberate  expression  of  his  opinions  on  the 
(c.) 


subject  of  music,  viz.  'Modem  German  Music* 
(1S54)  —  a  republication,  with  large  additions, 
of  his  former  work  'Music  and  Manners' — and 
'Thirty  Years'  Musical  Recollections'  (1862). 
His  musical  ear  and  memory  were  remarkable, 
and  his  acquaintance  with  musical  works  was 
very  extensive.  He  spared  no  pains  to  make  up 
for  the  deficiency  of  his  early  training,  and  from 
first  to  last  was  conspicuous  for  honesty  and  in- 
,  tegrity.  Full  of  strong  prejudices,  yet  with 
the  highest  sense  of  honour,  he  fi-equentiy  criti- 
i  cised  those  whom  he  esteemed  more  severely 
i  than  those  whom  he  disliked.  The  natural 
!  bias  of  his  mind  was  imdoubtedly  towards  con- 
servatism in  art,  but  he  was  often  ready  to 
]  acknowledge  dawning  or  unrecognised  genius, 
whose  claims  he  would  with  unwearied  pertin- 
acity urge  upon  the  public,  as  in  the  cases  of 
Hullah,  Sullivan,  and  Gounod.  Strangest  of  all 
was  his  insensibility  to  the  music  of  Schumann. 
'  Perhaps  genius  alone  fully  comprehends  genius,' 
says  Schumann,  and  genius  Chorley  had  not, 
I  and,  in  consequence,  to  the  day  of  his  death  he 
remained  an  uncompromising  opponent  of  a 
musician  whose  merits  had  already  been  amply 
recognised  by  the  English  musical  public.  He 
was  stiU  more  strongly  opposed  to  recent  and  more 
'advanced'  composers.  Of  Mendelssohn,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  always  wrote  and  spoke  with  the 
enthusiasm  of  an  intimate  friend.  Beside  his 
many  notices  in  the  Athenaeum  and  in  the 
musical  works  already  mentioned,  he  contributed 
an  article  on  Mendelssohn  to  the  'Edinburgh 
Review  '  (Jan.  1S62),  and  a  Preface  to  Lady  Wal- 
lace's translation  of  the  Reisebriefe.  In  the  second 
volume  of  his  letters  Mendelssohn  names  him 
more  than  once.  He  had,  indeed,  won  the  esteem 
and  friendship  of  most  of  the  distinguished  literar\^ 
and  artistic  men  and  women  of  his  day,  and  '  it 
was  not  a  small  nor  an  obscure  number,  either 
in  England  or  on  the  continent,  who  felt,  at  the 
announcement  of  his  death,  Feb.  16,  1S72,  that 
an  acute  and  courageous  critic,  a  genuine  if  in- 
complete artist,  and  a  warm-hearted  honourable 
gentleman  had  gone  to  his  rest'  (See  'H.  F. 
Chorley,  Autobiography,  Memoir,  and  Letters, 
by  H.  G.  Hewlett.'  London,  1S73).  [J.  M.] 
CHORON,  Alexandre  Etienxe,  bom  at 
Caen  October  21,  1771,  died  at  Paris  Jxme  29, 
1S34.  He  was  a  good  scholar  before  becoming 
a  musician.  He  began  the  study  of  music  with- 
out assistance,  but  afterwards  received  lessons 
from  Roze,  Bonesi,  and  other  Italian  professors. 
Highly  gifted  by  nature,  he  soon  acquired 
great  knowledge  in  mathematics,  languages,  and 
every  branch  of  music,  and  published  his  '  Prin- 
cipes  d'accompagnement  des  ^coles  d'ltalie ' 
(Paris,  1804).  In  1808  he  gave  his  '  Principes  de 
composition  des  ecoles  d  italie'  (3  vols.),  in  which 
he  introduced  Sala's  practical  exercises  on  fugue 
and  counterpoint,  Marpurgs  treatise  on  fugue, 
many  exercises  from  Padre  Slartini's  '  Esemplare,' 
and  a  new  system  of  harmony  of  his  own — a 
work  which  cost  him  much  time  and  money. 
He  next  became  a  music  publisher,  and  published 
many  fine  works  of  the  best  Italian  and  German 

Aa 


354 


CHORON. 


CHOUQUET. 


masters.  In  conjunction  with  FayoUe  lie  then 
undertook  the  publication  of  his  '  Dictionnaire 
des  Musiciens'  (2  vols.,  8vo.,  Paris,  1810-11). 
Though  devoted  to  his  scientific  studies  and 
hampered  with  an  unsuccessful  business,  Choron 
could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  trying  his 
powers  as  a  composer,  and  gave  to  the  public 
'  La  Sentinelle,'  a  song  still  popular,  and  intro- 
duced in  many  French  plays.  But  his  great 
scheme  was  his  *  Introduction  k  I'etude  g^nerale 
et  raisonn^e  de  la  Musique,'  a  capital  book, 
which  he  left  unfinished,  because  his  necessities 
obliged  him  to  devote  his  time  to  teaching  music 
and  to  accept  the  situation  of  'Directeur  de  la 
musique  des  fetes  publiques'  from  1812  to  the 
fall  of  Napoleon.  He  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Academic  royale  de  Musique  (Opera)  in 
January  181 6,  but  the  appointment  having  been 
rudely  revoked  in  181 7  he  founded  a  school  for 
the  study  of  music,  which  was  supported  by  the 
government  from  1824  to  1830  under  the  title 
of  'Institution  royale  de  Musique  classique  et 
religieuse,'  but  declined  rapidly  when  deprived 
of  external  aid.  Amongst  the  musicians  edu- 
cated by  Choron  in  this  famous  school  we  shall 
mention  only  the  composers  Dietsch,  Monpou, 
Boulanger-Kunze,  G.  Duprez,  Scudo,  Jansenne, 
and  Nicou -Choron ;  the  lady  singers  Clara  No- 
vello,  Rosine  Stolz,  and  Hubert-Massy. 

The  premature  death  of  Choron  may  be  at- 
tributed to  disappointments  and  difficulties  after 
the  fall  of  Charles  X.  This  learned  musician 
and  very  kind-hearted  man  composed  a  Mass  for 
three  voices,  a  Stabat  for  three  voices,  and  a 
number  of  hymns,  psalms,  and  vocal  pieces  for 
the  church  ;  but  his  best  titles  to  fame,  after  the 
works  already  mentioned,  are  his  translations 
and  editions  of  Albrechtsberger's  works,  his 
*  Methode  concertante  de  Musique  k  plusieurs 
parties'  (Paris,  181 7),  his  'Methode  de  Plain- 
Chant,'  his  '  Manuel  complet  de  Musique  vocale 
et  instrumentale  ou  Encyclopedic  musicale,' 
which  was  published  by  his  assistant  Adrien 
de  La  Fage  in  1836-38  (Paris,  6  vols,  and  2 
vols,  of  examples),  and  several  other  didactic 
treatises,  which  contributed  greatly  to  improve 
the  direction  of  musical  studies  in  France.  In 
fact,  Choron  may  be  considered  as  a  pedagogue 
of  genius,  and  he  had  the  credit  of  opening  a 
new  field  to  French  musicians,  such  as  Fetis, 
Geo.  Kastner,  and  Adrien  de  La  Fage.  A  full 
list  of  his  essays,  titles,  and  prefaces  of  intended 
works,  revised  treatises  of  Italian,  German,  and 
French  didactic  writers  would  be  too  long  for 
this  dictionary ;  it  is  given  by  Fetis  in  a  remark- 
able article  on  Choron  in  his  'Biographic  Uni- 
verselle.'  For  more  detailed  information  the 
reader  may  be  referred  to  that  work  and  to  the 
'Eloges'  of  Gauthier  (Caen,  1845)  and  A.  de  La 
Fage  (Paris,  1843).  Scudo,  in  his  'Critique  et 
Litt^rature  nrusicales'  (Paris,  1852,  p.  333),  has 
given  a  vivid  picture  of  Choron  as  director  of  his 
school  of  music.  Choron's  drawback  appears 
to  ha.ve  been  a  want  of  perseverance,  and  a 
propensity  to  forsake  his  plans  before  he  had 
carried  them  out.    But  he  exercised  a  very  use- 


ful influence  on  musical  education  in  France,  and 
will  not  soon  be  forgotten  there.  [G.  C] 

CHORUS.  I .  The  body  of  singers  at  an  opera, 
oratorio,  or  concert,  by  whom  the  choruses  are  sung, 

2.  Compositions  intended  to  be  sung  by  a 
considerable  body  of  voices — not  like  glees,  which 
are  written  for  a  single  voice  to  each  part,  or 
like  part-songs,  which  may  be  sung  indifferently 
by  single  voices  or  larger  numbers.  Choruses 
may  be  written  for  any  number  of  parts,  from 
unison  (Bach,  No.  5,  in  'Ein'  feste  Burg'; 
Mendelssohn,  parts  of  No.  7  in  '  Lauda  Sion') 
and  two  parts  (Haydn,  Credo  of  Mass  No.  3; 
Mendelssohn,  No.  2  of  95th  Psalm)  to  40  or  50  ; 
but  the  common  number  is  from  4  to  8.  Handel 
mostly  writes  for  4,  though  occasionally,  as  in 
'Acis  and  Galatea,'  for  5,  and,  in  'Israel  in  Egypt,' 
for  8,  divided  into  two  choirs.  In  the  latter  days 
of  "the  Italian  school,  Gabrielli,  Pitoni,  etc.,  wrote 
masses  and  motets  for  as  many  as  10  and  12 
choirs  of  4  voices  each.  Tallis  left  a  chorus  in 
40  independent  parts,  called  his  '40-part  song.' 
Choruses  for  2  choirs  are  called  double  choruses ; 
those  in  Handel's  'Israel  in  Egypt'  and  Bach's 
'Matthew  Passion'  are  the  finest  in  the  world. 
The  two  choirs  answer  one  another,  and  the 
effect  is  quite  different  from  that  of  8  real  parts, 
such  as  Palestrina's  'Confitebor,'  'Laudato,'  or 
'Domine  in  virtute'  (see  De  Witt's  ed.  ii.  132, 
etc.),  Gibbons's  '  0  clap  your  hands,'  or  Men- 
delssohn's 'When  Israel  out  of  Egypt  came.' 
Handel  often  begins  with  massive  chords  and 
plain  harmony,  and  then  goes  off  into  fugal 
treatment.  In  the  '  Darkness '  chorus  in  '  Israel,' 
he  introduces  choral  recitative ;  and  Mendelssohn 
does  something  similar  in  the  chorus  in  '  St. 
Paul,' '  Far  be  it  from  thy  path.'  In  his  '  Kirchen 
Cantaten'  Bach's  choruses  are  often  grounded 
on  a  chorale  worked  among  all  the  parts,  or  sung 
by  one  of  them,  with  independent  imitative 
counterpoint  in  the  rest.  But  for  these  varieties 
Bee  the  article  Form. 

In  the  opera  the  chorus  has  existed  from  the 
first,  as  is  natural  from  the  fact  that  opera  began 
by  an  attempt  to  imitate  the  form  of  Greek 
plays,  in  which  the  chorus  filled  an  all-important 
part.  Till  Gluck's  time  the  chorus  was  ranged 
in  two  rows,  and  however  stirring  the  words  or 
music  they  betrayed  no  emotion.  It  was  he  who 
made  them  mix  in  the  action  of  the  piece.  In 
modern  operas  the  choruses  are  absolutely  real- 
istic, and  represent  the  peasants,  prisoners,  fisher- 
men, etc.,  who  form  part  of  the  dramatis  personce 
of  the  play.  [G.] 

CHOUQUET,  GuSTAVE,  born  at  Havre  April 
16,  1 819,  has  written  the  verses  of  a  great  many 
choruses  and  songs.  He  contributed  for  a  number 
of  years  to  'La  France  musicale,'  and  'L'Art 
Musical'  still  giving  occasional  musical  articles 
to  '  Le  Menestrel '  and  the  '  Gazette  musicale ' ; 
but  his  chief  works  are  '  Histoire  de  la  Musique 
dramatique  en  France,  depuis  ses  origines  jusqu'k 
nos  jours,'  Paris,  1873,  and  '  Le  Musde  du  Con- 
servatoire national  de  Musique,'  Paris,  1875,  two 
works  containing  original  views  and  much  in- 


CHOUQUET. 


CHKOMATIC. 


355 


formation.  M.  Chouquet  has  been  keeper  of  the 
museum  of  the  Onservatoire  since  1871,  and  has 
made  large  additions  to  it.  [G.] 

CHRISMANN,  Franz  Xavier,  secular  priest, 
eminent  organ-builder,  date  and  place  of  birth 
unknown.  He  worked  chiefly  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria  and  in  Styria.  His  name  first 
appears  in  connection  with  a  monster  organ  at 
the  monastery  of  St.  Florian,  near  Linz,  begun 
in  1 7  70,  but  left  unfinished  in  consequence  of  a 
quarrel  with  the  provost.  The  fame  of  this  organ 
spread  far  and  wide,  though  it  was  not  completed 
till  1837.  He  also  built  organs  at  the  abbey 
Spital-am-Pyhm,  and  in  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery at  A(hnont,  both  organs  destroyed  by  fire. 
The  latter  he  considered  his  best  work.  Mo- 
zart and  Albrechtsberger  were  present  in  1790 
at  the  opening  of  an  organ  built  by  Chrismann  in 
the  church  of  Schottenfeld,  one  of  the  suburbs  of 
Vienna,  and  both  pronounced  it  the  best  organ 
in  Vienna.  Though  little  known  it  is  still  in 
existence,  and  in  spite  of  its  small  dimensions 
the  workmanship  is  admirable,  particularly  the 
arrangement  and  voicing  of  the  stops,  Chris- 
mann died  in  his  70th  year.  May  20,  1795,  when 
engaged  upon  an  organ  for  the  church  of  the 
small  town  of  Rottenmann  in  Styria,  where  there 
is  a  monument  to  his  memory.  The  date  and 
place  of  his  death  have  only  recently  been  ascer- 
tained. [C.  F.  P.] 

CHRISTMAXN,  Johann  Friedrich,  bom  at 
Ludwigsburg  1752,  died  there  181 7;  Lutheran 
clergyman,  composer,  pianist,  flutist,  and  writer 
on  the  theory  of  music.  He  was  educated  at 
Tubingen,  and  in  1783  was  appointed  minister  in 
his  native  town.  His  great  work  '  Elementarbuch 
der  Tonkunst'  is  in  two  parts  (Spire,  1782  and 
1790)  with  a  book  of  examples.  He  was  joint 
editor  of  the  Spire  '  Musikalische  Zeitung' ;  in 
which  among  other  articles  of  interest  he  de- 
tailed a  plan  (Feb.  1789)  for  a  general  Dictionary 
of  music.  This  scheme  was  never  carried  out. 
He  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  Musikalische 
Zeitung  of  Leipsic.  Christmann  composed  for 
piano,  violin,  and.  flute,  and  with  Knecht  arranged 
and  edited  a  valuable  collection  for  the  Duchy 
of  Wiirtemberg,  entitled  '  Vollstandige  Sammlung 
....  Choral-melodien,'  Many  of  the  318  hymns 
were  his  own  composition.  He  was  a  friend  of 
the  Abb^  Vogler.  [M.  C.  C] 

CHRISTUS,  an  oratorio  projected  by  Men- 
delssohn to  form  the  third  of  a  triloofy  with 
'St.  Paul'  and  'Elijah.'  The  book  of  words 
was  sketched  by  Chevalier  Bunsen,  and  given 
to  Mendelssohn  at  Easter  1844,  before  he  had 
begun  'Elijah.'  He  made  great  alterations  in 
it,  and  in  1847,  his  last  year,  after  '  Elijah'  was 
off  his  hands,  during  his  visit  to  Switzerland, 
made  so  much  progress  with  the  work  that  8 
numbers  of  recitatives  and  choruses — 3  from  the 
first  part,  'the  birth  of  Christ,'  and  5  fi-om  the 
second  part,  'the  sufferings  of  Christ,'  —  were 
sufficiently  completed  to  be  published  soon  after 
his  death  (op,  97  ;  No.  27  of  the  posthumous 
works).    The  fi:^ment8  were  first  performed  at 


I  the  Birmingham.  Musical  Festival,  September  8, 
1852.  [G.] 

CHRISTUS  AM  OELBERGE,  The  original 
title  of  Beethoven's  Mount  of  Olives. 

CHROMATIC  is  a  word  derived  fi-om  the 
Greek  -xpcvfiaT'iKos,  the  name  of  one  of  the  ancient 
tetrachords,  the  notes  of  which  were  formerly 
supposed  to  be  similar  to  the  scale  known  as 
'chromatic*  in  modern  times.  It  is  applied  to 
notes  marked  with  accidentals,  beyond  those 
normal  to  the  key  in  which  the  passage  occurs, 
but  not  causing  modulation.  A  scale  of  semitones 
does  not  cause  modulation,  and  is  called  a  chro- 
matic scale,  as  in  the  follownng  from  the  Andante 
of  Mozart's  symphony  in  D — 


which  remains  in  the  key  of  G  throughout ;  and 
various  chords,  such  as  that  of  the  augmented 
sLxth,  and  the  seventh  on  the  tonic,  are  chromatic 
in  the  same  manner.  The  following  example, 
from  Beethoven's  sonata  in  Bb  (op.  106),  is  in 
the  key  of  D  : — 


With  regard  to  the  writing  of  the  chromatic 
scale,  the  most  consistent  practice  is  obviously  to 
write  such  accidentals  as  can  occur  in  chromatic 
chords  without  changing  the  key  in  which  the 
passage  occurs.  Thus  taking  the  key  of  C  as  a 
tyipe  the  first  accidental  will  be  Db,  as  the  upper 
note  of  the  minor  9th  on  the  tonic;  the  next  will 
be  Eb,  the  minor  3rd  of  the  key,  the  next  will  be 
F$,  the  major  3rd  of  the  supertonic — aU  which 
can  occur  without  causing  modulation — and  ihe 
remaining  two  will  be  A?  and  Bb,  the  minor  6th 
and  7th  of  the  key.  In  other  words  the  twelve 
I  notes  of  the  chromatic  scale  in  all  keys  wiU  be 
I  the  tonic,  the  minor  2nd,  the  major  2nd,  the 
,  minor  3rd,  the  major  3rd,  the  perfect  4th,  the 
augmented  4th,  the  perfect  5th,  minor  6th,  major 
6th,  the  minor  7th  and  the  major  7th, 

Thus  in  Mozart's  Fantasia  in  D  minor,  the 
chromatic  scale  in  that  key,  beginning  on  the 
dominant,  is  written  as  follows  — 

Aa2 


356 


CHROMATIC. 


in  Beethoven's  Violin  Sonata  in  G  (op,  96),  the 
chromatic  scale  of  that  key  is  written  thus,  be- 
ginning on  the  minor  7th  of  the  key — 


and  as  a  more  modern  instance,  the  chromatic  scale 
of  A  which  occurs  in  Chopin's  Impromptu  in  F 
major,  is  written  by  him  thus — 


beginning  on  the  minor  3rd  of  the  key. 

The  practice  of  composers  in  this  respect  is 
however  extremely  irregular,  and  rapid  passages 
are  frequently  written  as  much  by  Mozart  and 
Beethoven  as  by  more  modern  composers  in  the 
manner  which  seemed  most  convenient  for  the 
player  to  read.  Beethoven  is  occasionally  very 
irregular.  For  instance,  in  the  last  movement 
of  the  Concerto  in  G  major  he  writes  the 
following — 


in  which  the  same  note  which  is  written  A  b  in 
one  octave  is  written  Gj  in  the  other,  and  that 
which  is  written  Eb  in  one  is  written  DJI  in 
the  other.  But  even  here  principle  is  observable, 
for  the  first  octave  is  correct  in  the  scale  of  G  ac- 
cording to  the  system  given  above,  but  having 
started  it  so  far  according  to  rule  he  probably 
thought  that  sufficient,  and  wrote  the  rest  for 
convenience.  In  another  place,  viz.  the  slow 
movement  of  the  Sonata  in  G  (op,  31,  No.  i),  he 
affords  some  justification  for  the  modern  happy- 
go-lucky  practice  of  writing  sharps  ascending  and 
flats  descending ;  but  as  some  basis  of  prin- 
ciple seems  desirable,  even  in  the  lesser  details 
of  art,  the  above  explanation  of  what  seems 
the  more  theoretically  correct  system  has  been 
given.  [C.H,H.P.] 
CHRYSANDER,  Friedrich,  born  July  8, 
1826,  at  Liibthee,  in  Mecklenburg,  studied  at 
the  university  of  Rostock,  lived  for  some  time  in 
England,  and  now  resides  on  his  own  estate  at 
Bergedorf,  near  Hamburg.  Chrysander  is  known 
to  the  musical  world  chiefly  through  his  profound 
and  exhaustive  researches  on  Handel,  to  which 
he  has  devoted  his  life.  His  biography  of  Han- 
del, standing  evidence  of  these  studies,  is  not  yet 
completed.^    In  detail  and  historical  research 

'  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  Lelpslc :  vol,  1. 1858 ;  toL  2, 1860 ;  vol,  3,  part  1, 


CHURCH. 

this  work  is  all  that  can  be  wished,  but  its  view 
of  Handel's  abstract  importance  as  a  musician 
must  be  accepted  with  reservation,  and  has 
indeed  roused  considerable  opposition.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  Chrysander's  bias  for  Handel  in 
some  measure  prejudices  his  judgment.  He  re- 
presents him  not  only  as  the  culminating  point 
of  a  previous  development,  and  the  master  who 
perfected  the  oratorio,  but  as  the  absolute  cul- 
minating point  of  all  music,  beyond  whom  fur- 
ther progress  is  impossible.  While  holding  these 
views  Chrysander  is  naturally  a  declared  oppo- 
nent of  all  modern  music  ;  he  is  also  partial,  if  not 
unjust,  in  his  criticisms  on  the  older  masters,  such 
as  J.  S.  Bach.  Besides  these  biographical  studies 
Chrysander  is  occupied  in  editing  the  complete 
works  of  Handel  for  the  German  '  Handel -Gesell- 
schaft.'  [Handel.]  His  laborious  collations  of 
the  original  MSS.  and  editions,  his  astounding 
familiarity  with  the  most  minute  details,  and  his 
indefatigable  industry,  combine  to  make  this  edi- 
tion a  work  of  the  highest  importance,  at  once 
worthy  of  the  genius  of  Handel  and  honourable 
to  the  author.  Amongst  other  writings  of  Chry- 
sander .may  be  mentioned  two  admirable  trea- 
tises, '  tiber  die  MoU-tonart  in  Volksgesangen,' 
and  'tiber  das  Oratorium'  (1853);  also  'Die 
Jahrbucher  fiir  Musikalische  Wissenschaft,'  of 
which  2  vols.,  1863-67,  have  been  published 
(Breitkopf  &  Hartel) ;  and  finally  a  number  of 
articles  in  the  Allgemeine  Musikalische  Zeitung 
of  Leipsic  (which  he  edited  from  1868  to  71), 
violently  criticising  the  productions  of  the  modern 
school.  He  has  also  published  some  excellent 
editions  of  Bach's  Klavierwerke  (4  vols,,  with 
preface ;  Wolfenbiittel,  1856),  and  Carissimi's  ora- 
torios Jephte,  Judicium  Salomonis,  Jonas,  and 
Baltazar,  which  appeared  in  his  collection  *  Denk- 
maler  der  Tonkunst'  (Weissenbom,  Bergedorf). 
Upon  the  whole  it  would  not  be  unfair  to  say 
that  Chrysander  is  more  a  learned  professor  than 
a  musician.  For  his  research  and  industry  every 
one  is  grateful  to  him  ;  but  his  opinions  as  a 
conservative  critic  have  provoked  much  vehement, 
not  to  say  personal,  opposition.  [A.  M.] 

CHURCH,  John,  bom  at  Windsor  in  1675, 
received  his  early  musical  education  as  a  chorister 
of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford.  On  Jan.  31,  1697, 
he  was  admitted  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  on  Aug.  i  following  was  advanced  to 
a  full  place,  vacant  by  the  death  of  James  Cobb. 
He  obtained  also  the  appointments  of  lay  vicar 
and  master  of  the  choristers  of  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. Church  composed  some  anthems  and  also 
many  songs,  which  appeared  in  the  collections  of 
the  period,  and  he  was  the  author  of  an  '  Intro- 
duction to  Psalmody,'  published  in  1723.  The 
compilation  of  a  book  of  words  of  Anthems 
published  in  171 2  under  the  direction  of  the 
Sub-dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal  (Dr,  Dolben)  has 
been  ascribed  to  Church,  although  it  is  more 
generally  attributed  to  Dr.  Croft,  and  perhaps 
with  greater  reason,  considering  the  intimacy 
between  the  sub-dean  and  the  organist.  Church 
died  Jan.  5,  1741,  and  was  buried  in  the  south 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.         [W.  H.  H.] 


CIAJA. 


CIFEA. 


357 


CIAJA,  AzzoLiNO  Bernadino  Della,  bom 
at  Siena  1671,  composer,  organist,  and  amateur 
organ-builder.  Besides  his  published  works — 
'Salmi  concertati'  (Bologna  1700),  'Cantate  da 
camera'  (Lucca  1 701,  and  Bologna  1702),  'Sonate 
per  cembalo'  (Rome  1727),  he  left  in  MS,  3 
masses,  18  preludes  and  organ-sonatas.  In  1733 
Ciaja,  as  a  Knight  of  St.  Stephen,  presented  a 
magnificent  organ  to  the  church  of  that  order 
in  Pisa,  still  one  of  the  finest  in  Italy,  containing 
4  manuals  and  100  stops.  He  not  only  super- 
intended its  construction  but  personally  assisted 
the  workmen.  [M.  C.  C] 

CIAMPI,  Legkenzio  Vincenzo,  bom  at  Pia- 
cenza  17191  dramatic  composer  ;  came  to  London 
in  1 748  with  a  company  of  Italian  singers,  and 
between  that;  year  and  62  produced  *Gli  tre 
cicisbei  ridicoli,'  'Adriano  in  Siria,'  *I1  trionfo 
di  Camilla,'  *  Bertoldo,'  previously  performed  in 
Italy,  'Didone,'  and  some  songs  in  the  Pasticcio 
'Tolomeo.'  Bumey  says  that  'he  had  fire  and 
abilities '  but  no  genius.  His  comic  operas  were 
the  most  successful,  but  '  Didone '  is  said  to 
contain  beautiful  music.  He  also  composed  6 
trios  for  strings,  5  oboe  concertos,  Italian  songs, 
overtures,  and  a  mass  (1758),  now  in  the  Eoyal 
Library  at  Berlin.  [M.  C.  C] 

CIANCHETTINI,  Veronica,  sister  of  J. 
L.  Dussek,  bom  at  Czaslau  in  Bohemia  1779, 
pianist  and  composer,  studied  the  pianoforte  un- 
der her  father  from  infancy.  In  1797  she  joined 
her  brother  in  London,  where  she  married  Fran- 
cesco Cianchettini.  She  was  a  successful  teacher, 
and  composed  two  concertos  and  several  sonatas 
for  the  pianoforte. 

Her  son,  Pio,  born  in  London  1799,  was 
a  composer  and  pianist.  At  five  years  old  he 
appeared  at  the  Opera  House  as  an  infant 
prodig}'.  A  year  later  he  travelled  with  his 
father  through  Holland,  Germany,  and  France, 
where  he  was  hailed  as  the  English  Mozart. 
By  the  age  of  eight  he  had  mastered  the  English, 
French,  German,  and  Italian  languages.  In  1 809 
he  performed  a  concerto  of  his  own  composition 
in  London.  Catalani  appointed  him  her  composer 
and  director  of  her  concerts,  and  frequently  sang 
Italian  airs  which  he  wrote  to  suit  her  voice. 
He  published  a  cantata  for  two  voices  and 
chorus,  to  words  from  'Paradise  Lost' — said  to 
be  a  fine  work ;  music  to  Pope's  '  Ode  on  Soli- 
tude' ;  'Sixty  Italian  Notturnos'  for  two,  three, 
and  four  voices,  and  other  vocal  pieces.  He  was 
also  editor  and  publisher  of  an  edition  in  score 
of  symphonies  and  overtures  of  Mozart  and 
Beethoven,  and  died  in  1 849.  [M.  C.  C] 

GIBBER,  Susanna  Maria,  sister  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Augustine  Arne,  the  celebrated  com- 
poser, was  born  Febr.  1714.  She  made  her  first 
public  appearance  in  1732,  at  the  Haymarket 
Theatre,  as  the  heroine  of  Lampe's  opera  '  Ame- 
lia,' with  considerable  success.  In  April  1734 
she  became  the  second  wife  of  Theophilus  Cibber. 
On  Jan.  12,  1736,  Mrs.  Cibber  made  'her  first 
attempt  as  an  actress'  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
in  Aaron  Hill's  tragedy  of  '  Zara,'  and  was  soon 


accepted  as  the  first  tragedian  of  her  time,  a  posi- 
tion which  she  maintained  for  thirty  years.  Her 
success  as  an  actress,  did  not,  however,  lead  her 
to  abandon  her  position  as  a  vocalist ;  in  the 
theatre  she  continued  to  represent  Polly  in  '  The 
Beggar's  Opera,'  and  other  like  parts,  but  it  was 
in  the  orchestra,  and  more  especially  in  the 
oratorio  orchestra,  that  her  greatest  renown  as  a 
singer  was  achieved.  The  contralto  songs  in  the 
'Messiah,'  and  the  part  of  Micah  in  'Samson,' 
were  composed  by  Handel  expressly  for  her, 
and  when  we  consider  that  the  great  composer 
must  have  regarded  singing  as  an  intellectual  art, 
and  not  merely  as  the  means  of  displaying  fine 
natural  gifts  of  voice,  tmaided  by  mental  culti- 
vation or  musical  skill,  we  may  judge  why  he 
selected  Mrs.  Cibber  as  the  exponent  of  his  ideas. 
Her  voice,  according  to  all  contemporary  testi- 
mony, although  small,  was  indescribably  plaintive, 
and  her  powers  of  expression  enabled  her  to 
impress  most  forcibly  upon  the  mind  of  the  hearer 
the  meaning  of  the  language  to  which  she  gave 
utterance.  Passing  by  the  songs  in  'Messiah,' 
which  call  for  the  highest  powers  of  declamation 
and  pathetic  narration,  we  have  only  to  examine 
the  part  of  Micah  in  '  Samson,'  comprising  songs 
requiring  not  only  the  expression  of  pathetic  or 
devout  feelings,  but  also  brilliancy  and  facility 
of  execution,  to  judge  of  Mrs.  Cibber's  ability. 
And  what  sterling  advantages  must  have  been 
derived  from  the  combination  of  the  powers  of 
a  great  actress  with  those  of  a  vocalist  in  the 
delivery  of  recitative  !  Mrs.  Cibber  died  Jan.  30, 
1766,  and  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  West- 
minster Abbey.  It  is  said  that  Garrick,  on 
hearing  of  her  death,  exclaimed,  '  Then  Tragedy 
expired  with  her.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

CIFEA,  Antonio,  was  bom  at  Rome  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  century,  and  was  one 
of  the  few  pupils  actually  taught  by  Palestrina 
during  the  short  time  that  the  great  master  as- 
sociated himself  with  the  school  of  Bernardino 
Xanini.  In  16 10  he  was  Maestro  at  Loreto, 
but  in  1620  removed  to  San  Giovanni  in  Late- 
rano.  Two  years  later  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  in  1629  returned 
to  Loreto,  where  he  died.  That  he  was  an 
erudite  and  elegant  musician  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  Padre  Martini  inserted  an  Agnus 
Dei  of  his,  as  a  specimen  of  good  work,  in  his 
essay  on  counterpoint.  He  himself  published 
a  large  quantity  of  his  Sacred  Motets,  Madrigals, 
and  Psalms,  at  Rome  and  at  Venice,  of  which 
a  specific  catalogue  need  hardly  be  given  here. 
After  his  death  Antonio  Poggioli  of  Rome  pub- 
lished a  volume  containing  no  less  than  200  of 
his  Motets  for  2,  3,  4,  6,  and  8  voices.  The 
title-page  of  this  book  contains  a  portrait  of  him 
taken  in  the  45  th  year  of  his  age.  Underneath 
the  engraving  are  the  following  exceedingly  poor 
verses — 

'Qui  poteras  numeris  sylvas  lapidesque  movere, 
Siccine  prseruptus  funere,  Cifra,  siles  ? 

Fallimur  ;  extincto  vivis  Isetissimus  aevo, 
Et  caneris  propriis  clarus  ubique  modis.' 


358 


CIFRA. 


CINQUES. 


Cifra  is  among  the  *  masters  flourishing  about 
that  time  in  Italy,'  of  whose  works  Milton  sent 
home  'a  chest  or  two  of  choice  music  books.' 
(PhiUipss  Memoir.)  [E.  H.  P.] 

CIM  -\DOE,  GiAMBATTiSTA,  of  a  noble  family 
in  Venice  1 761,  died  in  London  about  iSoS  ;  com- 
poser, and  player  on  the  violin,  cello,  and  piano- 
forte. In  17S8  he  produced  in  Venice  *  Pigma- 
lione,'  an  interlude,  with  which,  notwithstanding 
its  success,  he  was  so  dissatisfied  as  to  burn  the 
score  and  renounce  composition  for  the  future. 
Cherubini  used  the  words  of  several  scenes  from 
this  interlude  for  his  opera  of  '  Pimmalione.' 
About  1791  Cimador  settled  in  London  as  a 
teacher  of  singing.  Hearing  that  the  orchestra  of 
the  King's  Theatre,  in  the  Haymarket,  had  refused 
to  play  Mozart's  s^niiphonies  on  account  of  their 
difficulty,  he  arranged  six  of  them  as  sestets  for 
strings  and  flute.  The  work  was  well  done,  and 
the  symphonies  first  made  known  in  this  form 
speedily  took  their  proper  place  with  the  public. 
He  composed  duos  for  two  violins  and  violin  and 
alto,  and  a  few  vocal  pieces.  [M.C.C.] 

CIMAROSA,  DoMEXico,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Italian  dramatic  composers,  the  son  of 
poor  working  people,  born  at  Aversa,  Naples, 
Dec.  17,  1749.  Cimarosa  received  his  musical 
training  at  the  Conservatorio  Santa  ^laria  di 
Loreto.  He  attended  that  celebrated  school 
for  eleven  years  (1761-1772),  and  acquired  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  old  Italian  masters 
under  Sacchini,  Fenai-oli,  and  Piccinni.  In 
1772  he  produced  his  first  opera,  'Le  Strava- 
ganze  del  Conte,'  which  was  so  successful  as  to 
give  him  at  once  a  place  among  composers. 
From  that  date  till  17S0  he  lived  alternately 
at  Rome  and  Naples,  and  composed  for  the  two 
cities  some  twenty  operas.  'L'ltaliana  in  Londra' 
among  the  number.  Between  17S0  and  17S7  [ 
he  was  busy  writing  as  the  acknowledged  rival 
of  Paisiello,  who,  up  to  that  time,  had  been  [ 
undisputed  chief  of  Italian  operatic  composers.  ■ 
His  operas  were  also  performed  abroad,  not  ordy  1 
in  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  and  Dresden,  where  [ 
an  Italian  opera  existed,  but  elsewhere,  through  j 
translations.  To  this  period  belong  'II  com-ito  ■ 
di  pietra,'  'La  ballerina  amante'  (^Venice,  17S3),  | 
*I1  pittore  Parigino,'  'II  Sacrifizio  d'Abramo,' 
and  'L'Olimpiade'  (1787).  In  17S7  Cimai'osa 
was  in^-ited  to  St.  Petersburg  as  chamber  com- 
poser to  Catherine  II,  and  there  developed  an 
amazing  fertility  in  every  species  of  composition. 
Among  his  operas  of  this  time  should  be  men- 
tioned 'II  fanatico  burlato'  (17S8).  Some  years 
later,  on  the  invitation  of  Leopold  II,  he  suc- 
ceeded Salieri  as  court  chapel  master,  and  it  was 
there  that  he  composed  his  most  celebrated  work 
'  n  matrimonio  segreto'  (1792),  a  masterpiece  of 
its  kind,  which  at  the  time  roused  an  extraor- 
dinary enthusiasm,  and  is  the  only  work  by  which 
Cimarosa  is  at  present  known.  So  great  was  the 
effect  of  its  first  performance,  that  at  the  end 
the  emperor  had  supper  served  to  all  concerned, 
and  then  commanded  a  repetition  of  the  whole. 
His  engagement  at  Vienna  terminated  by  the 


emperor's  death  (1792).  Salieri  was  again  ap- 
pointed chapel -master,  and  in  1793  Cimarosa 
returned  to  Naples,  where  he  was  received  with 
every  kind  of  homage  and  distinction  ;  the  Ma- 
j  trimonio  segreto  was  performed  5  7  times  running, 
and  he  was  appointed  chapel-master  to  the  king 
and  tea<)her  to  the  princesses.  From  his  in- 
exhaustible pen  flowed  another  splendid  series 
of  operas,  among  which  may  be  specified  'Le 
astuzie  feminile,'  '  L'Impresario  in  angustie,' 
'  II  matrimonio  per  raggiro,'  and  the  serious 
operas  'Gli  Orazii  e  Curiazii,'  'Artaserse,'  and 
*  Semiramide.'  His  last  years  were  troubled  by 
a  melancholy  change  of  fortune.  The  outbreak 
of  revolutionary  ideas  carried  Cimarosa  with  it, 
and  when  the  French  republican  array  marched 
victoriously  into  Naples  (1799)  expressed 
his  enthusiasm  in  the  most  open  manner. 
Cimarosa  was  imprisoned  and  condemned  to 
death,  Ferdinand  was  indeed  prevailed  upon 
to  spare  his  life  and  restore  him  to  liberty  on 
condition  of  his  leaving  Naples,  but  t'ne  imprison- 
ment had  broken  his  spirit.  He  set  out  for  St, 
Petersburg,  but  died  at  Venice  Jan.  11,  1801, 
leaving  half  finished  an  opera,  'Artemisia,'  which 
he  was  writing  for  the  approaching  carnival. 
It  was  universally  reported  that  he  had  been 
poisoned,  and  in  consequence  the  government 
compelled  the  physician  who  had  attended  him 
to  make  a  formal  attestation  of  the  cause  of  his 
death. 

Besides  his  operas  (76  in  all,  according  to  Fetis) 
Cimarosa  composed  several  oratorios,  cantatas, 
and  masses,  etc.,  which  were  much  admired  in 
their  day.  His  real  talent  lay  in  comedy — in  his 
sparkling  wit  and  unfailing  good  humour.  His 
invention  was  inexhaustible  in  the  representation 
of  that  overflowing  and  yet  naif  liveliness,  that 
mern,-  teasing  loquacity  which  is  the  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  genuine  Italian  'buflb';  his  chief 
strength  lies  in  the  vocal  parts,  but  liie  orchestra 
is  delicately  and  eS'ectively  handled,  and  his 
ensembles  are  masterpieces,  with  a  vein  of  humour 
which  is  undeniably  akin  to  that  of  Mozart,  It 
is  only  in  the  fervour  and  depth  which  animate 
Mozart's  melodies,  and  perhaps  in  the  construction 
of  the  musical  scene,  that  Cimai-osa  shows  him.self 
inferior  to  the  great  master.  This  is  more  the 
case  with  his  serious  operas,  which,  in  spite  of 
their  charming  melodies,  are  too  conventional  in 
form  to  rank  with  hLs  comic  operas,  since  taste 
has  been  so  elevated  by  the  works  of  Mozart. 
Cimarosa  was  the  culminating  point  of  genuine 
Italian  opera.  His  invention  is  simple,  but 
always  natural ;  and  in  spite  of  his  Italian  love 
for  melody  he  is  never  monotonous ;  but  both 
in  form  and  harmony  is  always  in  keeping  with 
the  situation.  In  this  respect  Italian  opera  has 
manifestly  retrograded  since  his  time.  A  bust  of 
Cimarosa,  by  Canova,  was  placed  in  the  Panthe-jn 
at  Rome.  The  most  complete  list  of  his  works 
is  given  by  Fetis  in  his  2nd  edition.  [A.  M.] 
CINQL'ES.  The  name  given  by  change-ringers 
to  changes  on  eleven  bells,  probably  from  the  fact 
that  rive  pairs  of  bells  change  places  in  order  of 
ringing  in  each  successive  change.  [C.A.W.T.] 


C!INTI. 


CLAGOET. 


359 


CIXTI.    See  Damobeau. 

CIPRAXDI,  Ercole,  an  excellent  tenor,  who 
sang  in  London  from  1754  to  65.  He  was  bom 
about  1738.  He  played  Danao  in  'Ipennestra' 
by  Hasse  and  Lampugnani,  pr(xluced  at  tbe 
Kinor's  Theatre  Nov.  9,  1754.  In  65  he  was  still 
singing  at  the  same  theatre,  and  appeared  as 
Antigone  in  'Eumene.'  Bumey  found  him  at 
Milan  in  1770,  as  fine  a  singer  as  before.  He 
was  li\-ing  in  1790.  [J.  M.] 

CIPRIANI,  Lorenzo,  a  capital  hvfo  singer 
at  the  Pantheon  in  London,  about  1 790.  He  per- 
formed in  the  same  company  with  Pacchierotti, 
Mara,  and  Morelli.  In  9 1  he  played  Valerie  in 
'  La  Locanda '  of  Paisiello.  There  is  a  capital 
sketch-portrait  of  him  'in  the  character  of  Don 
Alfonso  Scoglio,  in  La  Bella  Pescatrice,  per- 
formed at  the  King's  Theatre,  Pantheon,  Dec. 
24,  1791 ;  drawn  by  P.  Violet,  and  engraved  by 
C.  Guisan,  pupU  to  F.  Bartolozzi,  E.A.'    [J.  M.] 

CIRCASSIENXE,  LA,  opera-comique  in  3 
acts ;  words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber ;  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera  Comique  Feb.  2,  1861,  and 
in  London.  [G.] 

CIS,  CES.  The  German  terms  for  C*  and  Cb. 
None  of  the  books  explain  the  origin  of  this  form, 
which  rxms  through  the  German  scale — Dis,  Es, 
As,  etc.,  except  B  and  H ;  and  in  the  double 
flats  and  sharps,  Deses,  Gisis,  etc.  [G.] 

CITHER,  CiTHEBX,  CiTHOEy,  or  Cittern 
(Yv.  Cistre,  Sistre,  or  Courante ;  Ital.  Cetera  ; 
Ger.  Cither,  Zither).  An  instrument  shaped  like 
a  lute,  but  with  a  flat  back,  and  with  wire  strings, 
generally  adjusted  in  pairs  of  unisons,  and  played 
with  a  plectrum  of  quiU.  The  cither  during  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries  appears  to  have  enjoyed 
_freat  favour  on  the  Continent  and  in  England. 
The  English  citherns  had  usually  four  pairs  of 
wire  strings,  but  according  to  Mr.  Engel  ('Mu- 
sical Instruments,'  etc.,  1874)  it  was  not  limited 
to  this  number.  He  quotes  a  curious  title-page  : 
'  Xew  Citharen  Lessons  with  perfect  Tunings  of 
the  same  from  four  course  of  strings  to  four-teene 
ci^urse,  &c.'  adorned  with  an  engraving  of  a 
Bijuga  (two-necked)  cither,  the  counterpart  of  a 
theorbo  or  two-neckeJ  lute,  strung  with  seven 
l^airs  of  strings  over  the  fingerboard,  and  seven 
-ingle  strings  at  the  side.  The  date  of  this  is  1609. 
John  Playford  published  a  book  entitled  '  Mu- 
sick's  Delight,  containing  new  and  pleasant  lessons 
on  the  Cithern,  London,  1666.'  The  Cetera  or 
Italian  cither  was  used  by  improvisatori,  and  ex- 
tant specimens  are  often  tastefully  adorned  with 
ornament.  Finally,  keyed  cithers  with  hammers 
were  patented  by  English  and  German  makers. 
The  German  Streichzither,  as  the  name  indicates, 
was  played  with  a  bow.  This  was  horizontal, 
like  the  Schlagzither  and  its  prototype  the 
Scheidholt,  aU  of  which  variants  will  "be  more 
conveniently  described  under  the  accepted  modem 
appellation  of  Zither,  an  instrument  to  place 
upon  a  table,  well  known  in  South  Geraiany. 
The  difference  between  a  cither  and  a  lute  is 
that  the  cither  has  wire  strings  and  is  played 


with  a  plectrum,  while  the  lute  has  catgut 
strings  to  be  touched  with  the  fingers.  The 
guitar  also  has  catgut  strings  and  has  a  flat  back, 
not  pear-shaped  like  the  lute,  and  has  incurva- 
tions at  the  sides,  evidence  of  its  derivation  from 
a  bow  instrument.  The  name  cither  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  KiOapa,  which,  however,  was 
another  kind  of  stringed  instrument,  (See  Lyre  ; 
also  Chitabroxe,  Lute,  and  Zither.)  [A.  J.  H] 

j  CITOLE.  This  word,  used  by  poets  in  the 
13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries,  has  been  derived 
!  from  cidella  (Lat.)  a  small  box,  and  is  supposed 
;  to  mean  the  smaU  box-shaped  psaltery,  sometimes 
\  depicted  in  MSS.  of  the  period  in  representations 
\  of  musicians.  Dr.  Rimbault  ('The  Pianoforte,' 
'  1S60,  p.  25)  has  collected  several  poetic  re- 
I  ferences  to  the  citole,  including  quotations  from 
j  the  'Roman  de  la  Rose,'  Ga\-in  Douglas,  Gower, 
j  and  Chaucer  ('Knight's  Tale,'  'a  citole  in  hire 
'  right  hand  hadde  she').  According  to  the  same 
j  authority  (p.  22)  the  name  was  used  as  late  as 
I  1543.  [See  Psaltery.]  A  modem  instance  of 
I  the  use  of  the  name  is  in  D.  G.  Rosetti's  '  Blessed 
Damozelle,' 

*  And  angels  meeting  us  shall  sing 

To  their  citherns  and  citoles.'    [A.  J.  H.] 

CniL  SERVICE  MUSICAL  SOCIETY, 
instituted  in  1864  for  the  practice  of  vocal  and 
instrumental  music  among  the  civil  servants  and 

,  excise  servants  of  the  crown.  The  Prince  of 
Wales  is  patron,  and  all  the  members  of  the  royal 
family  are  life  members.    Sir  W.  H.  Stephenson, 

\  of  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue,  was  its  first 
president,  and  Mr.  Frederick  Clay  its  first  vice- 

•  president.  The  first  conductor  of  the  orchestra 
was  Mr.  Arthur  Sullivan,  and  the  first  conductor 
of  the  choir  Mr.  John  Foster ;  but  upon  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Sullivan  Mr.  Foster  became 

!  sole  conductor.  The  society  meets  for  practice 
at  King's  College,  Strand,  where  it  has  an  ex- 
ceptionally good  library  of  vocal  and  instrumental 

;  music.    Its  concerts,  of  which  upwards  of  fifty 

!  have  been  given,  take  place  at  St.  James's  Hall, 
admission  being  confined  to  members  and  their 
firiends.  The  programmes  include  symphonies, 
overtures,  and  other  orchestral  works  ;  the  special 
feature  in  the  vocal  music  is  the  singing  of  the 
male  voice  choir,  the  society's  original  plan  of 
practising  exclusively  music  written  for  male 
voices  ha\-ing  been  rigidly  adhered  to.  The  present 

I  officers  (1S77)  are — President,  Lord  Hampton; 

I  Vice-president,  Sir  F.  J.  Halliday;  Conductor, 

I  Mr.  John  Foster  ;  Treasurer,  Mr.  F.  L.  Robin- 
son; and  Hon.  Sec,  :Mr.  S.  McCaul.  [CM.] 

CLAGGET,  Charles,  a  violinist,  and  about 
1 766  leader  of  the  band  at  the  theatre  in  Smock 
Alley,  Dublin.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill  in 
accompanpng  the  voice.  He  was  also  a  com- 
poser of  songs  (one  of  which,  'I've  rifled  Flora's 
painted  bowers,'  gained  much  popularity),  and  of 
duets  for  violins,  violin  and  cello,  and  flutes. 
Coming  to  London  and  being  of  an  inventive 
turn  of  mind,  he  devoted  his  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  various  musical  instruments.  In 


360 


CLAGGET. 


CLART. 


Dec.  1776  he  took  out  a  patent  for  'Improve-  ! 
inents  on  the  violin  and  other  instruments  played 
on  finger  boards/  which  he  asserted  rendered  it 
*  almost  impossible  to  stop  or  play  out  of  tune.' 
In  August,  1788,  he  took  out  another  patent  for 
'  Methods  of  constructing  and  tuning  musical 
instruments  which  will  be  perfect  in  their  kind 
and  much  easier  to  be  performed  on  than  any 
hitherto  discovered.'  Among  these  were  the 
following  : — 'A  new  instrument  called  the  Telio- 
chordon,  in  form  like  a  pianoforte,  but  capable 
of  being  put  much  better  in  tune,  for  the  grand 
pianoforte  or  harpsichord  divide  every  octave 
only  into  thirteen  parts  or  semitones,  whereas  on 
this  instrument  every  octave  can  be  divided  into 
thirty-nine  parts  or  gradations  of  sound  ;  for  any 
finger-key  will,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  performer, 
produce  three  different  degrees  of  intonation.' 
He  represented  that  by  this  instrument  all  thirds 
and  fifths  could  be  highly  improved,  and  what  is 
called  the  '  woulfe '  entirely  done  away  with. — 
A  method  of  uniting  two  trumpets  or  horns,  one 
in  D,  and  the  other  in  E  flat,  so  that  the  mouth- 
piece might  be  applied  to  either  instantaneously, 
thereby  getting  the  advantage  of  a  complete 
chromatic  scale. — Tuning  forks  with  balls  or 
weights  for  the  more  easy  tuning  of  musical  in- 
struments.— A  new  instrument  composed  of  a 
proper  number  of  these  tuning  forks  or  of  single 
prongs  or  rods  of  metal  fixed  on  a  standing  board 
or  box  and  put  in  vibration  by  finger  keys.  Or 
a  celestina  stop  made  by  an  endless  fillet  might 
be  applied)  producing  the  sounds  on  these  forks 
or  prongs  as  it  does  on  the  strings. — Tuning  keys 
of  a  form  which  rendered  them  steadier  and 
easier  to  use  than  others. — And  lastly,  a  better 
method  of  fitting  the  sounding  post  of  a  violin  to 
its  place.  Clagget  was  also  the  inventor  of  the 
'Aiuton,  or,  Ever-tuned  Organ,  an  instrument 
without  pipes,  strings,  glasses,  or  bells,  which 
will  never  require  to  be  retuned  in  any  climate.' 
Of  this  instrument  and  others  he  published  a 
descriptive  accoimt  under  the  title  of  '  Musical 
Phenomena.'  He  kept  his  collection  of  instru- 
ments at  his  house  in  Greek  Street,  Soho,  which 
he  called  'The  Musical  Museum.'  About  1791 
he  exhibited  them  publicly  at  the  Hanover 
Square  Rooms.  On  Oct.  31,  1793,  Clagget  gave 
what  he  termed  an  'Attic  Concert,'  at  the  King's 
Arms  Tavern,  Comhill,  several  of  the  pieces 
being  played  on  or  accompanied  by  the  various  in- 
struments invented  or  improved  by  him.  The 
performance  was  interspersed  with  '  A  Discourse 
on  Musick,'  the  object  of  which  was  professedly 
to  prove  the  absolute  necessity  of  refining  the 
harmony  of  keyed  instruments,  and  of  course  to 
insist  that  Clagget's  inventions  had  effected  that 
object.  In  the  course  of  this  address  a  letter 
from  Haydn  to  Clagget,  dated  i  792,  was  read,  in 
which  the  great  composer  expressed  his  full 
approbation  of  Clagget's  improvements  on  the 
pianoforte  and  harpsichord.  The  discourse  was 
published  with  the  word-book  of  the  concert,  and 
to  it  was  prefixed  a  well-engraved  portrait  of 
Clagget,  who  is  described  beneath  it  as  '  Har- 
monizer  of  Musical  Instruments/  etc.,  etc.  He 


is  represented  with  a  violin  bow  in  his  right 
hand,  and  in  the  left  a  tuning  fork  of  very  large 
dimensions,  each  prong  of  which  is  bifurcated,  so 
that  there  are  three  forks  in  one.       [W.  H.  H.] 

CLAPISSON,  Antoixe  Louls,  bom  at  Naples 
Sept.  15,  1808,  died  at  Paris  March  19,  1866, 
was  a  good  violin-player  before  becoming  a  com- 
poser, and  published  a  great  many  romances  and 
songs,  which  exhibit  an  easy  vein  of  melody. 
His  operas  are  'La  Figurante'  (5  acts,  1838); 
'La  Symphonic'  (1839)  ;  'La  Perruche'  (1840)  ; 
'  Frere  et  Mari'  (1841)  ;  'Le  Code  noir'  (3  acts, 
1842);  'Les  Bergers-Trumeau'  (1845)  ;  'Gibby 
la  Comemuse'  (3  acts,  1846)  ;  '  Jeanne  la  FoUe' 
(5  acts,  1848);  'La  Statue  equestre'  (1850); 
'Les  Mysteres  d'Udolphe'  (3  acts,  1852);  'La 
Promise'  (3  acts,  1854);  'La  Fanchonnette ' 
(3  acts,  March  i,  1856);  'Le  Sylphe'  (2  acts, 
Nov.  1856);  'Margot'  (3  acts,  1857);  'Les 
trois  Nicolas'  (3  acts,  1858);  and  'Madame 
Gregoire'  (3  acts,  1861).  These  plays  are 
generally  poor,  and  many  of  them  were  un- 
successful. In  fact,  '  La  Promise'  and  '  La  Fan- 
chonnette' are  the  only  two  of  his  operas  which 
gained  public  favour.  There  is  however  much 
good  music  in  'Gibby,'  'Le  Code  noir,'  and 
several  others.  His  style  is  somewhat  bombastic 
and  deficient  in  genuine  inspiration ;  but,  in 
almost  every  one  of  his  operas  there  are  to  be 
found  graceful  and  fluent  tunes,  fine  harmonies, 
pathetic  passages,  and  characteristic  effects  of 
orchestration. 

Clapisson  was  made  Chevalier  de  la  Legion 
d'Honneur  in  1847,  and  member  of  the  '  Institut' 
in  1854.  He  collected  ancient  instruments  of 
music,  and  sold  his  collection  to  the  French 
government  in  1861  ;  it  is  now  included  in  the 
museum  of  the  Conservatoire.  Annibale  dei 
Rossi's  splendid  spinet,  ornamented  with  precious 
stones  and  exhibited  at  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  was  bought  from  Clapisson.       [G.  C] 

CLARI,  GIOVA^'^'I  Carlo  Maria,  was  born  at 
Pisa  in  1669  where  he  became  Maestro  di  Cap- 
pella.  He  studied  music  at  Bologna,  imder  the 
well-known  Colonna,  of  whom  he  has  always  been 
considered  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  pupils. 
For  the  theatre  of  the  last-named  town  he  wrote 
an  opera  intituled  'II  Savio  delirante,' which  had 
considerable  success.  But  his  renown  chiefly 
comes  from  a  collection  of  vocal  duets  and  trios 
written  with  a  basso  continuo,  which  he  published 
in  1720.  A  later  edition  of  these  is  extant,  pub- 
lished by  Carli  of  Paris  in  1823,  and  arranged 
with  a  modem  accompaniment  for  the  piano  by  a 
Polish  composer  named  Mirecki.  In  these  his 
novel  treatment  of  fugue,  and  his  approach  to- 
wards the  modulation  of  later  times,  help  to 
mark  an  epoch  in  composition,  and  stamp  him  as 
a  progressive  and  profound  musician. 

There  is  a  Stabat  Mater  by  Clari  in  C  minor 
in  the  Royal  Library  at  Copenhagen  ;  and  Lands- 
berg  of  Rome  had  the  following  works  of  his  : 
a  Mass  for  5  voices,  strings  and  organ  ;  a  Credo 
for  4  voices ;  Psalms  for  4  voices  in  2  dialogued 
choruses;  a  De  Profundis  for  4  voices  and  the 


CLARI. 


CLARINET. 


361 


organ;  a  Requiem  for  nine  voices,  strings  and 
organ ;  a  Mass  di  Cappella  for  4  voices ;  some 
Psalms  for  Complins  arranged  for  two  choruses. 
Novello's  *  Fitzwilliam  music'  contains  no  less 
than  23  compositions  of  Clari's  from  Masses  and 
the  Stabat  Mater,  which  for  science,  dignity, 
and  sweetness,  fully  bear  out  his  reputation. 

The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  it 
was  probably  about  1745.  [E.  H.  P.] 

CLARINET  OR  CLARIONET  (Fr.  Clan- 
nette,  Ger.  Klarinette,  Ital.  Clarinetto).  An  in- 
strument of  4 -foot  tone,  with  a  single  reed  and 
smooth  quality,  connnonly  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented about  the  year  1690,  by  Johann  Chris- 
topher Denner,  at  Nuremberg.  Mr.  W.  Chappell 
is  however  of  opinion  that  he  can  trace  the  in- 
strument back  to  mediaeval  times  as  the  shawm, 
schalm,  or  schalmuse  (Hist,  of  Music,  i.  264). 

The  present  name,  in  both  forms,  is  evidently 
a  diminutive  of  Clarino,  the  Italian  for  trumpet, 
and  Clarion  the  English  equivalent,  to  which  its 
tone  has  some  similarity. 

Since  its  first  invention  it  has  been  successively 
improved  by  Stadler  of  Vienna,  Iwan  MuUer, 
Klose,  and  others.  The  last  -named  musician  (1843) 
completely  reorganised  the  fingering  of  the  in- 
strument, on  the  system  commonly  called  after 
Boehm,  which  is  also  applied  to  the  flute,  oboe, 
and  bassoon.  A  general  description  of  the  older 
and  more  usual  form  will  be  given.  It  may 
however  be  remarked  here,  that  Boehm  or  Klose's 
fingering  is  hardly  so  well  adapted  to  this  as 
to  the  octave  -  scaled  instruments.  It  certainly 
removes  some  difficulties,  but  at  the  expense  of 
greatly  increased  complication  of  mechanism,  and 
liability  to  get  out  of  order. 

The  clarinet  consists  essentially  of  a  mouth- 
piece furnished  with  a  single  beating  reed,  a  cy- 
lindrical tube,  terminating  in  a  bell,  and  eighteen 
openings  in  the  side,  half  closed  by  the  fingers,  and 
half  by  keys.  The  fundamental  scale  comprises 
nineteen  semitones,  from  E  in  0- 
the  bass  stave.  These  are  pro-  ^  *  ^ 
duced  by  removal  of  the  eight  tJ 
fingers  and  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  succes- 
sively from  nine  open  holes,  and  by  the  lifting 
of  nine  closed  keys.  The  lowest  note  is  emitted 
through  the  bell ;  the  treble  G  through  a  hole  at 
the  back  of  the  tube,  peculiar  to  this  instrument. 
This  register  ^  is  termed  Chalumeau,  and  is  of  a 
somewhat  different  quality  from  the  higher  notes. 
The  latter  are  obtained  by  a  contrivance  which 
forms  the  chief  initial  difficulty  in  learning  the 
instrument,  but  has  the  advantage  of  giving  it 
a  very  extended  compass.  The  lever  of  the  Bb 
key  named  above  ends  close  to  the  back  thumb- 
hole,  and  answers  a  double  purpose.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Ai]  key  it  produces  its  own  open 
note,  but  when  raised  by  the  point  of  the  left 
thumb,  while  the  ball  of  the  same  closes  the 
back  hole,  it  serves  to  determine  a  node  within 
the  tube,  and  raises  the  pitch  by  an  interval  of 
a  twelfth.  If  all  the  side  holes  be  now  closed  by 
the  fingers,  the  note  issuing  by  the  bell  is  B:|, 

1  Berlioz  rather  unnecessarily  makes  four  registers,  treating  Chalu- 
meau as  the  second. 


in  the  treble  stave,  and  by  successive  removal  of 
fingers  or  opening  of  keys  fifteen  more  semitones 


are  obtained,  reaching  to 


;  the  thumb 


being  constantly  kept  at  its  double  duty  of 
closing  the  G  hole  and  opening  the  Bb  key. 
With  the  high  Cj,  what  may  be  termed  the 
natural  scale  of  the  instrument  ends,  although 
a  whole  octave  more  of  notes  may  be  got  by 
cross-fingerings,  depending  considerably  on  the 
individual  skill  of  the  player.  It  is  usually  under- 
stood that  the  extreme  note  obtainable  is  C)\ 
or  C%  in  altissimo,  an  8ve  above  that  just  given. 
But  it  is  most  undesirable  to  write  for  the  instru- 
ment above  the  intermediate 
G,  and  in  piano  passages  above 
C.  We  thus  have  in  all  three 
octaves  and  a  sixth,  of  which 


~  and  ^ 

the  lower  three  octaves  are  perfectly  available 
for  legitimate  use,  and  which  it  will  be  presently 
shown  are  considerably  extended  by  the  employ- 
ment of  several  instruments  in  diff'erent  keys. 

The  mouthpiece  is  a  conical  stopper,  flattened 
on  one  side  to  form  the  table  for  the  reed,  and 
thinned  to  a  chisel  edge  on  the  other  for  con- 
venience to  the  lips.  The  cylindrical  bore  passes 
about  two-thirds  up  the  inside,  and  there  termi- 
nates in  a  hemispherical  end.  From  this  bore 
a  lateral  orifice  is  cut  into  the  table,  about  an 
inch  long  and  half  as  wide,  which  is  closed  in 
playing  by  the  thin  end  of  the  reed.  The  table 
on  which  the  reed  lies,  instead  of  being  flat,  is 
purposely  curved  backwards  towards  the  point, 
so  as  to  leave  a  gap  or  slit  about  the  thickness 
of  a  sixpence  between  the  end  of  the  mouthpiece 
and  the  point  of  the  reed.  It  is  on  the  vibration 
of  the  reed  against  this  curved  table  that  the 
sound  of  the  instrument  depends.  The  curve  of 
the  table  is  of  considerable  importance.  [See 
Mouthpiece,]  The  reed  itself  is  a  thin  flat  slip 
cut  from  a  kind  of  tall  grass  {arundo  sativa), 
commonly,  though  incorrectly,  termed  'cane.' 
[See  Reed.]  It  is  flattened  on  one  side,  and 
thinned  on  the  other  to  a  feather-edge.  The 
older  players  secured  this  to  the  table  of  the 
mouthpiece  by  a  waxed  cord,  but  a  double 
metallic  band  with  two  small  screws,  termed  a 
ligature,  is  now  employed.  The  reed  was  origin- 
ally turned  upwards,  so  as  to  rest  against  the 
upper  lip  ;  but  this  necessitated  the  holding  of 
the  instrument  at  a  large  ungraceful  angle  from 
the  body,  and  caused  it  to  bear  against  a  weaker 
mass  of  muscles  than  is  the  case  when  it  is 
directed  downwards.  In  England,  France, 
and  Belgium  it  is  always  held  in  the  latter 
position. 

The  compass  given  above  is  that  of  an  in- 
strument in  C,  which  sounds  corresponding  notes  . 
to  the  violin,  descending  three  semitones  below 
'fiddle  G.'  But  the  C  clarinet  is  not  very  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  orchestra  or  military  bands. 
The  latter  employ  an  instrument  in  Bb,  sounding 
two  semitones  below  its  written  position,  and 
consequently  standing  in  the  key  of  two  flats. 
For  the  acuter  notes  they  use  a  smaller  clarinet 


362 


CLAEINET. 


CLARINET. 


in  Eb,  which  sounds  a  minor  third  above  its 
written  scale,  and  stands  in  three  fiats.  In  the 
orchestra  an  instrument  in  A,  sounding  a  minor 
third  below  the  corresponding  note  of  a  C  instru- 
ment, is  much  used,  and  stands  in  three  sharps. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  Bb  and  A  clarinets  re- 
spectively lower  the  range  of  the 
lowest  note  to  D[J  and  Cj,  thus  aug- 
menting the  whole  compass  of  the  instrument. 
They  also  have  the  advantage  of  lessening  the 
number  of  flats  and  sharps  in  the  signature. 
Although  the  clarinet  has  been  much  improved 
it  still  presents  great  difficulties  in  extreme  keys, 
and  these  are  to  some  extent  avoided  by  the  B  b 
instruments  lessening  the  flats  by  two  in  flat 
keys,  and  the  A  instrument  the  sharps  by  three 
in  sharp  signatures.  A  melody  in  C  would  thus 
have  to  be  played  in  G  by  the  F,  in  A  by  the  Eb, 
in  D  by  the  Bb,  and  in  Eb  by  the  A  clarinets. 
The  following  table  shows  how  the  notes  will  be 
virritten  for  each  instrument,  so  as  to  sound  like 
those  of  the  C  clarinet : — ■ 


1.  C  clarinet 

2.  Bb  „ 

3-  A  „ 

4-  Eb  „ 

5-  F  „ 

6.  For  Como  di  basset  to  in  F  : 


7.  The  Italians — as  Cavallini  and  Canf)ngia — 
sometimes  write  for  the  Bb  clarinet  in  the  teno7' 


clef ;  St 


sounding 


as  if  written 


in  the  ordinary  way  (No.  2  above). 
The  two  intrinsic  flats  of  the  instru- 
ment have  of  course  to  be  supplied 
by  the  player. 

Besides  the  four  instruments  already  named 
othej-s  are  occasionally  used.  A  small  clarinet 
in  F,  above  the  C  instrument,  has  been  merci- 
fully given  up,  except  in  an  occasional  piece 
of  German  dance  music.  The  D,  between  these 
two,  is  also  considered  by  some  composers  to 
blend  better  with  the  violins  than  the  graver- 
pitched  clarinets.  The  Db  is  convenient  for 
taking  the  part  of  the  military  flute,  which  stands 
in  that  key.  A  clarinet  in  H  would  puzzle  most 
English  players,  although  it  appears  in  Mozart's 
score  of  '  Idomeneo '—being  the  German  for  B|i. 
Below  the  A  clarinet  we  also  have  several  others. 
One  in  Ab  is  useful  in  military  music.    In  F 


we  have  the  tenor  clarinet,  and  the  como  di 
bassetto  or  bassethom,  perhaps  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  whole  family.  The  tenor  in  Eb  stands  in 
the  same  relation  to  this  as  the  Bb  does  to  the 
C,  and  is  consequently  used  in  military  bands. 
[CoRNO  DI  Bassetto.]  Proceeding  still  lower  in 
the  scale  we  arrive  at  the  bass  clarinets.  The 
commonest  of  these  is  in  Bb,  the  octave  of  the 
ordinary  instrument,  but  the  writer  has  a  C 
basso  of  Italian  make,  and  Wagner  has  written 
for  an  A  basso.  They  are  none  of  them  very 
satisfactory  instruments  ;  the  characteristic  tone 
of  the  clarinet  seeming  to  end  with  the  como  di 
bassetto.    [See  Bass  Clarinet.] 

Helmholtz  has  analysed  the  tone  and  musical 
character  of  the  clarinet  among  the  other  wind-in- 
struments, and  shows  that  the  sounds  proper  to  the 
reed  itself  are  hardly  ever  employed,  being  very 
sharp  and  of  harsh  quality  ;  those  actually  pro- 
duced being  lower  in  pitch,  dependent  on  the 
length  of  the  column  of  air,  and  corresponding 
to  the  sounds  proper  to  a  stopped  organ-pipe. 
With  a  cylindrical  tube  these  are  the  third,  fifth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  partial  sounds  of  the  funda- 
mental tone.  The  upper  register  rising  a  twelfth 
from  the  lower  or  chalumeau,  seems  to  carry 
out  the  same  law  in  another  form.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  conical  tubes  of  the  oboe  and  bassoon 
correspond  to  open  pipes  of  the  same  length,  in 
which  the  octave,  the  twelfth,  and  the  double 
octave  form  the  first  three  terms  of  the  series. 
See  his  paper  in  the  *  Journal  fiir  reine  und 
angewandte  Mathematik,'  vol.  Ivii. 

The  lowest  note  of  the  register  is  clearly  an 
arbitrary  matter.  It  has  probably  been  dic- 
tated by  the  fact  that  nine  of  the  ten  available 
digits  are  fully  occupied.  But  M.  Sax,  whose  im- 
provements in  wind-instruments  have  surpassed 
those  which  explicitly  bear  his  name,  has  ex- 
tended the  scale  another  semitone  by  adding  a 
second  key  for  the  right  little  finger.  Even  the 
octave  C  can  be  touched  by  employing  the  right 
thumb,  which  at  present  merely  supports  the 
instrument.  It  is  always  so  employed  in  the 
bassethom,  and  a  Bb  instrument  thus  ex- 
tended must  have  been  known  to  Mozart, 
who  writes  the  beautiful  obbligato  to  *  Parto,' 
in  his  'Clemenza  di  Tito,'  down  to  bass  Bb,  a 
major  third  below  the  instrument  as  now  made. 

To  whatever  period  we  may  ascribe  the  in- 
vention of  the  clarinet,  it  is  certain  that  it  does 
not  figure  in  the  scores  of  the  earlier  composers. 
Bach  and  Handel  never  use  it.  An  instrument 
entitled  Chalumeau  appears  in  the  writings  of 
Gluck,  to  which  Berlioz  appends  the  note  that  it 
is  now  unknown  and  obsolete.  This  may  have 
been  a  clarinet  in  some  form.  Haydn  uses  it 
very  sparingly.  Most  of  his  symphonies  are 
without  the  part,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to 
his  church  music.  There  is,  however,  a  fine  trio 
for  two  clarinets  and  bassoon  in  the  *  Et  Incar- 
natus '  of  the  First  Mass,  and  there  are  one  or 
two  prominent  passages  in  the  '  Creation,'  espe- 
cially obbligatos  to  the  air  *  With  verdure  clad,' 
and  'On  mighty  pens,'  and  a  quartet  of  reeds 
accompanjdng  the  trio   'On  Thee  each  living 


CLARINET. 


CLARINET. 


363 


soul  awaits.'  But  it  is  with  Mozart  that  the 
instrument  first  becomes  a  leading  orchestral 
voice.  *  Ah,  if  we  had  but  clarinets  too  ! '  says 
he  :  '  you  cannot  imagine  the  splendid  effect  of 
a  s^1nphony  with  flutes,  oboes,  and  clarinets.' 
(Letter  iiQ.)  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful, 
or  more  admirably  adapted  to  its  tone  than  the 
part*  provided  for  it  in  his  vocal  and  instru- 
mental works.  The  symphony  in  E:?  is  sometimes 
called  the  Clarinet  Spnphony  from  this  reason, 
the  oboes  being  omitted  as  if  to  ensure  its 
prominence.  There  is  a  concertxD  for  clarinet 
with  full  orchestra  (Kochel,  No.  622)  which 
is  in  his  best  style.  For  the  tenor  clarinet  or 
basset -horn,  the  opera  of  '  Clemenza  di  Tito ' 
is  freely  scored,  and  an  elaborate  obbligato  is 
allotted  to  it  in  the  song  '  Nou  piti  di  fiori,'  His 
'  Requiem'  contains  two  corni  di  bassetto,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  reed  -  instruments,  except 
bassoons.  His  chamber  and  concerted  music  is 
more  full  for  clarinets  than  that  of  any  other 
writer,  except  perhaps  Weber.  It  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  many  of  his  great  works,  especially 
the  '  Jupiter'  S^Tuphony,  should  be  without  parts 
for  the  instrument,  notwithstanding  his  obvious 
knowledge  of  its  value  and  beauty.  The  ordinary 
explanation  is  probably  the  true  one  ;  namely, 
that  being  attached  to  a  small  court,  he  seldom 
had  at  his  disposal  a  full  band  of  instrumentalists. 

Beethoven,  on  the  other  hand,  hardly  writes  a 
single  work  without  clarinets.  Indeed  there  is  a 
distinct  development  of  this  part  to  be  observed 
in  the  course  of  his  s\-mphonies.  The  trio  of  the 
First  contains  a  passage  of  importance,  but  of  such 
simplicity  that  it  might  be  allotted  to  the 
trumpet.  The  Larghetto  {in  A)  of  his  Second 
Symphony  is  fuU  of  melodious  and  easy  passages 
for  two  clarinets.  It  is  not  until  we  reach  the 
'  Pastoral '  Symphony  that  difficulties  occur  ;  the 
passage  near  the  close  of  the  first  movement 
being  singularly  trj-ing  to  the  player  : — 


But  the  Eighth  Symphony  contains  a  passage  in 
the  Trio,  combined  with  the  horns,  which  few 
performers  can  execute  with  absolute  correctness.! 


ings  lie  in  the  upper  part  of  its  scale,  and,  except 
an  occasional  bit  of  pure  accompaniment,  there 
is  nothing  out  of  the  compass  of  the  violin. 

Mendelssohn,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to 
revel  in  the  chalumeau  notes.  He  leads  off  the 
Scotch  Symphony,  the  introductory  notes  of 
*  EKjah,'  and  the  grand  chords  of  his  overture 
to  'Ruy  Bias'  with  these,  and  appears  fully 
aware  of  the  singular  power  and  resonance  which 
enables  them  to  balance  even  the  trombones. 
Throughout  his  works  the  parts  for  clarinet  are 
fascinating,  and  generally  not  difficult.  The 
lovely  second  subject  in  the  overture  to  the 
'Hebrides'  (after  the  reprise)  — 


the  imitative  passage  for  two  clarinets,  which 
recurs  several  times  in  the  Overture  to  'Melu- 


and  the  rolling  wavelike  passages  in  his  '  Meeres- 
stille, '  deserve  special  mention.  On  the  otherhand, 
there  are  occasional  phrases  of  great  complexity 
in  his  works.  The  scherzo  of  the  Scotch 
Symphony,  the  saltarello  of  the  Italian,  are 
cases  in  point  ;  but  even  these  are  exceeded  by  a 
few  notes  in  the  scherzo  of  the  'Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,'  w-hich  are  all  but  unplayable. 


Beethoven  does  not  seem  to  have  appreciated  the 
lower  register  of  this  instrument.    All  his  writ- 


Weber  appears  to  have  had  a  peculiar  love 
for  the  clarinet.  Not  only  has  he  written  several 
great  works  especially  for  it,  but  his  orches- 
tral compositions  abound  in  figures  of  extreme 
beauty  and  novelty.  The  weird  effiect  of  the 
low  notes  in  the  overture  to  '  Der  Freischiitz,' 
followed  by  the  passionate  recitative  which  comes 
later  in  the  same  work — both  of  which  recur  in 
the  opera  itself — will  suggest  themselves  to  all  ; 
as  will  the  cantabile  phrase  in  the  overture  to 
'  Oberon,'  the  doubling  of  the  low  notes  with  the 
violoncellos,  and  the  difficult  arpeggios  for  flutes 
and  clarinets  commonly  known  as  the  *  drops  of 
water.'  His  !Mass  in  G  is  marked  throughout  by 
a  very  vmusual  employment  of  the  clarinet*  on 
their  lower  notes,  forming  minor  chords  with  the 
bassoons.  This  work  is  also  singrJar  in  being 
written  for  Br  clarinets,  althougli  in  a  sharp  key. 
The  'Credo,'  however,  has  a  characteristic 
melody  in  a  c^^ngenial  key,  where  a  bold  leap  of 
two  octaves  exhibits  to  advantage  the  large  com- 
pass at  the  composer's  disposal. 

Meyerbeer  and  Spohr  both  employ  the  clarinets 
extensively.  The  former,  however,  owing  to  hia 
friendship  with  Sax,  was  led  to  substitute  the 


364 


CLARINET. 


CLARINO. 


bass  clarinets  in  some  places,  [Bass  Clarinet.] 
Spohr  has  written  two  concertos  for  the  instru- 
ment, both — especially  the  second — of  extreme 
difficulty.  But  he  has  utilised  its  great  powers 
in  concerted  music,  and  as  an  obbligato  accom- 
paniment to  the  voice,  both  in  his  operatic  works 
and  his  oratorios,  and  in  the  six  songs  of  which 
the  *  Bird  and  the  Maiden'  is  the  best  knowTi. 

An  account  of  this  instrument  would  be  in- 
complete without  mention  of  Rossini's  writings. 
In  the  'Stabat  Mater'  he  has  given  it  some 
exquisite  and  appropriate  passages,  but  in  other 
\yorks  the  difficulties  assigned  to  it  are  all  but 
insuperable.  The  overtures  to  '  Semiramide,' 
*  Otello,'  and  'Gazza  Ladra,'  are  all  exceedingly 
open  to  this  objection,  and  exhibit  the  carelessness 
of  scoring  which  mars  his  incomparable  gifts  of 
melody. 

No  instrument  has  a  greater  scope  in  the  form 
of  solo  or  concerted  music  specially  written  for  it. 
Much  of  this  is  not  so  well  known  in  this  country 
as  it  ought  to  be.  The  writer  has  therefore  com- 
piled, with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Leonard  Bed- 
dome,  whose  collection  of  clarinet  music  is  all  but 
complete,  a  list  of  the  principal  compositions  by 
great  writers,  in  which  it  takes  a  prominent  part. 
This  is  appended  to  the  present  notice. 

A  few  words  are  required  in  concluding,  as  to 
the  weak  points  of  the  instrument.  It  is  singu- 
larly susceptible  to  atmospheric  changes,  and 
rises  in  pitch  very  considerably,  indeed  more 
than  any  other  instrument,  vrith.  warmth.  It  is 
therefore  essential,  after  playing  some  time,  to 
flatten  the  instrument ;  a  caution  often  neglected. 
On  the  other  hand  it  does  not  bear  large  alter- 
ations of  pitch  without  becoming  out  of  tune. 
In  this  respect  it  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  the 
orchestral  instruments,  and  for  this  reason  it 
ought  undoubtedly  to  exercise  the  pri\dlege  now 
granted  by  ancient  usage  to  the  oboe ;  that, 
namely,  of  giving  the  pitch  to  the  band.  In  the 
band  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  and  some  others, 
this  is  now  done  ;  it  deserves  general  imitation. 
Moreover,  the  use  of  three,  or  at  least  two 
diflFerent- pitched  instruments  in  the  orchestra, 
is  a  source  of  discord,  which  it  requires  large 
experience  to  counteract.  Many  performers  meet 
the  difficulty  to  some  extent  by  dispensing  with 
the  C  clarinet,  the  weakest  of  the  three.  Com- 
posers would  do  well  to  write  as  little  for  it  as 
may  be  practicable.  Mendelssohn,  in  his  Sym- 
phonies, prefers  to  write  for  the  A  clarinet  in  three 
flats  rather  than  for  the  C  in  its  natural  key, 
thus  gaining  a  lower  compass  and  more  fulness 
of  tone.  Lastly,  the  whole  beauty  of  the  instru- 
ment depends  on  the  management  of  the  reed. 
A  player,  however  able,  is  very  much  at  the 
mercy  of  this  part  of  the  mechanism.  A  bad 
reed  not  only  takes  all  quality  away,  but  ex- 
poses its  possessor  to  the  utterance  of  the  horrible 
shriek  termed  couac  (i.e.  'quack')  by  the  French, 
and  'a  goose'  in  the  vernacular.  There  is  no  in- 
strument in  which  failure  of  lip  or  deranged  keys 
produce  so  unmusical  a  result,  or  one  so  impos- 
sible to  conceal ;  and  proportionate  care  should 
be  exercised  in  its  prevention. 


List  of  the  principal  solo  and  concerted  mv^ic 
for  the  clarinet;  original  works,  not  arrange- 
ments. 

Mozart. — Trio  for  clarinet,  viola,  and  piano, 
op.  14  ;  Two  Serenades  for  two  oboes,  two  clari- 
nets, two  horns,  and  two  bassoons,  op.  24  and 
27  ;  Quintet  for  oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  bassoon, 
and  piano,  op.  29  ;  Concerto  for  clarinet  and 
orchestra,  op.  107  ;  Quintet  for  clarinet  and 
strings,  op.  101  ;  Grand  Serenade  for  two  oboes, 
two  clarinets,  two  bassethoms,  two  French  horns, 
two  bassoons  and  double  bassoon. 

Beethoven. — Three  duets  for  clarinet  and 
bassoon ;  Trio  for  clarinet,  violoncello,  and  piano, 
op.  II  ;  Quintet  for  oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  bas- 
soon, and  piano,  op.  16 ;  Grand  Septet  for 
violin,  viola,  cello,  contra-basso,  clarinet,  horn, 
and  bassoon,  op.  20 ;  the  same  arranged  by 
composer  as  trio  for  clarinet,  cello,  and  piano ; 
Sestet  for  two  clarinets,  two  horns,  and  two 
bassoons,  op.  71 ;  Ottet  for  two  oboes,  two  clari- 
nets, two  horns,  and  two  bassoons,  op.  103 ; 
Rondino  for  two  oboes,  two  clarinets,  two  horns, 
and  two  bassoons. 

Weber. — Concertino,  op.  26  ;  Air  and  Varia- 
tion, op.  33  ;  Quintet  for  clarinet  and  string 
quartet,  op.  34  ;  Concertante  duet,  clarinet  and 
piano,  op.  48  ;  Concerto  i,  wdth  orchestra,  op.  73; 
Concerto  2,  with  orchestra,  op.  74. 

Spohr. —  Concerto  i,  for  clarinet  and  orchestra, 
op.  26  ;  Concerto  2,  for  clarinet  and  orchestra, 
op.  57  ;  Nonet  for  strings,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet, 
horn,  and  bassoon,  op.  .^i  ;  Ottet  for  violin, 
two  violas,  cello,  basso,  clarinet,  and  two  horns, 
op.  32  ;  Quintet  for  flute,  clarinet,  horn,  bas- 
soon, and  piano,  op.  5  2  ;  Septet  for  piano,  violin, 
cello,  and  same  wind,  op.  147  ;  Six  songs,  with 
clarinet  obbligato,  op.  103. 

ScHUJiANN.  —  Fantasiestiicke  for  clarinet  and 
piano,  op.  73;  Mahrchenerzahlungen,  for  clarinet, 
viola,  and  piano,  op.  132. 

Onslow. — Septet  for  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  horn, 
bassoon,  double  bass,  and  piano,  op.  79 ;  Nonet, 
for  strings,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  and  bassoon, 
op.  77  ;  Sestet  for  piano,  flute,  clarinet,  horn, 
bassoon,  and  double  bass,  op.  30. 

Kalliwoda. — Variations  with  orchestra,  op. 
128. 

A.  Romberg. — Quintet  for  clarinet  and  strings, 
op.  57. 

HuiniEL. — Military  Septet,  op.  114. 

C.  Krectzer. — Trio  for  piano,  clarinet,  and 
bassoon,  op.  43 ;  Septet,  for  violin,  viola,  cello, 
contra-basso,  clarinet,  horn,  and  bassoon,  op.  62. 

S.  Nedkomm.  —Quintet  for  clarinet  and  strings, 
op.  8. 

A.  Reicha.— Quintet  for  clarinet  and  strings  ; 
Twenty-four  quintets  for  flute,  oboe,  clarinet, 
horn  and  bassoon,  ops.  88-91,  99,  100. 

E.  Pauer. — Quintet  for  piano,  oboe,  clarinet, 
horn,  and  bassoon,  op.  44. 

Reissiger. — Concertos,  ops.  63a,  14&,  180. 

[W.  H.  S.] 

GLARING.  The  Italian  name  for  the  Trum- 
pet. 


CLAEKL 


CLASSICAL. 


365 


CLARK,  Jebemtah,  was  a  chorister  in  the 
Chapel  Roval  under  Dr.  Blow.  After  leaving 
the  choir  he  became,  for  a  short  time,  organist  of 
Winchester  College,  In  1693  his  master,  Dr. 
Blow,  resigned  in  his  favour  the  appointments  of 
almoner  and  master  of  the  children  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  About  1695  he  was  appointed  or- 
ganist and  one  of  the  vicars  choral  of  St.  Paul's. 
On  July  7,  1700,  Clark,  and  his  feUow-pupil, 
William  Croft,  were  sworn  in  as  gentlemen  ex- 
traordinary of  the  Chapel  Royal,  with  the  joint 
reversion  of  an  organist's  place,  whenever  one 
should  fall  vacant,  a  contingency  which  happened 
on  May  1 5,  1 704,  by  the  death  of  Francis  Pig- 
gott,  on  which  Clark  and  Croft  were  on  May  2  5 
sworn  in  as  joint  organists.  Clark,  having  the 
misfortune  to  become  enamoured  of  a  lady  whose 
position  in  life  rendered  his  union  with  her  hope- 
less, fell  into  a  state  of  despondency,  under  the 
influence  of  which  he  shot  iumself.  The  precise 
date  of  his  death  has  not  been  ascertained,  but 
it  was,  doubtless,  shortly  before  Xov.  5,  1707, 
when  Croft  was  sworn  into  the  full  place  of  or- 
ganist of  the  Chapel  Royal.  Clark  composed 
several  anthems,  chiefly  of  a  pathetic  kind,  but 
not  deficient  either  in  force  or  dignity.  He  was 
the  original  composer  of  Dryden's  famous  ode, 
'Alexander's  Feast,'  which  was  performed  at 
Stationers'  Hall  on  the  occasion  for  which  it  was 
written,  the  feast  on  St.  Cecilia's  day,  2Sov.  22, 
1697,  and  at  two  or  three  concerts  shortly  after- 
wards ;  but  the  music  was  not  printed,  and  seems 
now  irretrievably  lost.  In  the  same  year  Clark 
(in  conjunction  with  Daniel  PurceU  and  Richard 
Leveridge)  composed  the  music  for  the  opera 
'The  Island  Princess,'  and  (jointly  with  Daniel 
PurceU)  for  the  opera  '  The  World  in  the  Moon.' 
He  also  furnished  music  for  '  The  Fond  Hus- 
band' (1676),  Sedley's  'Antony  and  Cleopatra' 
(1677),  'Titus  Andronicus'  (1687),  and  'A  Wife 
for  any  Man,'  besides  composing  an  ode  in  praise  of 
the  Island  of  Barbados,  a  cantata  called  'The 
Assumption,'  some  lessons  for  the  harpsichord, 
and  numerous  songs  published  in  the  collections 
of  the  day.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CLARK,  RiCHAED,  was  bom  at  Datchet, 
Bucks,  April  5,  1 780.  At  an  early  age  he  became 
a  chorister  at  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  un- 
der Dr.  Ay  I  ward,  and  of  Eton  College  under 
Stephen  Heather.  In  1802  he  succeeded  his 
grandfather,  John  Sale,  the  elder,  as  lay  clerk  at 
St.  George's  and  Eton  College ;  these  appoint- 
ments he  held  until  181 1.  In  1805  ^®  officiated 
as  deputy  in  the  metropolitan  choirs,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Glee 
Club.  He  subsequently  obtained  the  places  of 
lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey,  and  vicar- 
choral  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  1820  succeeded 
Joseph  Corfe  as  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  In  1814  Clark  published  a  volume  of 
the  poetry  of  the  most  favourite  glees,  madrigals, 
rounds,  and  catches,  with  a  preface  containing  an 
account  of  the  song  'God  save  the  King,'  the 
composition  of  which  he  there  attributed  to  Henry 
Carey.  A  second  edition  of  this  work  appeared 
in  1824,  but  the  subject  of  the  popular  tune  was 


omitted,  Gark  having  in  1822  published  a  sepa* 
rate  volume  assigning  its  composition  to  Dr. 
J ohn  BuU-  [See  God  save  the  King.]  Clark 
distinguished  himself  by  his  asiiduity  in  en- 
deavouring to  procure  for  the  various  cathedral 
!  and  collegiate  choirs  a  restitution  of  their  statutory 
I  rights  and  privileges.    He  was  the  composer  of 
}  a  few  anthems,  chants,  and  glees,  and  the  author 
of  several  pamphlets  on  'Handel  and  the  Har- 
monious Blacksmith,  etc.';  Handel's  'Messiah"  ; 
the  derivation  of  the  word  'Madrigale.'  Musical 
pitch,  etc.    He  died  Oct.  5,  1S56.     [W.  H.  H.] 

CLARKE,  Joffy,  Mus.  Doc.,  afterwards  known 
as  Claeke-Whitfeld,  was  born  at  Gloucester 
j  Dec.  13,  1770,  and  received  his  musical  education 
i  at  Oxford  under  Dr.  Philip  Hayes.  In  17S9  he 
j  was  appointed  organist  of  the  parish  chiu-ch  of 
I  Ludlow  ;  in  1793  he  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
j  of  Music  at  Oxford  ;  in  1 795  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Armagh  Cathedral,  which  he  quitted 
in  the  same  year  for  the  places  of  organist  and 
master  of  the  choristers  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral and  Christ  Church,  Dublin.  In  1798  the 
Irish  rebellion  led  him  to  resign  his  appointments 
and  return  to  England,  where  he  soon  afterwards 
became  organist  and  master  of  the  choristers  of 
Trinity  and  St.  John's  Colleges,  Cambridge.  In 
the  following  year  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Music  at  Cambridge,  and  in  18 10  was  admitted 
ad  eundera  at  Oxford.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
Whitfeld,  in  addition  to  his  paternal  name  of 
Clarke,  on  the  death  of  his  maternal  uncle, 
Henry  Fotherley  Whitfeld.  In  1820  he  resigned 
his  appointments  at  Cambridge  for  those  of  or- 
ganist and  master  of  the  choristers  of  Hereford 
Cathedral,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Hague,  in 
182 1,  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Music  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  In  1833,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  attack  of  paralysis,  he  resigned  his 
appointments  at  Hereford.  He  died  at  Holmer, 
near  Hereford,  Feb.  22,  1836,  and  was  buried  in 
the  cloisters  of  Hereford  Cathedral,  where  a 
mural  tablet  is  erected  to  his  memory.  Dr. 
Clarke -Whitfeld's  compositions  consist  of  Cathe- 
dral Services  and  Anthems  (published  in  foiir 
vols,  in  1805  and  subsequently),  '  The  Crucifixion 
and  the  Resurrection,'  an  oratorio,  and  numerous 
glees,  songs,  etc.  He  edited  a  collection  contain- 
ing thirty  anthems  from  the  works  of  various 
composers.  Amongst  the  many  works  arranged 
by  him  for  voices  and  pianoforte  his  edition  of 
several  of  Handel's  oratorios  and  other  pieces 
must  not  be  forgotten,  as  being  the  first  of  that 
author  8  works  so  treated.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CLASSICAL  is  a  term  which  in  music  has 
much  the  same  signification  as  it  has  in  liter- 
ature. It  is  used  of  works  which  have  held 
their  place  in  general  estimation  for  a  consider- 
able time,  and  of  new  works  which  are  gener- 
ally considered  to  be  of  the  same  type  and  style. 
Hence  the  name  has  come  to  be  especially  ap- 
plied to  works  in  the  forms  which  were  adopted 
by  the  great  masters  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,  as  in.strumental  works  in  the  sonata 
form,  and  operas  constructed  after  the  received 


366 


CLASSICAL. 


CLAYICHORD. 


tzaditioos ;  and  in  this  sense  the  tenn  was  need 
as  the  opposite  of  '  romantic,'  in  the  controversy 
between  the  muidcians  who  wished  to  retain 
absolutely  the  old  forms,  and  those,  like  Schu- 
mann, who  wished  music  to  be  developed  in  forms 
which  should  be  more  the  free  inspiration  of  the 
compoeer,  and  less  restricted  in  their  systematic 
development.  [See  EoMAync]  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 
CLASSICAL  HAPvMOXISTS.   See  Choral 

HAEMOyiSTS. 

CLAUDIXE  VOX  TILLAEELLA.  Drama 
hv  Goethe,  music  by  Schubert  ;  composed  in 
1815  but  not  performed.  The  first  Act  alone 
survives,  and  is  now  in  the  library  of  the  Gesell- 
schaft  der  Musikfreunde  at  Vienna  :  the  other 
Acts  were  burnt  by  accident,  with  those  of  the 
'Teufels  Lustschlc^.'  It  is  dated  at  beginning 
and  end  July  26  and  Aug.  5.  On  yor.  18 
Schubert  was  at  work  on  another  opera.  l^-] 

CLATTS,  WrLHZLMixE,  one  of  the  eminent 
pianists  of  our  time,  daughter  of  a  merchant, 
bom  at  Prague  Dec.  13,  1834,  She  received  her 
musical  education  at  the  Proksch  Institute  at 
Prague,  and  in  I S49  made  her  first  concert  tour, 
excitincr  ^reat  attention  both  at  Dresden  and 
Leipsic  '^1^50  .  Nevertheless,  she  lived  almost 
unnoticed  in  Paris  for  nearly  a  year,  although 
Berlioz  interested  himself  much  in  her  favour. 
She  announced  a  concert,  but  it  was  postponed 
on  account  of  her  mother's  death.  Being  now 
a  total  orphan,  she  was  kindly  received  by  the 
singer  Mme.  ITngher  Sabatier,  and  in  the  follow- 
incr  vear  her  claims  were  acknowledged  in  Faris. 
Prom  thence  her  fame  spread  through  Europe ; 
she  gave  concerts  in  Paris.  London,  and  Ger- 
many, receiving  everywhere  tributes  of  the 
warmest  admiration.  She  was  in  London  in 
1852,  and  again  in  1871.  She  married  (1857) 
the  author  Friedrich  .Szarvady,  and  now  lives 
in  Paris,  seldom  appearing  in  public.  Her  reper- 
toire mainly  consis-ts  of  the  works  of  Scarlatti, 
Bach,  and  Beethoven,  and  it  is  upon  her  execu- 
tion of  these  that  her  great  reputation  is  founded. 
Her  chief  gift  is  the  power  of  penetrating  into 
the  spirit  of  the  work  she  executes  ;  her  con- 
scientiousness is  great,  and  she  rejects  all  arbi- 
trary interpretations,  no  matter  how  ingenious 
they  may  be.  In  this  respect  she  worthily  ranks 
with  Madame  Schumann.  Still  Madame  Szar- 
vady has  a  strong  and  romantic  individuality, 
which  used  to  be  very  charming.  [A.  M.] 

CLAVECIN,  The  French  name  for  a  harpsi- 
chord, derived  {rom  clavicymbalom.  According 
to  M.  VioUet  Le-Duc  (Dictionnaire  du  Mobilier 
Fran^ais,  1872)  the  clavecin  superseded  the  psal- 
tery in  France  some  time  in  the  i6th  century. 
[See  Haepsichoed  and  Psaltebt.]    [A.  J.  H.] 

CLAVICEMBALO.  One  of  the  Italian  names 
for  a  harpsichord,  and  the  most  used.  It  is  de- 
rived fix»m  clavii,  a  key,  and  cembalo,  a  dulcimer 
ot  psaltery.  Other  Italian  names  for  this  instru- 
ment are  grarictmhalo  'a  phonetic  variation 
caused  by  the  interchange  of  r  with  and  hn  rp- 
icordo,  from  which  comes  our  *  harpsichord,'  [.See 
CncBALO,  and  Haepsichobd.]  [A.  J.  H.] 


f  CLAVICHORD  (Ger.  Clavichord  or  Clavier, 
It.  Claricordo),  a  stringed  instrument  with  keys. 
In  German  the  name  has  been  limited  to  that 
keyed  stringed  instrument,  the  tones  of  which 
were  produced  by  '  tangents ' ;  while  the  once 
synonymous  term  Clavier  became  transferred  to 
the  successor  of  the  clavichord,  the  square  piano- 
forte. In  Italian,  clacicordo  may  formerly  have 
meant  any  keyed  instrument  with  strings,  whe- 

I  ther  the  tones  were  produced  by  tangents  or 
'jacks.'  Existing  specimens  of  Italian  make 
have  jack  actions,  and  would  be  correctly  de- 
signated in  English  as  vir^als.  The  French 
have  done  without  this  appellation  altogether, 
and  perhaps  without  the  tangent  instrament  it- 
self, unless  it  was  included  with  tbe  manichord 
or  monochord.  The  Clavecin  (It.  Cladcemhalo, 
Eng.  Harjmchfjrd)  had  a  jack  action,  differing' 
fix)m  the  clavichord  in  the  means  by  which  it 
produced  the  sound,  and  in  its  musical  effect.  The 
French  translation  of  the  '  Wohltemperirte  Cla- 
vier' or  well-timed  clavichord,  of  J.  S.  Bach,  by 
*le  Clavecin  bien  tempere,'  is  therefore  inaccu- 
rate, inasmuch  as  it  conveys  rather  the  idea 
of  the  rigid  harpsichord  or  spinet  than  that  of 
the  gentle  and  intimate  clavichord.  In  England 
and  Scotland  during  the  Tudor  period,  fr^uent 
mention  is  found  in  contemporary  records  of  the 
clavichord,  clarichord,  and  monochord  '^see  Rim- 
bault's  '  Pianoforte,'  1860) ;  all  three  names  seem- 
ing to  be  shared  by  one  instrument,  and  that 
most  probably  the  true  clavichord — for  the  vir 
ginal  also  appears  at  that  time.  Writers  on  this 
subject  have  followed  each  other  in  assuming  a 
gradual  progress,  and  stating  that  either  the 
clavichord  or  the  clavicytherium  was  the  first, 
in  order  of  time,  of  a  series  of  keyed  instruments 
that  included  the  virginal  and  spinet,  and 
culminated  in  the  clavicembalo  or  wing- shaped 
harpsichord.  But  on  this  we  are  quite  in  the 
dark,  for  the  earliest  dependable  mention  of  the 
claviehcard  (Eberhard  Cersne's  'Rules  of  the 
Minnesingers,'  a.d.  1404)  includes  with  it  the 
monochoid  and  the  clavicembalo.  No  English 
clavichord,  as  distinct  from  a  virginal,  being  in 
existence,  unless  in  the  lumber-room  of  some  old 
country-house,  we  will  confine  our  attention  to  the 
German  clavichord,  to  avoid  an  endless  confusion, 
from  different  names  having  been  frequently 
given  to  one  instrument,  while  one  name  has 
been  as  often  attached  to  different  instruments; 
even  musical  authorities  having  failed  to  observe 
the  desirabUity  of  accurate  definition. 

In  shape  the  clavichord  has  been  followed  by 
the  square  pianoforte,  of  which  it  was  the  proto- 
type ^_Fig.  1 1.  The  case  was  oblong  and  was  placed 
upon  a  stand  or  legs.  The  length,  according  to 
the  compass  and  period  of  construction,  was  frt>m 
four  to  five  feet ;  the  breadth  less  than  two 
feet ;  the  depth  of  case  five  to  seven  inches.  The 
keys  were  in  front,  and  extended  beneath  the 
sound -board  to  the  back  of  the  case,  each  being 
balanced  upon  a  wire  pin,  and  prevented  fixHn 
rattling  against  its  neighbour  by  a  small  piece 
of  whalebone  projecting  from  the  key  and 
sheathed  in  a  groove  behind  (Fig.  2).   The  lower 


CLAVICHORD. 


CLAVICHORD. 


367 


or  natural  keys  were  usually  black,  and  the  upper 
or  chromatic,  white.    In  italy  and  the  Nether- 
lands the  practice  was  the  reverse.    The  strings, 
of  finely-drawn  brass  wire,  were  stretched  nearly 
in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  case,  but  with 
a  bias  towards  the  back.     On  the  right  of  the 
player  were  inserted  in  the  sound-board,  strength- 
ened on  the  under  side  by  a  slip  of  oak  to  receive 
them,  the  wrest  or  tuning-pins  round  which  the 
^  rings  were  fastened,  while  at  the  back  and 
itly  along  the  left-hand  side  of  the  case,  they 
.  re' attached  by  small  eyes  to  hitch -pins  of 
thicker  wire.    On^he  right  hand  the  strings  rested 
•:pon  a  curved  bridge,  pinned  to  fix  their  di- 
tion.  and  conducting  their  sound-waves  to  the 
;nd-board,  a  flat  surface  of  wood  beneath,  ex- 
icuding  partly  over  the  instrument,  but  we  miss 
the  harpsichord  sound-hole  cut  as  a  rose  or  some 

Fig.  1. 


other  ornamental  device — often  the  initials  of  the 
maker's  name.  Nearly  at  the  back  of  each  key. 
in  an  upright  position,  was  placed  a  small  brass 
wedge  or  '  tangent ' {t)  about  an  inch  high  and  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  broad  at  the  top  (Fig.  3).  The 
tangent,  when  the  key  was  put  down,  rose  to 
the  string  and  pressing  it  upwards  set  it  in 
vibration.  With  a  good  touch  the  player  could 
feel  the  elasticity  of  the  string,  and  the  more 
this  was  felt  the  better  the  instrument  was 
considered  to  be.  By  the  pressure  of  the  tangent 
the  string  was  divided  into  two  unequal  lengths, 
each  of  which  would  have  vibrated,  but  the 
shorter  was  instantly  damped  by  a  narrow  band 
of  cloth  interlaced  with  the  strings,  which  also 
damped  the  longer  section  directly  the  player 
allowed  the  key  "to  rise  and  the  tangent  to  fall. 
The  tangents  thus  not  only  produced  the  tones 


111  il  III  II  III  II  111  II  III  II 


but  served  as  a  second  bridge  to  measure  off  the 
\-ibrating  lengths  required  for  the  pitch  of  the 
notes.  Thus  a  delicate  tone  was  obtained  that 
had  something  in  it  charmingly  hesitating  or 
tremulous ;  a  tone  although  very  weak,  yet 
capable,  imlike  the  harpsichord  or  spinet,  of 
increase  and  decrease,  reflecting  the  finest  and 
most  tender  gi-adations  of  the  touch  of  the  player, 
and  in  this  power  of.  expression  without  a  rival 
until  the  pianoforte  was  invented.  To  ears 
accustomed  to  the  pianoforte,  the  'blocking' 
sound  inseparable  from  the  clavichord  tone 
would  seem  a  disadvantage.  A  pianoforte,  out 
of  order  through  the  hammers  failing  to  rebound 
from  the  strings,  would  however  give  a  very 
exaggerated  and  disagreeable  notion  of  thia 
inherent  peculiarity  of  the  clavichord.  Koch, 


in  his  Musical  Lexicon,  describes  the  clavichord 
as  '  Labsal  des  Dulders,  und  des  Frohsinns  theil- 
nehmenden  Freund'  (the  comfort  of  the  sufferer 
and  the  s}-mpathising  friend  of  cheerfulness"). 

L'p  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the 
use  of  the  clavichord  in  Germany  was  general, 
and  we  are  told  by  Mr.  Carl  Engel  ('Musical 
Instruments,'  etc.,  1874')  that  it  is  frequently  to 
be  met  with  there  to  this  day  in  country  places. 
It  was  a  favourite  instrument  with  J.  S.  Bach, 
who  preferred  it  to  the  pianoforte  ;  and  with  his 
son  Emmanuel,  who  wrote  the  *  Versuch  iiber 
die  wahre  Art  das  Klavier  zu  spielen,'  an  essay 
on  the  true  method  of  pla^-ing  the  clavichord, 
and  the  basis  of  all  succeeding  text-books  of  keyetl 
stringed  instruments.  iMattheson  lauded  the 
clavichord  above  the  clavicj-mbel  or  harpsichord. 


368 


CLAVICHORD. 


CLAVICHORD. 


Mozart  used  the  clavichord  now  in  the  Mozarteum 
at  Salzburg  in  composing  his  '  Zauberflote '  and 
other  masterpieces,  although  in  playing  he  leant 
to  the  harpsichord  style.  Beethoven  is  reported 
to  have  said  '  among  all  keyed  instruments  the 
clavichord  was  that  on  which  one  could  best 
control  tone  and  expressive  interpretation '  (For- 
trag). 

Clavichords  made  prior  to  the  last  century  had 
strings  for  the  lower  or  natural  keys  only ;  the 
semitones  on  the  upper  keys  being  produced  by 
tangents  directed  towards  the  strings  of  the 
lower.  Thus  CJ?  was  obtained  by  striking  the 
C  string  at  a  shorter  length  ;  D  Jf  in  like  manner 
from  the  D  string.  AVe  are  told  that  in  old 
instruments  three  and  four  keys  were  often 
sharers  in  one  string.  At  last,  about  the  year 
1725,  Daniel  Faber  of  Crailsheim,  gave  each 
semitone  its  own  string,  and  instruments  so  made 
were  distinguished  as  'bundfrei'  from  the  older 
'gebunden.'  In  the  clavichords  last  made  there 
were  two  strings  to  each  tangent  and  note,  tuned 
in  unison.  An  admired  effect  of  the  clavichord 
was  a  change  of  intonation,  caused  by  a  stronger 
pressure  on  the  key,  which  displacing  a  little  the 
point  of  contact  of  the  tangent,  tightened  the 
vibrating  part  of  the  string  and  made  the  note 
very  slightly  sharper  in  pitch.  Another  special 
grace  was  that  of  repeating  a  note  several 
times  in  succession  without  quitting  the  key, 
a  dynamic  effect  (German  Behung)  which  could 
not  be  done  on  the  harpsichord,  although 
Beethoven  sought  to  imitate  it  on  the  pianoforte 
with  the  touch,  aided  by  the  double  shifting 
of  the  soft  pedal,  which  in  his  day  was  usual 
(Sonatas,  Op.  106  and  no,  Biilow's  edition,  1871; 
pp.  53-108).  [Bebung.] 

The  early  history  of  the  clavichord  previous 
to  the  15th  century,  together  with  that  of  the 
chromatic  keyboard — a  formal  division  at  the 
very  foundation  of  modem  music — rest  in  pro- 
found obscurity.  We  are  still  free  to  regard  our 
keyboard  as  an  invention  sprung  complete  from 
the  brain  of  some  one  mediaeval  musician,  or  as 
the  result  of  gradual  contrivances  due  to  the 
increasing  requirements  of  many.  The  small 
evidence  that  can  be  adduced  favours  the  latter 
notion. 

However,  the  keyboard  with  its  familiar 
division  into  seven  long  and  five  short  notes, 
was  not  designed  to  bring  within  the  limits  of 
the  octave  the  theoretical  circle  of  fifths;  the 
short  notes  or  semitones  were  long  used  '  per 
fictam  musicam,'  and  not,  like  the  seven  naturals, 
as  practical  starting-i  loints  for  scales.  It  was 
not  until  the  epoch  of  J.  S.  Bach  that  the  semi- 
tones gained  equal  privileges  with  the  naturals. 
Again,  our  chromatic  keyboard  was  not  suggested 
}jy  the  'chromatic'  genus  of  the  Greeks,  a  totally 
different  idea.  The  problem  really  solved  by  it 
was  that  of  the  transposition  of  the  church  tones, 
a  series  of  scales  on  the  natural  keys  employing 
each  in  succession  as  a  starting-point.  The  first 
and  seventh  were  consequently  nearly  an  octave 
apart.  Bearing  in  mind  that  some  of  the  Latin 
hymns  embraced  a  compass  of  twelve  or  thirteen 


notes,  it  is  evident  that  ordinary  voices  could  not 
sing  them  or  even  those  of  less  extent,  without 
concession  in  pitch.  Arnold  Schlick  ('  Spiegel 
der  Orgelmacher  und  Organisten,'  Mainz, 
151 1)  gives  several  instances  of  necessary  trans- 
position, which  were  only  possible  by  the  insertion 
of  the  semitones  between  the  naturals,  as  even 
then  it  was  a  law  that  the  interval  of  an  octave 
should  be  grasped  by  the  hand,  the  broader  keys 
of  the  older  organs  having  been  abolished.  By 
this  insertion  of  the  semitones  they  became  the 
willing  guides  to  the  cadences;  the  Gj{  alone 
being  doubtful  on  account  of  the  '  wolf  in  tuning. 
Schlick  in  his  chapter  on  tuning, — in  which  he 
includes  the  clavichord  and  clavizymmel  (clavi- 
cembalo), the  symphonia,  a  smaller  keyed  instru- 
ment, lute,  and  harp — says  that  the  semitones 
could  not  be  rightly  tuned  or  brought  into  concord. 
But  he  names  all  the  semitones  we  now  use,  and 
speaks  of  double  semitones  having  been  tried  in 
the  organ  twelve  years  before  (1499),  which 
failed  through  the  difficulty  of  playing, 

Virdung,  a  priest  at  Basel,  who  published  his 
*  Musica  getuscht  und  ausgezogen'  also  in  151 1, 
(afterwards  translated  into  Latin  as  'Musurgia, 
seu  Praxis -Musicae,'  Strasburg,  1 536)  is  the 
oldest  authority  we  can  specially  refer  to  about 
the  clavichord.  The  next  in  order  of  time,  but 
a  hundred  years  later,  is  Praetorius  ('Syntagma 
Musicum,'  1614-18).  We  are  told  by  him  that 
the  earliest  clavichords  had  only  twenty  keys,  in 
genere  diatonico,  with  two  black  keys  (Bb),  so 
there  were  not  more  than  three  semitones  in 
an  octave;  like  the  scale  attributed  to  Guido 
d'Arezzo,  the  full  extent  of  which  would  have 
embraced  21  keys  in  all — 


but  Praetorius  gives  no  nearer  indication  of 
the  compass,  and  of  course  none  of  the  pitch. 
[Hexachord.]  But  in  Virdung's  time  there 
were  thirty-five  keys  or  more,  starting  from 
the  F  below  the  bass  stave  and  embracing  the 
complete  sj^stem  of  half-tones ;  and  in  that  of 
Praetorius  at  least  four  octaves,  still  the  usual 
q»:  compass  when  J.  S.  Bach  wrote 
the  '  Wohltemperirte  Clavier.' 
By  the  middle  of  the  century 
five  octaves  were  attained.  Welc- 


m 


ker  von Gontershausen  ('Der  Clavierbau,  Frank- 
fort, 1870)  endeavours  to  find  a  solution  to  the 
keyboard  problem  by  starting  from  the  Bb  added 
to  the  B.t^of  the  earliest  clavichords,  and  assumed 
the  gradual  introduction  to  the  keyboard  of 
other  semitones,  until  the  twelve  in  the  octave 
were  complete,  an  achievement  he  attributed  to 
Zarlino  (1548).  Welcker  describes  the  oldest 
clavichord  he  had  met  with  as  bearing,  in  the 
sound -hole,  the  date  1520  ;  and  through  the  four 
octaves  of  this  instrument  the  notes  Djf  and  GJ 
were  wanting  !  But,  after  the  evidence  of  Vir- 
dung, either  Herr  Welcker  had  misread  the  date 
or  the  instrument  had  been  made  after  an  ob- 
solete pattern ;  yet  this  solitary  instance  recorded 


CLATICHOED. 


CLAY. 


369 


of  an  incomplete  ctromatic  compass  may  be  as 
the  last  word  preserved  of  a  forgotten  language, 
or  the  last  peak  above  the  -water  line  of  a  sub- 
merged island.  The  statement  of  the  comple- 
tion of  the  chromatic  scale  by  Zarlino  falls  to 
the  ground,  and  moreover,  according  to  Praetorius, 
the  organ  at  Halberstadt,  built  about  1360,  had 
in  twenty-two  notes  a  complete  chromatic  scale. 
Dr.  Rimbault  (History  of  the  Organ,  1S70)  re- 
gards this  as  the  earliest  authentic  account  of 
a  keyboard  with  half  tones. 

There  is  great  probability  that  the  Greek 
monochord,  a  string  stretched  over  a  sound- 
board, and  measured  off  into  vibrating  lengths 
by  bridges,  was  a  stepping  stone  to  the  invention 
of  the  clavichord.  Used  for  centuries  in  the 
Church  to  initiate  the  singers  into  the  mysteries 
of  Lhe  eight  tones,  it  must  at  last  have  seemed 
more  convenient  to  dispense  with  shifting  bridges, 
and  at  the  points  of  division  to  adjust  fixed 
bridges  raised  by  an  apparatus  imitated  from  the 
keys  of  the  organ,  to  press  the  strings  and 
produce  the  notes  required.  This  would  be  an 
elementary  clavichord  action,  and  may  accoimt 
for  clavichords,  and  harpsichords  too,  being  styled 
monochords  in  the  15th  and  i6th  centmies,  and 
even  as  late  as  the  iSth  (D.  Scorpione,  'Eifles- 
sione  armoniche';  Xaples,  1701").  The  earhest 
notice  of  a  monochord  among  musical  instruments 
is  to  be  found  in  Wace's '  Brut  d' Angleterre '  (circa 
A.D.  Ill  5),' Symphonies,  psalterions,monachordes.' 
Herr  Ambros  ('Geschichte,'  1S64,  vol.  ii.,  p.  199), 
from  the  silence  of  Jean  de  Muris  as  to  the 
clavichord,  though  repeatedly  enumerating  the 
stringed  instrmnents  in  use  ('Musica  Specula- 
tiva',  1323),  infers  that  it  did  not  then  exist,  and 
from  this  and  other  negative  evidence  would 
place  the  epoch  of  invention  between  1350- 
1400,  De  Muris  refers  to  the  monochord  with 
a  single  string,  but  recommends  the  use  of 
one  with  four  strings,  to  prove  intervals  not 
previously  known.  These  four  strings  were  the 
indices  to  the  eight  church  tones.  Dr.  Rimbault 
('The  Pianoforte.'  p.  36)  has  been  deceived  in 
quoting  from  Bohn's  edition  of  Sismondi  the 
well-known  advice  to  a  jongleur  by  Guiraut  de 
Calanson  (died  a.d.  1211).  It  is  there  stated 
that  the  jongleur  should  play  on  the  citole  and 
mandore,  and  handle  the  clari chord  and  guitar. 
Reference  to  the  original  (Paris  !MS.  La  Yalliere, 
No  14,  formerly  2701),  confirms  the  citole  and 
mandore,  but  instead  of  '  Clarichord'  we  find 

•  Manicorda  una  corda.'  doubtless  a  simple  mono- 
chord,  for  in  the  '  Roman  de  Flamenca'  we  find 
'I'autr'  accorda  lo  sauteri  ab  manicorda'  (the 
other  tune  the  psaltery  to  the  monochord).  In 
the  '  Dictionnaire   etymologique,'  Paris,  1750, 

*  manicordion '  is  rendered  by  monochord.  Citole 
and  mandore  are  also  there,  but  not  cla\-ichord. 

As  to  the  etymology  of  cla^'icllord  :  the  word 
clavis,  key,  in  the  solmisation  system  of  Guido 
d'Arezzo,  was  used  for  note  or  tone,  and  thus  the 
Claris  was  the  'key'  to  the  musical  sound  to  be 
produced.  The  claves  were  described  by  alpha- 
betical letters,  and  those  occup}-ing  coloured 
lines,  as  F  on  the  red  and  C  on  the  yellow,  were 


'  daves  signafae,  the  origin  of  our  modem  clefs. 
"When  the  simple  monochord  gave  place  to  an 
instrument  with  several  sti-ings  and  keys,  how 
easy  the  transference  of  this  figurative  notion 
of  cla.ves  from  the  notes  to  the  levers  producing 

I  them  !  Thus  the  name  Clavichord,  from  davis, 
key,  and  chorda,  string,  would  come  very  na- 
turallv  into  use.  (Herr  Ambros,  '  Geschichte  der 
Musik,'  vol.  ii.,  Breslau,  1S64). 

According  to  Fischhof  (Tersuch  einer  Ge- 
schichte, etc.,  1 85 3),  Lemme  of  Brunswick,  Wil- 
heLmi  of  Cassel,  Vensky,  Horn  and  Mack  of 
Dresden,  and  Kramer  of  Gottingen,  were  re- 
puted   in    the   last   century   good  clavichord 

I  makers.  Mr.  Engel  quotes  the  prices  of  Lemme's 

j  as  having  been  from  three  to  twelve  louis  d'or 
each  ;  Kramer's  from  four  to  fourteen,  according 
to  size  and  finish.  Wilhelmi  charged  from  twenty 
to  fifty  thalers  (£3  to  £7  105.).  [A.  J.H.] 

CLAVICYTHERIU:M.  An  upright  instru- 
ment allied  to  the  horizontal  harpsichord  and 
spinet,  but  concerning  which  of  all  that  tribe  we 
have  the  least  evidence.  Mr.  Carl  Engel  (De- 
scriptive Catalog-ue,  18 74"),  surmises  that  'a  pair 
of  new  long  virginalls  made  harp  fashion  of  cipres 
with  keys  of  ivory,'  mentioned  in  the  inventory 
of  King  Henry  YIII's  musical  instruments,  was 
a  clavicytherium.  He  goes  on  to  say  that  this 
instrument  had  a  stop  or  register  to  cause  the 
strings  to  be  twanged  by  small  brass  hooks, 
whereby  a  quality  of  tone  like  that  of  the  harp 
was  produced,  and  hence  the  name  'Arpichord,' 
by  which  Pnetorius  (S}'ntagma  Musicum;  Wolf- 
enbiittel,  161 9)  describes  a  clavicytherium.  [See 
Harpsichord.]  '  [A.J.H.] 

CLAYIEE.  In  French,  a  keyboard  or  set  of 
keys  of  an  organ  or  pianoforte ;  Italian  Tasta- 
turn  ;  in  German  expressed  by  Claviatur  or  Tas- 
tatur.  Clavier  in  German  is  a  pianoforte,  specially 
a  square  pianoforte,  the  prototype  of  which  is  the 
clavichord,  having  borne  the  same  name.  [Clavi- 
chord, Keyboard,  Pianoforte.]        [A.  J.H.] 

CLAY,  Frederic,  son  of  James  Clay,  M.P. 
for  Hull.  Bom  Aug.  3,  1 840,  in  the  Rue 
Chaillot,  Paris :  educated  in  music  entirely 
by  Molique,  with  the  exception  of  a  short 
period  of  instruction  at  Leipzig  imder  Haupt- 
mann.  ^Mr.  Clay's  compositions  have  been  almost 
wholly  for  the  stage.  After  two  small  pieces 
for  amateurs,  'The  Pirate's  Isle'  (1859)  and 
'Out  of  sight'  (i860),  he  made  his  public  debut 
in  1862  at  Covent  Garden  with  'Court  and 
Cottage,'  libretto  by  Tom  Taylor,  lliis  was 
followed  bv  'Constance'  (1865),  bv  'Ages  ago' 
(1S69),  'The  Gentleman  in  Black'  (1870), 
'Happy  Arcadia'  (1872),  'Cattarina'  (1874), 
'Princess  Toto,'  and  'Don  Quixote'  (both  1S75). 
In  addition  to  these  !Mr.  Clay  wrote  part  of  the 
music  for  'Babil  and  Bijou'  and  the  'Black 
Crook'  (both  iS-;2),  and  incidental  music  to 
'Twelfth  Xight'  and  to  Albery's  'Oriana.'  He 
has  also  composed  two  cantatas,  'The  Knights 
of  the  Cross'  (1866)  and  '  Lalla  Rookh,'  produced 
with  great  success  at  the  Brighton  Festival  in 
February  1877  ;  and  not  a  few  separate  songs. 


370 


CLAY. 


CLEGG. 


In  all  his  works  Mr.  Clay  shows  a  natural 
gift  of  graceful  melody  and  a  feeling  for  rich 
harmonic  colouring.  Although  highly  successful 
in  the  treatment  of  dramatic  music,  it  is  probable 
that  his  songs  will  give  him  the  most  lasting 
fame.  *She  wandered  down  the  mountain  side,' 
*Long  ago,'  and  'The  sands  of  Dee,'  among 
others,  are  poems  of  great  tenderness  and  beauty, 
and  not  likely  to  be  soon  forgotten.  [S.] 

CLAYTON",  Thomas,  was  one  of  the  king's 
band  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary.  He 
went  to  Italy  for  improvement.  On  his  return 
he  associated  himself  with  Nicola  Francesco 
Hayra  and  Charles  Dieupart,  both  excellent  mu- 
sicians, in  a  speculation  for  the  performance  of 
musical  pieces  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  Clayton 
had  brought  with  him  from  Italy  a  number  of 
Italian  songs,  which  he  altered  and  adapted  to 
the  words  of  an  English  piece  written  by  Peter 
Motteux,  called  '  Arsinoe,  Queen  of  Cyprus,'  and 
brought  it  out  in  1705  as  an  opera  of  his  own 
composition.  Elated  by  his  success  he  proceeded 
to  set  to  music  Addison's  opera,  'Rosamond,' 
which  was  performed  in  1707  and  completely 
exposed  his  incapacity.  The  speculation  however 
continued  to  be  carried  on  until  1711,  when  the 
Italian  opera  being  firmly  established  in  the 
Hajonarket,  the  managers  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
determined  to  discontinue  the  production  of  mu- 
sical pieces.  Clayton  and  his  colleagues  then 
gave  concerts  at  the  Music  Room  in  York  Build- 
ings, and  John  Hughes,  the  poet,  having  at  the 
request  of  Sir  Richard  Steele,  altered  Dryden's 
'Alexander's  Feast,'  it  was  set  to  music  by 
Clayton  and  performed  there  on  May  24,  I'Jii, 
in  conjunction  with  'The  Passion  of  Sappho,'  a 
poem  by  Harrison,  also  set  by  Clayton.  Both 
failed  from  the  worthlessness  of  the  music,  and 
have  long  since  sunk  into  oblivion ;  but  copies  of 
some  of  his  operas  which  were  printed  testify 
to  Clayton's  utter  want  of  merit  as  a  com- 
poser. [W.H.H.] 

CLEF  (Ital.  Chiave,  from  the  Lat.  Claris ; 
Ger.  Schliissel),  i.  e.  key,  the  only  musical  cha- 
racter by  which  the  pitch  of  a  sound  can  be 
absolutely  represented.  The  clefs  row  in  use  are 
three    iLjl  a  tS)-  These  severally  repre- 

only—  iHl'  g)'  ^  sent  the  sounds  known 
as  middle  C  (of  the  pianoforte),  the  G  a  fifth 
above  it,  and  the  F  a  fifth  below  it.  Two  other 
clefs,  severally  represent-  Jf  and  the  G,  a  r->.. 
ing  the  D,  a  fifth  above  seventh  below 
have  been  long  obsolete.  From  the  last  of  these, 
r,  the  Greek  gamma,  which  represents  the  lowest 
sound  of  the  musical  system,  is  derived  the  word 
gamut,  still  in  use. 

The  following  tables  (from  Koch's  Musikal- 
isches  Lexicon)  will  show  that  the  three  clefs 
now  in  use  are  but  corruptions  of  old  forms  of 
the  letters  C,  G,  and  F  :— 


One  or  other  of  these  characters,  placed  on 
one  or  other  of  the  lines  of  a  stave,  indicated, 
and  still  indicates,  the  name  and  pitch  of  the 
notes  standing  on  that  line,  and  by  inference 
those  of  other  notes  on  lines  and  spaces  above 
and  below  it. 

The  stave  which,  at  various  times  and  for 
various  purposes,  has  consisted  of  various  num- 
bers of  lines,  consists  now  commonly  of  five. 
[Stave.]  On  any  one  of  these  each  of  the  three 
clefs  might  be  (almost  every  one  has  been)  placed. 
In  the  following  examples  they  occupy  the  posi- 
tions in  which  they  are  now  most  commonly 
found  : — 


Only  however  in  its  relation  to  the  stave  of 
five  lines  can  a  clef  be  said  with  truth  to  change 
its  place.  On  the  Great  Stave  of  Eleven  Lines 
[Stave]  the  clefs  never  change  their  places ;  but 
any  consecutive  set  of  five  lines  can  be  selected 
from  it,  the  clef  really  retaining,  though  appar- 
ently changing,  its  place  : — 


From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  when 
notes  are  written  '  in  the  tenor  clef  (more 
properly  'on  the  tenor  stave')  they  are  written 
on  the  3rd,  4th,  5th,  and  6th  lines  of  the  'great 
stave'  of  eleven  ;  that  when  written  'in  the  alto 
clef  they  are  written  on  the  4th,  5th,  6th,  7th, 
and  8th  lines  of  this  great  stave ;  and  when  *  in 
the  soprano  clef  on  the  6th,  7th,  8th,  and  9th. 

The  more  familiar  '  bass  and  treble  staves ' 
consist  severally  of  the  lowest  and  the  highest 
five  lines  of  the  great  stave  : — 


F  G 

In  early  musical  MSS.  two,  and  even  three, 
clefs  are  sometimes  found  on  the  same  stave.  It 
would  be  in  no  way  inconsistent  with  modern 
theory,  and  indeed  might  be  convenient  in  books 
of  instruction,  so  to  place  them  now  : — 


[J.H.] 

CLEGG,  John,  a  distinguished  violinist, 
was  bom  in  1714,  probably  in  Ireland.  He 
appears  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Dubourg  at 
Dublin,  and  afterwards  of  Bononcini.  When 
only  nine  years  of  age  he  performed  in  London 
in  public  a  concerto  of  Vivaldi,  and  afterwards 
gained  an  eminent  position  in  the  musical  pro- 
fession, surpassing,  according  to  contemporary 


CLEGG. 


CLEMENT. 


371 


writers,  every  other  player  in  England  in  tone 
and  execution.  In  1 742  however,  owing  proba- 
bly to  excessive  practice,  he  became  insane,  and 
was  confined  in  Bedlam  Hospital,  where,  as 
Bumey  relates,  '  it  was  long  a  fashionable,  though 
inhuman  amusement,  to  visit  him  there,  among 
other  lunatics,  in  hopes  of  being  entertained  by 
his  fiddle  or  his  folly.'  Clegg  appears  also  to  have 
been  a  composer  for  his  instrument,  but  no  work 
of  his  has  come  down  to  us.  [P.  D.] 

CLEMENS  NON  PAPA,  the  sobriquet  of 
Jacques  Clement,  one  of  the  most  renowned 
musicians  of  the  i6th  century.  He  was  born 
in  Flanders,  and  succeeded  Gombert  as  chief 
Chapel-master  to  Charles  V.  Of  the  time  and 
place  of  his  birth  or  death,  or  of  any  event  of 
his  life,  nothing  is  known.  It  is  probable  that 
he  spent  several  years  in  Italy ;  and  it  is  certain 
that  he  died  before  1558,  since  a  motet  on  his 
death,  by  Jacob  Vaet,  is  contained  in  a  work 
published  in  that  year  ('Novum  et  insigne  opus 
.  .  .'tom.  I.  Noribergae,  1558).  Clement  was 
one  of  the  most  prolific  composers  of  his  day. 
This  man,  whose  very  name  is  now  known  only 
to  a  few  curious  students,  was  the  universal 
favourite  of  cultivated  Europe,  and  his  works, 
both  sacred  and  secular,  were  printed  and  re- 
printed in  every  shape,  from  costly  folios  to 
cheap  pocket  editions.  They  formed  the  gems 
of  the  various  collections  published  in  Italy, 
Germany,  Belgium,  and  France.  The  sobriquet 
itself  is  a  proof  of  the  reputation  of  the  man, 
since  it  was  intended  to  distinguish  him  from 
Pope  Clement  VI,  and  in  one  of  the  chief  col- 
lections of  the  time  he  is  styled  '  Nobilis  Clemens 
non  Papa.'  Some  of  his  works  appeared  in  1543 
(Fetis),  others  in  1 556-1 560.  Fetis  enumerates 
II  masses  and  92  motets.  Also  four  books  of 
Flemish  psalms  (Souter  Liedekens)  and  one  of 
French  chansons.  Separate  pieces  will  be  found 
in  the  'Liber  primus  Cantionum  sacrarum' 
(Louvain,  1555);  the  'Motetti  del  Labirinto' 
(Venice,  1554);  'Recueil  des  fleurs,' 

etc.  (Louvain,  1569).  Commer  has  published 
43  of  his  motets  and  chansons,  as  well  as  the 
Flemish  psalms  (Collectio  op.  mus.  batavorum). 
Proske  has  included  three  motets  in  his  '  Musica 
Divina,'  and  winds  up  a  notice  of  his  life  by 
the  following  remarks: — 'He  seems  to  have 
attempted  all  the  styles  then  known.  He  was 
no  slave  to  counterpoint,  but  for  his  time  pos- 
sessed an  extraordinary  amount  of  melodies  and 
clear  harmony.  No  one  in  his  day  surpassed 
him  for  tunefulness  and  elegance,  his  melodies 
are  far  more  fresh  and  pleasing  than  those  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  his  style  is  easy,  simple, 
and  clear.  That  he  often  pushed  imitation  too 
far  and  neglected  the  due  accentuation  of  the 
text  is  only  to  say  that  he  belonged  to  the  16th 
century.'  [G.] 

CLEMENT,  Felix,  bom  at  Paris  Jan.  13, 
1822,  composer,  and  writer  on  musical  history 
and  archaeology.  His  most  important  published 
compositions  are  choruses  for  Kacine's  '  Athalie' 
and  '  Esther.'    For  several  years  he  contributed 


largely  to  Didron's  *  Annales  archeologiques,'  thus 
preparing  himself  for  his  '  Histoire  geudrale  de  la 
Musique  religieuse'  (Paris,  1861),  in  which  are 
included  translations  from  Cardinal  Bona's  treatise 
'De  divina  Psalmodiil'  and  Formby's  'Gregorian 
chant  compared  to  modem  music'  He  has  edited 
several  books  of  religious  music  for  the  Roman 
chm-ch,  such  as  'Eucologe  en  musique  selon 
le  rit  parisien'  (Paris,  1843  and  1851);  *Le 
Paroissien  remain'  (Paris,  1854);  and  'Chants 
de  la  Sainte  Chapelle.'  His  '  Mdthode  complete 
de  Plain- Chant'  does  not  contain  anything  new, 
but  is  clear  and  orderly.  His  '  M^thode  d'orgue' 
exhibits  a  moderate  knowledge  of  thorough  bass 
and  fugue.  M.  Clement's  most  useful  compilation 
is  his  '  Dictionnaire  lyrique,'  a  convenient  list 
of  operas  on  the  plan  of  Allacci's  '  Drammaturgia,' 
compiled  from  Babault's  '  Dictionnaire  g^n^ral 
des  Theatres'  and  similar  works,  not  without 
occasional  errors  and  omissions.  Two  supple- 
mentary parts  have  been  issued,  bringing  the 
work  down  to  1873.  He  has  also  published 
'Les  Musicieus  celfebres  depuis  le  i6^me  siecle' 
(Paris,  1868,  42  portraits).  [G.C] 
CLEMENT,  Franz,  an  eminent  violin-player, 
was  bom  in  1780  at  Vienna,  where  his  father 
was  butler  in  a  nobleman's  establishment,  and  at 
the  same  time,  after  the  fashion  of  the  period, 
a  member  of  his  master's  private  band.  His 
father  and  Kurzweil,  the  leader  of  another 
nobleman's  band,  w^ere  his  teachers.  Clement 
began  to  play  the  violin  when  he  was  only  four, 
and  at  the  age  of  seven  made  his  first  successful 
appearance  in  public  at  a  concert  in  the  Imperial 
Opera-house.  He  soon  began  to  travel  with  his 
father,  and  in  1790  came  to  London,  were  he 
gave  very  successful  concerts,  some  of  which 
were  conducted  by  Haydn  and  Salomon.  He 
also  played  at  Oxford  at  the  second  concert 
given  in  celebration  of  Haydn's  installation  as 
Doctor  of  Music.  Having  returned  to  Vienna 
he  was  appointed  Solo-player  to  the  Emperor, 
and  in  1802  conductor  of  the  newly  established 
theatre  'an  der  Wien,'  which  post  he  retained 
till  181 1.  From  1812  to  1818  he  travelled  in 
Russia  and  Germany,  and  then  again  for  three 
years  conducted  the  Opera  in  Vienna.  In  182 1 
he  began  to  travel  with  the  celebrated  singer 
Catalani,  conducting  her  concerts,  and  also  was 
for  a  short  time  conductor  of  the  Opera  at 
Prague.  He  died  in  poor  circimistances  at 
Vienna  in  1842. 

Clement  was  not  only  a  remarkable  violin- 
player,  but  an  unusually  gifted  musician.  Some 
curious  facts  are  reported,  bearing  testimony 
to  his  general  musical  ability  and  especially 
to  his  prodigious  memory.  Spohr,  in  his 
Autobiography,  relates  that  Clement  after  having 
heard  two  rehearsals  and  one  performance  of 
the  oratorio  'The  Last  Judgment,'  remembered 
it  so  well,  that  he  was  able  on  the  day  after  the 
performance  to  play  several  long  pieces  from  it 
on  the  piano  without  leaving  out  a  note,  and 
with  all  the  hamionies  (no  small  item  in  a  com- 
position of  Spohr's)  and  accompanying  passages ; 
1  and  all  this  without  ever  having  seen  the  score. 

Bb2 


372 


CLEMENT. 


CLEMENTI. 


Similarly  lie  was  said  to  have  made  a  piano-score 
of  the  'Creation'  from  memory,  after  having  heard 
the  oratorio  a  few  times,  merely  with  the  help  of 
the  book  of  words,  and  that  his  arrangement  was 
so  good  that  Haydn  adopted  it  for  publication. 
If  Weber,  in  one  of  his  published  letters,  does 
not  speak  highly  of  Clement  as  a  conductor,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  Weber's  criticism  was 
seldom  unbiassed,  and  that  he  probably  felt  some 
satisfaction  at  Clement's  want  of  success  at 
Prague,  where  he  was  Weber's  successor. 

Clement's  style  was  not  vigorous,  nor  his  tone 
very  powerful :  gracefulness  and  tenderness  of 
expression  were  its  main  characteristics.  His 
technical  skill  appears  to  have  been  extraordinary. 
His  intonation  was  perfect  in  the  most  hazardous 
passages,  and  his  bowing  of  the  greatest  dex- 
terity. Beethoven  himself  has  borne  the  highest 
testimony  to  his  powers  by  writing  especially  for 
him  his  great  Violin-concerto.  The  original 
manuscript  of  this  greatest  of  all  violin- concertos, 
which  is  preserved  in  the  imperial  library  at 
Vienna,  bears  this  inscription  in  Beethoven's 
own  handwriting  : — '  Concerto  par  Clemenza 
pour  Clement,  prime  violino  e  Direttore  al 
Theatro  a  Vienne  dal  L.  v.  Bthvn.,  1806.' 
Clement  was  the  first  who  played  it  in  public, 
on  Dec.  23rd.  1806. 

If  we  hear  that  in  later  years  Clement's  style 
deteriorated  considerably,  and  that  he  yielded  to 
a  lamentable  degree  to  the  temptation  of  show- 
ing off  his  technical  skill  by  the  performance  of 
mere  tours  de  force  unworthy  of  an  earnest 
musician,  we  may  ascribe  it  to  his  unsteady 
habits  of  life,  which  brought  him  into  difficulties, 
from  which  he  had  to  extricate  himself  at  any 
price.  But  the  tendency  showed  itself  early.  It  is 
difficult  to  believe,  if  we  had  not  the  programme 
still  to  refer  to,  that  at  the  concert  at  which  he 
played  Beethoven's  Concerto  for  the  first  time, 
he  also  performed  a  set  of  variations  '  mit  umge- 
kehrter  Violine' — with  the  violin  upside  down. 

He  published  for  the  violin  25  concertinos, 
6  concertos,  12  studies,  a  great  number  of  airs 
varies  and  smaller  pieces.  For  the  piano,  a 
concerto.  For  orchestra,  three  overtures.  For 
the  stage,  an  opera  and  the  music  for  a  melo- 
drame.  AU  these  works  are  however  entirely 
forgotten.  [?•!>•] 

CLEMENT,  JoHANN  Georg,  whom  Gerber 
calls  Clementi;  bom  at  Breslau  about  1710, 
Knight  of  the  Golden  Spur,  and  Chapel-master 
for  over  fifty  years  at  the  church  of  St.  Johann 
in  Breslau.  His  numerous  compositions  for  the 
church  comprise  masses,  offertories,  Te  Deums, 
etc.,  and  a  requiem  performed  at  the  funeral  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI  (1742),  None  of  them 
have  been  published.  For  list  see  F^tis.  He  left 
two  sons,  one  at  Vienna ;  the  other  first  violin 
at  Stuttgart,  1790,  at  Cassel  1792,  and  after- 
wards Chapel-master  at  Carlsruhe.      [M.  C.  C] 

CLEMENTI,  Muzio,  bom  at  Rome  1752,  died 
at  Evesham  March  9,  1832.  dementi's  father, 
an  accomplished  workman  in  silver,  himself  of  a 
musical  turn,  observed  the  child's  uncommon 


musical  gifts  at  an  early  period,  and  induced  a 
relation  of  the  family,  Buroni,  choirmaster  at 
one  of  the  churches  at  Rome,  to  teach  him  the 
rudiments.  In  1759  Buroni  procured  him  les- 
sons in  thorough  bass  from  an  organist,  Con- 
dicelli,  and  after  a  couple  of  years'  application 
he  was  thought  sufficiently  advanced  to  com- 
pete for  an  appointment  as  organist,  which 
he  obtained.  Meanwhile  his  musical  studies 
were  continued  assiduously ;  Carpani  taught 
him  counterpoint  and  Sartarelli  singing.  When 
barely  14  Clementi  had  composed  several  con- 
trapuntal works  of  considerable  size,  one  of 
which,  a  mass,  was  publicly  performed,  and 
appears  to  have  created  a  sensation  at  Rome. 
An  English  gentleman,  Mr.  Bedford,  or  Beck- 
ford,  with  some  difficulty  induced  dementi's 
father  to  give  his  consent  to  the  youth's 
going  to  England,  when  Beckford  offered  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  his  further  education 
and  introduce  him  to  the  musical  world  of 
London.  Until  1770  Clementi  quietly  pursued 
his  studies,  living  at  the  house  of  his  protector 
in  Dorsetshire.  Then,  fully  equipped  with  musi- 
cal knowledge,  and  with  an  unparalleled  com- 
mand of  the  instrument,  he  came  upon  the  town 
as  a  pianist  and  composer.  His  attainments 
were  so  phenomenal  that  he  carried  everything 
before  him,  and  met  with  a  most  brilliant, 
hardly  precedented,  success.  From  1777  to  80 
he  acted  as  cembalist,  i.  e.  conductor,  at  the 
Italian  Opera  in  London.  In  1 781  Clementi 
started  on  his  travels,  beginning  with  a  series  of 
concerts  at  Paris ;  from  thence  he  passed,  viai 
Strasburg  and  Munich,  to  Vienna,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Haydn,  and  where,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  he 
engaged  in  a  sort  of  musical  combat  at  the  piano- 
forte with  Mozart.  Clementi,  after  a  short  pre- 
lude, played  his  Sonata  in  Bb — the  opening  of 
the  first  movement  of  which  was  long  after- 
wards made  use  of  by  Mozart  in  the  subject 
of  the  Zauberflote  overture — and  followed  it  up 
with  a  Toccata,  in  which  great  stress  is  laid 
upon  the  rapid  execution  of  diatonic  thirds  and 
other  double  stops  for  the  right  hand,  esteemed 
very  diflficult  at  that  time.  Mozart  then  began 
to  preludise,  and  played  some  variations ;  then 
both  alternately  read  at  sight  some  MS.  sonatas 
of  Paisiello's,  Mozart  playing  the  allegros  and 
Clementi  the  andantes  and  rondos  ;  and  finally 
they  were  asked  by  the  Emperor  to  take  a 
theme  from  Paisiello's  sonatas  and  accompany 
one  another  in  their  improvisations  upon  it  on 
two  pianofortes.  The  victory,  it  appears,  was  left 
undecided.  Clementi  ever  afterwards  spoke  with 
great  admiration  of  Mozart's '  singing'  touch  and 
exquisite  taste,  and  dated  from  this  meeting  a 
considerable  change  in  his  method  of  playing : 
striving  to  put  more  music  and  less  mechanical 
show  into  his  productions.  Mozart's  harsh  verdict 
in  his  letters  (Jan.  12,  1782 ;  June  7,  1783)  was 
probably  just  for  the  moment,  but  cannot  fairly 
be  applied  to  the  bulk  of  dementi's  work. 
He  disliked  Italians ;  the  popular  prejudice 
was  in  their  favour,  and  they  were  continu- 


CLEMENTI. 


CLEMENTI. 


373 


ally  in  his  way.  He  depicts  Clementi  as  *a 
mere  mechanician,  strong  in  runs  of  thirds,  but 
without  a  pennyworth  of  feeling  or  taste.'  But 
L.  Berger,  one  of  dementi's  best  pupils,  gives 
the  following  explanation  of  Mozart's  hard  sen- 
tence : — 'I  asked  Clementi  whether  in  1781  he 
had  begun  to  treat  the  instrument  in  his  pre- 
sent (1806)  style.  He  answered  no,  and  added 
that  in  those  early  days  he  had  cultivated  a 
more  brilliant  execution,  especially  in  double 
stops,  hardly  known  then,  and  in  extemporised 
cadenzas,  and  that  he  had  subsequently  achieved 
a  more  melodic  and  noble  style  of  performance 
after  listening  attentively  to  famous  singers,  and 
also  by  means  of  the  perfected  mechanism  of 
English  pianos,  the  construction  of  which  for- 
merly stood  in  the  way  of  a  cantabile  and  legato 
style  of  playing.' 

With  the  exception  of  a  concert  tour  to  Paris 
in  1785  Clementi  spent  all  his  time  up  to 
1802  in  England,  busy  as  conductor,  virtuoso, 
and  teacher,  and  amassing  a  considerable  for- 
tune. He  had  also  an  interest  in  the  firm  of 
Longman  &  Broderip,  '  manufacturers  of  musical 
instruments,  and  music-sellers  to  their  majesties,' 
The  failure  of  that  house,  by  which  he  sustained 
heavy  losses,  induced  him  to  try  his  hand  alone 
at  publishing  and  pianoforte  making ;  and  the 
ultimate  success  of  his  undertaking  (still  carried 
on  under  the  name  of  his  associate  Mr.  Collard) 
shows  him  to  have  possessed  conmiercial  talents 
rare  among  great  artists.  In  March  1807  pro- 
perty belonging  to  dementi's  new  firm,  to  the 
amount  of  £40,000,  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

Amongst  his  numerous  pupils,  both  amateur 
and  professional,  he  had  hitherto  trained  John 
B.  Cramer  and  John  Field,  both  of  whom  soon 
took  rank  amongst  the  first  pianists  of  Europe. 
In  1802  Clementi  took  Field,  via  Paris  and 
Vienna,  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  both  master 
and  pupil  were  received  with  unbounded  en- 
thusiasm, and  where  the  latter  remained  in 
affluent  circumstances.  On  his  return  to  Ger- 
many Clementi  counted  Zeuner,  Alex.  Klengel, 
Ludwig  Berger,  and  JNIeyerbeer  amongst  his 
pupils.  With  Klengel  and  Berger  he  afterwards 
went  again  to  Eussia.  In  18 10  he  returned  to 
London  for  good,  gave  up  playing  in  public,  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  composition  and  his  time  to 
business.  He  wrote  symphonies  for  the  Philhar- 
monic Society,  which  succumbed  before  those  of 
Haydn,  many  pianoforte  works,  and  above  all 
completed  that  superb  series  of  100  studies, 
Gradiis  ad  Parnassiim  (181 7),  upon  which  to  this 
day  the  art  of  solid  pianoforte  playing  rests.  In 
1820  and  21  he  was  again  on  the  continent, 
spending  an  entire  winter  at  Leipzig,  much 
praised  and  honoured.  He  lived  to  be  80,  and 
the  1 2  final  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  London. 
He  retained  his  chai'acteristic  energy  and  fresh- 
ness of  mind  to  the  last.  He  was  married  three 
times,  had  children  in  his  old  age,  and  shoii,ly 
before  his  death  was  still  able  to  rouse  a  com- 
pany of  pupils  and  admirers — amongst  whom 
were  J.  B.  Cramer  and  Moscheles — to  enthusiasm 
with  his  playing  and  improvisation. 


Clementi  has  left  upwards  of  100  sonatas,  of 
which  about  60  are  written  for  the  piano  without 
accompaniment,  and  the  remainder  as  duets  or 
trios — sonatas  with  violin  or  flute,  or  violin  or  flute 
and  violoncello  ;  moreover,  a  duo  for  two  pianos, 
6  duets  for  four  hands,  caprices,  preludes,  and 
'  point  d'orgues  composes  dans  le  gout  de  Haydn, 
Mozart,  Kozeluch,  Sterkel,  Wanhal  et  Clementi,' 
op.  19;  Introduction  a  I'art  de  toucher  le  piano, 
avec  50  le9ons;  sundry  fugues,  toccatas,  varia- 
tions, valses  etc.,  preludes  and  exercises  remark- 
able for  several  masterly  canons,  and  lastly,  as 
his  indelible  monument,  the  *  Gradus  ad  Pamas- 
siun '  already  mentioned. 

As  Viotti  has  been  called  the  father  of  violin- 
playing,  so  may  Clementi  be  regarded  as  the 
originator  of  the  proper  treatment  of  the  modem 
pianoforte,  as  distinguished  from  the  obsolete 
harpsichord.  His  example  as  a  player  and 
teacher,  together  with  his  compositions,  have 
left  a  deep  and  indelible  mark  upon  everything 
that  pertains  to  the  piano,  both  mechanically 
and  spiritually.  His  works  fill  a  large  space  in 
the  records  of  piano-playing  ;  they  are  indis- 
pensable to  pianists  to  this  day,  and  must  re- 
main so. 

In  a  smaller  way  Clementi,  like  Cherubini  in 
a  larger,  foreshadowed  Beethoven.  In  Beetho- 
ven's scanty  library  a  large  number  of  dementi's 
sonatas  were  conspicuous ;  Beethoven  had  a 
marked  predilection  for  them,  and  placed  them 
in  the  fi'ont  rank  of  works  fit  to  engender  an 
artistic  treatment  of  the  pianoforte ;  he  liked 
them  for  their  freshness  of  spirit  and  for  their 
concise  and  precise  form,  and  chose  them  above 
all  others,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  so 
experienced  a  driller  of  pianoforte  players  as  Carl 
Czerny,  for  the  daily  study  of  his  nephew. 

The  greater  portion  of  Clementi's  Gradus,  and 
several  of  his  sonatas — for  instance  the  Sonata 
in  B  minor,  op.  40  ;  the  three  Sonatas,  op.  50, 
dedicated  to  Cherubim  ;  the  Sonata  in  F  minor, 
etc. — have  all  the  qualities  of  lasting  work :  clear 
outlines  of  form,  just  proportions,  concise  and 
consistent  diction,  pure  and  severe  style  ;  their 
very  acerbity,  and  the  conspicuous  absence  of 
verbiage,  must  render  them  the  more  enduring. 

Like  his  Italian  predecessor  D.  Scarlatti, 
Clementi  shows  a  fiery  temperament,  and  like 
Scarlatti,  with  true  instinct  for  the  nature  of  the 
instrument  as  it  was  in  his  time,  he  is  fond  of 
quick  movements — quick  succession  of  ideas  as 
well  as  of  notes ;  and  eschews  every  sentimental 
aberration,  though  he  can  be  pathetic  enough  if 
the  fit  takes  him.  His  nervous  organisation 
must  have  been  very  highly  strung.  Indeed  the 
degree  of  nervous  power  and  muscular  endurance 
required  for  the  proper  execution  of  some  of  his 
long  passages  of  diatonic  octaves  (as  in  the  So- 
nata in  A,  No.  26  of  Knorr's  edition),  even  in 
so  moderate  a  tempo  as  to  leave  them  just  accept- 
able and  no  more,  from  a  musical  point  of  view 
(bearing  in  mind  Mozart's  sneer  that  he  writes 
prestissimo  and  plays  moderate,  and  recollecting 
the  diflference  in  touch  between  his  piano  and. 
ours),  is  prodigious,  and  remains  a  task  of  almost 


374 


CLEMENTI. 


CLrV^E. 


insuperable  difficulty  to  a  virtuoso  of  to-day,  in 
spite  of  the  preposterous  amount  of  time  and 
labour  we  now  devote  to  such  things. 

He  is  the  first  completely  equipped  writer  of 
sonatas.  Even  as  early  as  his  op.  2  the  form 
sketched  by  Scarlatti,  and  amplified  by  Emanuel 
Bach,  is  completely  systematised,  and  has  not 
changed  in  any  essential  point  since.  Clementi 
represents  the  sonata  proper  from  beginning  to 
end.  He  played  and  imitated  Scarlatti's  harpsi- 
chord sonatas  in  his  youth;  he  knew  Haydn's  and 
Mozart's  in  his  manhood,  and  he  was  aware  of 
Beethoven's  in  his  old  age  ;  yet  he  preserved  his 
artistic  physiognomy — the  physiognomy  not  of  a 
man  of  genius,  but  of  a  man  of  the  rarest  talents — 
from  first  to  last.  He  lived  through  the  most 
memorable  period  in  the  history  of  music.  At  his 
birth  Handel  was  alive,  at  his  death  Beethoven, 
Schubert,  and  Weber  were  buried. 

There  is  an  annoying  confusion  in  the  various 
editions  of  his  works :  arrangements  are  printed 
as  originals,  the  same  piece  appears  under  various 
titles,  etc.  etc.  The  so-called  complete  editions  of 
his  solo  sonatas — the  best,  that  published  by  Holle 
at  Wolfenbiittel,  and  edited  by  Schumann's  friend 
Julius  Knorr,  and  the  original  edition  of  Breit- 
kopf  &  Hartel,  since  reprinted  by  that  firm — are 
both  incomplete ;  the  sonatas  with  accompaniment 
etc,  are  out  of  print,  and  his  orchestral  works 
have  not  been  printed  at  all.  A  judicious  selec- 
tion from  hiy  entire  works,  carefully  considered 
with  a  view  to  the  requirements  and  probable 
powers  of  consumption  of  living  pianists,  would 
be  a  boon.  [E.D.] 

CLEMENZA  DI  TITO,  LA.  Mozart's  23rd 
and  last  opera ;  in  2  acts ;  words  adapted  from 
Metastasio  by  Mazzola.  Finished  Sept.  5,  1791, 
and  first  performed  the  following  day  at  Prague. 
At  the  King's  Theatre,  Haymarket,  March  27, 
1806.  The  autograph  is  entirely  in  Mozart's 
hand,  and  contains  no  recitatives.  They  were 
probably  supplied  by  Siissmayer.  The  German 
title  of  the  opera  is  '  Titus.'  [G.] 

CLERINI,  a  Frenchwoman,  who  had  altered 
her  name  from  Le  Clerc,  and  had  an  engagement 
at  the  Opera  in  London  in  1823  at  £150.  She 
sang  the  part  of  Servilia  in  '  La  Clemenza  di 
Tito '  that  year  ;  but,  beside  her  face,  she  had  no 
attraction.  She  appeared  again  as  Albina  in  '  La 
Donna  del  Lago '  in  the  same  season.       [J.  M.] 

CLICQUOT,  FRAN901S  Henri,  eminent  organ- 
builder,  born  in  Paris  1728,  died  there  1791. 
In  1760  he  built  the  organ  of  St.  Gervais.  In 
1765  he  entered  into  partnership  with  Pierre 
Dallery,  and  the  firm  constructed  the  organs  of 
Notre  Dame,  St.  Nicolas-des  Champs,  the  Sainte 
Chapelle,  and  the  Chapelle  du  Roi  at  Versailles. 
Clicquot's  finest  organ  was  that  of  St.  Sulpice, 
built  after  his  partnership  with  Dallery  had  been 
dissolved,  and  containing  5  manuals  and  66 
stops,  including  a  pedal-stop  of  32  feet.  For 
the  organ  in  the  Cathedral  at  Poitiers,  his  last 
work,  he  received  92,000  francs.  His  instru- 
ments were  over-loaded  with  reeds — a  common 
defect  in  French  organs.  [M.C.C.] 


CLIFFORD,  Rev.  James,  the  son  of  Edward 
Clifford,  a  cook,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalen,  Oxford,  in  1622.  In  1632  he 
was  admitted  a  chorister  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  so  remained  until  1642.  On  July  i, 
1 66 1,  he  was  appointed  tenth  minor  canon  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  and  in  1675  was  advanced  to 
the  sixth  minor  canonry.  In  1682  he  became 
senior  cardinal.  He  was  also  for  many  years 
curate  of  the  parish  church  of  St.  Gregory 
by  St.  Paul's,  and  chaplain  to  the  Society  of 
Serjeant's  Inn,  Fleet  Street.  He  died  about  the 
year  1700.  In  1663  Clifford  published,  under 
the  title  of  'The  Divine  Services  and  Anthems 
usually  sung  in  the  Cathedrals  and  Collegiate 
Choirs  of  the  Church  of  England,'  a  collection  of 
the  words  of  anthems  ;  the  first  of  its  kind  which 
appeared  in  the  metropolis.  (It  had  been  pre- 
ceded by  a  collection  compiled  and  printed  by 
Stephen  Bulkley  at  York  in  1662.)  So  great 
was  the  success  of  the  work  that  a  second  edition, 
with  large  additions,  appeared  in  1664.  To  the 
first  edition  are  prefixed  '  Briefe  Directions  for 
the  understanding  of  that  part  of  the  Divine 
Service  performed  with  the  Organ  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  on  Sundayes  and  Holydayes' ;  and  to 
the  second  chants  for  Venite  and  the  Psalms  and 
for  the  Athanasian  Creed,  The  work  is  curious 
and  interesting  as  showing  what  remained  of  the 
cathedral  music  produced  before  the  parlia- 
mentary suppression  of  choral  service  in  1644, 
and  what  were  the  earliest  additions  made  after 
the  re-establishment  of  that  service  in  1660. 
Clifford's  only  other  publications  were  'The 
Catechism,  containing  the  Principles  of  Christian 
Religion,'  and  *  A  Preparation  Sermon  before  the 
receiving  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  preached  at  Serjeants'  Inn  Chapel,  in 
Fleet  Street,'  which  appeared  together  in  1694. 
Clifford  had  a  younger  brother,  Thomas,  bom 
in  Oct,  1633,  who  was  admitted  chorister  of 
Magdalen  College  in  1642  and  resigned  in 
1645.  [W.H.H.] 

CLIVE,  Catherine,  daughter  of  William  Raf- 
tor,  an  Irish  gentleman,  was  bom  in  London  in 
1 71 1 .  Displaying  a  natural  aptitude  for  the  stage 
she  was  engaged  by  Colley  Cibber  for  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  and  made  her  first  appearance  there  in 
November  1728,  as  the  page  Ismenes,  in  Nat. 
Lee's  tragedy  '  Mithridates.'  In  1729  she  at- 
tracted great  attention  by  her  performance  of 
Phillida  in  Colley  Gibber's  ballad  opera,  '  Love 
in  a  riddle.'  Her  personation  of  Nell  in  Coffey's 
ballad  opera,  'The  Devil  to  pay,'  in  1731,  esta- 
blished her  reputation,  and  caused  her  salary  to 
be  doubled.  On  Oct.  4,  1734,  she  married  George 
Clive,  a  barrister,  but  the  pair  soon  agreed  to 
separate.  She  continued  to  delight  the  public  in 
a  variety  of  characters  in  comedy  and  comic 
opera  until  April  24,  1769,  when,  having  ac- 
quired a  handsome  competence,  she  took  leave  of 
the  stage,  and  retired  to  Twickenham,  where  she 
occupied  a  house  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Horace  Walpole's  famous  villa  at  Strawberry 
Hill,  until  her  death,  which  occurred  on  Dec.  6, 
1785.    One  of  the  most  prominent  events  in 


CLIYE. 


COCKS  &  CO. 


875 


Mrs.  Clive's  career  as  a  singer  was  Handel's 
selection  of  her  as  the  representative  of  Dalila 
in  his  oratorio  'Samson,'  on  its  production  in 
1742.  [W.H.H.] 

CLOCKIXG.    See  Cnnrrs-G. 

CLOSE  is  a  word  very  frequently  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  Cadence,  which  see.  In  ordinary 
'  nversation  it  may  very  naturally  have  a  little 

ire  expansion  of  meaning  than  its  synonym, 
it;  serves  to  express  the  ending  of  a  phrase  or 
a  theme,  or  of  a  whole  movement  or  a  section 
of  one,  as  a  fact,  and  not  as  denoting  the 
particular  succession  of  chords  which  are  re- 
cognised as  forming  a  cadence.  Hence  the 
term  'half -close'  is  very  apt,  since  it  expresses 
not  only  the  most  common  form  of  imperfect 
cadence  which  ends  on  the  dominant  instead  of 
the  tonic,  but  also  the  position  in  which  that 
form  of  close  is  usually  foimd,  viz.  not  at  the 
end  of  a  phrase  or  melody,  but  marking  the  most 
usual  symmetrical  di\-ision  into  two  parts  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  flow  of  the  complete  passage 
is  not  interrupted. 

The  word  is  also  used  as  a  verb,  where  again 
it  has  the  advantage  of  the  word  cadence,  since 
one  can  say  'Such  a  passage  closes  in  such  a 
key,'  but  one  cannot  say  '  Such  a  passage  ca- 
dences so '  ;  and  if  one  could,  it  would  hardly 
express  the  sense  so  plainly.  [C.H.  H.P.] 

CLUER,  J.,  an  engraver  and  publisher  of 
music,  who  carried  on  business  in  Bow  Church- 
yard, London,  in  the  middle  of  the  first  half  of 
the  iSth  century.    He  issued  his  publications  in 


laurel,'  to  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601. 
The  only  other  known  compositions  by  him 
are  another  madrigal,  'Xew  Fashions,'  and  an 
anthem,  'Lq  Bethlehem  towne,'  of  which  some 
separate  parts  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  Xothing  is  known  of 
his  Hfe.  [W.H.H.] 
COCCHETTA.  See  Gabeielli,  C. 
COCCHI,  GiOACCHixo,  bom  at  Padua  1720, 
died  in  Venice  1S04;  dramatic  composer;  pro- 
duced his  first  operas,  'Adelaide'  and  'Baja- 
sette,'  in  Rome  (1743  and  1746).  In  1750  he 
was  at  Naples,  and  in  1753  was  appointed 
Chapel-master  of  the  Conservatorio  degli  In- 
curabili  at  Venice.  Here  he  wrote  '  11  Pazzo 
glorioso.'  In  1757  he  came  to  London  as  com- 
poser to  the  Opera.  During  a  sixteen  years' 
residence  in  this  country  he  composed  1 1  operas, 
as  weU  as  taking  part  in  several  pasticcios.  For 
list  see  Fetis.  In  1773  he  returned  to  Venice. 
His  reputation  was  considerable  for  a  time  both 
in  Italy  and  in  this  country.  Bumey  praises  '  his 
good  taste  and  knowledge  in  counterpoint,'  but 
says  he  '  lacked  invention,  and  hardly  produced 
a  new  passage  aft^r  his  first  year  in  England.' 
He  realised  a  large  sum  by  teaching.  [M.  C.  C] 
COCCIA,  Carlo,  bom  at  Naples  1789,  date 
and  place  of  death  uncertain  ;  son  of  a  violinist, 
studied  imder  Fenaroli  and  Paisiello.  His  early 
compositions  were  remarkable  for  his  years. 
Paisiello  was  extremely  fond  of  him,  procured 
him  the  post  of  accompanist  at  King  Joseph 
Bonaparte's  private  concerts,  and  encouraged  him 


connection  with  '  B.  Creake,  at  y®  Bible,  in  Jer-  |  after  the  feilure  of  his  first  opera,  '  H  ^Matrimonio 
myn  Street,  St.  James's.'  Cluer  engraved  and  [  percambiale'  (Rome,  1S08).  Between  the  years 
published  in  1720  Handel's  Suites  de  Pieces 
pour  le  clavecin,  and  between  1723  and  1729 
nine  of  the  same  composer's  Italian  operas,  viz. 
'Giulio  Cesare,'  'Tamerlane,'  'RodeHnda,'  'Ales- 
sandro,'  'Scipione,'  '  Ricciardo  Prime,'  '  Siroe,' 
and  'Lotario.'  The  titles  of  these  operas  are 
contained  in  a  label  upon  an  engraved  emblematic 
design,  very  fairly  executed.  Cluer  also  published 
'  A  Pocket  Companion  for  Gentlemen  and  Ladies, 
being  a  collection  of  Opera  Songs  in  Svo.  size, 
never  before  attempted,'  2  vols.  He  was  mis- 
taken in  supposing  that  music  had  never  before 
been  published  in  octavo  size.  Half  a  century 
earlier  Henry  Brome,  the  bookseller,  had  adopted 
it  for  Banister  and  Low's  '  Xew  Ayres  and  Dia- 
logues,' 1678,  and  the  contemporary  French 
printers  had  for  some  years  frequently  used  it. 
Among  other  works  engraved  and  published  by 
Cluer  were  a  periodical  called  '  The  Monthly 


Apollo,  a  collection  of  Xew  Songs  and  Airs  in 
English  and  Italian,'  and  two  packs  of  '  ^Musical 
Playing  Cards.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

COBBOLD,  "WiLLiAiT,  a  composer  of  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  sixteenth,  and  early  part  of  the 
following  century,  was  one  of  the  ten  musicians 
who  harmonised  the  tunes  for  '  The  \N'hole  Booke 
of  Psalmes  with  their  wonted  Tunes  as  they  are 
song  in  Churches,  composed  into  foure  partes,' 
published  by  Thomas  Este  in  1:92.  He  con- 
tributed a  madrigal,  *  With  wreaths  of  rose  and 


1 80S  and  19  he  composed  22  operas  for  various 
towns  in  Italy,  and  two  cantatas,  one  for  the 
birth  of  the  King  of  Rome  (Treviso,  1811),  the 
other  (by  a  curious  irony,  in  which  Cherubini 
also  shared)  for  the  entry  of  the  allied  armies 
into  Paris  (Padua,  1814).  In  1820  he  went  to 
Lisbon,  where  he  composed  four  operas  and  a 
cantata,  and  thence  to  London  (August,  2.^), 
where  he  became  conductor  at  the  Opera.  He 
discharged  his  duties  with  credit,  and  profited 
by  hearing  more  solid  works  than  were  performed 
in  Italy,  as  he  showed  in  the  single  opera  he 
wrote  here,  'Maria  Stuarda'  (1827).  He  was 
also  professor  of  composition  at  the  Royal  Academy 
on  its  first  institution.  In  28  he  returned  to 
Italy.  In  33  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  England, 
and  then  settled  finally  in  Italy.  In  36  he 
succeeded  Mercadante  at  Xovara,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Inspector  of  Singing  at  the  Philharmonic 


Academv  of  Turim    His  last 


opera. 


Jl  Lacro 


delle  Fate'  (Turin,  1814),  was  unsuccessful. 
Coccia  wrote  with  extreme  rapidity,  the  entire 
opera  of  'Donna  Caritea'  (Turin,  1818),  being 
completed  in  six  days.  'ClotUde'  (Venice,  181 6), 
was  the  most  esteemed  of  all  his  works  in  Italy. 
He  was  highly  thought  of  in  his  day,  but  his 
science  was  not  sufficient  to  give  durability  to  his 
compositions.  (For  list  see  Fetis).  [;^^.C.C.] 
COCKS  &  CO.,  Robert,  one  of  the  principal 
London  music -publishing  firms.     The  business 


376 


COCKS  &  CO. 


CODETTA. 


was  established  in  1827  by  tbe  present  senior 
partner,  Robert  Cocks,  and  was  carried  on  at 
No.  20  Princes  Street,  Hanover  Square,  for  about 
21  years,  when  it  was  removed  to  No.  6  New 
Burlington  Street,  where  it  is  still  conducted. 
In  1868  Robert  Cocks  took  into  partnership  with 
him  his  two  sons,  Arthur  Lincoln  Cocks  and 
Stroud  Lincoln  Cocks.  The  present  firm  consists 
of  Robert  and  Stroud  Lincoln  Cocks.  During 
the  half  century  of  its  existence  upwards  of 
16,000  publications  have  issued  from  the  house, 
including  many  works  of  solid  and  permanent 
worth,  such  as  Czerny's  Schools  of  Practical 
Composition  and  of  the  Pianoforte ;  Spohr's 
and  Campagnoli's  Violin  Schools ;  Albrechts- 
berger's  and  Cherubini's  Treatises  on  Counter- 
point ;  Bertini's  Method ;  J.  S.  Bach's  Pianoforte 
Works,  etc.,  etc.  A  periodical,  the  Monthly 
Miscellany,  contains  original  notices  of  Beethoven 
byCzerny.  [W.H.H.] 
CODA.  Coda  is  the  Italian  for  a  tail,  and 
that  which  goes  by  the  name  in  music  is  very 
fairly  expressed  by  it.  For  it  is  that  part  which 
comes  at  the  end  of  a  movement  or  piece  of  any 
kind,  and  has  to  a  certain  extent  an  independent 
existence  and  object,  and  though  not  always  ab- 
solutely necessary  cannot  often  be  easily  dispensed 
with.  The  earliest  idea  of  a  musical  coda  was 
probably  a  few  simple  chords  with  a  cadence 
which  served  to  give  a  decent  finish  to  the  me- 
chanical puzzles  over  which  so  much  ingenuity 
was  wont  to  be  expended  in  old  days.  Por  in- 
stance when  a  number  of  parts  or  voices  were 
made  to  imitate  or  follow  one  another  according 
to  rigorous  rules  it  would  often  occur  that  as  long 
as  the  rules  were  observed  a  musical  conclusion 
could  not  be  arrived  at.  Indeed  sometimes  such 
things  were  constructed  in  a  manner  which  ena- 
bled the  piece  to  go  on  for  ever  if  the  singers 
were  so  minded,  each  following  the  other  in  a 
circle.  In  order  to  come  to  a  conclusion  a  few 
chords  would  be  constructed  apart  from  these 
rigorous  rules,  and  so  the  coda  was  arrived  at. 
Applied  to  modern  instrumental  music  this  came 
to  be  a  passage  of  optional  dimensions  which  was 
introduced  after  the  regular  set  order  of  a  move- 
ment was  concluded.  For  instance,  in  a  series  of 
variations,  each  several  variation  would  only 
offer  the  same  kind  of  conclusion  as  that  in  the 
first  theme,  though  in  a  different  form ;  and  in 
the  very  nature  of  things  it  would  not  be  sesthe- 
tically  advisable  for  such  conclusion  to  be 
very  strongly  marked,  because  in  that  case  each 
several  variation  would  have  too  much  the  char- 
acter of  a  complete  set  piece  to  admit  of  their 
together  forming  a  satisfactorily  continuous  piece 
of  music.  Therefore  it  is  reasonable  when  all  the 
variations  are  over  to  add  a  passage  of  sufficient 
importance  to  represent  the  conclusion  of  the 
whole  set  instead  of  one  of  the  separate  com- 
ponent parts.  So  it  is  common  to  find  a  fugue, 
or  a  finale  or  other  passage  at  the  end  which, 
though  generally  having  some  connection  in 
materials  with  what  goes  before,  is  not  of  such 
rigorous  dependence  on  the  theme  as  the  varia- 
tions themselves. 


Similarly  in  the  other  forms  of  instrumental 

composition  there  is  a  certain  set  order  of  subjects 
which  must  be  gone  through  for  the  movement 
to  be  complete,  and  after  that  is  over  it  is  at  the 
option  of  the  composer  to  enlarge  the  conclusion 
independently  into  a  coda.  When  the  sections 
of  a  complete  movement  are  very  strongly  marked 
by  double  bars  the  word  is  fi-equently  written,  as 
in  the  case  of  Minuet  and  Trio,  and  the  corre- 
sponding form  of  Scherzos,  which  are  mostly 
constructed  of  a  part  which  may  be  called  A, 
followed  by  a  part  which  may  be  called  B,  which 
in  its  turn  is  followed  by  a  repetition  of  the  part 
A  ;  and  this  is  all  that  is  absolutely  necessary. 
But  beyond  this  it  is  cpmmon  to  add  an  inde- 
pendent part  which  is  called  the  coda,  which 
serves  to  make  the  whole  more  complete.  In  in- 
strumental forms  which  are  less  obviously  definite 
in  their  construction,  the  coda  is  not  distinguished 
by  name,  though  easy  to  be  distinguished  in 
fact.  For  instance,  in  a  rondo,  which  is  con- 
structed of  the  frequent  repetition  of  a  theme 
interspersed  with  episodes,  when  the  theme  has 
been  reproduced  the  number  of  times  the  com- 
poser desires,  the  coda  naturally  follows  and  com- 
pletes the  whole.  The  form  of  a  first  movement 
is  more  involved,  but  here  again  the  necessary 
end  according  to  rule  may  be  distinguished  when 
the  materials  of  the  first  part  have  been  repeated 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  second,  generally  coming 
to  a  close  ;  and  here  again  the  coda  follows  ac- 
cording to  the  option  of  the  composer. 

In  modern  music  the  coda  has  been  developed 
into  a  matter  of  very  considerable  interest  and 
importance.  Till  Beethoven's  time  it  was 
generally  rather  umneaning  and  frivolous.  Mo- 
zart occasionally  refers  to  his  subjects,  and  does 
sometimes  write  a  great  coda,  as  in  the  last 
movement  of  his  Symphony  in  C,  known  as  the 
'Jupiter,'  but  most  often  merely  runs  about 
with  no  other  ostensible  object  than  to  make  the 
conclusion  effectively  brilliant.  The  independent 
and  original  mind  of  Beethoven  seems  to  have 
seized  upon  this  last  part  of  a  movement  as  most 
suitable  to  display  the  marvellous  fertility  of  his 
fancy,  and  not  unfrequently  the  coda  became  in 
his  hands  one  of  the  most  important  and  interest- 
ing parts  of  the  whole  movement,  as  in  the 
first  movement  of  the  'Adieux'  Sonata,  op.  81, 
the  last  movement  of  the  quartet  in  Eb,  op. 
127,  and  the  first  movement  of  the  Eroica 
Symphony.  Occasionally  he  goes  so  far  as  to 
introduce  a  new  feature  into  the  coda,  as  in  the 
last  movement  of  the  violin  and  pianoforte  sonata 
in  F  major,  but  it  is  especially  noticeable  in  him 
that  the  coda  ceases  to  be  merely  'business'  and 
becomes  part  of  the  sesthetical  plan  and  intention 
of  the  whole  movement,  with  a  definite  purpose 
and  a  relevancy  to  all  that  has  gone  before. 
Modern  composers  have  followed  in  his  steps, 
and  it  is  rare  now  to  hear  a  movement  in  which 
the  coda  does  not  introduce  some  points  of  in- 
dependent interest,  variety  of  modulation  and 
new  treatment  of  the  themes  of  the  movement 
being  alike  resorted  to  to  keep  up  the  interest 
till  the  last.  [C.H.  H.P.J 


CODETTA. 


COLMAN. 


377 


CODETTA  is  the  diminutive  of  Coda,  from 
which  it  offers  no  material  differences  except  in 
dimensions.  It  is  a  passage  which  occurs  inde- 
pendently after  the  set  order  of  a  piece  is  con- 
cluded, as  for  instance  in  the  combination  of  the 
minuet  and  trio,  or  march  and  trio ;  after  the 
minuet  or  march  has  been  repeated  a  short  pas- 
sage is  frequently  added  to  give  the  end  more 
completness.    [See  Coda.]  [C.H.H.R] 

COL  ARCO,  Ital.  'with  the  bow.'   See  Arco. 

COLBRAN,  Isabella  Angela,  born  at  Madrid 
Feb.  2,  1785.  Her  father  was  Gianni  Colbran, 
court-musician  to  the  King  of  Spain.  At  the 
age  of  six  she  received  her  first  lessons  in  music 
from  F.  Pareja,  of  Madrid.  Three  years  later, 
she  passed  under  the  care  of  Marinelli,  by  whom 
she  was  taught  until  Crescentini  undertook  to 
form  her  voice  and  style.  From  1806  to  15 
she  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
best  singers  in  Europe.  In  1809  she  was  prima 
donna  seria  at  Milan,  and  sang  the  year  after 
at  the  Fenice  at  Venice.  Thence  she  went  to 
Rome,  and  so  on  to  Naples,  where  she  sang  at 
the  San  Carlo  till  182 1.  Her  voice  remained 
true  and  pure  as  late  as  18 15,  but  after  that 
time  she  began  to  sing  excruciatingly  out  of 
tune,  sometimes  flat  and  sometimes  sharp.  The 
poor  Neapolitans  who  knew  her  influence  with 
Barbaja,  the  manager,  were  forced  to  bear  this  in 
silence.  She  was  a  great  favourite  with  the 
King  of  Naples  ;  her  name  became  a  party -word, 
and  the  royalists  showed  their  loyalty  by  ap- 
plauding the  singer.  An  Englishman  asked  a 
friend  one  night  at  the  San  Carlo  how  he  liked 
Mile.  Colbran  :  '  Like  her  ?  I  am  a  royalist ! '  he 
replied.  On  March  15,  1822,  at  Castenaso  near 
Bologna,  she  was  married  to  Rossini,  with  whom 
she  went  to  Vienna.  In  24  she  came  with  her 
husband  to  London,  and  sang  the  principal  part 
in  his  '  Zelmira.'  She  was  then  entirely  passee, 
and  unable  to  produce  any  effect  on  the  stage ; 
but  her  taste  was  excellent,  and  she  was  much 
admired  in  private  concerts.  On  leaving  Eng- 
land, she  quitted  the  stage,  and  resided  at  Paris 
and  Bologna.  She  was  herself  a  composer,  and 
has  left  a  few  collections  of  songs.  She  died  at 
Bologna  Oct.  7,  1845.  [J.M.] 

COLLA  PARTE  or  COLLA  VOCE,  'with 
the  part,'  denoting  that  the  tempo  of  the  ac- 
companiment is  to  be  accommodated  to  that  of 
the  solo  instrument  or  voice. 

COLLARD.  This  firm  of  pianoforte-makers  in 
Grosvenor  Street  and  Cheapside,  London,  is  in 
direct  succession,  through  Muzio  Clementi,  to 
Longman  and  Broderip,  music  publishers  located 
at  No.  26  Cheapside,  as  the  parish  books  of  St. 
Vedast' show,  as  long  ago  as  1767.  Becoming 
afterwards  pianoforte-makers,  their  instruments 
were  in  good  repute  here  and  abroad,  and  it  is  a 
tradition  that  Gieb's  invention  of  the  square 
hopper  or  .  grasshopper  was  first  applied  by  them. 
Their  business  operations  w^ere  facilitated  by 
money  advances  from  Clementi,  whose  position  as 
a  composer  and  pianist  was  the  highest  in  Eng- 
land.   The  fortunes  of  Longman  and  Broderip  do 


not  appear  to  have  been  commensurate  with  their 
enterprise:  Clementi,  about  1 798-1800,  had  to 
assume  and  remodel  the  business,  and  the  Hay- 
market  branch  passing  into  other  hands  we  find 
him  in  the  early  years  of  this  century  associated 
with  F.  W.  Collard  and  others,  presumably  out  of 
the  old  Longman  and  Broderip  concern,  pianoforte 
makers  in  Cheapside.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  genius  of  this  eminent  musician  applied 
in  a  new  direction  bore  good  fr-uit,  but  it  was 
F.  W.  Collard,  whose  name  appears  in  the  Patent 
OflBce  in  connection  with  improvements  in  piano- 
fortes as  early  as  181 1,  who  impressed  the  stamp 
upon  that  make  of  pianofortes  which  has  suc- 
cessively borne  the  names  of  'Clementi'  and  of 
'Collard  and  Collard.'  The  description  of  the 
improvements  from  time  to  time  introduced  by 
the  house  will  be  found  under  Pianoforte. 
The  present  head  of  the  firm  (1877)  is  Mr. 
Charles  Lukey  Collard.  .  [A.J.H.] 
COLLEGE  YOUTHS,  Ancient  Society  of. 
This  is  the  chief  of  the  change -ringing  societies 
of  England.  It  dates  back  to  the  early  part  of 
the  17  th  century,  and  derives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  the  students  at  the  college  founded  by 
the  renowned  Sir  Richard  Whittington  about  that 
date,  having  six  bells  in  their  college  chapel,  used 
to  amuse  themselves  by  ringing  them ;  and  the 
annals  of  the  society  show  that,  being  joined  by- 
various  gentlemen  in  the  neighbourhood,  the 
society  was  definitely  started  under  the  name 
'College  Youths'  by  the  then  Lord  Salisbury, 
Lord  Brereton,  Lord  Dacre,  Sir  Cliff  Clifton,  and 
many  other  noblemen  and  gentlemen  connected 
with  the  city  of  London,  on  Nov.  5,  1637.  There 
are  books  in  possession  of  the  society  (which  has 
gone  through  many  vicissitudes)  in  which  are 
recorded  the  performances  of  its  members  for  the 
last  150  years.  Of  late  years  the  society  has 
been  in  a  most  flourishing  condition ;  its 
books  contain  the  names  of  many  noblemen  and 
gentlemen,  not  only  as  patrons  but  as  actual  per- 
formers, and  there  are  few  counties  in  England 
in  which  it  has  not  members.  It  flourishes  also 
in  the  ringing  line,  for  there  is  no  society  of  ringers 
in  England  who  can  equal  some  of  its  later  per- 
formances, amongst  the  most  important  of  which 
should  be  mentioned  a  peal  of  15,840  changes  of 
Treble  Bob  Major  rung  by  eight  of  its  members 
in  1868  at  St.  Matthew's,  Bethnal  Green,  and 
which  lasted  without  any  pause  for  nine  hours 
and  twelve  minutes.  [C.A.W.T.] 

COL  LEGNO,  'with  the  wood,'  a  term  indi- 
cating that  a  passage  is  to  be  played  by  striking 
the  strings  of  the  violin  with  the  stick  of  the 
bow  instead  of  with  the  hair — the  effect  pro- 
duced being  something  like  that  of  guitar  and 
castanets  combined.  Amongst  others  Spohr  has 
employed  it  in  the  Finale  all'  Espagnola  of  his 
sixth  violin-concerto,  and  Auber  in  Carlo  Broschi's 
air  in  *  La  part  du  diable.'  [P.  D.] 

COLMAN,  Charles,  Mus.  Doc,  was  chamber 
musician  to  Charles  1.  After  the  breaking  out 
of  the  civil  war  he  betook  himself  to  the  teaching 
of  music  in  London,  and  was  one  of  those  who 


378 


COLMAN. 


COLTELLINI. 


taught  the  viol  lyra-way.  Some  of  his  songs  are 
contained  in  the  several  editions  of  *  Select  Mu- 
sical! Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1652,  1653  and  1659, 
and  some  of  his  instrumental  compositions  are  to 
be  found  in  'Courtly  Masquing  Ayres,'  1662. 
He  was  associated  with  Henry  Lawes,  Capt. 
Cooke,  and  George  Hudson  in  the  composition  of 
the  music  for  Sir  William  Davenant's  'First 
Day's  Entertainment  at  Rutland  House  by  De- 
clamations and  Musick,  '1657.  He  died  in  Fetter 
Lane  in  1664.  [W.H.H.] 

COLMAN,  Edward,  son  of  Dr.  Charles  Col- 
man,  was  a  singing  master  and  teacher  of  the 
lute  and  viol.  In  1656  he  and  his  wife  took 
part  in  the  performance  of  the  first  part  of  Sir 
William  Davenant's  '  Siege  of  Rhodes,'  at  Rut- 
land House,  she  playing  lanthe,  and  the  little 
they  had  to  say  being  spoken  in  recitative.  Upon 
the  re-establishment  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1 660 
Colman  was  appointed  one  of  the  gentlemen.  Of 
Mrs.  Colman,  who  was  one  of  the  first  females  who 
appeared  on  the  English  stage,  Pepys,  who  was 
well  acquainted  with  both  her  and  her  husband, 
writes,  under  date  of  Oct.  31,  1665,  'She  sung 
very  finely,  though  her  voice  is  decayed  as  to 
strength,  but  mighty  sweet,  though  soft.'  Col- 
man died  at  Greenwich  on  Sunday,  Aug.  19,  1 669. 
Some  of  his  songs  are  printed  in  '  Select  Musicall 
Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1653,  and  other  of  his 
compositions  in  Playford's  '  Musical  Companion,' 
1672.  [W.H.H.] 

COLOGNE  CHORAL  UNION,  the  English 
title  of  a  singing  society  of  men's  voices  only,  who 
visited  London  in  1853  and  54.    [See  Manner- 

GESANG-VEREIN.] 

COLOMBANI  or  COLUMBANI,  Orazio, 
born  at  Verona  in  the  1 6th  century,  eminent 
contrapuntist.  Cordelier  monk,  and  Chapel- 
master  to  the  convent  of  San  Francesco  at  Milan. 
Besides  five  collections  of  Psalms  for  5,  6,  and  9 
voices,  and  two  of  madrigals,  published  in  Italy 
(i  576-1 587)^  there  is  a  Te  Deum  of  his  in  Lind- 
ner's '  Corollario  cantionum  sacrarum,'  and  two 
Magnificats  and  some  madrigals  in  the  King  of 
Portugal's  Library  at  Lisbon.  One  of  the  Mag- 
nificats is  in  14  parts.  Colombani  united  with 
other  musicians  in  dedicating  a  collection  of 
Psalms  to  Palestrina  (1592).  [M.C.C.] 

COLOMBE  LA.  A  comic  opera  in  two  acts, 
words  by  Barbier  and  Carre,  music  by  Gounod ; 
produced  at  the  Opera  Comique,  June  7,  1866. 
The  libretto  was  translated  by  Farnie  as  'The 
Pet  Dove,'  and  produced  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on 
Sept.  20,  1870.  [G.] 

COLOMBI,  ViNCENZO,  an  Italian,  built  the 
magnificent  organ  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran  at  Rome,  in  1549.  [V.deP.] 

COLONNA,  Giovanni  Paolo,  was  bom  about 
1640,  at  Brescia  according  to  Cozzando,  but  at 
Bologna  according  to  other  authorities.  He  was 
the  son  of  Antonio  Colonna,  a  maker  of  organs, 
who  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Fabio 
Colonna  who  constructed  the  '  Penteconta 
chordon.'     The  subject  of  this  notice  studied 


music  at  Rome  under  Carissimi,  Abbatini,  and 
Benevoli.  In  1672  we  find  him  established  at 
Bologna,  where  he  was  four  times  elected  Prin- 
cipal of  the  Musical  Academy.  Among  many 
pupils  of  note  he  numbered  the  famous  and  un- 
fortunate Buononcini.  Nearly  all  his  composi- 
tions were  for  the  church,  but  he  condescended 
to  write  one  opera,  'Amilcare,'  which  was  per- 
formed at  Bologna  in  1693.  He  is  certainly 
entitled  to  take  rank  among  the  most  distin- 
guished Italians  of  his  century.  At  all  events 
his  music  is  far  above  the  level  of  his  epitaph, 
which  has  been  unfortunately  preserved  : — 

'Joannes  Paulus  canttis  basis  atque  Columna, 
Hie  situs  est ;  omnis  vox  pia  juxtk  canat.' 
He  died  on  Nov.  28, 1695.  Fetis,  in  his  'Biogra- 
phic universelle  des  Musiciens '  gives  a  list  of  his 
works  extending  to  no  less  than  44  items.  A 
Magnificat  and  Nunc  Dimittis  of  his  for  two 
choirs  are  printed  in  the  collection  of  the  Motet 
Society,  and  four  other  pieces  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
music.  [E.H.P.] 

COLOPHONIUM,  the  German  term  for  the 
rosin  used  for  fiddle  bows,  from  KoXocpwvia,  so 
called  because  the  best  rosin  came  from  Colo- 
phon, in  Asia  Minor,  the  same  place  which  gave 
its  name  to  the  imprints  of  early  books,  and  has 
thus  left  a  double  mark  on  modern  times.  In 
French,  Colophane  is  the  term  used.  [G.] 

COLORATUR.  Vocal  music  coloured,  that 
is,  ornamented,  by  runs  and  rapid  passages  or 
divisions,  where  each  syllable  of  the  words  has 
two  or  more  notes  to  it.  It  is  what  the  old  school 
called  'figurato' — figured.  Coloratur  may  be  em- 
ployed in  slow  or  fast  airs,  plaintive  or  passion- 
ate. Almost  all  the  great  airs  contain  examples  of 
it.    The  following  example  from  the  Messiah : — 


 -] 

. — 

 a 

Rejoice,     re  - 

jolce,  re  - 

joice  

greatly 

re-joice,  0 daughter  of    Zi  -  on. 


contains  both  plain  and  coloratur  passages.  On 
the  other  hand,  'How  beautiful  are  the  feet' 
(Messiah),  or  '  Hear  ye,  Israel'  (Elijah),  are  not 
coloratur  songs.  Nor  are  passages  in  which 
each  note  has  its  syllable,  as  in  Schumann's 
'Die  Rose,  die  Lilie,'  or  Mozart's  'La  piccina' 
(Madamina),  however  rapid  they  may  be.  [G.] 

COLPORTEUR,  LE,  ou  l'enfant  du  buche- 
RON,  lyric  drama  in  3  acts ;  words  by  Planard, 
music  by  Onslow;  produced  in  Paris  Nov.  22, 
1827.  Given  at  Drury  Lane  as  'The  Emissary; 
or,  the  Revolt  of  Moscow,'  May  13,  1831.  The 
overture  was  formerly  a  favourite  at  classical 
concerts.  [G.] 

COLTELLINI,  Celeste,  bom  at  Leghorn 
1 764,  death  uncertain  ;  daughter  of  a  poet  and 
a  celebrated  singer,  made  her  first  appearance  at 
Naples  in  1781.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II  en- 
gaged her  for  the  Opera  at  Vienna  in  1783,  and 


COLTELLINI. 


COMIC  OPERA.  379 


she  did  not  return  to  Naples  till  1790.  She 
married  a  French  merchant  named  Mericofre, 
and  retired  from  the  stage  in  1795.  Her  voice 
was  a  mezzo-soprano,  and  she  excelled  in  the  ex- 
pression of  sentiment.  Paisiello  wrote  his  'Nina' 
for  her,  and  on  one  occasion  as  she  was  singing 
the  air  '  II  mio  ben  quando  verrk  ?'  a  lady  among 
the  audience  burst  into  tears,  crying  aloud  'Si, 
si,  lo  rivedrai  il  tuo  Lindoro.'  [M.C.  C] 

COMBINATION  PEDALS  (Pedales  de  com- 
hinaison)  are  an  ingenious  modern  French  inven- 
tion originating  with  the  eminent  firm  of  CavaiUd- 
Col.  Instead  of  operating  upon  the  draw-stops 
they  act  upon  the  wind-supply,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  A  great  organ  contains,  say, 
twelve  stops.  The  first  four  (1-4)  will  be  placed 
on  one  sound-board ;  the  next  four  (5-8)  on  a 
second  ;  and  the  remaining  four  (9-1 2)  on  a  third 
sound-board.  Each  sound-board  receives  its  wind- 
supply  through  its  own  separate  wind-trunk,  and 
in  that  wind-trunk  is  a  ventil  which  when  open 
allows  the  wind  to  reach  the  sound-board,  and 
when  closed  intercepts  it ;  which  ventil  the  or- 
ganist controls  by  means  of  a  pedal.  The  ad- 
vantages of  the  ventil  system  are,  first,  that 
instead  of  the  stops  coming  into  use  in  certain 
fixed  and  invariable  groups,  any  special  combi- 
nation can  be  first  prepared  on  the  three  sound- 
boards, and  then  be  brought  into  use  or  silenced 
at  the  right  moment  by  simply  the  admission  or 
exclusion  of  the  wind.  Moreover  their  action  is 
absolutely  noiseless,  as  it  consists  in  merely  open- 
ing or  closing  a  valve,  instead  of  shifting  a 
numlDer  of  long  wooden  sliders  to  and  fro.  The 
objection  has  been  raised,  that  in  the  ventil 
system  the  stops  no  longer  'register'  what  is 
about  to  be  heard ;  and  the  extreme  case  is  cited 
that  every  stop  in  the  organ  may  be  drawn,  and 
yet  no  sound  respond  to  the  touch  if  the  ventils 
be  closed.  [E.J.H.] 

COME  SOPHA,  'as  above';  when  a  passage 
or  section  is  repeated,  to  save  the  trouble  of 
recomposing,  reprinting,  or  recopying. 

COMES,  Juan  Baptista,  born  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Valencia  about  1560  ;  Chapel -master  of 
the  Cathedral  and  of  the  Church  del  Patriarca 
at  Valencia.  His  compositions,  said  to  be  ex- 
cellent, are  to  be  found  mainly  at  Valencia  and 
in  the  Escurial.  Eslava  in  his  '  Lira  sacra'  pub- 
lishes a  set  of  Christmas  Day  responses  for  three 
choirs  in  twelve  parts,  which  amply  justify 
Comes'  reputation  in  Spain.  [M.C.C.] 

COMETTANT,  Oscar,  bom  at  Bordeaux, 
April  18,  1819,  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire 
in  Nov.  1839,  where  he  studied  under  Elwart 
and  Carafa  till  the  end  of  43.  He  first  became 
known  as  a  pianist,  and  as  the  author  of  a 
number  of  pieces  for  that  instrument,  duets  for 
piano  and  violin,  as  well  as  songs  and  choruses. 
He  also  came  forward  as  a  writer,  and  soon 
obtained  reputation  as  the  musical  critic  of  the 
'Sifecle,'  with  which  he  is  still  connected  (1877). 
Comettant  has  an  easy,  humorous,  brilliant 
style ;  he  is  a  great  traveller,  and  has  published 
a  large  number  of  books  on  various  subjects  which 


are  both  instructive  and  pleasant  reading.  Of 
his  musical  works,  the  following  are  among  the 
most  impoi:tant :  —  Trois  ans  aux  Etats-unis 
(Paris  1858);  La  Propri^td  intellectuelle,  etc. 
(Paris  1858)  ;  Histoire  d'un  inventeur  au 
I9feme  Si^cle  (Paris  i860) — a  life  of  Adolphe 
Sax,  and  defence  of  his  claims ;  Musique  et 
Musiciens  (Paris  1862) — a  collection  of  articles 
originally  published  in  the  'Sifecle';  Le  Dane- 
mark  tel  qu'il  est  (Paris  1865)  ;  La  Musique,  les 
Musiciens,  et  les  Instruments  de  musique  chez  les 
difFerents  peuplesdu  monde  (Paris  1869) — an  im- 
portant work,  written  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Exhibition  of  1867;  Les  Musiciens,  les  Philo- 
sophes,  et  les  Gaietes  de  la  Musique  en  chiffres 
(Paris  1870) — a  polemical  treatise.  [Gr.  C] 

COMIC  OPERA.  Opera  has  in  recent  times 
been  cultivated  more  or  less  successfully  by  every 
people  having  any  claim  to  be  called  musical. 
The  particular  branch  of  it  which  is  the  subject 
of  this  article,  as  it  originated,  so  it  has  attained 
its  highest  development,  among  the  French.  In 
the  dramas  with  music  of  the  Trouvferes  of  the 
1 3th  century  we  find  at  least  the  germ  of  '  opera 
comique';  and  in  one  of  them,  *Li  Gieus  de 
Robin  et  de  Marion,'  of  Adam  de  la  Hale, 
which  has  reached  us  intact,  an  example  of  its 
class  of  great  interest,  whether  regarded  from 
a  literary  or  a  musical  point  of  view.  The 
renascence  of  'opera  comique'  in  France  dates 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  and  is 
attributable  in  great  part  to  the  decline  in  popu- 
larity of  the  style  of  Lully  and  his  imitators. 
In  his  '  ParaUele  des  Italiens  et  des  Francais,  en 
ce  qui  regarde  la  musique  et  les  opera,' — the  re- 
sult of  a  visit  to  Naples,  the  school  of  which 
under  Alessandro  Scarlatti  had  already  given 
earnest  of  its  future  supremacy — the  Abbe  Fran- 
9ois  Raguenet  first  gave  utterance  to  the  extent 
of  this  decline  in  the  year  1702.  Some  years 
prior  to  this  publication  d'Allard  and  Vander- 
berg,  proprietors  of  'marionette'  or  puppet  the- 
atres, had  introduced  music  into  their  perform- 
ances at  the  '  Foire  St.  Germain'  with  such 
success  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Lully,  who 
obtained  an  order  forbidding  the  performance  of 
vocal  music  in  the  marionette  theatre,  and  re- 
ducing the  orchestra  to  four  stringed  instruments 
and  an  oboe.  Moreover  the  entrepreneurs  of 
the  'Comedie  Fran^aise,'  on  whose  domain  the 
marionettes  would  seem  considerably  to  have 
encroached,  obtained  another  order  forbidding 
even  speech  in  their  representations.  At  the  in- 
stigation of  two  ingenious  playwrights,  Chaillot 
and  Remy,  the  difficulty  created  by  these  orders 
was  in  some  sort  met  by  furnishing  each  per- 
former with  a  placard  on  which  were  inscribed 
the  words  he  would  or  should  have  uttered  under 
other  circumstances.  These  placards,  of  necessity 
large,  being  found  to  impede  the  action  and  even 
sight  of  the  performers,  their  'parts'  were  subse- 
quently appended  to  the  scene.  The  utterance, 
musical  or  other,  of  the  songs  of  which  these 
were  largely  made  up,  though  forbidden  to  the 
actors  were  not  unallowable  for  the  audience, 
who,  perfectly  familiar  with  the  airs  to  which 


380  COMIC  OPEEA. 


COMMER. 


(vaudeville- wise)  they  had  been  written,  took  on 
themselves  ttis  poi-tion  of  the  dumb  actors' 
duties — doubtless  with  sufficient  spirit  and  in- 
tensity. The  popularity  of  these  performances, 
which,  in  spite  or  because  of  the  restrictions 
upon  them,  increased  day  by  day,  eventually 
brought  about  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
would-be  monopolists  of  speech  and  song  and  the 
'marionettes.'  In  1716  Catherine  Vanderberg, 
then  directress,  obtained  a  licence  for  the  pre- 
sentation of  dramatic  pieces  interspersed  with 
singing  and  dancing,  and  accompanied  by  instru- 
ments, to  which  the  ^  name  '  opdra  comique'  was 
given,  and  has  since  inFrance  always  been  applied. 

Meanwhile  the  numerous  alumni  of  the  Nea- 
politan school,  of  whose  existence  the  Abbe 
Kaguenet  had  first  made  his  countrymen  aware, 
had  been  continuing  the  important  work,  ini- 
tiated by  the  Florentine  Academy  a  century 
earlier,  of  cultivating  and  refining  musical  ex- 
pression— the  widest  sphere  for  whose  exercise  is 
unquestionably  the  musical  drama.  As  among 
the  French  'opera  comique,^  so  among  the 
Italians  'opera  huffa,^  took  root  and  flourished, 
though  restricted  for  a  long  time  to  short  pieces 
of  one  act  only,  which  were  given  (as  'diver- 
tissements' continued  to  be  till  our  own  time) 
between  the  acts  of  'opere  serie.'  One  of  the 
most  successful  of  these  (it  still  keeps  the  stage), 
the  'Serva  Padrona'  of  Pergolesi,  was  produced 
in  Paris  by  French  performers  in  1746 — ten 
years  after  the  untimely  death  of  its  composer — 
with  favour,  but  without  any  perceptible  effect 
on  the  French  taste.  But  its  second  production, 
in  1752,  resulted  in  bringing  the  new  Italian 
and  the  old  French  tastes  into  direct  and  fierce 
antagonism.  Among  the  leaders  in  this  war, 
of  which  that  of  the  Gluckists  and  Piccinnists 
was  but  a  continuation,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished was  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  who 
indulged  his  love  of  paradox  to  the  extent  of 
endeavouring  to  prove  that,  the  French  lan- 
guage being  incapable  of  association  with  music, 
French  music  was  and  always  must  be  non- 
existent. Rousseau's  practical  commentary  on 
this  thesis  was  the  subsequent  and  very  success- 
ful production  of  '  Le  Devin  du  Village.' 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  comic 
opera  has  everywhere  divided  with  serious  the 
attention  and  aff'ection  alike  of  composers  and 
audiences.  Among  every  people  cultivating  mu- 
sical drama  it  has  had  its  creators  and  admirers. 
The  conditions  of  comic  opera  in  Italy  and 
France,  where  it  has  as  yet  taken  the  deepest 
root  and  branched  out  most  luxuriantly,  have 
remained  unchanged  since  its  first  growth  in 
either  country.  In  the  former  the  dialogue  of 
opera  is  still  uttered  musically ;  in  the  latter  it' 
is  for  the  most  part  spoken.  A  class  of  come- 
dian has  consequently  been  formed,  and  indeed 
brought  to  perfection,  in  France,  which  has  no 
existence  in  Italy — a  class  formed  of  actors,  and 
therefore  on  the  French  stage  speakers,  who  are 
also  not  unfrequently  singers  of  considerable,  and 

1  Comic  opera  is  the  opera  of  comedy,  not  '  comic '  in  the  vulgar 
EuKlish  seuse. 


indeed  very  considerable,  skill.  On  the  Italian 
stage  the  singing  actor  never  speaks.  The 
progress  therefore  of  comic  opera  in  the  direction 
it  has  taken  in  France  has  in  Italy  been  impos- 
sible ;  and  whether  from  this  or  some  other 
cause  productiveness  in  this  delightful  form  of 
art  on  the  part  of  Italian  composers  may  be  said 
to  have  come  to  an  end.  More  than  sixty  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  production  of  '  II  Bar- 
biere,'  thirty  since  that  of  'Don  Pasquale,' 
Moreover  some  of  the  best  modern  works  of  this 
class,  whether  by  Italian  or  other  composers, 
have  been  formed  on  the  French  model  and  first 
produced  on  the  French  stage.  *  Le  Comte  Ory' 
of  Rossini,  and  'La  Fille  du  Regiment'  of  Doni- 
zetti, are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  French 
operas.  The  present  undisputed  representative 
of  Italian  musical  drama,  Verdi,  made  some  ex- 
periments in  opera  buffa  at  the  outset  of  his 
career;  but  with  such  small  success  as  to  have 
discouraged  him  from  renewing  them.  [J.H.] 

COMMA.  A  comma  is  a  very  minute  interval 
of  sound, the  difierence  resulting  from  the  processof 
tuning  up  by  several  steps  from  one  note  to  another 
in  two  different  ways.    There  are  two  commas. 

I.  The  common  comma  is  found  by  tuning  up 
four  perfect  fifths  from  a  fixed  note,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  two  octaves  and  a  major  third  on  the 
other,  which  ostensibly  produce  the  same  note, 
thus — 

 ^  ^  ;g: 


or  by  multiplying  the  number  of  the  vibrations 
of  the  lowest  note  by  ^  for  each  fifth,  by  2  for 
each  octave,  and  by  4  ^or  the  perfect  third. 
The  result  in  each  case  will  be  found  to  be 
different,  and  the  vibrations  of  the  two  sounds 
are  found  by  the  latter  process  to  be  in  the  ratio 
of  So  :  81.  The  diff'erence  between  the  two  is 
a  comma. 

2 .  The  comma  maxima,  or  Pythagorean  comma, 
is  the  difference  resulting  from  the  process  of 
tuning  up  twelve  perfect  tifths  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  corresponding  number  of  octaves  on  the 
other ;  or,  by  multiplying  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions of  the  lowest  note  by  #  for  every  fifth,  and 
by  2  for  every  octave.  The  difference  will 
appear  in  the  vibration  of  the  two  notes  thus 
obtained  in  the  ratio  of  524,288  :  551,441,  or 
nearly  80  :  81-0915. 

Other  commas  may  be  found  by  analogous 
processes,  but  the  above  two  are  the  only  ones 
usually  taken  account  of.  [C.H.H.P.] 

COMMANO,  Giovanni  Giuseppe,  an  Italian 
basso,  engaged  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  Handel's 
company  in  1 731.  He  sang  the  part  of  the 
Mago,  originally  intended  for  a  tenor,  in  the 
revival  of  '  Rinaldo '  in  that  year ;  and  that  of 
Timagene  in  'Poro.'  His  name  does  not  occur 
again.  [J-M.] 

COMMER,  Fbanz,  born  Jan.  23,  18 13,  at 
Cologne,  a  pupil  of  Joseph  Klein,  Leibl,  Rungen- 
hagen,  A.  W.  Bach,  and  A.  B.  Marx ;  librarian  to 


COMMER. 


COMMUNION  SERVICE.  381 


the  'Konigliclie  Musik-Institut,'  choir-master  at 
the  Catholic  church  of  St.  Hedwig  in  Berlin 
(1846),  member  of  the  *  Akademie  der  Kiinste,' 
and  joint-founder  with  Theodor  Kullak  of  the 
Berlin  'Ton-Kiinstler-Verein.'  He  is  best  known 
as  the  editor  of  the  following  important  works  : — 
'  Collectio  operum  musicorum  Batavorum  saeculi 
XVi;  12  vols.;  'Musica  sacra  XVI,  XVII, 
saeculorum,'  13  vols.,  containing  organ-pieces, 
masses  and  motets  for  men's  voices  and  full  choir  ; 
'Collection  de  compositions  pour  I'orgue  des 
XVI,  XVII,  XVIII  sifecles,'  6  parts.  'Cantica 
sacra  .  .  .  aus  den  XVI-XVIII  Jahrh.'  2  vols. 
Commer  has  also  composed  some  church  music, 
Lieder  and  dances  for  pianoforte.  [A.  M.] 

COMMON  TIME.    The  rhythm  of  two  or 
four  beats  in  a  bar,  also  called  Equal  time. 
11  According  to  the  method  of  teaching  usually 
II  observed  in  England,  common  time  is  divided 
i|  into  two  kinds,  Simple  and  Compound,  Simple 
!  common  time  including  all  rhythms  of  two  or 
j  four  in  a  bar,  except  those  in  which  the  'measure 
i  note,'  or  equivalent  of  a  beat,  is  dotted  ;  while  a 
'  rhythm  of  two  or  four  beats,  each  of  which  is 
dotted  and  therefore  divisible  into  three,  is  called 
I   Compound  common  time.    Thus  4-4  time  or 
I   four  crochets  in  a  bar,  and  2-4  or  two  crochets, 
are  simple  common  times ;  while  6-4  or  six 
crochets,  6-8  or  six  quavers,  and  12-8  or  twelve 
quavers,  are  compound  common,  because  though 
the  number  of  beats  in  a  bar  is  even,  each  beat 
is  of  the  value  of  three  crochets  or  quavers  re- 
spectively, and  may  be  expressed  by  a  dotted 
note.    A  better  and  more  logical  method  is  that 
taught  in  Germany,  by  which  all  rhythms  are 
divided  into  Equal  and  Unequal,  that  is  having 
two  or  three  beats  as  a  foundation,  and  each  of 
thtse  again  into  Simple  and  Compound;  simple 
rhythms  being  such  as  have  either  two  or  three 
beats  in  a  bar,  the  first  alone  accented,  and  com- 
pound rhythms  those  in  which  each  bar  is  made 
up  of  two  or  more  bars  of  simple  time,  and 
which  have  therefore  two  or  more  accents,  the 
I   first  being  the  strongest.    It  will  be  seen  that 
I    according  to  this  system,  4-4  time,  which  we 
I   call  simple  common  time,  will  be  considered  as 
compound  common,  being  made  up  of  two  bars 
of  2-4  time,  just  as  6-8  is  compound  common, 
being  made  up  of  two  bars  of  3-8  time.  And 
this  plan  has  the  advantage  that  it  allows  for  the 
secondary  accent  which  properly  belongs  to  the 
third  beat  of  a  bar  of  4-4  time,  but  which  is  not  ac- 
counted for  by  the  theory  that  the  time  is  simple. 

Although  the  term  common  time  is  generally 
applied  to  all  equal  rhythms,  it  properly  belongs 
only  to  that  of  four  crochets  in  a  bar,  the  tempo 
ordinario  of  the  Italians,  denoted  by  the  sign 
C,  which  is  a  modernized  form  of  the  semi- 
circle Q  of  the  ancient  'measured  music,'  in 
which  it  signified  the  so-called  'tempus  imper- 
fectum'  or  division  of  a  breve  into  two  semi- 
breves,  in  contradistinction  to  'tempus  per- 
fectum'  in  which  the  breve  was  worth  three. 
Another  relic  of  the  ancient  time-signatures 
which  is  of  importance  in  modern  music  is  the 
sign  of  the  'diminutio  simplex,'  which  was  a 


semicircle  crossed  by  a  vertical  line  (J ,  and  indi- 
cated a  double  rate  of  speed,  breves  being  sung 
as  semibreves,  semibreves  as  minims,  and  so  on. 
The  modem  form  of  this  sign,  ^,  has  much  the 
same  signification,  and  indicates  the  time  called 
'alia  breve,'  or  two  minims  in  a  bar  in  quick 
tempo.    [See  Breve.]  [F.  T.] 

COMMUNION  SERVICE.  The  ancient 
counterpart  of  the  English  Communion  Service,  the 
Mass,  has  always  been  looked  upon  by  those  who 
have  held  music  to  be  an  important  part  of  wor- 
ship as  a  fit  opportunity  for  displaying  the  grand- 
est resources  of  musical  effect.  The  magnificent 
works  which  have  been  produced  by  great  masters 
for  the  use  of  the  Roman  church  are  well  known 
to  musicians,  but  for  a  variety  of  reasons  which 
this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss,  the  English  Com- 
munion Service  has  not  been  so  fortunate,  though 
the  words  available  for  musical  purposes  are  al- 
most the  same.  Most  of  those  remarkable  com- 
posers who  wrote  the  music  for  the  English  services 
in  the  early  days  of  the  Reformation  have  been  far 
less  liberal  of  their  attention  to  this  than  to  the 
ordinary  Morning  and  Evening  Services,  having 
been  content  to  write  music  merely  for  the  Creed 
and  the  Kyrie,  and  sometimes  the  Sanctus.  This 
was  evidently  not  the  intention  of  the  compilers 
of  the  service,  nor  was  it  the  idea  of  Marbeck,  who 
adapted  the  first  music  for  it.  In  the  first  Prayer 
Book  of  Edward  VI  the  Communion  Service  was 
ordered  to  be  introduced  by  an  *  Introit,'  accord- 
ing to  an  ancient  custom  of  the  Western  church, 
which  was  sung  to  a  chant.  This  injunction  was 
omitted  in  later  editions,  but  the  custom  of  singing 
while  the  priest  goes  up  to  the  altar  still  continues, 
though  there  is  no  rubrical  direction  for  it.  At 
one  time  it  became  customary  to  sing  a  Sanctus, 
but  that  seems  to  be  growing  into  disfavour  at 
the  present  time. 

The  Offertory  sentences  were  ordered  to  be  said 
or  sung,  and  for  them  also  there  is  music  in  Mar- 
beck,  but  none  in  later  composers  of  the  early 
period,  probably  because  the  word  'sung'  was 
afterwards  struck  out  of  the  rubric,  and  the  sen- 
tences ordered  to  be  read  by  the  priest — an  order 
which  does  not  now  prevent  their  being  sung  by 
the  choir  in  many  churches  after  the  manner  of 
an  anthem.  The  Kyrie  which  foUows  each  com- 
mandment is  almost  universally  sung  wherever 
there  is  any  music  in  the  service  at  all,  and  the 
settings  of  it  are  fairly  innumerable.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  vary  the  monotony  of 
the  repetitions  by  setting  each  to  different  music, 
by  varying  the  harmonies  of  a  common  melody,  or 
by  alternating  harmony  and  unison  of  the  voices. 
The  latter  probably  best  hits  the  desired  mean 
between  musical  effect  and  comprehensibility. 

The  Creed  has  invited  most  composers  who 
have  written  for  the  service  at  all.  Marbeck's 
setting  of  it  with  the  '  Gloria  in  excelsis '  is  the 
freest  and  most  musical  of  all  his  arrangement. 
[Creed.]  With  the  Creed  most  frequently  ends 
the  musical  part  of  the  service,  probably  be- 
cause there  has  been  a  very  general  prejudice 
against  unconfirmed  choir -boys  being  present  at 
the  celebration.    Hence  also  there  is  not  much 


382         COMMUNION  SERVICE. 


COMPOSITION  PEDALS. 


music  written  for  the  latter  part,  though  Marbeck's 
and  Tallis's  settings  go  throughout  the  service  to 
the  end.  Marbeck's  work  embraces  a  good  deal 
which  is  not  sung  now,  such  as  the  versicles  with 
which  the  Post  Communion  used  to  begin,  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer  which  used  to  follow  them,  and  now 
begins  the  Post  Communion,  the  versicles  having 
been  removed.  But  though  the  Lord's  Prayer  is 
still  retained,  it  is  not  customary  to  sing  it  as  used 
to  be  done  in  the  Roman  and  in  the  early  days  of 
the  English  church.  Marbeck's  setting  of  it  is  to 
what  is  called  a  varied  descant,  and  the  chants 
for  the  versicles  are  most  of  them  drawn  from  old 
Roman  antiphonaria.  The  Sanctus  has  been  more 
frequently  set  than  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  probably 
because  it  was,  as  before  mentioned,  used  out  of  its 
proper  place  while  the  choir-boys  were  still  in 
church. 

In  the  primitive  church  it  was  customary  to 
sing  a  psakn  while  the  people  were  communi- 
cating. It  was  called  'communio.'  The  psalm 
*  0  taste  and  see '  was  so  sung  in  the  churches  of 
Jerusalem  and  Antioch  in  the  4th  century.  In 
the  first  edition  of  the  English  Prayer  Book  this 
custom  was  ordered  to  be  preserved,  but  the  in- 
junction was  afterwards  removed.  [C.H.H.P.] 

COMPASS,  from  the  Latin  compassus,  *a 
circle,'  designates  the  range  of  notes  of  any  voice 
or  instrument  as  lying  within  the  limits  of  the 
extreme  sounds  it  is  capable  of  producing. 

The  compass  of  the  various  instruments  which 
are  in  use  in  modem  music  will  be  found  under 
their  respective  names ;  but  it  may  be  said  gen- 
erally that  it  is  limited  in  the  direction  of  the 
bass,  but  often  varies  in  the  direction  of  the  treble 
according  to  the  skill  of  the  player,  except  in 
instruments  of  fixed  intonation. 

The  compass  of  a  modern  orchestra  is  gene- 
rally from  about  the  lowest  8va  ^ 
note  of  the  double  basses  to  ^ 
about  E  in  altissimo,  which  ^ 
can  be  taken  by  the  violin  if 
properly  led  up  to.  -J- 

The  compass  of  voices  for  chorus  purposes  is 
from  F  below  the  bass  stave  to  A  above  the 
treble  stave.  Solos  are  not  often  written  above 
C  in  alt,  except  for  special  singers  ;  as  the  part  of 
Astrafiammante  in  Mozart's  '  Zauberflcite,'  which 
was  written  for  Josepha  Hofer,  his  sister-in-law, 
and  goes  up  to  F  in  altissimo.    [See  Agujari.] 

The  compass  of  voices  varies  much  in  different 
climates.  In  Russia  there  are  said  to  be  basses 
of  extraordinary  depth,  capable  of  taking  the  F 
an  8ve  below  the  bass  stave.  Basses  are  not 
often  heard  in  England  who  can  go  below  lower  C, 
which  is  a  fifth  above  that.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

COMPERE,  LoYSET,  eminent  contrapuntist  of 
the  1 5th  century,  chorister,  canon,  and  chancellor 
of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Quentin,  where  he  was 
buried  15 18.    In  Crespel's  lament  on  the  death 
of  Okeghem  he  is  mentioned  among  the  dis- 
tinguished pupils  of  the  latter — 
'Agricola,  Verbonnet,  Prioris, 
Josquin  des  Prbs,  Gaspard,  Brumel,  Compare, 
Ne  parlez  plus  de  joyeulx  chants,  ne  ris, 


i 


Mais  composez  un  ne  ricorderis, 
Pour  lamenter  notre  maistre  et  bon  pbre.' 
His  reputation  stood  high  with  the  contrapuntists 
of  his  own  and  the  succeeding  age,  and  it  is 
amply  sustained  by  the  few  compositions  which 
are  known  to  be  his.  These  are,  two  motets  in 
Petruccio  di  Fossombrone's  '  Motetti  XXXIII' ; 
2 1  compositions  in  Petruccio's  *  Harmonice  Mu- 
sices  Odhecaton* ;  two  songs  in  Petruccio's  col- 
lection of  'Frottole';  an  'Asperges'  and  a 
•Credo,'  both  a  4,  in  Petruccio's  'Fragmenta 
Missarum' ;  a  motet  '0  bone  Jesu,'  signed  simply 
Loyset,  in  Petruccio's  'Motetti  della  Corona'; 
some  motets  in  the  collection  'Trium  vocum 
Cantiones'  (Nuremberg,  1 541),  and,  fiinally,  a 
curious  five-part  motet,  now  in  the  Pope's  Chapel, 
in  which  the  tenor  and  second  alto  sing  'Fera 
pessima  devoravit  filium  meum  Joseph,'  while  the 
treble,  first  alto,  and  bass  are  recounting  the  in- 
juries received  by  Pope  Julius  II  from  Louis  XII 
of  France.  Compere  has  been  confounded  with 
Pidton,  who  had  the  same  Christian  name — 
Loyset,  a  diminutive  of  Louis.  The  confusion 
arises  from  the  practice  of  the  early  masters,  of 
signing  their  compositions  with  the  Christian 
name  alone.  [M.  C.  C] 

COMPOSITION  means  literaUy  'putting  to- 
gether,' and  is  now  almost  exclusively  applied  to 
the  invention  of  music — a  novelist  or  a  poet 
being  never  spoken  of  as  a  composer  except  by 
way  of  analogy,  but  a  producer  of  music  being 
almost  invariably  designated  by  that  title. 
'Gedichtet,'  says  Beethoven,  *oder  wie  man 
sagt,  componirt'  (Briefe,  Nohl,  no.  200).  As 
far  as  the  construction  of  a  whole  movement 
from  the  original  ideas  is  concerned  the  word  is 
perhaps  not  ill  adapted,  but  for  the  ideas  them- 
selves nothing  could  be  more  inappropriate.  For 
the  mysterious  process  of  originating  them  the 
word  'invention'  seems  more  suitable,  but  even 
that  does  not  at  all  describe  it  with  certainty.  It 
is  the  fruit  sometimes  of  concentration  and  some- 
times of  accident ;  it  can  hardly  be  forced  vnth 
success,  though  very  ingenious  imitations  of  other 
peoples'  ideas  to  be  made  to  look  like  new  may 
be  arrived  at  by  practice  and  the  habitual  study 
of  existing  music.  Nevertheless  the  title  of  com- 
poser, though  only  half  applicable,  is  an  honour- 
able one,  and  those  who  do  put  together  other 
people's  ideas  in  the  manner  which  should  best 
justify  the  title  are  generally  those  who  are 
most  seldom  called  by  it.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

COMPOSITION  PEDALS.  As  up  to  within 
the  last  century  English  organs  were  quite  un- 
provided with  pedals,  the  notes  required  to  be 
played  had  to  be  lowered  exclusively  by  the 
fingers  of  the  two  hands ;  and  as  a  hand  could 
rarely  be  spared  for  changing  the  combination  of 
stops  during  the  performance  of  a  piece  of  music, 
the  same  stops  that  were  prepared  previously  to 
its  commencement  had  generally  to  be  adhered 
to  throughout.  When  the  instrument  had  two 
manuals  of  full  compass,  as  was  the  case  with  all 
the  most  complete  examples,  a  change  from  forte 
to  piano,  and  back,  was  practicable,  and  repre- 


COMPOSITION  PEDALS. 


CONCENTOEES  SODALES.  383 


sented  almost  the  full  amount  of  contrast  then 
available ;  and  the  departments  which  are  now 
called  the  'great'  and  'choir'  organs  were 
then  not  unfrequently  named  from  this  circum- 
stance the  'loud'  and  the  'soft'  organs.  When 
the  organ  possessed  but  one  complete  manual, 
the  means  for  even  this  relief,  either  by  change 
of  row  of  keys  or  shifting  of  stops  by  the  hands, 
were  not  readily  presented ;  and  this  difficulty 
pointed  to  the  necessity  for  some  contrivance  for 
obtaining  it  by  the  foot ;  and  the  invention  of 
the  'shifting  movement/  as  it  was  called,  was 
the  result. 

Father  Smith's  smaller  organs,  generally  con- 
sisting of  a  Great  manual  of  full  compass  and  an 
echo  to  middle  C,  were  usually  supplied  with  an 
appliance  of  this  kind.  On  depressing  the  con- 
trolling pedal  all  the  stops  smaller  than  the 
principal,  including  the  reed,  were  silenced ;  and 
on  letting  it  rise  they  again  sounded,  or  at  least 
60  many  of  them  as  had  in  the  first  instance 
been  drawn.  The  pedal  was  hitched  down  when 
in  use,  and  when  released  the  sliders  were  drawn 
back  into  position  by  strong  springs. 

Shifting  movements  remained  in  use  for  small 
organs  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  about  which  time  they  were  superseded 
by  the  late  Mr.  Bishop's  invention  called  '  Com- 
position Pedals,'  in  which  the  contending  springs 
were  done  away  with,  and  the  stops  were  left  to 
remain  as  the  pedal  arranged  them  until  another 
pedal,  or  a  hand,  made  a  readjustment.  We 
can  now  say  a  '  hand,'  because  a  few  years  before 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Bishop's  appliances  pedals 
for  drawing  down  the  lower  notes  of  the  manuals 
had  been  added  to  English  organs,  so  that  a 
hand  coiild  be  spared  for  the  above  purpose. 

Composition  pedals  were  of  two  kinds — single- 
action  and  double  action ;  but  the  latter  only 
are  now  made.  A  'single-action'  would  either 
throw  out  or  draw  in  given  stops,  but  would  not 
do  both.  A  'double-action'  composition  pedal 
will  not  only  draw  out  a  given  number  of  stops — 
we  will  suppose  the  first  four — but  will  draw  in 
all  but  the  same  four.  [E.  J.  H.] 

COMPOUND  TIME.  A  rhythm  formed  by 
the  combination  of  two,  three,  or  four  bars  of 
simple  time.  The  compound  times  most  used 
are  as  follows : — 

Compound  Common  Times. 
6-8  formed  of  two  bars  of  3-8  time. 

6-4      >,  „       3-4  „ 

12-8       „        four    „      3-8  „ 

Compound  Triple  Times. 
9-8  formed  of  three  bars  of  3-8  time. 
9-4  ,>  ,y  3-4.  »» 

To  these  may  be  added  4-4  time,  which  is 
made  up  of  two  bars  of  2-4  time,  and  in  Ger- 
miany  is  always  classed  with  the  compound 
times.  In  England  however  it  is  more  often 
called  simple  time,  those  rhythms  only  being  con- 
sidered as  compound,  in  which  each  beat  is  divi- 
sible into  three  parts.  [See  Common  Time.]  [F.T.] 
_  COMTE  ORY,  LE,  an  opera  in  two  acts; 
libretto  in  French  by  Scribe  and  Delestre-Poirson, 


music  by  Eossini ;  produced  at  the  Acad^mie 
Eoyale,  Aug.  20,  1828.  Neither  libretto  nor 
music  were  new ;  the  former  was  an  adaptation 
of  a  piece  produced  by  the  same  authors  1 2  years 
before,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  music  had 
been  written  for  '  II  viaggio  a  Eeims,'  an  opera 
composed  for  the  coronation  of  Charles  X.  *  Le 
Comte  Ory'  was  first  performed  in  England  by 
a  French  company  (Mr.  Mitchell)  at  the  St. 
James's  Theatre,  June  20,  1849.  [^'3 

CONACHER  &  Co.  established  an  organ 
factory  at  Huddersfield  in  1854.  Out  of  a  list 
of  upwards  of  400  organs  built  or  enlarged  by 
them,  we  may  quote  those  of  the  parish  church, 
Huddersfield,  St.  Michael's,  Hulme,  near  Man- 
chester, Glasgow  University,  and  the  Catholic 
cathedral,  St.  John's,  New  Brunswick.  [V.  de  P.] 

CON  BEIO,  'with  life  and  fire.'  Allegro  con 
brio  was  a  favourite  tempo  with  Beethoven ; 
hardly  one  of  his  earlier  works  but  has  an 
example  or  two  of  it,  and  it  is  found  in  the 
overture  op.  124,  and  in  the  last  piano  sonata. 
The  most  notable  instances  are  the  first  move- 
ments of  the  Eroica  and  the  C  minor,  and  the 
Finale  of  the  No.  7  symphonies.  Mendelssohn, 
on  the  other  hand,  rarely  if  ever  employs  it. 
His  favourite  quick  tempo  is  Allegro  molto  or 
di  molto.  [G.] 

CON  SPIEITO,  'with  spirit';  an  indication 
oftener  found  in  Haydn  and  Mozart  than  in 
later  compositions.  [G.] 

CONCENTOEES  SODALES,  established  in 
June  1798,  and  to  some  extent  the  revival 
of  an  association  formed  in  1790  by  Dr.  Call- 
cott,  Dr.  Cooke,  and  others.  For  that  society 
Dr.  Callcott  wrote  his  glee  '  Peace  to  the 
souls  of  the  heroes,'  and  Robert  Cooke  'No 
riches  from  his  scanty  store.'  After  its  dis- 
solution the  want  of  such  an  association  was 
greatly  felt,  and  in  1798  Mr.  Horsley  pro- 
posed to  Dr.  Callcott  the  formation  of  the 
'Concentores  Sodales.'  The  first  meeting  was 
held  on  June  9,  at  the  Buffalo  Tavern,  Blooms- 
bury,  and  was  attended  by  Dr.  Callcott,  R. 
Cooke,  J.  Pring,  J.  Horsfall,  W.  Horsley,  and 
S.  Webbe,  jun.  Among  the  early  members 
were  S.  Webbe,  sen.,  Linley,  and  Bartleman, 
Harrison,  Greatorex,  Spofforth,  etc.  Each  mem- 
ber who  was  a  composer  contributed  a  new  canon 
on  the  day  of  his  presidency.  In  the  Additional 
MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  27,693,  is  the 
programme  of  Thursday,  Nov.  18,  1802.  The 
society  began  to  decline  about  181 2,  and  it  was 
decided  to  dissolve  it.  In  May  1 8 1 7,  at  a  meet- 
ing at  the  Freemasons'  Tavern,  at  which  Attwood, 
Elliott,  Horsley,  Linley,  and  Spofforth  were  pre- 
sent, it  was  resolved  to  re-establish  it,  with  this 
difference  —  that  no  one  should  be  a  member 
who  was  not  practising  composition  and  did  not, 
previous  to  his  ballot,  produce  a  work  in  at 
least  four  parts.  The  original  members  were 
soon  joined  by  Evans,  W.  Hawes,  T.  F.  Walmisley, 
and  Smart,  and  later  by  Bishop,  Goss,  Jolly, 
and  Attwood.  The  associates  included  King, 
Leete,  Terrail,  and  Sale.   The  members  took  the 


384       CONCENTOEES  SODALES. 


CONCERT-PITCH. 


chair  by  turns,  and  the  chairman  for  the  evening 
usually  produced  a  new  canon  which  was  followed 
by  glees  of  his  own  composition,  and  a  madrigal 
or  some  vocal  work.  As  an  illustration  of  the 
programmes  may  be  cited  that  of  Feb,  13,  1824, 
when  Mr.  (now  Sir)  John  Goss  presided : — new 
canon,  4  in  2,  *  Cantate  Domino';  new  glees, 
'While  the  shepherds,'  'My  days  have  been,' 
'When  happy  love,'  'There  is  beauty  on  the 
mountain,'  'Kitty  Fell,'  'Calm  as  yon  stream,' 
'  List !  for  the  breeze' ;  glee  by  Spofforth,  *  Hail, 
smiling  morn.'  The  society  was  dissolved  in 
1847,  when  it  was  resolved  to  present  the  books 
belonging  to  it  to  Gresham  College,  the  wine  to 
the  secretary,  T.  F.  Walmisley,  and  the  money  in 
hand  was  spent  on  a  piece  of  plate  for  Mr.  Hors- 
ley,  the  father  of  the  society.  [C.  M.] 

CONCERT.  The  word  was  originally  'con- 
sort'— as  in  Ecclus.  xxxii.  5,  or  in  Milton's  lines, 
'  At  a  Solemn  Musick ' — and  meant  the  union  or 
sympliony  of  various  instruments  playing  in 
concert  to  one  tune.  A  '  consort  of  viols '  in 
the  15th  and  1 6th  centuries  was  a  quartet  or 
sestet,  or  other  number  of  stringed  instruments 
performing  in  concert — concerted  music.  From 
this  to  the  accepted  modern  meaning  of  the  term, 
a  musical  performance  of  a  varied  and  miscel- 
laneous programme — for  an  oratorio  can  hardly 
be  accurately  called  a  concert — the  transition  is 
easy.  In  German  the  word  '  Concert '  has  two 
meanings — a  concert  and  a  concerto. 

The  first  concerts  in  London  at  which  there 
was  a  regular  audience  admitted  by  payment 
seem  to  have  been  those  of  John  Banister,  be- 
tween 1672  and  78.  They  were  held  at  his  house 
in  Whitefriars,  Fleet  Street,  daily  at  four  in  the 
afternoon,  and  the  admission  was  one  shilling. 
After  Banister's  death,  concerts  were  given  by 
Thos.  Britton,  '  the  small-coal  man,'  at  his  house 
in  Clerkenwell,  on  Thursdays,  subscription  los. 
per  annum,  and  continued  till  his  death  in  1714. 

By  the  latter  part  of  last  century  the  concerts 
of  London  had  greatly  multiplied,  and  were  given 
periodically  during  the  season  by  the  '  Academy 
of  Antient  Music'  (founded  1710),  the  'Castle 
Society'  (1724),  the  'Concert  of  Antient  Music' 
(1776),  'The  Professional  Concerts'  (1783),  be- 
sides occasional  concerts  of  individual  artists, 
amongst  which  those  of  Salomon  and  Haydn 
were  preeminent  from  1791  to  95.  In  1813  the 
Philharmonic  Society  was  founded,  to  give  eight 
concerts  a  year,  and  has  been  followed  in  our 
own  time  by  many  other  enterprises,  of  which 
the  Musical  Society,  the  New  Philharmonic 
Society,  the  Crystal  Palace  Saturday  Concerts, 
and  the  British  Orchestral  Society,  for  orchestral 
music;  the  'Musical  Union,'  the  'Monday  and 
Saturday  Popular  Concerts,'  and  Charles  Halle's 
Recitals,  for  chamber  music ;  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  Leslie's,  Bamby's,  and  the  Bach  Choir 
for  vocal  music,  have  been  most  prominent  in 
the  metropolis.  Mr.  H  ullah's  four  historical  con- 
certs (1847)  must  not  be  forgotten. 

At  the  present  date,  in  addition  to  the  esta- 
blished periodical  concerts  just  named,  there 
were  given  in  the  metropolis  between  March  i 


and  June  30,  1877,  no  less  than  386  concerts 
and  recitals  of  individual  artists,  including  the 
'Wagner  Festival,'  Mr.  Rubinstein's  Recitals, 
etc.,  etc. 

In  Manchester  there  are  the  Gentlemen's  Con- 
certs and  Mr.  Charles  Halle's  Concerts.  In 
Liverpool,  the  Philharmonic.  In  Edinburgh, 
the  Reid  Concert  and  the  Choral  Union ;  in 
Glasgow  the  Choral  Union. 

In  New  York  the  Philharmonic  is  on  the  model 
of  our  own  ;  Mr.  Thomas's  orchestra  gives  peri- 
odical concerts  of  deserved  reputation.  In  Boston 
the  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  for  Oratorios,  and 
the  Harvard  Institute  for  chamber  music,  are 
the  chief  musical  bodies. 

In  Vienna,  the  concerts  of  the  Tonkunstler- 
Societat  appear  to  have  been  the  earliest  insti- 
tution for  periodical  performances.  They  were 
founded  at  the  same  date  with  Banister's  Con- 
certs in  London,  1772.  The  history  of  Concerts  in 
Vienna  has  been  thoroughly  examined  in  Hans- 
lick's  '  Concert-wesen  in  Wien'  (Vienna  1869). 

The  first  of  the  famous  Gewandhaus  Concerts 
of  Leipsic,  which  through  Mendelssohn's  exer- 
tions reached  so  high  a  rank  in  the  music  of 
Europe,  was  held  on  Nov.  25,  1781. 

In  France,  the  '  Concerts  Spirituels '  began  as 
far  back  as  1725,  and  the  concerts  of  the  Con- 
servatoire (Societe  des  Concerts)  in  1828  ;  the 
Concerts  Populaires  (Pasdeloup),  186 1,  etc. 

In  Amsterdam,  the  'Felix  Meritis'  Concerts 
(1780)  are  celebrated  all  over  the  continent. 

The  programme  of  a  miscellaneous  concert  is 
not  less  important  than  the  execution  of  it.  For 
fifty-nine  seasons  the  programme  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  included  2  symphonies  and  2 
overtures,  besides  a  concerto,  and  often  another 
piece  of  full  sonata-form,  with  several  vocal 
pieces  and  smaller  instrumental  compositions. 
In  1872,  however,  after  the  removal  of  the 
concerts  to  St,  James's  Hall,  this  rule  was 
broken  through,  and  the  programmes  are  now 
of  more  reasonable  length.  A  symphony,  a 
concerto,  and  two  overtures,  besides  less  im- 
portant items,  are  surely  as  much  as  any  mu- 
sical appetite  can  properly  digest.  Mendelssohn 
somewhere  proposes  to  compose  an  entire  pro- 
gramme, in  which  all  the  pieces  should  have 
due  relation  to  each  other,  but  he  never  carried 
out  his  intention.  [G.] 

CONCERT-MEISTER,  the  German  term  for 
the  leader,  i.  e.  the  first  of  the  first  violins  in  an 
orchestra,  who  sits  next  the  conductor  and  trans- 
mits his  wishes  to  the  band.  He  is,  as  far  as 
any  one  player  can  be,  responsible  for  the  attack, 
the  tempo,  the  nuances  of  the  playing.  Fer- 
dinand David,  who  was  the  head  of  the  orchestra 
at  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  during  Mendels- 
sohn's reign,  and  till  his  own  death,  was  the 
model  concert-meister  of  our  time.  [G.] 

CONCERT-PITCH.  An  absurd  expression, 
meaning  a  pitch  slightly  higher  than  the  ordinary 
pitch,  used  at  concerts  for  the  sake  of  producing 
iDrilliancy  and  effect.  Since  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  pitch  the  expression  is  or 
ought  to  be  obsolete.  [G.] 


COXCERT  SPIEITUEL. 


CONCERT  SPIRITUEL.  385 


COXCERT  SPIRITUEL.    A  great  musical 
institution  of  France,  dating  from  the  reign  of 
Louis  XV.    The  Academic  Royale  de  Musique  { 
(the  Opera  House)  being  closed  on  the  great  re- 
ligious festivals,  it  occurred  to  Anne  Danican 
Philidor  to  give  concerts  on  these  occasions  in 
place  of  the  prohibited  performances.   Having  ob- 
tained the  necessary  permission,  Philidor  entered 
into  an  agreement  w-ith  Francine,  the  Impresario 
;    of  the  Opera,  by  which  he  pledged  himself  to  pay  i 
j    looo  francs  a  year,  and  to  perfonn  neither  French  ] 
I   nor  opera  music.    The  first  Concert  Spirituel  ac-  i 
cordingly  took  place  between  6  and  8  p.m.  on  | 
Sunday  in  Passion  Week,  March  i8,  1725.    The  ! 
programme  included  a  Suite  for  violin  and  a 
Capriccio  by  Lalande,  Corelli's  '  Xuit  de  Xoel' 
(Concerto  8,  op.  6),  and  a  'Confitebor'  and  'Can- 
tate  Domino'  of  Lalande,  and  the  concert  was 
I   most  successful.    The  number  of  concerts  in  the 
1   year  never  exceeded  twenty-four.    They  were 
held  in  the  Salle  des  Suisses  of  the  Tuileries,  on 
;  Purification  Day,  Feb.  2  ;  Lady  Day,  ^March  25  ; 
on  certain  days  between  Palm  Sunday  and  Low 
Sunday  (first  Sunday  after  Easter) ;  Whit  Sun- 
I    day;  Corpus  Christi  Sunday;  on  Aug.  15,  Sept. 
'   8,  Nov.  I,  8;  Dec.  24,  25 — those  being  the  days 
(   on  which  the  Opera  was  closed. 

In  1728  Philidor,  having  previously  acquired 
the  right  of  introducing  French  and  opera  music 
into  the  programmes,  transferred  his  pri^'ilege  to 
Simard,  on  an  annual  payment  of  3000  francs, 
and  the  musical  direction  of  the  concerts  was 
confided  to  Mouret.  On  Dec.  25,  1734,  Thuret, 
the  then  Impresario  of  the  Opera,  took  the  con- 
certs into  his  own  hands,  and  appointed  Rebel 
leader  of  the  orchestra.  In  1741  he  resigned  it 
to  Royer  for  six  years,  at  an  annual  rent  of  6oco 
francs;  in  1749  Royer  renewed  the  contract  on 
the  same  terms,  in  partnership  with  Caperan. 
In  1752  the  rent  was  raised  to  7500  francs,  and 
in  1755  to  9000  francs,  at  which  it  remained  for 
eight  years.  On  Royer's  death  in  1755,  Mondon- 
viile  took  the  direction  of  the  concerts  until 
1762,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  D'Auvergne, 
who  retained  it  for  nine  years  in  combination  with 
Joliveau  and  Caperan.  In  1771  D'Auvergne 
and  Berton  renewed  the  agreement ;  but  the 
concerts  had  for  some  time  been  failing,  and 
D'Auvergne  —  as  we  learn  from  a  remark  by 
Bumey  Present  State,'  etc.  p.  23) — becoming 
very  poor,  cancelled  the  agreement  after  a  short 
trial.  Gavinies,  in  1773,  took  the  direction  with 
Le  Duo  and  Gossec,  and  was  more  successful. 
Le  Gros  succeeded  him  in  1777,  with  Berthaume 
as  his  partner  in  1789  ;  but  p  olitical  events  gave 
a  fatal  blow  to  the  undertaking,  and  in  1791  the 
Concerts  Spirituels  ceased  to  exist. 

We  have  given  the  names  of  the  successive 
Impresarios  because  many  among  them  are  wor- 
thy of  mention,  not  as  uieie  speculators,  but  as 
true  artists.    Mouret,  Rebel,  D'Auvergne,  and 
Berton  are  among  the  best  composers  and  leaders 
of  the  orchestra  that  the  Academic  can  show  in 
■■  the  1 8th  century;  while  Gavinies,  Simon  Leduc, 
•  Lahoussaye,  Gu^nin,  and  Berthaume,  who  con- 
ducted the  concerts  during  the  last  eighteen 
(c.  2.) 


years  of  their  existence,  were  all  violin-players  of 
very  great  merit. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  vocal  music  and 
the  French  singers  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels  it 
must  be  admitted  that  foreign  artists  always  met 
with  the  most  courteous  reception,  and  also  that 
the  concerts  greatly  assisted  the  progress  of  music 
in  France,  especially  by  developing  a  taste  for  the 
highest  orchestral  music.  Among  the  celebrated 
artists  who  appeared,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  men- 
tion the  famous  brothers  Besozzi,  whose  duets  for 
oboe  and  bassoon  made  furore  in  1735  ;  the 
\'iolinists  Traversa,  Jamo\\-ick,  Fran9ois  La- 
motte,  Yiotti,  and  Frederic  Eck  ;  the  horn-  players 
Punto  and  Rodolphe  ;  J erome  Besozzi  and  Louis 
Lebrim  (oboe)  ;  Etienne  Ozi  (^bassoon)  ;  Michel 
Yost  (clarinet),  and  many  others  of  less  repute. 
Among  many  illustrious  singers  we  must  content 
ourselves  Avith  mentioning  Farinelli,  Raff,  Caf- 
farelli,  David e,  Mesdames  Agujari,  Danzi,  Todi, 
and  Mar^. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  history  of  the  Con- 
certs Spirituels  has  been  written,  though  ample 
materials  exist  in  the  monthly  '  Mercure  de 
France,'  which  plainly  testifies  to  the  importance 
of  the  concert  movement  and  the  influence  it 
exercised  on  musical  art  in  France.  To  the 
brilliant  success  of  the  Concerts  Spirituels  must 
be  attributed  the  creation  of  many  rival  societies 
which  served  the  cause  of  good  music  in  France, 
and  also  encouraged  it  abroad. 

Thus  in  1770  the  important  enterprise  of  the 
Concert  des  Amateurs  was  founded  by  d'Ogni 
and  Delahaye  at  the  Hotel  Soubise.  It  was  con- 
ducted by  Gosiec,  and  its  solo  violin  was  the 
famous  Chevalier  de  St.  Georges.  At  these  con- 
certs the  symphonies  of  J.  B.  Toeschi,  Van  Mal- 
dere,  Vanhall,  Stamitz  and  Gossec,  for  wind  instru- 
ments, were  first  produced.  When  the  Amateurs 
removed  to  the  Galerie  de  Henri  III,  in  the  Rue 
Coq  Heron,  they  adopted  the  title  of  Concert  de  la 
Loge  Olympique,  and  their  orchestra  contained 
the  best  players  of  the  day.  The  change  took 
place  in  1780,  a  year  after  the  introduction  of 
Haydn's  symphonies  into  France  by  the  violinist 
Fonteski.  So  great  was  the  success  of  these 
admirable  compositions  as  to  induce  the  directors 
to  engage  the  great  composer  to  write  six  sym- 
phonies specially  for  the  society.  They  date  from 
1784  to  17S9  ;  are  in  C,  G  minor,  Eb,  Bb,  D, 
and  A  ;  and  were  afterwards  published  in  Paris 
as  op.  51,  vmder  the  special  title  of  'Repertoire 
de  la  Loge  Olympique.' 

Two  similar  institutions,,  the  Concert  de  la  Rue 
de  Clery  (1 7S9),  and  the  Concert  Feydeau  (i  794), 
may  be  considered  as  feeble  imitations  of  the 
Loge  Olympique,  They  had,  however,  their 
periods  of  success — according  to  Fetis  in  1796 
and  1802.  Among  the  artists  who  chiefly  con- 
tributed to  the  eclat  of  the  performances  we  can 
only  name  the  violinists  R.  Kreutzer  and  Rode, 
Fred.  Duvemoy  the  horn-player,  and  the  singers 
Garat  and  Mme.  Barbier  -Valbonne. 

In  1805  the  Concerts  Spirituels  were  re-esta- 
blished by  the  Impresario  of  the  Italian  Opera 
House,  and  the  sacred  concerts  given  during 

Co 


386  CONCERT  SPIEITUEL. 


CONCERTINA. 


Holy  Week  in  .  Paris  at  the  Cirque  d'hiver,  the 
Conservatoire,  and  other  places,  are  stiU  known 
by  that  name.  In  fact,  in  a  historical  point  of 
^iew,  the  Concerts  du  Conservatoire  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  successors  of  the  Concerts  Spiri- 
tuels  and  of  the  Concerts  de  la  Loge  Ohnnpique. 

The  creation  of  the  celebrated  Societe  des 
Concerts  du  Conservatoire  was  due  to  Habeneck, 
and  its  first  '  Matinde  dominicale'  took  place  on 
Sunday,  the  9th  of  March,  1828,  at  2  p.m.,  in  the 
theatre  of  the  Conservatoire — the  same  hour  and 
place  at  which  they  are  still  given.  The  pro- 
gramme was  as  follows  : — (i)  Beethoven's  Eroica 
Symphony;  (2)  Duet  from  the  ' Semiramide,' 
sung  by  Nelia  and  Caroline  MaiUard  ;  (3)  Solo 
for  Horn,  composed  and  executed  by  Meifred; 
(4)  an  air  of  Rossini's,  sung  by  Mile.  Nelia 
Maillard;  (5)  Concerto  by  Rode,  performed  by 
Mr.  Eugene  Sauzay  ;  (6)  Chorus  from  '  Blanche 
de  Provence' ;  (7)  Overture  to  '  Les  Abencerages ' ; 
and  (8)  the  KjT-ie  and  Gloria  from  the  Coro- 
nation Mass  —  aU  by  Cherubini.  The  effect  of 
this  programme  was  extraordinary. 

The  concerts  are  held  on  Sundays  at  7  p.m. 
The  season  originally  consisted  of  six  concerts, 
but  by  degrees  the  number  has  been  increased  to 
nine.  Since  Jan.  7,  1866,  the  same  programme 
has  been  always  repeated  on  two  consecutive 
Sundays  in  consequence  of  a  division  of  the  sub- 
scribers into  '  old '  and  '  new.'  The  seats,  which 
originally  varied  from  2  to  5  francs,  are  now  5, 
9,  10,  and  12  francs.  The  orchestra  is  composed 
of  84^  musicians,  74  of  them  being  'Societaires,' 
and  the  other  ten  assistant  members.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  list  of  conductors  : — 


Conductor 

Sub-Conductor!  Date 

Habeneck 
Narcisse  Girard 
Tilmant 
G.  Hainl 
Deldevez 

i 

Tilmant  ain6  Mar.  9,  1828— Ap.  10,  48 
Ditto         Jan.  14,  49— Jan.  60 

Deldevez  1860—1863 

Ditto         18G4-March  17,  72 

Lamoureux    May  25,  72—1877 

E.  Alt^s  !lS77 

The  choir  contains  36  members,  with  a  small 
number  of  assistants.    M.  Heyberger  leader. 

The  repertoire  of  this  society  comprises  aU  the 
symphonies  of  the  classical  masters,  overtures  of 
every  school,  oratorios,  selections  from  operas 
and  religious  music,  choruses  with  and  wdthout 
accompaniment,  pieces  for  the  orchestra  alone, 
ode-S}anphonies  and  instrumental  solos.  For 
some  years  the  programmes  have  been  more 
varied  than  was  formerly  the  case,  introducing 
the  works  of  Schumann,  Berlioz,  and  Wagner, 
and  of  the  young  masters  of  the  modem  French 
school.  M.  A.  El  wart  published  in  i860  his 
'Histoire  de  la  Societe  des  Concerts  du  Conser- 
vatoire,' and  the  author  of  this  article  has  col- 
lected materials  for  a  *  Histoire  du  Conservatoire 
National  de  Musique,'  which  will  contain  a 
sketch  of  the  work  of  that  illustrious  institution 
from  its  foundation  by  Habeneck  to  the  present 
date  [1878].  [G.C.] 

CONCERT-STUCK,  i.  e.  Concert-piece.  A 
term  familiar  to  the  English  reader  through 
>  FourtMU  first,  and  fourteen  second  rioUns. 


Weber's  well-known  composition  in  F  minor 
(op.  79),  which  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a 
concerto  for  piano  and  orchestra.  Weber's  inten- 
tion was  to  make  it  more  dramatic  than  usual, 
and  to  have  given  the  movements  expressive 
headings,  and  hence  perhaps  the  variation  in  the 
title.  Schumann  has  left  a  '  Concert-Stiick '  for 
4  horns  and  orchestra  (op.  82),  which  also  la 
a  concerto  under  another  name. 

CONCERTANTE  (Ital.).  In  the  last  century 
this  name  was  given  to  a  piece  of  music  for 
orchestra  in  which  there  were  parts  for  solo 
instruments,  and  also  to  compositions  for  several 
solo  instruments  without  orchestra.  The  fine 
concerto  by  Handel  in  C  major,  for  two  violins 
and  violoncello,  accompanied  by  strings  and  two 
oboes  (published  in  part  21  of  the  German  Handel 
Society's  edition)  is  in  Arnold's  old  English 
edition  entitled  '  Concertante.'  In  the  present 
day  the  word  is  chiefly  used  as  an  adjective, 
prominent  solo  instrumental  parts  being  spoken 
of  as  '  concertante  parts,'  and  a  work  being  said 
to  be  'in  the  concertante  style'  when  it  affords 
opportunities  for  the  brilliant  display  of  the 
powers  of  the  performers.  For  example,  those 
quartets  of  Spohr  in  which  especial  prominence 
is  given  to  the  part  of  the  first  violin  are  some- 
times called  'concertante  quartets.'  His  op.  48 
is  a  '  Sinfonie  concertante,  pour  2  Violons  avec 
Orchestre';  his  op.  88  a  'Concertante'  for  the 
same.    See  also  his  op.  1 1 2-1 1 5,  etc.       [E.  P.] 

CONCERTINA,  a  portable  instrument  of  the 
Seraphine  family,  patented  by  the  late  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone  June  19,  1829. 

It  is  hexagonal,  and  has  a  key-board  at  each 
end,  with  expansible  bellows  between  the  two. 
The  sound  is  produced  by  the  pressure  of  air 
Sv2  :±       from  the  bellows  on  free  metallic 

 1^       reeds.   The  compass  of  the  treble 

^  concertina  is  four  octaves,  through 

^  which  it  has  a  complete  chromatic 

scale.  This  instrument  is  double 
action,  and  produces  the  same  note  both  on  draw- 
ing and  pressing  the  bellows.  Much  variety  of 
tone  can  be  obtained  by  a  skilful  player,  and  it 
has  the  power  of  being  played  with  great  ex- 
pression and  complete  sostenuto  and  staccato. 
Violin,  flute,  and  oboe  music  can  be  performed 
on  it  without  alteration  ;  but  music  written 
specially  for  the  concertina  cannot  be  played 
on  any  other  instrument,  except  the  organ  or 
harmoniiun.  Nothing  but  the  last-named  in- 
struments can  produce  at  once  the  extended 
harmonies,  the  sostenuto  and  staccato  combined, 
of  which  the  concertina  is  capable.  There  are 
also  tenor,  bass,  and  double  bass  concertinas, 
varying  in  size  and  shape.  These  instruments 
are  single-action,  producing  the  sound  by  pressure 
only,  and  are  capable  of  taking  tenor,  bass,  and 
double  bass  parts  without  alteration.  The  com- 
pass of  these  is  as  follows — 


Double  bass 


CONCERTINA. 


CONCERTO. 


387 


making  the  total  range  of  the  four  instruments 
6f  octaves.  The  late  Signer  Regondi  was  the 
first  to  make  the  instrument  known,  and  was 
followed  by  Mr.  George  Case.  Mr.  Richard 
Blagrove  is  now  the  principal  performer  and 
professor.  Among  the  music  written  specially 
for  the  instrument  are  2  Concertos  in  G  and  D 
for  solo  concertina  and  orchestra,  by  Molique ; 
2  ditto  ditto  in  D  and  Eb,  by  G.  Regondi; 
Sonata  for  piano  and  concertina  in  Bb,  by  Mo- 
lique ;  Quintet  for  concertina  and  strings,  by 
G.  A.  Macfarren ;  Adagio  for  8  concertinas  in 
E,  by  E.  Silas;  Quintet  in  D  for  piano,  con- 
certina, violin,  viola,  and  cello,  by  the  same  ;  6 
Trios  for  piano,  concertina,  and  violin,  by  the 
same.  Much  brilliant  mlon  music  has  also  been 
written  for  it.  Messrs.  Wheatstone  &  Co.  are 
the  best  makers.  [G.] 

CONCERTINO  (Ital.,  dim.  of  Concerto).  A 
piece  for  one  or  more  solo  instruments  with 
orchestral  accompaniment,  which  differs  from 
the  Concerto  in  its  much  greater  concise- 
ness. The  concertino  is  less  restricted  in  form 
than  the  concerto  ;  it  may  be  in  three  short 
movements,  which  are  usually  connected ;  but  it 
more  often  consists  of  one  rather  long  movement, 
in  which  the  time  may  be  changed  or  a  middle 
part  in  slower  tempo  be  introduced  episodically. 
As  good  examples  may  be  cited  Weber's  'Con- 
certino' for  clarinet,  op.  26,  and  Schumann's 
'Introduction  and  Allegro  Appassionato,'  op.  92, 
for  piano  and  orchestra.  For  some  not  very 
obvious  reason  the  form  is  much  less  frequently 
used  for  the  piano  than  for  the  violin  or  other 
orchestral  instruments.  [E.  P.] 

CONCERTO  (Ital.;  Ger.  and  Fr.  Concert). 
This  name  is  now  given  to  an  instrumental  com- 
position designed  to  show  the  skill  of  an  ex- 
ecutant, and  which  is  almost  invariably  accom- 
panied by  orchestra — one  exception  being  Liszt's 
'  Concert  Pathetique '  for  two  pianos,  and  another 
Schumann's  Sonata  op.  14,  originally  published 
as  'Concert  sans  orchestre.'  The  word  was 
however  at  one  time  used  differently.  It  was 
first  employed  by  Ludovico  Viadana,  who  in 
1602-3  published  a  series  of  motets  for  voices 
and  organ,  which  he  entitled  'Concerti  ecclesi- 
astici.'  In  this  sense  the  word  was  used  as 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  'concentus,'  and  such 
works  were  called  'Concerti  da  Chiesa'  (Church 
Concertos).  Soon  other  instruments  were  added 
to  the  organ ;  and  ultimately  single  instrumental 
movements  in  the  sacred  style  were  written 
which  also  received  the  name  of  'Concerti  da 
Chiesa.'  The  real  inventor  of  the  modern  con- 
certo as  a  concert  piece  was  Giuseppe  Torelli, 
who  in  1686  published  a  'Concerto  da  Camera' 
for  two  violins  and  bass.  The  form  was  deve- 
loped by  Corelli,  Geminiani,  and  Vivaldi.  From 
the  first  it  resembled  that  of  the  sonata ;  and 
as  the  latter  grew  out  of  the  suite,  the  move- 
ments becoming  larger  in  form  and  with  more 
internal  cohesion,  so  it  was  also  with  the  con- 
certo :  there  is  as  much  difference  between  a 
concerto  by  Bach  and  one  by  Beethoven  as  there 


is  between  the  'Suites  Anglaises'  and  the  *\Vald- 
stein '  sonata.  In  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel 
the  word  '  Concerto,'  though  applied  exclusively 
to  instrumental  music,  had  a  less  restricted  sig- 
nification than  is  given  to  it  in  the  present  day. 
Many  of  the  specimens  of  this  form  in  the  works 
of  the  masters  named  more  nearly  resemble  sym- 
phonies than  concertos  in  the  modem  acceptation 
of  the  term.  For  instance,  the  first  of  Handel's 
so-called  'Oboe  Concertos'  is  written  for  strings, 
two  flutes,  two  oboes,  and  two  bassoons,  and 
excepting  in  occasional  passages  these  are  treated 
orchestrally  rather  than  as  solo  instruments ; 
while  of  Bach  we  have  a  concerto  for  violino 
piccolo,  three  oboes,  one  bassoon,  and  two  horns, 
with  string  quartet,  and  another  for  three  vio- 
lins, three  violas,  three  violoncellos,  and  double 
bass,  neither  of  which  possess  the  characteristics 
of  a  modem  concerto.  The  form,  moreover,  of 
the  older  concerto  was  much  freer  than  now. 
With  Bach  we  find  a  preference  for  the  three- 
movement  form  at  present  in  use.  In  the  whole 
of  his  piano  concertos,  as  well  as  in  those  for  one 
or  two  violins,  we  find  an  allegro,  a  slow  move- 
ment, and  a  finale  in  quick  time — generally  3-8. 
The  two  concertos  named  above  are,  exception- 
ally, the  former  in  four  and  the  latter  in  only 
two  movements.  With  Handel,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  three-movement  form  is  the  exception. 
As  examples  of  the  freedom  of  which  he  makes 
use,  may  be  quoted  the  movements  of  two  of  his 
'Twelve  Grand  Concertos'  for  two  violins  and 
violoncello  soli,  with  accompaniment  for  stringed 
orchestra.  These  works  are  concertos  in  the 
modern  sense,  as  regards  the  treatment  of  the 
solo  instruments  ;  but  their  form  is  as  varied  as 
possible.  Thus  the  sixth  consists  of  a  Larghetto, 
Allegro  ma  non  troppo,  Musette,  and  two  Alle- 
gros, the  second  of  which  (though  not  so  entitled) 
is  a  minuet ;  while  the  eighth  contains  an  AUe- 
mande,  Grave,  Andante  allegro.  Adagio,  Siciliana, 
and  Allegro.  It  should  be  mentioned  here  that 
Handel  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  to 
introduce  opportunities  for  extempore  perform- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  soloist,  thus  anticipating 
the  'cadenza,'  an  important  feature  of  the  modem 
concerto,  to  be  spoken  of  presently.  In  the 
second  movement  of  his  Organ  Concerto  in  D 
minor  (No.  4  of  the  second  set)  are  to  be  found 
no  less  than  six  places  marked  organo  ad  libitum, 
and  with  a  pause  over  the  rests  in  the  accom- 
paniments, indicating  that  the  player  (that  is 
to  say,  he  himself)  was  to  improvise. 

The  modern  form  of  the  concerto  was  finally 
settled  by  Mozart,  and  though  several  modifica- 
tions have  been  introduced  during  the  present 
century,  the  general  lines  of  construction  remain 
the  same  as  fixed  by  him.  Nearly  fifty  concertos 
of  his  composition  for  various  instruments  are  in 
existence,  and,  while  presenting  slight  differ- 
ences of  detail,  closely  resemble  one  another  in 
the  more  important  points.  The  concerto  form 
is  founded  upon  that  of  the  Sonata  (which  see) ; 
there  are  however  several  variations  which  must 
be  noted.  In  the  first  place,  a  concerto  consists 
of  only  three  movements,  the  scherzo,  for  some 
C  c  2 


388 


CONCERTO. 


CONCERTO. 


not  very  obvicrus  reason,  being  excluded.  For 
the  sake  of  completeness  it  should  be  mentioned 
that  Litolff's  so-called  Concerto -Symphonic  in 
E  flat,  for  piano  and  orchestra,  has  exceptionally 
a  scherzo  as  the  third  of  four  movements. 

The  first  movement  in  Mozart's  concertos 
always  begins  with  a  tutti  passage  for  the 
orchestra,  in  which  the  principal  subjects  are 
announced,  much  as  in  the  first  part  of  the  first 
movement  of  a  sonata.  Sometimes  the  '  second 
subject'  is  omitted  in  this  portion  of  the  piece, 
but  it  is  more  frequently  introduced.  An  im- 
portant difference  in  form,  however,  is  that  this 
first  tutti  always  ends  in  the  original  key,  and 
not  in  the  dominant,  or  the  relative  major  (if  the 
work  be  in  a  minor  key),  as  would  be  the  case 
in  a  sonata.  The  solo  instrument  then  enters, 
sometimes  at  once  with  the  principal  subject, 
and  sometimes  with  a  brilliant  introductory  pas- 
sage. A  repetition,  with  considerable  modifica- 
tion, of  the  first  tutti  mostly  follows,  now  divided 
between  the  principal  instrument  and  the  or- 
chestra ;  the  second  subject  is  regularly  intro- 
duced, as  in  a  sonata,  and  the  'first  solo'  ends 
with  a  brilliant  passage  in  the  key  of  the  domi- 
nant (or  relative  major,  as  the  case  may  be). 
A  shorter  tutti  then  leads  to  the  second  solo, 
which  corresponds  to  the  '  Durchfiihrungsatz,'  or 
'working  out'  of  a  sonata,  and  which,  after 
various  modulations,  leads  back  to  the  original 
key.  The  principal  subject  is  then  re-introduced 
by  the  orchestra,  but  in  a  compressed  form,  and 
is  continued  by  the  soloist  with  the  *  third  solo,' 
which  corresponds  in  its  form  to  the  latter  part 
of  a  sonata  movement.  A  short  final  tutti  brings 
the  movement  to  a  close.  In  most  older  con- 
certos a  pause  is  made,  near  the  end  of  this  last 
tutti  upon  the  6-4  chord  on  the  dominant  for 
the  introduction  of  a  cadenza  by  the  player. 
Though  very  general,  this  custom  was  by  no 
means  universal ;  in  several  of  Dussek's  con- 
certos— notably  in  his  fine  one  in  G  minor, 
op.  49 — no  such  pause  is  indicated.  The  ca- 
denza, when  introduced,  could  be  either  impro- 
vised by  the  player,  or  previously  composed, 
either  by  himself  or  by  some  other  person. 
Mozart  has  left  us  fchirty-five  cadenzas  written 
for  various  concertos  of  his  own,  which,  though 
presenting  in  general  no  very  great  technical 
difficulties,  are  models  of  their  kind.  Beethoven 
has  also  written  cadenzas  for  his  own  concertos, 
as  well  as  for  that  by  Mozart  in  D  minor.  In 
the  cadenza  the  player  was  expected  not  merely 
to  show  off  his  execution,  but  to  display  his  skill 
in  dealing  with  the  subjects  of  the  movement  in 
which  it  was  introduced.  A  cadenza  consisting 
entirely  of  extraneous  matter  would  be  altogther 
faulty  and  out  of  place,  no  matter  what  its 
technical  brilliancy.  It  was  the  invariable 
custom  to  finish  the  cadenza  with  a  long  shake 
on  the  chord  of  the  dominant  seventh,  after 
which  a  short  passage  for  the  orchestra  alone 
concluded  the  movement.  In  older  works  the 
soloist  was  silent  during  these  few  bars ;  but  in 
his  concerto  in  C  minor  (Kochel's  Catalogue, 
No.  491)  Mozart  for  the  first  time  tried  the 


experiment  of  associating  the  piano  with  the 
orchestra  after  the  cadenza ;  and  his  example 
was  followed  by  Beethoven  in  his  concertos  in 
C  minor,  G  major,  and  Eb. 

Before  proceeding  to  speak  of  the  modifications 
introduced  into  the  concerto  by  Beethoven  and 
other  more  modern  composers,  it  will  be  well  to 
complete  our  description  of  the  form  as  left  by 
Mozart.  The  second  movement,  which  might 
be  an  andante,  a  larghetto,  an  adagio,  or  any 
other  slow  tempo,  resembled  in  its  form  the 
corresponding  portion  of  a  sonata.  Sometimes 
the  variation  form  was  used,  as  in  Mozart's  two 
concertos  in  Bb  (Kochel,  Nos.  450  and  456)  ;  but 
more  frequently  the  ordinary  andante  or  larghetto 
was  introduced.  Two  charming  examples  of  the 
Romance  will  be  found  in  the  slow  movement 
of  Mozart's  concertos  in  D  minor  and  D  major 
(Kochel,  Nos.  466  and  537),  though  the  latter  is 
not,  like  the  first,  expressly  so  entitled,  but 
simply  bears  the  inscription  larghetto.  The  solo 
part  in  the  slow  movements  is  frequently  of  an 
extremely  florid  character,  abounding  in  passages 
of  ornamentation.  Sometimes  a  cadenza  is  also 
introduced  at  the  close  of  this  movement — e.  g, 
in  Mozart's  Concertos  in  A  major  (Kochel,  414), 
C  major  (Kochel,  415),  and  G  major  (Kochel, 
453).  In  such  cases,  as  is  evident  fi-om  the 
examples  written  by  Mozart  himself  for  the 
works  mentioned,  the  cadenza  should  be  much 
shorter  than  in  the  first  movement. 

The  finale  of  a  concerto  was  mostly  in  rondo 
form,  though  examples  are  to  be  found  in  Mozart 
of  the  variation  form  being  employed  for  this 
movement  also ;  see  concertos  in  C  minor  (Kochel, 
491),  and  G  major  (Kochel,  453).  Sometimes 
this  rondo  was  interrupted  by  a  complete  change 
of  tempo.  Thus  the  rondo  of  the  concerto  in 
C  major  (Kochel,  415),  which  is  in  6-8  time,  is 
twice  interrupted  by  an  adagio  in  C  minor,  2-4 ; 
in  the  middle  of  the  rondo  of  the  concerto  in 
Eb  (Kochel,  482)  is  introduced  an  andantino 
cantabile ;  while  another  concerto  in  Eb  (Kochel, 
271)  has  a  minuet  as  the  middle  portion  of  the 
final  presto.  Short  cadenzas  were  also  frequently 
introduced  in  the  finales;  the  concerto  in  Eb, 
just  mentioned,  has  no  less  than  three,  all  of 
which,  instead  of  being  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  player,  are,  exceptionally,  written  out  in 
full.  Similar  short  cadenzas  will  be  found  in 
the  rondo  of  Beethoven's  concerto  in  C  minor, 
op.  37,  while  in  the  finale  of  the  concerto  in  G, 
op.  58,  a  pause  is  made  with  the  special  direction 
*  La  cadenza  sia  corta' — the  cadenza  to  be  short. 

The  innovations  introduced  by  Beethoven  in 
the  form  of  the  concerto  were  numerous  and 
important.  Foremost  among  these  was  the 
greater  prominence  given  to  the  orchestra.  In 
the  concertos  of  Mozart,  except  in  the  tuttis, 
the  orchestra  has  little  to  do  beyond  a  simple 
accompaniment  of  the  soloist,  but  with  Beethoven, 
especially  in  his  later  concertos,  the  instrumental 
parts  have  really  symphonic  importance.  Bee- 
thoven was  also  the  first  to  connect  the  second 
and  third  movements  (see  concertos  in  G  and 
E  flat),  an  example  which  was  imitated  by  Men- 


CONCERTO. 

delssohn,  in  whose  pianoforte  concertos  in  G 
minor  and  D  minor  all  the  movements  follow 
continuously.    Beethoven,  moreover,  in  his  con- 
certos in  G  and  E  flat,  broke  through  the  custom 
of  commencing  the  work  with  a  long  tutti  for  the 
orchestra ;  in  the  former  the  piano  begins  alone, 
and  in  the  latter  it  enters  at  the  second  bar.  It 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  same  experiment 
had  been  once,  and  only  once,  tried  by  Mozart, 
in  his  little-known  concerto  in  Eb  (Kochel,  271), 
I  where  the  piano  is  introduced  at  the  second  bar. 
I  One  more  innovation  of  importance  remains  to 
!  be  noticed.     In  his  concerto  in  Eb,  op.  73, 
i  Beethoven,  instead  of  leaving  a  pause  after  the 
i  6-4  chord  for  the  customary  cadenza,  writes  his 
own  in  full,  with  the  note  'Non  si  fa  una 
Cadenza,  ma  attacca  subito  il  seguente' — '  do  not 
make  a  cadenza,  but  go  on  at  once  to  the  following,' 
His  cadenza  has  the  further  peculiarity  of  being 
accompanied  from  the  nineteenth  bar  by  the 
orchestra.     Another  curious  example  of  an  ac- 
companied cadenza  is  to  be  found  in  that  which 
Beethoven  has  written  for  his  pianoforte  arrange- 
ment of  his  violin  concerto,  op.  61,  through  a 
1  considerable  part  of  which  the  piano  is  accom- 
!  panied  by  the  drums,  which  give  the  chief  subject 
'  of  the  movement. 

It  is  evident  that  the  example  of  Beethoven 
1  in  his  Eb  concerto  led  the  way  to  the  disuse 
ij  of  the  introduced  cadenza  in  the  first  movement. 
1  Neither  Mendelssohn  nor  Brahms  in  their  piano- 
|!  forte  concertos  have  inserted  one  at  all ;  and 
ji  where  such  is  intended,  composers  mostly  write 
j  out  in  full  what  they  wish  played,  as  for 
I  example  Mendelssohn  in  his  violin  concerto,  op. 
64  (where,  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  the 
cadenza  is  the  middle  of  the  first  movement,  and 
not  at  the  end).     Schumann  (concerto  in  A 
minor,  op.  54)  and  Raff  (concerto  in  C  minor,  op. 
185)  have  also  both  written  their  cadenzas  in  full. 

The  concertos  written  since  those  of  Beethoven 
have  been  mostly  constructed  upon  the  lines  he 
laid  down.  The  introductory  tutti  has  been 
shortened  (as  in  Mendelssohn's,  Schumann's,  and 
Raff's  concertos),  though  occasionally  works  are 
still  written  in  the  older  form,  the  most  striking 
example  being  Brahms 's  concerto  in  D  minor,  in 
which  the  piano  does  not  enter  till  the  ninety- 
first  bar.  Sometimes  also  a  quickening  of  the 
tempo  is  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  first  move- 
ment (Schumann,  op.  54;  Grieg,  op.  16).  Various 
other  modifications  have  been  made  by  different 
composers,  of  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak 
in  detail,  as  they  are  merely  isolated  examples, 
and  have  not,  at  least  as  yet,  become  accepted  as 
models  of  the  form.  The  two  concertos  for  piano 
and  orchestra  by  Liszt  are  constructed  upon  a 
plan  so  different  from  that  generally  adopted 
!i  that  they  should  rather  be  described  as  fantasias 
I  or  rhapsodies  than  as  concertos  in  the  ordinary 
1  meaning  of  the  term. 

Sometimes  concertos  are  written  for  more  than 
one  solo  instrument,  and  are  then  known  as 
1  double,  triple,  etc.,  concertos  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  construction  of  the  work  is  precisely  the 
same  as  when  composed  for  only  one  instrument. 


CONDUCTOR.  389 

As  examples  may  be  named  Bach's  concertos 
for  two  violins,  and  for  two,  three,  and  four 
pianos  ;  Mozart's  Concerto  in  Eb  for  two  pianos, 
and  in  C  for  flute  and  harp ;  Beethoven's  triple 
concerto,  op.  56,  for  piano,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello ;  Maurer's  for  4  violins  and  orchestra. 
Mendelssohn's  autograph  MSS.,  now  in  the  Im- 
perial Library  at  Berlin,  contain  2  Concertos  for 
2  pianos  and  orchestra,  and  one  for  piano  and 
violin,  with  strings.  [E.  P.] 

CONCORD  is  a  combination  of  notes  which 
requires  no  further  combination  following  it  or 
preceding  it  to  make  it  satisfactory  to  the  ear. 
The  concords  are  perfect  fifths,  perfect  fourths, 
major  and  minor  thirds,  and  major  and  minor 
sixths,  and  such  combinations  of  them,  with  the 
octave  and  one  another,  as  do  not  entail  other 
intervals.  Thus  the  combination  of  perfect  fifth 
with  major  or  minor  third  constitutes  what  is 
known  as  a  common  chord,  as  (a).  And  dif- 
ferent dispositions  of  the  same  notes,  which  are 
called  its  inversions,  give,  first  a  bass  note  with 
its  third  and  sixth,  as  (6)  ;  and,  secondly,  a 
bass  note  with  its  fourth  and  sixth,  as  (c). 

Besides  these  a  chord  composed  of  the  third 
and  sixth  on  the  second  note  of  any  scale  is 
regarded  as  a  concord,  though  there  is  a  dimi- 
nished fifth  or  augmented  fourth  in  it  according 
to  the  distribution  of  the  notes,  as  {d)  dp  (e) 


— since  the  naturally  discordant  quality  of  the 
diminished  fifth  and  augmented  fourth  is  con- 
sidered to  be  modified  by  placing  the  concordant 
note  below  them,  a  modification  not  effected 
when  it  is  placed  above  them.  This  combi- 
nation was  treated  as  a  concord  even  by  the 
theorists  of  the  old  strict  diatonic  style  of  coun- 
terpoint.    [See  Harmony,]  [CH.H.P.] 

CONDELL,  Henet,  was  a  violinist  in  the 
orchestras  at  the  Opera  House  and  Drury  Lane 
and  Covent  Garden  Theatres  early  in  the  present 
century.  In  1 8 1 1  he  gained  a  prize  at  the  Catch 
Club  for  his  glee,  *Loud  blowe  the  wyndes.'  He 
composed  the  music  for  the  following  dramatic 
pieces: — 'The  Enchanted  Island,'  ballet,  1804; 
'  Who  wins?'  musical  farce,  1808 ;  and  'Transform- 
ation,'  musical  farce,  1810  ;  and  was  one  of  the  six 
contributors  to  the  comic  opera,  '  The  Farmer's 
Wife,'  1814.  He  died  in  June  1824.   [W.  H.  H.] 

CONDUCTOR— the  English  equivalent  for 
the  German  '  Capellmeister,'  and  the  French 
'Chef  d'orchestre' — has  to  study  the  score,  cor- 
rect the  parts  and  see  that  they  are  clearly 
marked,  beat  the  time  for  the  band  and  chorus 
at  rehearsal  and  performance,  animate  them  with 
the  spirit  of  the  work,  and  generally  be  respon- 
sible for  the  due  interpretation  of  the  composer's 
intentions  and  for  the  success  of  the  music. 

A  sepai'ate  conductor,  standing  in  ^  front  of  the 

1  In  Germany  the  conductor  does  not  now  stand,  as  with  us,  exactly 
in  the  centre  of  the  orcliestra  with  his  back  to  the  audience,  but  a 
[  trifle  to  the  right,  with  bis  left  side  towards  the  room. 


390 


CONDUCTOR. 


CONRADI. 


orchestra  and  beating  time  with  a  baton,  though 
apparently  long  known  abroad,  is  in  England  an 
institution  of  comparatively  recent  date.  In  for- 
mer times  the  chief  musician  sat  at  a  pianoforte  in 
the  orchestra  with  the  score  before  him ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  beat  time  continuouslji, 
or  in  any  way  influenced  the  band,  or  did  more 
than  put  in  a  few  chords  now  and  then  when  the 
orchestra  was  going  astray,  which  when  heard 
must  have  had  a  very  bad  effect.  The  leader  it 
was  who  kept  the  band  together — or  as  nearly 
together  as  possible — beating  time  with  his  bow, 
stamping,  and  occasionally  tapping  on  the  desk. 
But  as  he  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  violins  and 
was  therefore  out  of  sight  of  the  majority  of  the 
orchestra  he  could  have  had  but  a  very  small 
influence  on  the  other  players. 

The  programmes  of  the  Philharmonic  Society 
(founded  1813)  for  the  first  seven  years  always 

end  with  the  following  words,  '  Leader  Mr.  , 

Pianoforte,  Mr.  ,'  and  the  names  are  rarely 

if  ever  the  same  for  two  concerts  together.  '  Mr. 
Cramer '  and  *  Mr.  Clementi '  took  it  nearly  turn 
about  at  the  piano  till  Sir  G.  Smart  shared  it 
with  them :  but  the  leaders  varied  between  Salo- 
mon, F.  Cramer,  Spagnoletti,  Viotti,  Yaniewicz, 
Weichsel,  Mori,  Baillot.  Thus  the  band  was  each 
time  under  a  fresh  head,  and  the  'reading'  of  the 
works,  and  the  style  of  performance — as  far  as 
such  things  were  then  attempted — must  have 
changed  with  each  concert.  With  the  second 
concert  of  1820  (March  20)  the  announcement 
changes  to  '  Leader,  Mr.  Spagnoletti ;  Conductor, 
Mr.  Cramer,'  a  change  apparently  due  to  the 
resolution  of  Spohr,  who  in  a  pleasant  passage  in 
his  Autobiography  describes  the  old  state  of 
things  and  his  action  at  the  concert  which  he 
had  to  direct  (during  the  series  of  1820),  when 
he  produced  his  baton  and  insisted  on  conducting 
from  the  front  in  the  present  sense  of  the  word, 
and  as  he  had  been  accustomed  to  do  (Selbst- 
biographie,  ii.  87).  'Henceforth,'  says  he,  *no 
one  was  ever  again  seen  seated  at  the  piano  during 
the  performance  of  symphonies  and  overtures.' 
But  the  alternations  of  leaders  and  conductors 
continued  for  many  years.  The  first  attempt  at 
uniformity  was  made  in  1 844,  when  the  4th,  5th, 
6th,  7th,  and  8th  concerts  were  conducted  by 
Mendelssohn,  the  leader  still  changing  each  time. 
The  concerts  of  1845  were  conducted,  3  by  Sir 
H.  Bishop,  and  5  by  Moscheles,  and  at  length  in 
1846  we  find  the  simple  announcement  'Con- 
ductor, Signer  Costa/  and  the  commencement  of 
the  present  system.  That  system  is  obviously 
the  right  one.  The  office  of  conducting  is  to  a 
great  extent  a  mechanical  one.  A  perfect  per- 
formance depends  far  more  than  it  might  be 
supposed  on  such  matters  as  the  legibility  and 
accuracy  of  the  parts,  and  the  intelligibility  of 
the  conductor's  beat  and  of  his  communications 
with  the  players  ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  this  part 
of  a  conductor's  duties  can  only  be  adequately 
performed  if  he  is  constantly  engaged  with  the 
same  band.  In  a  perfect  conductor  mechanical 
excellence  must  be  accompanied  with  knowledo'e 
feeling,  appreciation,  enthusiasm,  poetry,  and  the 


highest  qualities  of  the  musician ;  but  these  last 
will  be  of  little  avail  without  the  former,  or 
without  the  familiar  relation  between  the  con- 
ductor and  the  band  which  long  knowledge,  or 
at  any  rate  several  rehearsals,  alone  can  give. 
Composers  do  not  always  make  good  conductors. 
Beethoven,  apart  from  his  deafness,  was  too 
strange  and  eccentric ;  Schumann  forgot  what  he 
was  about ;  Mendelssohn,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  the  practical  intelligence  and  the  rare  tact 
and  temper  which  made  him  an  exceptionally 
good  conductor.  But  it  is  better  that  the  two 
offices — the  composer  and  the  conductor — should 
be  kept  apart. 

So  far  the  Philharmonic,  as  representative  of 
London  concerts.  At  the  Opera  the  change 
is  said  to  have  been  brought  about  by  Chelard, 
who  conducted  the  German  Company  in  London 
in  32. 

Of  late  years — with  Herr  von  Bulow — the 
practice  of  conducting  from  memory  has  come 
in,  and  for  those  who  can  stand  the  enormous 
strain  which  is  implied  in  the  recollection  of 
every  nuance  and  the  exact  entry  of  every  in- 
strument in  a  long  and  complicated  work,  no 
doubt  it  is  a  great  comfort  not  to  have  to  think 
of  the  book,  but  the  power  must  surely  be  con- 
fined to  a  few  and  must  always  be  full  of  risk. 

It  would  be  difficult  within  the  limits  of  this 
article  to  give  any  definite  instructions  on  the 
art  of  conducting,  even  if  such  instructions  could 
be  practically  useful ;  but  conducting,  perhaps 
more  than  any  other  business,  is  a  matter  of 
natural  gifts  and  practice.  Those  however  who 
wish  to  see  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject  by 
three  great  musicians  may  consult  the  '  Vollkom- 
mene  Capellmeister '  of  Mattheson  (1739),  the 
'Orchestral  Conductor'  of  Berlioz — the  appendix 
to  his  Modern  Instrumentation  and  Orchestration 
— and  (less  didactic  and  more  polemical)  the 
'Ueber  das  Dirigiren'  of  Wagner.  There  is  a 
description  from  a  diff"erent  point  of  view,  well 
worth  reading,  in  Berlioz's  letter  to  Liszt,  No.  3 
of  his  *  Voyage  musical.'  [G.] 

CONDUCTOR'S  PART.  A  substitute  for  a 
full  score,  in  which  the  parts  are  condensed  into 
two  staves,  and  the  names  of  the  various  instru- 
ments are  inscribed  as  they  enter.  Spohr's  D 
minor  Symphony  is  published  in  this  shape 
only. 

CONFORTI,  Giovanni  LucA,  was  a  Calabrian, 
and  bom  at  Mileto  about  1560.  He  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Papal  Choir  in  1 591.  He  was 
doubtless  a  successful  and  accomplished  singer 
according  to  the  fashion  of  his  time;  but  his 
chief  title  to  notice  seems  to  have  been  the  pub- 
lication of  a  volume  containing  a  series  of  vocal 
ornamentations  of  all  kinds  wherewith  to  overlay 
the  Psalms  in  ordinary  use  in  the  church  on 
Sundays  and  holidays  throughout  the  year.  Baini 
ascribes  to  him  what  he  considers  the  restoration 
of  the 'trillo.'  [Tremolo  ;  Trillo.]  [E.H.P.] 

CONRADI,  August,  born  at  Berlin  1821, 
studied  harmony  and  composition  under  Run- 
genhageu.    In  1843  he  produced  a  symphony, 


COXRADI. 


CONSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE.  391 


and  in  1S47  an  opera,  'RubezaU,'  both  at  Berlin. ' 
In  1849  ^6  chapel-master  at  Stettin,  and  con-  j 
(luctor  successively  at  the  Kcinigstadt  Theatre  in  j 
Berlin,  at  Dusseldorf,  Cologne,  and  finally  (1853)  j 
at  the  KroU  Theatre  in  Berlin.    In  1855  his 

Musa  der  letzte  Maurenfurst'  was  performed  at 
rlin.    His  other  compositions  include  5  sym- 

1:  ,'nies,  overtures,  string  quartets,  dance-music  for 
})ianoforte  and  orchestra,  and  a  quantity  of  Lieder. 
He  died  at  Berlin,  May  21,  1873.  [M.CC] 

COXRADI,  JoHAXN  Georg,  chapel-master  at 
ttingen  in  Bavaria  towards  the  end  of  the 
'li  century,  one  of  the  earliest  composers  of 
rman  opera.    He  produced  successfully  at  the 
Haoiburg  Theatre  'Ariadne,'  'Diogenes,'  and 
'  Xuma  Pompilius '  in  1 69 1 ;  '  Karl  der  Grosse '  and 
'Jerusalem'  (1692);  '  Sigismimd,'  'Geiserich,' 
and  '  Pygmalion'  (1693).  [M.  C.  C] 

COXSECUTI VE,  the  term  applied  to  intervals 
which  recur  between  the  same  parts  or  voices, 
but  more  especially  to  such  as  are 
forbidden  to  do  so,  as  consecutive 
fifths,  which  everybody  perceives 
to  be  ugly;  or  consecutive  octaves,  which  are 
only  perceived  to  be  objectionable 
in  a  combination  of  distinct  parts. 

It  is  held  that  consecutive  fifths 
are  objectionable  because  the  parts  move  simul- 
taneously in  two  difi'erent  keys  ;  hence  when  the 
erfect  of  two  keys  is  avoided  they  are  admissible  ; 
as  when  the  lower  part  progresses  from  tonic 
to  dominant  (a)  (between  the  tenor  and  bass) ; 
or  from  tonic  to  subdominant  (6)  (between  treble 
and  alto). 


Consecutive  octaves  are  held  to  be  objection- 
able because  in  music  in  parts  which  are  clearly 
defined  the  balance  is  suddenly  disturbed.  For 
if  three  voices  are  singing  together,  each  with 
a  well  defined  part  assigned  to  it,  and  two  of 
them  suddenly,  without  any  ostensible  reason, 
sing  the  same  notes  in  two  or  three  successive 
chords,  not  only  is  the  harmony  weakened  by 
the  loss  of  a  part,  but  the  succession  of  notes 
which  they  sing  together  is  brought  into  unsea- 
sonable prominence.  When  it  is  intended  to 
bring  a  melody  or  a  phrase  into  prominence  it 
is  common  to  double  it  in  octaves ;  but  when 
this  is  done  in  music  in  definite  parts  it  must 
be  continued  long  enough  for  the  intention  to  be 
perceived. 

Some  theorists  add  consecutive  sevenths  to  the 
category  of  forbidden  progressions,  but  there  are 
so  many  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  the  greatest 
masters,  and  when  they  are  harsh  they  are  so 
obviously  so,  that  the  rule  seems  both  doubtful 
and  unnecessary. 

The  forbidden  consecutives  are  most  objection- 


able in  vocal  music,  or  music  for  solo  instruments 
in  combination,  such  as  quartets  and  quintets  of 
strings,  when  each  part  stands  out  distinctly,  and 
the  relations  of  the  parts  are  easily  perceived. 
In  pianoforte  music  and  orchestral  music  the 
objectionable  effect  would  be  often  lost  in  the 
mass  of  soimd. 

Instances  of  violations  of  the  rule  against  con- 
secutive fifths  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of 
almost  aU  the  greatest  composers.  Sometimes  it 
may  have  been  an  oversight,  at  others  it  may 
have  been  done  on  principle.  Ries's  well-kno^Ti 
anecdote  (Biog.  Xotizen,  p.  87)  referring  to  a 
passage  in  one  of  Beethoven's  quartets,  op.  18, 
may  show  either  one  or  the  other.  Elsewhere 
Beethoven  seems  to  have  considered  that  it  was 
better  to  violate  such  a  rule  or  incur  a  consider- 
able harshness  than  to  change  the  order  of  a 
thoroughly  established  idea,  because  the  altera- 
tion of  the  idea  not  only  produces  a  sense  of 
weakness,  but  is  also  much  more  disturbing 
sestheticaUy  than  the  violation  of  a  rule  of  har- 
mony. Thus  in  the  finale  of  his  Sonata  in  A, 
op.  1 01,  rather  than  alter  his  established  idea  (a), 
he  allows  the  part  below  to  make  consecutive 
fifths  with  it  (  *  *  ), 


It  was  long  considered,  from  the  description  of 
it  which  exists,  that  the  supposed  first  form  of 
harmony,  which  was  called  Diaphony,  or  Or- 
ganimi,  consisted  of  continuous  consecutive  fifths, 
fourths,  and  octaves ;  but  later  investigations  of 
the  subject  tend  to  show  that  the  description  has 
been  misunderstood,  and  refers  in  reality  to  a 
repetition  of  phrases  at  the  fifth  above  or  the 
fourth  below.  [C.H.H.P.] 

COXSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE.  A 
free  school  of  music,  established  in  Paris  by  the 
Convention  Xationale,  Aug.  3,  1795.  Its  first 
suggestion  was  due  to  a  horn-player  named  Ro- 
dolphe,  and  the  plan  which  he  submitted  to  the 
minister  Amelot  in  1775  was  carried  into  effect 
on  Jan.  3,  1784,  by  Baron  Breteuil,  of  Louis 
XVI's  household,  acting  on  the  advice  of  Gossec. 
This  Ecole  royale  de  Chant,  under  Gossec's  di- 
rection, was  opened  on  April  i,  1784,  in  the 
Hotel  des  Menus-Plaisirs  du  Roi,  then  used  by 
the  Academic  for  its  rehearsals.  The  first  public 
concert  was  given  April  18,  1786,  and  on  the 
addition  of  a  class  for  dramatic  declamation  in 
the  following  June  it  adopted  the  name  of  the 
Ecole  royale  de  Chant  et  de  Declamation.  The 
municipality  engaged  a  band  under  Sarrette  in 
1790,  and  instituted  on  June  9,  1792,  the  Ecole 
gratuite  de  Musique  de  la  Garde  Xationale 
Parisienne,  which  did  good  service  under  Sar- 
rette's  skilful  direction,  and  finally  took  the  name 
of  Institut  Xational  de  Musique,  Xov.  8,  1793- 
But  the  independent  existence  of  both  these 
schools  came  to  an  end  on  the  formation,  by 
government,  of  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique, 


392    CONSERVATOIEE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


CONSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


Aug.  3,  1795,  in  which  they  were  incorporated. 
Sarrette  was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  president 
of  the  institution,  and  in  1 797  his  charge  extended 
to  125  professors  and  600  pupils  of  both  sexes, 
as  well  as  to  the  printing-office  and  warehouse 
established  at  15  Faubourg  Poissonniere,  where 
the  '  M^thodes  du  Conservatoire,'  prepared  under 
the  supervision  of  Catel,  M^hul,  Rode,  Kreutzer, 
and  other  eminent  professors,  were  published. 
The  organisation  of  the  Conservatoire  was  modified 
by  Bonaparte  in  March  1800,  after  which  the 
staff  stood  as  follows  : — A  Director — Sarrette  ; 
five  Inspectors  of  Tuition — Gossec,  Mehid,  Le- 
sueur,  Cherubini,  and  IMonsigny ;  thirty  first- 
class  Professors — Louis  Adam,  Berton,  Blasius, 
Catel,  Devienne,  Dugazon,  Duvernoy,  Garat, 
Gavinies,  Hugot,  Ki*eutzer,  Persuis,  Plantade, 
Rode,  Rodolphe,  Sallentin,  etc. ;  forty  second- 
class  Professors — Adrien,  Baillot,  Boieldieu,  Dom- 
nich,  Eler,  Jadin,  etc.  The  Conservatoire  was 
again  re-organised  Oct.  15,  181 2,  by  the  famous 
Decret  de  Moscow,  under  which  eighteen  pupils, 
nine  of  each  sex,  destined  for  the  Theatre  rran9ais, 
received  an  annual  allowance  of  1 100  francs,  on 
the  same  footing  with  the  Pensionnaires — eighteen 
vocal  students,  twelve  male  and  six  female.  This 
Pensionnat  had  been  established  in  1 806  ;  but 
the  men  alone  lived  at  the  Conservatoire. 

On  Dec.  28,  18 14,  Sarrette  was  abruptly  dis- 
missed from  the  post  he  had  filled  with  so  much 
zeal  and  talent,  and  though  reinstated  on  INIay 
26,  1 81 5,  was  compelled  to  retire  finally  on  the 
17th  of  the  follo\\ang  November.  The  studies 
were  interrupted  for  the  time,  and  the  school 
remained  closed  until  April  18 16,  when  it  re- 
opened under  its  former  title  of  Ecole  royale  de 
Musique,  with  Peme  as  Inspector -general.  Che- 
rubini succeeded  him  April  i,  1822,  and  remained 
xmtil  Feb.  8,  1842,  when  he  was  replaced  by 
Auber,  who  directed  the  Conservatoire  until  his 
death.  May  12,  1871  ;  M.  Ambroise  Thomas, 
the  present  director,  was  appointed  on  the  6th  of 
the  following  July. 

Before  speaking  of  the  Conservatoire  of  our 
own  day,  its  financial  condition,  staff,  and  musical 
importance,  we  must  enumerate  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  acts  which  marked  its  successive 
administrations. 

The  budget  originally  amounted  to  240,000 
francs,  but  this  in  1802  was  reduced  to  100,000, 
a  fact  indicative  of  the  grave  money  diffi- 
culties with  which  Sarrette  had  to  contend 
through  all  his  years  of  office,  in  addition  to  the 
systematic  opposition  of  both  artists  and  autho- 
rities. By  the  publication  of  the  'Methode  du 
Conservatoire,'  however,  to  which  each  professor 
gave  his  adherence,  he  succeeded  in  uniting  the 
various  parties  of  the  educational  department 
on  a  common  basis.  Amongst  the  savants  of 
the  institution  who  assisted  in  this  work  were 
Ginguen^,  Lacepbde,  and  Prony.  Under  Sarrette 
the  pupils  were  stimulated  by  public  practisings  ; 
to  him  is  also  due  the  building  of  the  old  library, 
begun  in  1801,  and  the  inauguration  of  the  theatre 
in  the  Rue  Bergere,  181 2.  In  the  same  year  he 
obtained  an  increase  of  26,800  francs  for  the 


expenses  of  the  Pensionnat ;  and  the  institution 
of  the  'Prix  de  Rome'  in  1803,  which  secured 
to  the  holders  the  advantage  of  residing  in  Italy 
at  the  expense  of  government,  was  his  doing. 

Under  Perue's  administration  an  'Ecole  pri- 
maire  de  Chant'  was  formed,  April  23,  181 7,  in 
connection  with  the  Conservatoire,  and  directed 
by  Choron.  The  inspectorship  of  the  Ecole  de 
Musique  at  Lille  was  given  to  Plantade.  In 
1 810  it  adopted  the  title  of  'Conservatoire 
secondaire  de  Paris,'  in  which  it  was  followed  by 
the  Ecole  at  Douai,  no  longer  in  existence.  The 
formation  of  special  classes  for  lyrical  declama- 
tion and  the  study  of  opera  parts  was  also  due 
to  Peme. 

Cherubini's  strictness  of  rule  and  his  profound 
knowledge  made  his  direction  very  favourable 
for  the  progress  of  the  Conservatoire.  The  men's 
pensionnat  was  re-organised  under  him,  and  the 
number  of  public  practices,  which  all  prize-holders 
were  forced  to  attend,  increased  in  1823  from  six 
to  twelve.  By  his  means  the  opera  pitch,  uni- 
versally allowed  to  be  too  high,  was  lowered  in 
1826,  and  the  Ecole  de  Musique  founded  at 
Toulouse  in  1821  was  attached  to  the  Conserva- 
toire, as  that  of  Lille  had  previously  been.  He 
opened  new  instrumental  classes,  and  gave  much 
encouragement  to  the  productions  of  the  *  Societe 
des  Concerts  du  Conservatoire.'  By  his  means 
the  library  acquired  the  ri^ht  to  one  of  the  two 
copies  of  every  piece  of  music  or  book  upon  music 
which  authors  and  composers  are  compelled  to  de- 
posit with  the  Ministre  de  I'lnterieur  (March  29, 
1834).  In  1841,  through  Cherubini's  instrimien- 
tality,  the  Ecoles  of  Marseilles  and  Metz  became 
'Succursales  du  Conservatoire' ;  in  short,  during 
his  long  administration  he  neglected  no  means  of 
raising  the  tone  of  the  studies  of  the  Central  Con- 
servatoire, and  extending  its  influence.  The 
following  were  among  his  principal  coadjutors:— 
Habeneck  and  Paer,  inspectors  of  tuition;  Le- 
sueur,  Berton,  Reicha,  Fetis,  Halevy,  Carafa, 
composition  ;  Laine,  Lays,  Garat,  Plantade,  Pon- 
chard,  Banderali,  Bordogni,  Panseron,  Mme. 
Damoreau,  singing  :  instrumental  classes — Be- 
noist,  the  organ ;  Louis  Adam  and  Zimmer- 
man, piano ;  Baillot,  Kreutzer,  Habeneck,  violin ; 
Baudiot,  Norblin,  Vaslin,  violoncello;  Gvullou, 
Tulou,  flute  ;  Vogt,  oboe  ;  Lef  ^vre,  Klose,  cla- 
rinet; Delcambre,  Gebauer,  bassoon;  Dauprat, 
Meifred,  horn ;  Dauverne,  trumpet ;  Dieppe, 
trombone;  Naderman,  Prumier,  harp;  Adolphe 
Nourrit,  the  opera ;  Michelot,  Samson,  Provost 
and  Beauvallet,  professors  of  tragedy  and  comedy. 

Amongst  the  professors  appointed  by  Auber 
we  may  mention  Adolphe  Adam,  Ambroise  Tho- 
mas, Reber,  composition  ;  MM.  Elwart,  Bazin, 
harmony ;  Battaille,  Duprez,  Faure,  Garcia, 
Revial,  Masset,  singing;  Madame  Farrenc,  Henri 
Herz,  Marmontel,  Le  Couppey,  piano ;  Alard, 
Girard,  Massart,  Ch.  Dancla,  violin;  Franch- 
omme  and  Chevillard,  violoncello.  Classes  for 
wind  instruments  —  Tulou,  Dorus,  flute;  Ver- 
roust,  oboe;  Willent,  Cokken,  bassoon;  Gallay, 
Meifred,  horn  ;  Forestier,  Arban,  cornet ;  Mile. 
Brohan,    MM.   R^gnier,    I^Ionrose,  Bressant, 


COXSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


CONSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE.  393 


professors  of  comedy.  Auber  also  instituted 
lectures  on  the  history  and  literature  of  music, 
to  which  he  appointed  Samson  in  1855.  The 
dt^buts  under  Auber's  management  were  most 
briUiant,  and  he  drew  public  attention  to  the 
Conservatoire  by  reviving  the  public  practices. 
The  fa9ade  of  the  establishment  in  the  Faubourg 
Poissonnifere  was  re-built  in  1S45,  and  in  1864 
the  building  was  considerably  enlarged,  and 
those  in  the  Rue  du  Conservatoire  inaugurated, 
including  the  haU  and  offices  of  the  theatre,  the 
museum,  and  library.  The  associate  classes  of 
military  pupils,  formed  on  the  suppression  of  the 
Gymnase  militaire  in  1856,  made  these  enlarge- 
ments indispensable. 

But  not\vithstanding  the  growing  importance 
of  the  Conservatoire  under  Auber's  strict  and 
impartial  direction,  the  last  years  of  his  life  were 
embittered  by  the  re"saval  of  the  office  of  '  Ad- 
ministrate ur'  in  the  person  of  Lassabathie,  and 
the  appointment  of  a  commission  in  1870  to  re- 
organise the  studies — a  step  in  which  some  mem- 
bers foresaw  the  ruin  of  the  school.  In  1859,  at 
the  beginning  of  this  troubled  period,  the  reform 
of  the  pitch  took  place  which  fixed  the  A  at  870 
vibrations.  Lassabathie  at  the  same  time  pub- 
lished his  'Histoire  du  Conservatoire  imperial 
de  Musique  et  de  Declamation'  (Paris,  1S60), 
a  hasty  selection  of  documents,  but  containing 
ample  details  as  to  the  professorial  staff. 

Since  the  nomination  of  M.  Ambroise  Thomas, 
the  present  director,  the  office  of  *  Adminis- 
trateur'  and  the  pensionnat  have  been  sup- 
pressed, and  Mr.  Emile  Rety  has  been  appointed 
Secretary-General.  Lectures  on  the  general 
history  of  music  have  been  instituted ;  M. 
Barbereau,  the  original  lecturer,  has  been  suc- 
ceeded by  M.  Eugene  Gautier  ;  an  orchestral 
class  directed  by  M.  Deldevez,  and  compulsory 
vocal  classes  for  reading  at  sight  have  been 
founded,  and  the  solfeggio  teaching  has  been  com- 
pletely reformed.  The  following  professors  have 
been  appointed  : — MM.  Theo.  Dubois,  Guiraud, 
harmony  ;  MM.  Crosti,  Bussine,  Boulanger,  Po- 
tier,  Mme.  Viardot,  who  has  lately  resigned,  and 
been  succeeded  by  M.  Barbot,  singing ;  M. 
Charles  Colin,  oboe ;  M.  Jancourt,  bassoon ;  M. 
Delisse,  trombone  ;  M.  Maury,  cornet-a-piston. 
M.  Ambroise  Thomas  has  endeavoured  to  improve 
the  tuition  in  all  its  branches,  to  raise  the  sala- 
ries of  the  professors,  and  increase  the  general 
budget,  which  has  risen  to  210,000  francs,  and  is 
expected  soon  to  reach  240,000  francs — a  sum 
amply  sufficient  for  the  expenses  of  the  Institution 
with  its  staff  of  8  titularies,  77  professors,  and 
10  employes. 

The  tuition  at  present  is  divided  as  follows : — 
16  solfeggio  classes  under  4  masters — in  12  of 
which  the  lessons  are  individual,  in  the  remaining 
4  in  class ;  8  singing  classes  under  8  masters  ; 
a  class  for  vocal  harmony,  and  another  for  the 
study  of  part-writing,  each  with  its  professor. 
For  lyrical  declamation  there  is  I  class  for  the 
opera  and  2  classes  for  the  opera-comique.  The 
31  instrumental  classes  are  as  follows  : — 6  for 
violin ;  2  for  cello ;  i  for  double-bass,  for  flute, 


oboe,  clarinet,  bassoon,  horn,  cornet,  trombone, 
harp,  chamber  music,  organ,  improvisation,  and 
orchestral  composition.  There  are  also  10  classes 
for  piano,  4  for  men  and  6  for  women. 

For  the  study  of  harmony  there  are  6  classes. 
Also  three  for  composition,  counterpoint,  and 
fugue  (under  Reber,  Masse,  and  Bazin,  all 
members  of  the  Institut  de  France).  To  these 
classes  must  be  added  those  for  the  general 
histoiy  of  music,  grammar,  prosody,  and  ortho- 
phony, 3  classes  for  dramatic  declamation,  i  for 
stage  deportment,  and  i  for  fencing. 

The  classes  are  held  3  times  a  week,  each  one 
lasting  2  hours.  The  regulation  number  of 
pupils  is  either  8,  10,  or  12,  according  to  the 
class,  but  a  few  candidates  are  also  admitted  as 
'auditeurs,'  Among  the  professors  who  have 
charge  of  the  classes  just  enumerated,  we  find 
such  names  as  Masse,  Franchomme,  Chevillard, 
Rene'  Baillot,  Deldevez,  Reber,  Bazin,  Regnier, 
Bressant,  and  many  of  the  most  celebrated  artists. 
The  academic  year  begins  on  the  first  Monday  in 
October,  and  closes  at  the  end  of  J uly. 

The  names  of  those  seeking  admission  to  the 
Conservatoire  must  be  sent  in  to  the  committee 
of  management  at  the  beginning  of  October, 
and  an  examination  before  the  Committee  of 
Tuition  must  be  successfully  passed.  The  j^oungest 
pupils  only  are  admitted  into  the  preparatory 
solfeggio  and  piano  classes  ;  in  the  higher 
classes,  for  vocal  music  and  declamation,  the  age 
is  limited  to  22.  The  pupils  have  to  pass  two 
examinations  in  each  academic  year,  and  take 
part  in  one  or  more  public  practices ;  they  are 
also  admitted  to  the  July  competitions  according 
to  their  ability.  The  competitions  in  singing, 
opera,  opera-comique,  tragedy,  comedy,  and 
instrumental  music,  are  held  publicly  in  the 
large  concert-room.  The  distribution  of  prizes 
follows,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Minister  of 
Public  Education  and  Fine  Arts. 

This  important  institution  provides  musical 
and  dramatic  instruction  for  upwards  of  600 
pupils  and  '  auditeurs, '  who,  besides  their  regular 
studies,  have  the  advantage  of  an  extensive 
library  and  a  museum  of  musical  instruments. 

The  Library,  which  dates  from  the  foundation 
of  the  school  itself,  is  open  to  the  public  daily 
from  10  to  4.  The  first  librarian,  Eler,  was 
followed  by  Langle  (i  796-1 807),  the  Abbe  Roze 
(1807-1820),  Feme  (1820-1822),  Fttis  (1827- 
1831),  Bottee  de  Toulmon  (1831-1S50),  Berlioz 
(as  conservateur  1 839-1 850,  and  as  librarian 
1852-1869),  Felicien  David  (1869-1876).  Since 
1876  M.  Weckerlin  has  acted  as  librarian. 

The  Library  contains  over  30,000  works,  and 
the  number  is  increased  every  year  by  means 
of  a  special  grant.  It  also  possesses  a  considerable 
number  of  manuscripts  and  autographs,  to  which 
those  of  the  Prix  de  Rome  were  added  in  1871, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  writer.  This  collection 
contains  the  autographs  of  all  the  prize  cantatas 
since  the  foundation  of  the  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1803.  Amongst  the  other  important  collections 
are  those  of  Eler,  composed  of  works  of  the  1 6th 
and  1 7th  centuries  put  into  score ;  of  Bottee  de 


394    CONSERVATOIRE  DE  MUSIQUE. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


Toulmon,  comprising  85  volumes  of  MS.  copies 
of  the  chefs-d'oeuvre  of  the  14th,  15th,  and  i6th 
centuries  from  Munich,  Vienna,  and  Rome,  in- 
cluding all  Palestrina's  masses.  Unfortunately, 
most  of  these  compositions  are  written  in  'pro- 
portional notation,'  and  are  still  in  separate 
parts.  The  departments  of  engraved  opera  scores 
and  of  vocal  and  instrumental  methodes  are  very 
complete.  In  1872  the  library  was  further 
enriched  by  Schoelcher's  collection,  containing 
every  edition  of  Handel's  works  and  a  vast  array 
of  Handel-literature.  The  number  of  dramas  is 
6,000,  and  increasing  daily,  and  the  department 
of  works  on  the  art  and  history  of  music  contains 
many  thousand  French  and  foreign  volumes. 
Amongst  these  are  some  extremely  rare  works, 
'El  Melopeo'  by  Cerone ;  treatises  by  Agricola, 
Luscinius,  Praetorius,  Mersenne ;  several  editions 
of  Gafori ;  '  II  Transilvano'  by  Diruta  ;  original 
editions  of  most  of  the  old  clavecinists ;  'L'Or- 
chdsographie'  of  Thoinot  Arbeau;  the  'Ballet 
Comique  de  la  Reine' ;  the  'Flores  musice'  of 
1488;  old  missals  and  treatises  on  plain-chant; 
besides  other  very  rare  and  valuable  books  and 
methodes. 

The  Museum — of  recent  date,  having  been 
formally  inaugurated  on  Nov.  20,  1864 — is  open 
to  the  public  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays  from 
12  to  4.  At  that  time  it  merely  contained  the 
230  articles  which  the  government  had  purchased 
from  Clapisson  in  1861,  and  123  musical  instru- 
ments transferred  from  the  Garde  Meubles  and 
other  state  institutions,  or  presented  by  private 
donors.  On  the  appointment  of  the  present 
conservateur,  M.  Gustavo  Chouquet,  Sept.  30, 
1871,  the  number  of  objects  did  not  exceed  380, 
but  it  now  possesses  700  instruments  and  objects 
of  art  of  the  greatest  interest.  A  fuU  historical 
catalogue  has  been  published  by  M.  Chouquet, 
entitled  *Le  Musee  du  Conservatoire  national 
de  Musique'  (Paris,  F.  Didot,  1875  ;  8vo.).  This 
magnificent  collection  is  the  largest  and  most 
complete  in  Europe,  and  the  space  allotted  to  it 
must  strike  every  one  as  inadequate. 

The  Conservatoire  itself  sufiers  from  want  of 
room.  In  the  Faubourg  Poissonnifere,  No.  15, 
are  the  offices  of  the  administration,  the  entrance 
to  the  small  theatre,  where  not  only  the  ex- 
aminations, but  the  classes  for  choral  singing  and 
dramatic  declamation,  lessons  on  the  oroan,  and 
lectures  on  the  history  of  music  are  held.  Two 
smaller  theatres  serve  for  solfeggio  and  opera 
classes.  In  the  large  theatre,  which  contains  an 
organ  of  32  feet,  the  Socidt^  des  Concerts  du 
Conservatoire  has  held  its  concerts  since  its 
creation ;  it  also  serves  for  the  public  practices, 
the  competitions,  and  the  distribution  of  prizes. 
It  was  restored  and  decorated  in  the  Pompeian 
style  in  1864  ;  and  contains  only  a  thousand  seats. 
The  educational  management  of  the  Conservatoire 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  central  committee,  with 
two  sub-committees,  for  the  superintendence  of 
the  musical  and  dramatic  studies  respectively. 
The  committees  for  the  admission  of  pupils  and 
the  examination  of  the  classes  are  named  by  the 
director. 


At  the  present  date  (1878)  there  are  five 
provincial  Ecoles  de  Musique,  branches  of  the 
Conservatoire,  viz.  Lille,  Toulouse,  Dijon,  Nantes, 
and  Lyons  (founded  April  2,  1874). 

In  1 871  M.  Henri  Reber  succeeded  M.  Am- 
broise  Thomas  as  inspector  of  these  provincial 
schools.  [G.  C] 

CONSERVATORIO.  The  Conservatories  in 
which  the  great  schools  of  Italian  music  were 
formed  were  so  called  because  they  were  intended 
to  preserve  (conservare)  the  science  of  music 
from  corruption.  Of  these  the  most  ancient  were 
the  Neapolitan  ones — Santa  Maria  di  Loreto 
(i537)>  I  Poveri  di  Gesu  Cristo  (1589),  La 
Pietk  de'  Turchini  (1583),  San  Onofrio  (1583), 
which  all  sprang  from  the  first  school  of  music 
founded  at  Naples  (1496)  by  Jean  Tinctor,  a 
Fleming,  reconstituted  by  Gesualdo,  Prince  of 
Venosa,  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  and  illustrated 
by  a  long  roU  of  eminent  musicians.  [See 
Naples.] 

The  Conservatories  of  Venice  arose  out  of 
the  school  founded  by  another  Fleming,  Willaert, 
at  the  same  date  with  that  of  Naples,  and  were 
also  four  in  number: — L'Ospedale  deUa  Pieta. 
Dei  Mendicanti,  Degl'  Incurabili,  L' Ospedaletto 
de'  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  [See  Venice.]  Nor 
does  this  list  include  the  various  'chapel  schools' 
of  music  for  the  choirs  of  the  great  cathedrals, 
after  the  pattern  of  the  musical  school  founded 
in  the  6th  century  by  Gregory  the  Great  for  the 
Pontifical  Chapel  at  Rome,  the  archives  of  which 
were  destroyed  in  the  sack  of  Rome  by  Charles  V, 
1527.    [See  Rome.] 

The  Venetian  Conservatories  have  ceased  to 
exist,  those  of  Naples  are  now  represented  by  a 
Royal  Neapolitan  College,  and  there  is  a  '"Reale 
Conservatorio  di  Musica'  extant  and  flourishing 
at  Milan. 

The  Conservatoire  of  Paris  is  described  in 
the  preceding  article.  The  Conservatoriums  of 
Leipzig  (founded  through  the  exertions  of  Men- 
delssohn in  1843),  Vienna,  and  other  German 
towns,  will  be  mentioned  under  the  names  of 
those  places.  [CM. P.] 

CONSONANCE  is  a  combination  of  notes 
which  can  sound  together  without  the  harshness 
which  is  produced  by  beats  disturbing  the  smooth 
flow  of  the  sound. 

The  consonances  which  are  within  the  limits 
of  the  octave,  and  the  ratios  of  the  vibrational 
numbers  of  their  notes  are — 

The  octave.    .    1:2.    Minor  third    .  5:6. 

Fifth     .    .    .    2:3.    Major  sixth    .  3:5. 

Fourth  .    .    .    3:4.    Minor  sixth    .  5:8. 

Major  third    .    4:5.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CON  SPIRITO,  'with  spirit';  an  indication 
oftener  found  in  Haydn  and  Mozart  than  in 
later  compositions. 

CONSTRUCTION  is  the  writing  of  a  piece 
of  music  according  to  an  appreciable  plan. 

The  element  of  construction  is  most  important 
in  instrumental  music,  where  there  is  no  acces- 
sory interest  to  keep  the  mind  engaged.    In  all 


CONSTRUCTION. 


CONTRALTO. 


395 


music  connected  with  words  the  definiteness  of 
(•(instruction  must  yield  to  the  order  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  be  dependent  on  what  it  expresses 
for  the  chief  part  of  its  effect ;  but  in  instrumental 
music  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  mind  to 
receive  a  satisfactory  impression  from  a  work 
which  was  purely  continuous,  and  had  no  such 
connection  between  its  parts  as  should  enable 
the  hearer  to  refer  from  one  part  to  another,  and 
thereby  assist  his  attention.  The  only  manner 
in  which  the  sense  of  proportion  and  plan,  which 
is  so  important  in  works  of  art,  can  be  introduced 
into  music  is  by  repetition  of  parts  which  shall 
be  distinctly  recognised  by  the  rhythm  and  order 
of  succession  of  their  notes,  and  are  called  the 
subjects.  And  the  construction  of  a  fine  move- 
ment is  like  that  of  a  grand  building,  in  which 
the  main  subjects  are  the  great  pillars  upon 
which  the  whole  edifice  rests,  and  all  the  smaller 
details  of  ornamentation  are  not  just  an  irregular 
medley  of  ill-assorted  beauties,  but  being  rein- 
troduced here  and  there,  either  simply  or  dis- 
guised with  graceful  devices,  give  that  unity 
and  completeness  to  the  general  effect  which  the 
absence  of  plan  can  never  produce.  As  instru- 
mental music  grows  older  new  plans  of  construc- 
tion are  frequently  invented,  especially  in  small 
lyrical  pieces,  which  imitate  more  or  less  the 
character  of  songs,  or  represent  some  fixed  and 
definite  idea  or  emotion,  according  to  the  sup- 
posed order  or  progress  of  which  the  piece  is 
constructed.  In  small  pieces  for  single  instru- 
ments originality  of  plan  is  generally  an  advan- 
tage ;  but  in  large  forms  of  instrusnental  compo- 
sition it  is  most  desirable  for  the  general  plan 
to  be  to  a  certain  extent  familiar,  though  it  is 
on  the  other  hand  undesirable  that  it  should  be 
very  obvious.  The  former  strains  the  attention 
too  heavily,  the  latter  engages  it  too  slightly. 
An  account  of  the  plans  most  generally  used  for 
such  large  instrumental  works  as  symphonies, 
concertos,  overtures,  sonatas,  etc.,  will  be  found 
under  the  article  Form.  [C.H.H.P.] 
CONTI,  Francesco  Bartolojieo,  eminent 
theorbist  and  dramatic  composer,  bom  at  Flo- 
rence Jan.  20,  1 68 1,  appointed  court  theorbist  at 
Vienna  in  1701.  He  resigned  in  1705,  but  was 
reappointed  theorbist  in  1 708,  with  the  additional 
post  in  1 71 3  of  court-composer.  From  this  time 
he  devoted  himself  with  marked  success  to  the 
composition  of  operas,  especially  the  higher  kind 
of  comic  operas.  His  best  work  was  the  tragi- 
comic opera  'Don  Chisciotte  in  Sierra  Morena,' 
which  is  a  model  of  its  kind  for  the  clear  delinea- 
tion of  each  separate  character.  It  was  per- 
formed first  at  the  Carnaval  of  1 719  in  Vienna, 
and  afterwards  (1722)  at  Hamburg,  in  German. 
His  first  opera,  'Clotilde'  (Vienna,  1706),  was 
produced  in  London  (1709),  and  the  songs  pub- 
lished separately  by  Walsh.  Conti's  cantatas  and 
oratorios  are  solid  and  thoughtful.  Von  Kochel 
(J.  J.  Fux:  Vienna,  1872)  gives  a  catalogue  of 
all  his  works  performed  in  Vienna  between  1 706 
and  1732.  They  comprise  16  grand  operas,  13 
serenades  or  'Feste  teatrali,'  and  9  oratorios, 
the  scores  of  which  are  to  be  found  almost  entire 


in  the  Imperial  library  and  in  the  archives  of 
the  '  Gesellschaft  der  Musik-freunde'  at  Vienna. 
Mattheson,  in  his  'Vollkommene  Kapellmeister' 
(1739,  p.  40),  casts  a  grave  slur  on  Conti's 
character  through  a  confusion  between  him  and 
his  son  Ignaz.  The  mistake  was  corrected  by 
Quantz  in  Marpurg's  'Kritische  Beitrage'  (1754, 
vol.  i.  p.  219),  and  by  Gerber  in  his  'Neues 
Lexicon,'  but  F^tis  maintained  the  authenticity 
of  the  anecdote  in  the  'R(3vue  musicale'  (1827, 
No.  3),  and  even  repeated  it  in  his  '  Biographie 
Universelle'  after  the  real  facts  had  been  made 
known  by  Molitor  in  the  '  Allg.  musik.  Zeitung' 
(1838,  p.  153).  Conti  died  in  Vienna  July  20, 
1732.  Mendel,  in  his  '  Mus.  Conv.  Lexicon,' 
states  that  he  was  promoted  to  the  post  of  court 
chapel-master,  but  this  is  incorrect,  as  he  was 
still  court-composer  at  the  time  of  his  death.  The 
younger  Conti,  Ignaz,  whom  F^tis  is  uncertain 
whether  to  call  the  son  or  the  brother  of  Francesco, 
was  really  his  son,  born  in  1699.  He  held  the 
post  of  *Hof-scholar'  up  to  the  time  of  his  death, 
March  28,  1759,  composed  several  serenades 
and  oratorios  which  bear  no  traces  of  his  father's 
ability.  [C.  F.  P.] 

CONTI.    See  Gizziello. 

CONTINUO.  The  short  for  Basso  Continuo, 
which  see. 

CONTRABASSO,  the  Italian  for  Double  Bass. 

CONTRABASS  POSAUNE.  See  Trombone. 

CONTRABASS  TUBA.    See  Bombardon. 

CONTRA-FAGOTTO,  the  ordinary  name  in 
orchestral  scores  for  the  Double  Bassoon.  See 
scores  of  Beethoven's  Symphonies  5  and  9, 
Brahms's  Variations  on  a  theme  of  Haydn's,  etc. 

CONTRALTO.  The  lowest  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  the  female  voice  (the  two 
others  being  soprano  and  mezzo  soprano),  and 
that  to  which  in  choral  music  the  part  next 
above  {contra,  or  counter  to)  the  alto  is  assigned. 
[Alto.]  The  culture  and  employment,  as  a  solo 
instrument,  of  the  female  contralto  voice,  like 
that  of  its  correlative  the  bass,  is  comparatively 
modern,  and  even  yet  not  universal.  By  the 
opera  composers  of  France  and  Germany  it  has 
been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  but  rarely  em- 
ployed. In  his  adaptation  for  the  French 
Theatre  of  his  Italian  *  Orfeo,'  originally  com- 
posed (1762)  for  a  contralto,  Gluck  transposed 
and  otherwise  re -cast  the  music  of  the  title- 
character  for  a  tenor.  It  is  to  Rossini  and  his 
Italian  contemporaries  that  this  voice  owes  its 
present  very  important  status.  In  few  of  their 
operas  is  it  unemployed.  In  the  choral  music  how- 
ever of  the  composers  of  all  nations  it  has  now 
definitively  taken  its  place — till  lately  monopo- 
lised, in  England  especially,  by  the  male  counter- 
tenor, a  voice  of  somewhat  different  compass 
and  altogether  different  quality.  [Alto.]  In 
extent  the  contralto  voice  sometimes  exceeds 
every  other,  male  or  female.  Like  the  bass  it 
has  a  third  register,  but  far  more  frequently  and 
successfully  brought  under  control.  A  contralto 
has  been  known  to  possess  an  available  compass 


896 


CONTHALTO. 


COOKE. 


of  three  octaves.  Its  most  effective  notes  how- 
ever, and  those  only  which  it  is  safe  to  employ  in 
choral  music,  are  the  notes  which  can  be  placed 
on  the  stave  (unfortunately  obsolete)  which  has 
the  C  clef  on  the  second  line— from  the  G  ■ 
below  middle  C  to  the  octave  above  the  Mizz 
latter  —  incorrectly  called  the  Mezzo-  irn 
soprano  stave.  Though  not  so  penetrating  as  the 
soprano,  the  contralto  voice  surpasses  it  in  ten- 
derness and  in  volume  ;  and  even,  which  is  more 
remarkable,  in  flexibility,  recent  contralti  have 
certainly  equalled,  perhaps  surpassed,  vocalists  of 
every  other  class.  As  examples  of  singers  in  the 
full  acceptation  of  the  term  the  names  of  Gras- 
sini,  Pisaroni,  Brambilla,  and  Alboni,  all  con- 
tralti, have  become  historical.  [J .H.] 
CONTRAPUNTAL  is  properly  that  which  is 
written  according  to  the  rules  of  strict  Counter- 
point, which  see ;  but  it  is  commonly  used  to 
describe  music  of  a  pure  and  dignified  style,  in 
which  the  effect  is  produced  more  by  the  inde- 
pendent motion  of  the  parts  than  by  the  mass- 
ing of  the  harmonies.  The  larger  proportion  of 
early  modern  music  was  essentially  contrapuntal, 
and  it  seems  that  the  first  ideas  of  harmony  were 
derived  from  the  species  of  counterpoint  called 
Discantus,  which  was  a  popular  device  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  consisted 
of  fitting  two  independent  tunes  together.  This 
basis,  and  the  faot  that  musicians  were  slow  in 
developing  a  sense  for  more  than  very  simple 
harmonies,  made  the  contrapuntal  style  their 
natural  mode  of  musical  expression.  But  the 
development  of  the  elaborate  harmonies  of  mo- 
dern instrumental  music  has  so  changed  its 
whole  character,  that  an  attempt  to  write  true 
contrapuntal  music  at  the  present  day  is  sorae- 
,  thing  like  trying  to  write  a  poem  in  the  English 
of  Chaucer ;  and  very  few  composers,  unless  they 
devote  their  attention  specially  to  it,  are  likely 
to  achieve  a  contrapuntal  work  which  shall  not 
have  the  appearance  of  being  either  forced  or 
meaningless.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CONTRARY  MOTION  is  the  progression  of 
parts  in  opposite  directions,  one  or  more  as- 
cending while  the  other  or  others  descend,  as — 


In  contrapuntal  music  it  was  considered  pre- 
ferable to  similar  or  oblique  motion,  and  it  always 
has  a  stronger  and  more  vigorous  character  than 
either  of  these.  Many  conspicuous  examples  of 
its  use  in  modern  music  may  be  found,  as  for 
instance  in  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Symphony  in  C  minor — 


1 1 

Passing  notes  are  allowed  to  progress  con- 
tinuously by  contrary  motion  until  they  arrive 
at  notes  which  form  a  part  of  some  definite 
harmony  (  *  ),  as — 


from  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata 
in  Bb,  op.  io6.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CONTREDANSE  (Engl,  country-dance,  Ger. 
contretanz),  A  dance  of  English  origin,  which 
was  introduced  into  France  in  the  Regency, 
1715-23,  and  has  since  become  very  popular. 
The  music  to  the  contredanse  is  of  a  lively 
character ;  it  is  written  either  in  2-4  or  in  6-8 
time,  and  consists  uniformly  of  eight -bar  phrases, 
each  of  which  is  usually  repeated.  The  name 
probably  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  dancers 
were  ranged  over  against  {centre)  one  another. 
The  English  term  *  country -dance'  is  probably  a 
mere  adaptation. 

Beethoven  has  written  twelve  contredanses  for 
orchestra,  from  one  of  which  he  developed  the 
finale  of  his  'Eroica'  symphony.  Mozart  has 
also  left  a  large  number  of  specimens  of  this 
class  of  composition.  A  series  of  five  or  six 
contredanses  forms  a  Quadrille.  [E.  P.] 

CON  VERS!,  GiEOLAMO,  was  born  at  Correggio 
about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  and  is 
known  as  the  author  of  the  following  works  : — 
Canzoni  a  5  voci ;  Venice,  G.  Scotto  1575  ;  re- 
printed by  the  same  publisher  in  1580  in  4to; 
Madrigali,  a  6  voci,  lib.  i  ;  Venice  1584;  ibid, 
in  4to.  Conversi  is  familiar  to  English  amateurs 
through  his  fine  Madrigal  '  When  all  alone  my 
pretty  love  was  playing.'  [E.  H.  P.] 

CONVICT  (Con victor ium),  an  establishment 
existing  in  many  German  towns  for  the  free  or 
very  economical  education  of  boys  ;  usually  con- 
nected with  the  convent  system,  and  supported 
by  the  state  or  private  foundation.  Its  only 
claim  to  mention  here  is  the  fact  that  Schubert 
was  educated  for  the  Hof-kapelle  at  the  Convict 
at  45  in  the  Piaristen  Gasse,  Josephstadt,  Vienna. 
That  for  the  choristers  of  St.  Stephen  s  is  in  the 
Stubenbastei,  No.  2. 

COOKE,  Benjamin,  Mus.  Doc,  the  son  of 
Benjamin  Cooke,  a  music  publisher  in  New 
Street,  Covent  Garden,  was  born  in  1734.  In 
his  ninth  year  he  was  placed  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  Dr.  Pepusch,  and  made  such  rapid  pro- 
gress as  in  three  years  time  to  be  able  to  act 
as  deputy  for  John  Robinson,  organist  of  West- 


COOKE. 


COOKE. 


397 


minster  Abbey.  In  1752  he  was  appointed  suc- 
'  •essor  to  Dr.  Pepusch  as  conductor  at  the  Aca- 
<leiny  of  Ancient  Music.  In  September  57, 
'  u  the  resignation  of  Bernard  Gates,  he  obtained 
he  appointment  of  master  of  the  choristers  of 
AVestniinster  Abbey,  and  on  Jan.  27,  58,  that 
of  lay  vicar  there.  On  July  i,  62,  on  the 
death  of  Robinson,  Cooks  was  appointed  organist 
of  the  Abbey.  In  75  he  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge,  and  in  82  was 
admitted  to  the  same  degree  at  Oxford.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  elected  organist  of  St.  Martin- 
iu-the-Fields.  In  1789  he  resigned  the  conductor- 
si  lip  of  the  Academy  of  Ancient  Music  to  Dr. 
Arnold.  He  died  Sept.  14,  1793,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a 
mural  tablet,  with  a  fine  canon,  records  his 
skill  and  worth.  Dr.  Cooke's  compositions,  which 
are  voluminous,  are  for  the  church,  concert-room, 
and  chamber.  For  the  theatre  he  produced 
nothing  except  an  ode  for  Dr.  Delap's  tragedy, 
'The  Captives,'  1786.  His  church  music  com- 
prises the  fine  service  in  G,  and  one  composed  in 
1787  at  the  request  of  Lord  Heathfield  for  the 
use  of  the  garrison  in  Gibraltar ;  two  anthems 
composed  in  1748  and  49  for  the  Founder's 
day  at  the  Charter  House  ;  an  anthem  with 
orchestral  accompaniments  for  the  funeral  of 
William,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  1764;  another 
of  the  same  description,  for  the  installation  of 
the  Bishop  of  Osnaburg,  afterwards  Duke  of 
York,  as  Knight  of  the  Bath,  1772  ;  and  fourteen 
others,  besides  several  chants  and  psalm  and 
hymn  tunes.  For  the  Academy  of  Ancient 
Music  he  added  choruses  and  accompaniments 
to  Pergolesi's  '  Stabat  Mater,'  1759,  and  to  Gal- 
liard's  'Morning  Hymn'  (printed  1773);  and 
composed  an  Ode  for  Christmas  Day,  1763;  'The 
Syrens'  Song  to  Ulysses' ;  Collins's  Ode  on  the 
Passions  (printed  1784) ;  Ode  on  the  Genius  of 
Chatterton,  1786;  and  Ode  on  the  King's  re- 
covery, 1789.  But  the  compositions  by  which 
he  is  best  known,  and  which  will  convey  his  name 
to  posterity,  are  his  numerous  and  beautiful  glees, 
canons,  etc.  For  seven  of  these  (five  glees,  a 
canon,  and  a  catch)  the  Catch  Club  awarded  him 
prizes.  Dr.  Cooke  published  in  his  life-time  a 
collection  of  his  glees,  and  a  second  collection 
appeared  in  1795  under  the  care  of  his  son 
Robert.  Twenty-nine  glees,  and  eleven  rounds 
catches  and  canons  by  Dr.  Cooke  are  printed  in 
Warren's  collections.  His  instrumental  com- 
positions consist  of  organ  pieces,  concertos  for 
the  orchestra,  marches,  and  harpsichord  lessons. 
Apart  from  his  eminence  as  a  composer  and  practi- 
cal musician.  Dr.  Cooke  was  one  of  the  best  and 
most  learned  theorists  of  his  time.  [W.  H.  H.] 
COOKE,  Henry — 'Captain Cooke' — was  edu- 
cated in  the  Chapel  Royal  of  Charles  I.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  joined  the  king's 
army,  and  obtained,  in  1642,  a  captain's  commis- 
sion. During  the  Commonwealth  he  subsisted  by 
teaching  music.  On  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  in  1660,  Cooke  was  appointed  one 
of  the  gentlemen  and  master  of  the  children. 
In  1663  he  obtained  a  grant  for  himself  and  his 


successors  of  £30  per  annum  for  the  diet,  lodg- 
ing, washing,  and  teaching  of  each  of  the  children 
of  the  chapel.  In  July  1664  he  was  appointed 
'  Composer  of  the  king's  private  music  for  voices,' 
at  a  yearly  salary  of  £40.  Cooke  died  July  13, 
1672,  and  was  buried  on  July  17  in  the  east 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Antony  Wood 
asserts  that  his  death  was  hastened  by  chagrin 
at  finding  himself  supplanted  in  favour  by  Pel- 
ham  Humfrey,  who  had  been  his  pupil.  Cooke 
retained  the  title  of '  captain '  until  his  death.  He 
composed  several  anthems,  the  words  of  which 
are  contained  in  Clifford's  collection,  and  a  pro- 
cessional hymn  which  was  performed  at  Windsor 
at  the  festival  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter, 
April  17,  1661.  He  also  contributed  some  of 
the  music  to  Davenant's  '  First  Day's  Entertain- 
ment at  Rutland  House'  in  1657.       [W.  H.  H.] 

COOKE,  Nathaniel,  bom  at  Bosham,  near 
Chichester,  in  1773,  was  nephew  of  Matthew 
Cooke,  organist  of  St.  George,  Bloomsbury,  from 
whom  he  received  the  chief  part  of  his  musical 
education.  He  became  organist  of  the  parish 
church  of  Brighton,  for  the  use  of  the  choir  of 
which  he  published  a  Collection  of  Psalm  and 
Hymn  tunes,  including  some  of  his  own  com- 
positions, which  long  continued  in  favour.  He 
also  published  some  small  pieces  for  the  piano- 
forte. [W.  H.  H.] 

COOKE,  Robert,  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Cooke, 
succeeded  his  father,  on  his  death  in  1793,  as 
organist  of  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields.  On  the  death 
of  Dr.  Arnold,  in  1802,  he  was  appointed  or- 
ganist and  master  of  the  choristers  of  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  In  18 14  he  unfortunately  became 
deranged,  and  in  a  paroxysm  of  his  disorder 
drowned  himself  in  the  Thames.  Robert  Cooke 
composed  an  Evening  Service  in  C  and  an  an- 
them, '  An  Ode  to  Friendship,'  and  several 
songs  and  glees.  Three  of  the  latter  obtained 
prizes  at  the  Catch  Club.  A  collection  of  eight 
of  his  glees  was  pubKshed  by  the  author  in 
1805.  [W.H.H.] 

COOKE,  Thomas  SnrpsoN,  familiarly  known 
as  Tom  Cooke,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1782. 
Evincing  early  a  taste  for  music  he  studied 
under  his  father,  and  made  such  rapid  progress 
as  to  perform  in  public  a  violin  concerto  when 
only  seven  years  of  age.  He  received  instruction 
in  composition  from  Giordani.  When  only  fifteen 
he  was  appointed  leader  of  the  band  at  the 
theatre  in  Crow  Street,  Dublin,  in  which  situ- 
ation he  continued  several  years,  and  composed 
several  musical  pieces.  On  one  of  his  benefit 
nights  he  announced  himself  to  sing  the  tenor 
part  of  The  Seraskier,  in  Storace's  opera  'The 
Siege  of  Belgrade,'  an  experiment  which  proved 
quite  successful,  and  led  to  his  removal  to 
London,  where  he  made  his  first  appearance, 
in  the  same  character,  at  the  English  Opera 
House,  Lyceum,  on  July  13,  1813.  On  Sept.  14, 
1 81 5,  he  appeared  as  Don  Carlos  in  'The  Du- 
enna,' at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  where  he  con- 
tinued as  a  principal  tenor  singer  for  nearly 
twenty  years.    During  this  period,  on  one  of  hia 


398 


COOKE. 


COPERARIO. 


benefit  nights, '  he  exhibited  the  versatility  of 
his  talents  by  performing  in  succession  on  the 
violin,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  bassoon,  horn,  violon- 
cello, double  bass,  and  pianoforte.  About  1823 
he  undertook,  alternately  with  his  duty  as  tenor 
singer,  the  duty  of  leader  of  the  band.  Some 
years  later  he  was  engaged,  at  Drury  Lane  and 
Covent  Garden,  as  director  of  the  music  and 
conductor.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  and  occasionally  led  the  band 
or  conducted  the  concerts.  In  1 846  he  succeeded 
John  Loder  as  leader  at  the  Concert  of  Antient 
Music.  For  several  years  he  held  the  post 
of  principal  tenor  singer  at  the  chapel  of  the 
Bavarian  Embassy,  He  died  at  his  house  in 
Great  Portland  Street,  Feb.  26,  1848,  and  was 
buried  at  Kensal  Green  cemetery.  Cooke's  com- 
positions were  numerous  and  varied.  He  wrote 
much  for  the  theatre,  but  his  music  of  that 
description  has  mostly  passed  out  of  memory. 
As  a  glee  composer  he  was  more  successful,  and 
several  of  his  compositions  of  that  class  obtained 
prizes  from  the  Catch  and  Glee  Clubs.  As  a 
singing-master  he  had  a  deserved  reputation, 
and  several  of  his  pupils  achieved  distinction ; 
amongst  them  Miss  M.  Tree,  Mrs.  Austin,  Miss 
Povey,  Miss  Rainforth,  the  Misses  A.  and  M. 
Williams,  and  Mr.  Sims  Reeves.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  singing,  which  was  much  esteemed. 
Cooke's  principal  dramatic  pieces  were  'Frederick 
the  Great,'  1814;  'The  Kings  Proxy,'  1815; 
*  The  Count  of  Anjou,'  1816  ;  *  A  Tale  of  Other 
Times'  (with  Bochsa),  1822;  'The  Wager,  or, 
The  Midnight  Hour,'  1825;  'Oberon,  or,  The 
Charmed  Horn,'  1826;  'Malvina,'  1826;  'The 
Boy  of  Santillane,'  1827;  'The  Brigand,'  1829, 
one  song  in  which,  'Gentle  Zitella,'  attained 
great  popularity;  'Peter  the  Great,'  1829; 
'The  Dragon's  Gift,'  1830;  'The  Ice  Witch,' 
1831;  'Hyder  Ali,'  1831  ;  'St.  Patrick's  Eve,' 
1832;  'King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table,'  1835  ;  additional  songs  for  'A 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  1840.  He  also  ad- 
apted several  foreign  operas  to  the  English  stage, 
after  a  fashion  in  vogue  in  his  time,  i.  e.  omitting 
much  that  the  composer  wrote,  and  supplying 
its  place  by  compositions  of  his  own.  He  pub- 
lished 'Six  Glees  for  3  and  4  voices'  in  1844, 
besides  many  singly.  Among  his  glees  which 
gained  prizes  were  'Hail!  bounteous  Nature,' 
1829;  'Come,  spirits  of  air,'  1830;  'Let  us 
drain  the  nectared  bowl,'  1830;  'Thou  beauteous 
spark  of  heavenly  birth,'  1832  ;  '0  fair  are  thy 
flowerets,'  1836:  he  likewise  obtained  a  prize 
for  his  catch,  *  Let's  have  a  catch  and  not  a  glee,' 
1832.  Cooke  had  considerable  abilities  as  a  wit 
and  humourist.  His  eldest  son,  Henry  Angelo 
Michael  (commonly  known  as  Grattan)  Cooke, 
was  educated  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
and  for  many  years  held  the  post  of  principal 
oboe  in  all  the  best  orchestras,  and  was  subse- 
quently band-master  of  the  second  regiment  of 
Life  Guards.  [W.  H.  H.] 

COOMBE,  William  Francis,  son  of  a  sing- 
ing-master at  Plymouth,  was  bom  there  in  1786. 
Commencing  his  musical  studies  under  his  father, 


he  subsequently  prosecuted  them  under  Churchill, 
and  finally  under  Jackson  of  Exeter.  At  four- 
teen years  of  age  he  obtained  the  appointment  of 
organist  of  Chard,  which  he  in  a  few  years  re- 
signed for  that  of  Totnes,  which  he  in  turn  gave 
up,  after  holding  it  for  nine  years,  for  the  like 
place  at  Chelmsford.  He  published  several  piano- 
forte pieces  of  his  composition.  [W.  H.  H.] 

COOMBS,  James  Morris,  was  bom  at  Salis- 
bury in  1769.  He  was  admitted  a  chorister  of 
the  cathedral  under  Dr.  Stephens  and  Parry. 
In  1789  he  was  appointed  organist  at  Chippen- 
ham, and  retained  that  place  untQ  his  death  in 
1820.  His  published  works  consist  of  a  Te  Deura 
and  JubUate,  songs,  glees,  a  set  of  canzonets,  and 
a  selection  of  psalm  tunes.  [W.  H.  H.] 

COOPER,  George,  son  of  the  assistant  or- 
ganist to  St.  Paul's ;  born  in  Lambeth  July  7, 
1820.  His  quickness  of  ear,  readiness  of  execu- 
tion, and  taste  for  good  music,  developed  them- 
selves very  early,  and  his  road  to  the  organ  was 
smoothed  by  an  old  harpsichord  with  pedals  and 
two  rows  of  keys,  on  which  the  lad  practised 
at  all  available  times.  When  1 1  years  old  he 
often  took  the  service  at  St.  Paul's  for  his  father, 
and  at  the  Festivals  of  the  Sons  of  the  Clergy  it 
was  Attwood's  delight  (then  chief  organist)  to 
make  him  extemporise.  On  one  such  occasion 
Mendelssohn  is  said  to  have  remarked  and 
praised  him.  At  13I  he  was  made  organist  of 
St.  Benet,  Paul's  Wharf.  On  Attwood's  death 
he  became  assistant  orn^anist  of  St.  Paul's,  vice 
his  father  resigned  ;  in  1836  organist  of  St.  Ann 
and  St.  Agnes  ;  and  on  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1843,  succeeded  him  at  St.  Sepulchre's,  and  be- 
came singing-master  and  organist  to  Christ's 
Hospital  as  well.  On  the  death  of  Sir  George 
Smart  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.    He  died  Oct.  2,  1876,  much  regretted. 

Cooper  did  much  to  familiarise  his  hearers 
with  the  works  of  Bach  and  other  great  com- 
posers, which  he  played  in  a  noble  style.  His 
'Organ  Arrangements,'  'Organist's  Manual,' and 
'  Organist's  Assistant,'  are  well  known,  and  so 
is  his  'Introduction  to  the  Organ,'  long  the 
only  work  of  its  kind  in  England.  These 
were  his  only  publications  of  any  moment.  He 
had  a  strong  taste  for  natural  science,  and 
divided  his  time  between  the  organ,  his  ferns, 
and  photography. 

COPERARIO,  John,  was  an  Englishman 
named  Cooper,  who,  having  Italianised  his  name 
during  a  sojourn  in  Italy,  continued  the  use  of 
it  after  his  return  to  England.  He  was  a  com- 
poser for  and  performer  on  the  lute  and  viol  da 
gamba,  and  the  musical  instructor  of  the  children 
of  James  I.  In  1606  he  published  'Funeral 
Teares  for  the  Death  of  the  Right  Honorable  the 
Earle  of  Devonshire  :  figured  in  seaven  songes, 
whereof  sixe  are  so  set  forth  that  the  wordes  may 
be  exprest  by  a  treble  voice  alone  to  the  Lute 
and  Base  Violl,  or  else  that  the  meane  part  may 
be  added,  if  any  shall  aff'ect  more  fulnesse  of 
parts.  The  seaventh  is  made  in  forme  of  a  Dia- 
logue and  can  not  be  sung  without  two  voyces.* 


COPEKAKIO. 


COPYKIGHT. 


S99 


He  composed  the  music  to  *  The  Masque  of  the 
Inner  Temple  and  Graye's  Inn,'  performed  at 
Whitehall,  Feb.  20,  1612.  In  161 3  he  published 
'Songs  of  Mourning  bewailing  the  untimely 
death  of  Prince  Henry.  Worded  by  Tho.  Cam- 
pion and  set  forth  to  bee  sung  with  one  voyce  to 
the  Lute  or  Violl.'  He  contributed  three  of  the 
songs  to  the  masque  performed  at  Whitehall  on 
St.  Stephen's  Night,  161 4,  and  supplied  the 
whole  of  the  music  in  '  The  Masque  of  Flowers ' 
presented  in  the  same  place  on  Twelfth  Night 
in  the  same  year,  both  masques  being  given  in 
honour  of  the  marriage  of  the  Earl  of  Somerset 
and  Lady  Frances  Howard.  He  composed  a  set 
of  Fancies  for  the  organ  for  Charles  I,  the  manu- 
script of  which  is  still  extant,  and  numerous 
Fancies  for  viols.  He  contributed  two  vocal 
pieces  to  *  The  Teares  or  Lamentacions  of  a  Sor- 
rowfull  Soule,'  published  by  Sir  William  Leighton 
in  1 614.  Coperario  was  the  master  of  Henry 
and  William  Lawes.  He  died  during  the  Pro- 
tectorate. [W.H.H.] 

COPPOLA,  Giuseppe,  a  singer  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1777.  He  appeared  as  'Ciro'  in 
Sacchini's  *  Creso,'  and  in  other  operas.    [J.  M.] 

COPPOLA,  Pier  Antonio,  born  in  1792  at 
Castrogiovanni  in  Sicily,  son  of  a  musician, 
studied  at  the  Royal  College  of  Music  at  Naples. 
His  first  opera,  'IlFiglio  bandito'  (18 16)  was 
well  received,  and  his  'Nina  pazza  per  amore' 
(Rome,  1835),  was  performed  in  every  town  of 
Italy,  in  Vienna,  Berlin,  Lisbon,  Spain,  Mexico, 
and,  as  an  op^ra-comique  with  the  title  of  '  Eva,' 
in  Paris  (1839).  In  1836  he  composed  'En- 
richetta  di  Baienfeld'  for  Vienna,  and  this  was 
followed  by  'Gli  Illinese'  (Turin),  one  of  his  best 
works;  and  *La  bella  Celeste  degli  Spadari' 
(Milan).  At  the  Royal  Theatre  in  Lisbon  he 
produced  'Giovanna  i™*'  (1841),  and  'Infes  de 
Castro'  (1842).  In  1843  he  returned  to  Italy, 
and  composed  five  more  operas,  which  were  less 
successful  than  his  earlier  works,  and  he  finally  re- 
turned to  his  post  at  Lisbon.  Coppola  might  have 
taken  a  higher  place  had  he  not  come  into  com- 
petition with  Rossini.  Some  masses,  litanies,  and 
other  church  music  are  to  be  found  in  the  libraries 
at  Naples.    He  died  Nov.  14, 1877.  [M.C.C.] 

COPYRIGHT.  The  statutes  regulating  copy- 
right in  music  are  3,  4  Will.  IV,  c.  15  ;  5,  6  Vict, 
c.  45  ;  and  7,  8  Vict.  c.  1 2  ;  and  their  joint  effect 
is,  that  the  composer,  or  the  person  to  whom  he 
transfers  his  interest,  has  an  exclusive  right  to 
publish  or  give  performances  of  the  work  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  composer  and  seven  years 
afterwards,  and  also  during  the  period  of  forty- 
two  years  from  the  publication  or  first  performance 
of  the  work.  The  copyright  proprietorship  of  a 
British  composer  in  his  work  is  complete  from 
the  moment  of  composition ;  but  for  purposes 
of  public  convenience  a  register  is  kept  at 
Stationer's  Hall,  at  which  the  title,  date,  and 
proprietorship  of  any  work  may  be  officially 
entered  :  and  although  such  entry  is  not  necessary 
to  give  the  composer  the  copyright  of  his  work, 
and,  without  making  any  such  entry,  an  action 


can  be  brought  against  any  person  perfwming 
the  work  without  written  permission,  yet  no 
action  can  be  brought  against  any  one  publishing 
the  work  until  the  entry  has  been  made.  A 
similar  entry  should  be  made  whenever  the 
copyright  changes  hands.  Such  transfer  may 
also  be  made  by  writing,  and  in  this  case  the 
exact  nature  of  the  rights  transferred  will  be 
collected  from  the  document ;  but  if  the  transfer 
is  evidenced  by  registration  alone,  an  entry  of 
the  transfer  of  the  copyright  will  be  taken  to 
prove  no  more  than  the  transfer  of  the  right 
of  publication,  and  the  right  of  performance  will 
remain  with  the  transferor.  If  therefore  the  latter 
right  is  intended  to  pass,  a  written  contract 
should  be  made  to  this  effect.  To  obtain  the 
full  benefit  of  the  English  law,  even  for  British 
subjects,  the  first  publication  or  performance 
must  take  place  in  the  United  Kingdom ;  if  it 
takes  place  abroad,  the  work  is  in  every  respect 
considered  as  foreign,  although  the  author  be 
a  British  subject.  An  arrangement  for  the  piano 
of  a  work  written  for  other  instruments  has  not 
hitherto  been  considered  as  an  infringement  of 
the  copyright  of  the  latter ;  but  the  cases  do  not 
go  so  far  as  to  prove  that  any  bare  transcription 
of  the  score  to  pianoforte  staves  would  necessarily 
escape  with  impunity.  The  amount  of  change 
constituting  a  really  new  work  cannot  be  expressed 
in  any  general  rule ;  each  case  is  determined  on 
its  merits. 

We  now  pass  to  works  composed  by  foreigners, 
or  first  published  or  performed  abroad.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  a  foreigner,  by  residing  in  England 
at  the  time  of  publication  or  first  performance, 
may  place  his  work  in  every  respect  under 
British  law ;  but  it  has  hitherto  been  held  that 
for  this  purpose  residence  in  Great  Britain  at 
the  time  of  publication  is  indispensable.  It  is 
doubtful  whether,  under  the  Aliens  Act  of  1870, 
this  is  still  so ;  but  the  short  residence  necessary 
is  a  less  evil  than  the  chance  of  expensive 
litigation.  If  a  foreigner  sell  to  a  British  subject 
his  work  while  still  unpublished  and  still  un- 
performed, the  purchaser  has  full  English  copy- 
right property  in  the  work,  just  as  if  he  had 
written  it  himself.  But  a  work  first  published 
or  performed  abroad  can  only  obtain  protection 
in  England,  when  a  treaty  exists  between  this 
country  and  the  country  where  the  work  is 
produced,  creating  reciprocal  copyright  interests. 
Such  treaties  exist  between  this  country  and 
France,  Prussia,  and  some  other  German  states, 
Belgium,  Spain,  and  Italy.  There  is  no  copy- 
right treaty  with  the  United  States,  nor  with 
Austria,  Russia,  Norway,  or  Sweden.  The  Act 
7  and  8  Vict.  c.  12,  upon  which  international 
copyright  rests,  requires  that  every  Order  in 
Council  granting  copyright  privileges  to  foreigners 
shall  prescribe  a  time  within  which  the  work 
shall  be  registered  at  Stationers'  Hall.  Regis- 
tration therefore,  as  concerns  foreign  productions, 
is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Not  only  is  it 
necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  English  works,  that 
entry  shall  be  made  before  legal  proceedings  can 
be  commenced  against  an  unlicensed  publication ; 


400 


COPYRIGHT. 


CORELLI. 


but,  unless  the  work  be  registered  at  Stationers' 
Hall,  no  protection  can  at  any  future  time  be 
obtained  for  it.  The  period  within  which  a 
work  must  be  registered  is  specified  in  the  Order 
of  Council  announcing  in  the  London  Gazette 
the  terms  of  each  copyright  treaty  when  made  ; 
and  the  terms  may  vary  in  every  treaty.  Foreign 
musicians  who  contemplate  introducing  their 
works  into  England  ought  therefore  to  consult 
a  qualified  adviser  immediately  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  their  work  ;  or,  for  want  of  this 
precaution,  they  may  find  their  productions  public 
property  at  the  moment  that  they  might  have 
become  remunerative.  The  opera  of  'Faust'  has 
experienced  this  fate  ;  not  having  been  registered 
within  the  three  months  specified  in  the  Order 
of  Council,  its  performance  is  open  to  all  Her 
Majesty's  subjects.  [C.A.F.] 

COR  ANGLAIS.  (Ital.  Ohoe  di  Caccia  ;  and 
Corno  Tnglese ;  Germ.  Englisches  Hoim.)  A  tenor 
oboe,  standing  in  the  key  of  F,  and  therefore 
speaking  a  fifth  lower  than  the  ordinary  oboe. 
It  has  the  same  scale  and  compass  as  the  latter 
instrument,  from  E  or  Eb  in  the  bass,  to  about  A 
or  Bb  above  the  treble  clef.  It  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  oboe  that  the  bassethom  does  to 
the  clarinet,  hence  frequent  confusion  between 
the  two  instruments.  It  is  probably  similar  in 
many  respects  to  the  'oboe  di  caccia'  found  in 
Bach's  scores,  and  perhaps  to  the  '  chalumeau '  of 
Gluck's  operas  ;  although  the  former  was  made  in 
the  form  of  a  bassoon  or  alto-fagotto,  and  the 
latter  may  have  been  a  kind  of  clarinet. 

Beethoven  has  written  a  fine  trio,  Op.  29,  for  two 
oboes  and  cor  anglais,  and  variations  on  'La  ci 
darem,'  which  though  performed  at  Vienna  on 
Dec.  23,  1797,  are  still  in  MS.  Rossini  employs 
it  to  represent  the  alpenhom  in  the  overture  to 
♦  William  Tell ' ;  Meyerbeer,  Wagner,  Halevy, 
Ambroise  Thomas,  and  other  modern  composers 
frequently  introduce  it  in  their  operas.  It  has  a 
peculiar  wailing  and  melancholy  tone,  which  is 
very  effective,  but  it  is  difl&cult  and  somewhat 
treacherous  in  the  orchestra.  [W.H.S.] 

CORBET,  Francisque,  whose  real  name  was 
Francesco  Corbetti,  bom  at  Pa  via  about  1630, 
died  in  Paris  about  1 700  ;  the  best  player  of  his 
time  on  the  guitar.  After  travelling  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Germany,  he  settled  for  a  time  at  the 
court  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  who  sent  him  to 
Louis  XrV.  He  stayed  for  a  few  years  in  the 
French  court,  and  then  came  to  England,  where 
Charles  II  appointed  him  to  an  office  in  the 
Queen's  household,  with  a  large  salary,  and 
provided  him  with  a  wife.  The  Revolution  of 
1668  drove  him  back  to  France.  His  best  pupils 
were  De  Vabray,  De  Vis^,  and  Medard,  who 
wrote  a  curious  epitaph  on  him.  [M,  C.  C] 

CORBETT,  William,  an  eminent  English 
violinist  at  the  commencement  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury, was  one  of  Queen  Anne's  band  of  music, 
and  leader  of  the  band  at  the  Opera  House  in 
the  Haymarket  on  its  first  opening  in  1 705.  On 
the  production  of  Handel's  'Rinaldo'  in  1711  a 
new  set  of  instrumentalists  was  introduced  into 


the  opera  orchestra,  and  Corbett,  quitting  his 
position  in  the  Queen's  band,  went  to  Italy,  and 
resided  for  many  years  at  Rome,  making  occa- 
sional visits  to  Venice,  Milan,  Florence,  Cremona, 
Bologna,  Naples,  etc.,  amassing  during  the  time 
a  large  collection  of  music,  and  a  most  valuable 
assemblage  of  Italian  violins,  etc.  Those  ac- 
quainted with  his  circumstances  were  at  a  loss  to 
account  for  his  ability  to  make  these  purchases 
except  by  the  supposition  that  he  was  a  govern- 
ment spy,  employed  to  watch  the  movements  of 
the  Pretender.  Corbett  returned  to  England  in 
1 740,  and  seems  to  have  resumed  his  position  in 
the  royal  band.  He  died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in 
1748.  By  his  will  he  bequeathed  his  collection 
of  instruments  to  Gresham  College,  providing 
also  for  the  stipend  of  a  person  to  show  them, 
and  for  their  care.  The  college  authorities,  how- 
ever, rejected  the  gift  on  the  ground  that  there 
was  no  room  in  the  college  for  its  reception,  and 
the  instruments  were  consequently  sold  by  auc- 
tion '  at  the  Great  Room  over  against  Beaufort 
Buildings,  in  the  Strand,  formerly  the  Hoop 
Tavern,'  on  Saturday,  March  9,  1751.  Corbett's 
collection  of  music  was  also  sold  by  auction  at 
his  house  in  Silver  Street,  Golden  Square.  Before 
quitting  England  Corbett  published  several  sets 
of  sonatas  for  violins,  flutes,  oboes,  etc. ;  some 
concertos  for  orchestra ;  and  instrumental  music 
for  'Henry  IV,'  1700;  'As  you  find  it,'  1703; 
and  '  Love  Betray'd,  or,  The  Agreeable  Dis- 
appointment,' 1703.  After  his  return  he  pub- 
lished 'Concertos,  or  Universal  Bizzarries  com- 
posed on  all  the  new  Gustos  during  many  years' 
residence  in  Italy,'  containing  thirty-five  concertos 
in  seven  parts,  professing  to  exhibit  the  different 
styles  of  various  countries  and  cities.    [W.  H.  H.] 

CORDIER,  Jacques,  better  known  under  the 
name  of  Bocan,  bom  in  Lorraine  about  1580; 
dancing-master  and  performer  on  the  violin  and 
rebec  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  He  was 
unable  to  read  music,  but  had  great  power  of 
execution,  and  Mersennus  mentions  his  gift  of 
modulating  the  tones  of  the  violin.  He  was 
dancing-master  to  Henrietta  Maria,  Queen  of 
Charles  I,  and  came  with  her  to  England.  The 
King  took  great  delight  in  hearing  him  play  the 
violin.  He  retumed  to  Paris  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  and  his  tomb  at  St,  Germain 
I'Auxerrois  was  restored  in  1843.  Chancy's  'Tab- 
lature  de  Mandore'  (Paris,  1629),  contains  a 
graceful 'branle' by  Cordier.  [M.C.C.] 

CORELLI,  Aecangelo,  a  great  violini^  and 
composer,  born  at  Fusignano,  Iraola,  1653.  He 
learnt  counterpoint  from  Matteo  Simonelli,  and 
the  violin  from  G.  B.  Bassani.  Of  the  earlier 
part  of  his  life  but  little  is  known.  He  appears 
to  have  travelled  in  Germany,  and  to  have 
stayed  for  some  time  at  Munich,  attached  to  the 
court  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  It  is  also 
related  that  he  went  to  Paris  in  1672,  but  soon 
left  it  again,  owing  to  Lulli's  jealousy.  This 
however,  according  to  Fetis,  is  very  doubtful. 
In  1 68 1  he  returned  to  Italy  and  settled  at 
Rome,  where  he  published  his  first  work,  a  set 
of  twelve  sonatas.     He  soon  made  a  great 


CORELLI. 


CORELLI. 


401 


reputation  as  performer  and  composer,  and 
became  a  favom^ite  in  the  highest  circles  of 
Roman  society.  Cardinal  Pietro  Ottoboni,  an 
enthusiastic  lover  of  the  arts  in  general  and 
of  music  in  particular,  was  his  great  friend  and 
patron.  Corelli  lived  in  the  Cardinal's  palace 
up  to  the  day  of  his  death,  conducting  the 
concerts,  which  took  place  every  Monday,  and 
which  were  considered  the  most  important  and 
interesting  events  in  Roman  musical  life.  He 
also  lived  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with 
some  of  the  most  eminent  painters  of  the  time, 
Cignani,  Maratti,  and  others,  with  whose 
assistance  he  formed  a  collection  of  valuable 
pictures.  This  collection,  together  with  a  not 
inconsiderable  sum  of  money,  he  left  in  his 
will  to  his  friend  and  benefactor  the  Cardinal, 
who  however  accepted  the  pictures  only  and 
handed  over  the  money  to  Corelli' s  relations. 

Corelli  appears  to  have  been  of  the  most 
amiable  disposition,  and  a  model  of  truly 
artistic  modesty.  He  was  very  simple  and 
unpretentious  in  all  his  habits.  Handel,  though 
esteeming  him  highly,  used  to  say  of  him  :  '  He 
likes  nothing  better  than  seeing  pictures  ^vithout 
paying  for  it,  and  saving  money.'  He  dressed 
almost  shabbily,  and  would  on  no  account  hire 
a  carriage,  but  always  went  on  foot.  Hawkins, 
in  his  History  of  Music,  gives  an  account  of 
his  meeting  with  Handel  at  Rome.  Handel 
conducted  some  of  his  own  cantatas,  which  were 
written  in  a  more  complicated  style  than  the 
music  with  which  Corelli  and  the  other  Italian 
musicians  of  that  period  were  familiar.  Handel 
tried  in  vain  to  explain  to  Corelli,  who  was 
leading  the  band,  how  a  certain  passage  ought 
to  be  executed,  and  at  last,  losing  his  temper, 
snatched  the  violin  from  Corelli' s  hands  and 
played  it  himself,  whereupon  Corelli  remarked 
in  the  politest  manner  *  Ma,  caro  Sassone,  questa 
musica  e  nel  stilo  francese,  di  ch'  io  non  m' 
intendo'  (but,  my  dear  Saxon,  this  music  is  in 
the  French  style,  of  which  I  have  no  experience). 
It  was  the  overture  to  'II  trionfo  del  tempo,' 
which  Handel,  probably  with  special  regard  to 
Corelli,  had  written  in  the  style  of  his  concerti 
grossi  with  two  solo-violins.  It  is  a  fiery  im- 
petuous piece,  truly  Handelian  in  character,  and 
it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  Corelli  in 
his  quiet  elegant  manner  failed  to  attack  with 
sufficient  vigour  those  thundering  passages.  That 
Corelli,  who  in  his  own  compositions  never  goes 
beyond  the  third  position,  might  have  been  puzzled 
by  this  passage,  which  occurs  in  the  same  over- 
^  ^  ture,  is  also  possible, 
^  but  it  is  hardly 
•  0  ■  I  '    —  likely  to  have  caused 

^    -    "  the  scene  described 

tJ  above. 

His  fame  was  not  limited  to  Rome  and  Italy. 
From  all  countries  young  talents  came  to  benefit 
by  his  instruction  ;  and  his  compositions  were 
published  in  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  Paris,  and 
London,  as  well  as  in  Italy.  Among  his  nume- 
rous pupils  the  most  eminent  were  Geminiani, 
Locatelli.  Somis,  Baptiste,  and  Castrucci. 


Illustrious  foreigners  visiting  Rome  hardly 
ever  failed  to  pay  homage  to  Corelli.  When 
Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  came  there,  he 
conducted  in  her  palace  the  performances  of 
an  orchestra  of  150  musicians.  The  King  of 
Naples  repeatedly  tried  to  induce  him  to  settle 
in  his  capital,  and  made  him  most  favourable 
ofi"ers,  which  were  however  all  declined  by 
Corelli,  who  was  not  willing  to  give  up  his 
happy  position  at  Rome,  where  he  was  uni- 
versally loved  and  esteemed.  It  was  not  till 
late  in  life  that  he  visited  Naples,  which  town, 
with  Alessandro  Scarlatti  as  its  leading  musician 
and  an  excellent  orchestra,  was  at  that  period 
by  far  the  most  important  musical  centre  of 
Italy.  Corelli,  who  appears  not  to  have  been 
away  from  Rome  for  many  years,  was  most 
anxious  to  ensure  complete  success  in  Naples, 
and,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  effective  accompani- 
ment, took  with  him  two  vioHnists  and  a  vio- 
loncello player.  But  he  soon  saw  that  this 
precaution  had  been  superfluous.  At  the  first 
rehearsal  Scarlatti's  band  went  through  the  intro- 
ductoiy  tutti  of  one  of  Corelli's  concertos  with- 
out a  mistake,  whereupon  Corelli  admiringly 
exclaimed:  *  Si  suona  a  Napoli!'  (They  play 
well  at  Naples !)  The  king  however  did  not 
appreciate  his  playing,  and,  pronouncing  his 
adagio  tedious,  left  the  concert -room  before 
Corelli  had  finished.  But  this  was  not  aU. 
Soon  afterwards  Corelli  was  leading  the  per- 
formance of  a  composition  of  Scarlatti's,  when, 
in  a  passage  that  probably  was  nut  well  written 
for  the  violin,  he  made  a  very  conspicuous 
mistake,  while  Petrillo,  the  Neapolitan  leader, 
who  was  familiar  with  the  passage  in  question, 
executed  it  correctly.  Then  came  a  piece  in  the 
key  of  C  minor.  Corelli,  already  disconcerted, 
led  it  off  in  C  major.  '  Ricominciamo  !'  (let  us 
be^in  again !)  said  Scarlatti,  with  his  usual 
politeness,  and  poor  Corelli  started  once  more 
in  major,  so  that  Scarlatti  was  at  last  obliged 
to  point  out  his  mistake.  Corelli  felt  this 
incident  as  a  great  humiliation,  and  left  Naples 
immediately.  Returned  to  Rome  he  foimd  that 
a  new  violinist,  Valentini,  had  won  the  general 
applause  and  admiration  of  the  public,  and 
i  considering  himself  slighted  and  superseded, 
took  it  so  much  to  heart  that  his  health  began 
to  fail.  In  1 71 2  he  published  his  last  work, 
dedicated  to  his  admirer  John  William,  Prince 
Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  died  January  18, 
1 71 3.  He  was  buried  in  a  princely  style  in 
the  Pantheon,  not  far  from  Raphael's  tomb, 
and  Cardinal  Ottoboni  erected  a  marble  monu- 
ment over  his  grave,  the  inscription  on  which 
bears  testimony  of  the  high  esteem  and  admi- 
ration in  which  Corelli  was  held.  For  many 
years  a  solemn  musical  service  was  held  on 
the  anniversary  of  his  death,  when  some  of  the 
great  master's  compositions  were  performed, 
conducted  by  one  of  his  pupils. 

Corelli  has  a  double  claim  to  a  prominent 
place  in  the  history  of  musical  art — as  a  great 
violinist  who  laid  a  firm  foundation  for  all 
future  development  of  technique  and  of  a 

Dd 


402 


COKELLI. 


CORNELIUS. 


pure  style  of  playing;  and  as  a  composer  who 
materially  advanced  the  progress  of  composition. 
Still  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  above  all  he 
was  a  great  violin-player,  and  that  all  he  wrote 
grew  out  of  the  very  nature  of  his  instrument ; 
and  as  the  violin  is  not  only  a  solo  instrument 
but  at  the  same  time  the  leading  orchestral  one, 
we  owe  to  Corelli  the  typical  treatment  of  it  in 
two  important  branches  of  composition.  In  his 
chamber-sonatas  and  concerti  grossi  (op.  i,  2,  3, 
4,  and  6)  he  must  be  considered  the  founder 
of  the  style  of  orchestral  writing  on  which  the 
future  development  in  this  direction  is  based, 
while  in  the  sonatas  (op.  5)  which  have  merely 
an  accompanying  fundamental  bass,  he  gives 
a  model  for  the  solo  sonata,  and  thereby  for 
all  writing  for  the  violin  as  a  solo -instru- 
ment. 

All  his  works  are  characterised  by  conciseness 
and  lucidity  of  thought  and  form,  and  by  a 
dignified,  almost  aristocratic  bearing.  The  slow- 
movements  show  genuine  pathos  as  well  as 
grace,  bringing  out  in  a  striking  manner  the 
singing  power  of  the  violin.  The  quick  move- 
ments are  not  on  the  whole  of  equal  merit  with 
the  adagios, — at  least  in  point  of  originality  of 
thought  and  variety  of  character.  They  appear 
to  our  modern  feeling  somewhat  dry,  •  almost 
exei'cise-like. 

Corelli' s  gavottes,  sarabandes,  and  other  pieces 
with  the  form  and  rhythm  of  dances,  do  not 
materially  differ  from  similar  productions  of 
his  immediate  predecessors  and  contemporaries, 
although,  like  everything  that  he  wrote,  they  are 
distinguished  by  great  earnestness  and  dignity 
of  style,  and  are  especially  well  adapted  to  the 
instrument.  He  was  not  so  much  an  innovator 
as  a  reformer  ;  he  did  not  introduce  new  striking 
effects ;  it  cannot  even  be  denied  that  his 
technique  was  a  limited  one — he  never  goes 
beyond  the  third  position  —  but,  by  rigidly 
excluding  everything  that  appeared  to  him 
contrary  to  the  nature  of  the  instrument,  and 
by  adopting  and  using  in  the  best  possible  way 
everything  in  the  existing  technique  which  he 
considered  conformable  to  the  nature  of  the 
violin,  he  not  only  hinder  ed  a  threatened  de- 
velopment in  the  wrong  direction,  but  also  gave 
to  this  branch  of  the  art  a  sound  and  solid  basis, 
which  his  successors  could  and  did  build  upon 
successfully. 

The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  original 
editions  of  his  works : — 

(1)  XII  Senate  a  tre,  due  violini  e  violoncello,  col  basso  per  I'organo, 
op,  1 ;  Konma,  1683.  Another  edition  of  tliis  work  was  published  in 
1688  at  Antwerp  ;  another  at  Amsterdam.  (2)  XII  Suonate  da  camera 
a  tre,  due  violini,  violoncello  e  violone  o  cembalo,  op.  2 ;  Koma,  1(  85 
Two  later  editions  published  at  Amsterdam.  (3)  XII  Suonate  a  tre 
due  violini  e  arciliuto  tol  basso  per  I'organo,  op.  3 ;  Bologna,  1690  , 
Antwerp,  1681 ;  Amsterdam.  (4)  XII  Suonate  da  camera  a  tre,  due 
violini  e  violone  o  cembalo,  op.  4  ;  Bolof;na,  1694.  Anotlier  edition  of 
this  worli  at  Amsterdam  under  the  titlo,  Baletti  da  camera.  (5)  XII 
Suonate  a  violino  e  violone  o  cembalo,  op.  5;  Eoma,  l/OO.  The  same 
arranged  by  Geminiani  as  Concerii  grossi.  >6)  Concerti  grossi  con  due 
violini  e  violoncello  di  concertino  obligati,  e  due  altri  violini  e  basso  di 
concerto  grosso  ad  arbitrio  che  si  potramo  radoppiare,  op.  6 ;  Koma. 
1712.  Another  edition  at  Amsterdam.  A  number  of  spurious  works 
were  published  under  Corelli's  name,  but  none  are  genuine  except  the 
above  six.  TP  T)  1 


CORFE,  Joseph,  born  in  1740  at  Salisbury, 
was  one  of  the  choristers  at  the  cathedral  there 
under  Dr.  John  Stephens,  organist  and  master  of 
the  boys.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  Gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal.  In  1792  he  succeeded 
Robert  Parry  as  organist  and  master  of  the 
choristers  of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  which  offices 
he  held  until  1804.  Corfe  composed  and  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Cathedral  Music,  consisting  of 
a  service  and  eight  anthems,  etc. ;  three  sets  of 
Glees,  of  twelve  each ;  a  Treatise  on  Singing ; 
a  Treatise  on  Thorough  Bass,  a  work  still  held 
in  esteem ;  besides  editing  a  Selection  of  Sacred 
Music  made  by  James  Harris,  and  other  works. 
He  died  in  1820,  aged  80. 

His  son  Akthur  Thomas,  was  born  at 
Salisbury,  April  9,  1773.  In  1783  he  became 
a  chorister  of  Westminster  Abbey  under  Dr. 
Cooke.  He  subsequently  studied  the  piano- 
forte under  Muzio  Clemen ti.  In  1804,  on  the 
resignation  of  his  father,  he  was  appointed  or- 
ganist and  master  of  the  children  of  Salisbury 
Cathedral.  A.  T.  Corfe  produced  and  published 
a  service  and  some  anthems,  several  pianoforte 
pieces,  and  '  The  Principles  of  Harmony  and 
Thorough  Bass.'  He  died,  whilst  kneeling  in 
prayer,  Jan.  28,  1863,  in  the  90th  year  of  his 
age,  and  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Salisbury 
Cathedral,  where  a  tablet  was  erected  to  him 
by  his  thirteen  surviving  children,  one  of  whom, 
Charles  William,  Mus.  Doc,  is  organist  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.    ,  [W.H.H.] 

CORKINE,  William,  probably  a  lutenist, 
published  in  1610  'Ayres  to  Sing  and  Play  to 
the  Lute  and  Basse  Violl.  With  Pavins,  Galli- 
ards,  Almaines  and  Corantos  for  the  Lyra  Violl,' 
and  in  16  j  2  '  The  Second  Booke  of  Ayres,  some 
to  sing  and  play  to  the  Base  Violl  alone ;  others 
to  be  sung  to  the  Lute  and  Base  Violl,  with  new 
Corantoes,  Pavins,  Almaines ;  as  also  divers  new 
Descants  upon  old  Grounds,  set  to  the  Lyra 
Violl.'  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life.    [W.  H.  H.] 

CORNEGA,  an  Italian  contralto,  engaged  by 
Ebers  for  the  season  of  1826,  at  a  salary  of  £500. 
Among  other  parts,  she  played  Felicia  in  'II 
Crociato,'  which  had  been  played  by  Garcias 
daughter  the  year  before.  She  was  re-engaged 
in  1827  at  a  salary  of  £200.  [J.M.] 

CORNELIUS,  Peter,  a  near  relation  of  the 
painter  of  the  same  name,  and  as  composer  and 
author  a  prominent  representative  of  the  so- 
called  New-German  school,  was  born  at  Mayence 
Dec.  24,  1824.  He  was  originally  intended  for 
the  stage,  and  it  was  not  till  after  his  first  per- 
formance, which  seems  to  have  been  unsuccessful, 
that  he  decided  to  adopt  music  as  a  profession. 
His  musical  education  had  been  incomplete,  but 
his  dramatic  studies  had  made  him  acquainted 
with  literature,  and  were  of  considerable  service 
in  developing  his  poetic  faculties.  He  worked 
hard,  and  acquired  a  vast  amount  of  general 
information.  After  the  death  of  his  father  (1844) 
he  pursued  music  with  energy  and  complete- 
ness ;  but  his  tendencies  were  forwards  towards 
the  modern  ideal,  rather  than  backwards  to  the 


CORNELIUS. 


CORNET. 


403 


strict  rules  of  counterpoint.  In  1852  he  went 
to  Weimar  and  joined  the  young  artists  who, 
under  Liszt's  leadership,  were  striving  to  carry 
out  the  ideas  of  Richard  Wagner.  They  formed 
eventually  a  separate  school,  to  which  the  name 

*  New-German'  became  attached.  It  was  here 
that  Cornelius  became  acquainted  with  Wagner's 
works,  while  with  Liszt  he  formed  ties  of  the 
closest  intimacy.  His  active  and  versatile  pen 
was  of  great  service  to  the  young  enterprise. 
He  strove  to  elucidate  the  new  principles  in 
the  'Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik,'  the  organ  of 
the  party,  both  by  original  articles  and  by  trans- 
lating a  series  of  lectures  given  in  French  by 
Liszt.  As  a  practical  embodiment  of  the  new 
views  he  composed  a  comic  opera,  '  Der  Barbier 
von  Bagdad,'  of  which  only  a  single  performance 
took  place  (1858).  Liszt  resented  the  judgment 
of  the  public,  and  left  Weimar,  which  ceased  to 
be  the  centre  of  the  school.  In  1858  Cornelius 
went  to  Vienna,  where  Wagner  was  then  living, 
and  became  intimate  with  him  also.  When 
King  Ludwig  II  invited  Wagner  to  Munich, 
Cornelius  followed  him  there  (1865),  first  as 
reader  to  the  king,  and  later  as  professor  of 
harmony  and  rhetoric  at  the  Conservatoire,  after 
it  had  been  transformed  into  the  'Konigliche 
Musik-schule'  with  H.  von  Biilow  as  principal. 
Cornelius's  grand  opera  the  'Cid,'  produced  at 
Weimar  (1865),  may  be  considered  as  the  fruit  of 
his  intercourse  with  Wagner.  He  was  working 
at  another,  entitled  'Gunlod' — of  which,  after 
Wagner's  example,  he  had  himself  taken  the 
subject  from  the  legends  of  the  Edda — when  he 
died  at  Mayence,  Oct.  24,  1874.  The  effect  of 
his  dramatic  works  in  furthering  the  Wagner 
movement  cannot  fairly  be  estimated,  as  the 
public  have  had  no  real  opportunity  of  judging 
of  them.  His  published  works,  principally  vocal, 
show  him  to  have  had  much  feeling.  The  fol- 
lovsring  deserve  mention  : — '  Duets  for  Soprano 
and  Baritone,'  op.  6;  '  Lieder-cyclus,'  op.  3; 

*  Weihnachtslieder,'  op.  8  ;  and  '  Trauerchore ' 
(for  men's  voices),  op.  9.  Most  of  these  are 
settings  of  his  own  poems.  He  published  a 
volume  called  'Lyrische  Poesien'  in  1861. 
Some  of  his  works  will  shortly  be  published ;  and 
Gunlod  is  to  be  completed  from  his  ample  notes 
by  his  friend  Hof  bauer  of  Munich.         [A.  M.] 

CORNEMUSE.  The  Italian  and  Erench 
name  for  the  Bagpipe. 

CORNET.  (Ital.  Cornetto;  Fr.  Cornet  a 
pistons).  The  name  was  formerly  given  to  a 
rude  reed  instrument  of  the  oboe  family,  but 
is  now  applied  to  a  brass  instruinent  with 
cupped  mouthpiece,  intermediate  between  the 
French  horn,  trumpet,  and  bugle,  of  compara- 
tively modern  construction,  and  formerly  called 
also  CoRNOPExVN.  It  possesses  the  usual  scale  of 
open  or  harmonic  notes,  as  follows: — 

 _^^f-^  ■  . 


the  real  fundamental  being  the  octave  below  the 
lowest  here  given,  which  is  never  made  use  of. 


It  is  also  possible  to  produce  four  notes  above 
the  top  C,  corresponding  to  those  commonly  used 


in  the  trumpet ;  but  for  the 
larger  bore  and  mouthpiece 
of  the  cornet  they  are  diffi- 
cult, and  comparatively  un- 


used. The  French  horn,  on  the  other  hand, 
standing  an  octave  lower  than  the  cornet,  obtains 
two  harmonic  sounds,  the  Bb  and  C,  above  the  G 
last  given. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  cornet  is  the 
use  of  valves  or  pistons  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing its  compass  and  bridging  over  the  gaps 
between  the  natural  harmonic  sounds.  The  valves 
are  usually  three  in  number.  They  consist  es- 
sentially of  mechanism,  by  means  of  which  a 
bye-way  or  diversion,  somewhat  longer  than  the 
direct  road,  is  opened  to  the  vibrating  column 
of  air.  The  first  valve  thus  depresses  the  pitch 
by  a  tone,  the  second  by  a  semitone,  the  third 
by  three  semitones.  They  can  be  used  singly  or 
together.  In  this  manner  the  lower  limit  is 
removed  downward  to  Fjf  in  the  bass  stave,  and 
six  semitones  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  the 
pistons  singly  or  in  combination: — 

1,2,3      1,3       2,3     l,2or3       1  2 


By  the  same  method  all  notes  intervening 
between  the  open  notes  of  the  natural  scale  can 
be  provided  for.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  con- 
trivance, the  early  composers  for  the  trumpet 
were  driven  to  make  use  of  the  superior  octave, 
in  which  a  consecutive  scale  of  open  notes  can  be 
obtained.  This  is  well  seen  in  Handel's  solos  for 
the  trumpet.  It  materially  increases  the  bril- 
liancy and  the  difficulty  of  the  older  instrument. 

The  cornet  was  originally  made  with  several 
'crooks,'  for  the  keys  of  A,  Bb,  Ab,  G,  C,  and 
even  others  ;  but  it  has  been  customary  of  late 
to  dispense  with  all  but  the  A  and  Bb  crooks, 
which  correspond  to  the  clai-inets  of  similar  name. 

The  bore  of  the  instrument  is  intermediate  in 
size  between  the  small  cylindrical  tube  and  re- 
stricted bell  of  the  trumpet,  and  the  broad 
conical  form  of  the  bugle.  The  tone  stands  in 
corresponding  relation  to  those  instruments, 
lacking  the  penetration  of  the  former,  and  the 
smooth  hornlike  fulness  of  the  latter. 

The  cornet  has  not  yet  been  much  employed  in 
the  scores  of  classical  music,  though  occasionally 
used  in  orchestras  instead  of  the  trumpet.  In 
operas  an  instance  of  its  use  which  will  be 
familiar  is  the  air  *  When  other  lips '  in  Balfe's 
'  Bohemian  Girl.'  [W.  H.  S.] 

CORNET.  This  name  is  given  to  several 
kinds  of  organ  stops ;  among  others  to  pedal 
reed-stops  of  4  and  2  feet  length  in  numerous 
Dutch  and  German  organs.  A  'Cornette'  of  4 
feet  occurs  in  the  cathedral  organ  at  Kronstadt ; 
a  'Cornetin'  of  2  feet  in  the  'Old  Church'  organ 
at  Amsterdam ;  and  a  '  Cornettino,'  2  feet,  in  the 
music  hall  organ  at  Boston  in  America. 

The  great  organ  Solo  Cornet  comprised  either 
5,  4,  or  3  ranks  of  pipes.  When  of  the  former 
D  d  2 


404 


CORNET. 


CORNYSHE. 


it  consisted  of  a  stopped  diapason,  principal, 
twelfth,  fifteenth,  and  tierce.  When  of  4  ranks 
the  stopped  diapason  was  omitted;  when  of  3, 
that  and  the  principal  were  left  out ;  so  that 
the  'composition'  on  the  middle  C  key  stood 
thus — ' 

5  ranks  4  ranks  3  ranks 


1^  1 

1 

and  the  one  or  two  separate  stops  necessary  were 
added  or  'drawn'  with  the  cornet  when  the 
series  of  5  pipes  was  not  complete.  The  pipes 
of  the  solo  cornet  were  4  or  5  'scales'  wider 
or  'larger'  than  the  corresponding  pipes  of  the 
ordinary  stops,  to  render  the  tone  very  power- 
ful and  broad;  and  very  frequently,  in  order 
to  make  it  still  more  prominent,  the  stop  was 
placed  on  a  sound-board  of  its  own  and  raised 
a  few  feet  above  the  surrounding  pipes,  in  which 
case  it  was  called  a  'mounted  cornet.'  Father 
Smith's  solo  cornet  at  the  Temple  (4  ranks) 
was  not  mounted. 

The  Echo  Cornet,  of  soft  tone,  and  shut  up  in 
a  box,  was  of  3  ranks,  or  4  at  most,  the  composi- 
tion being  as  above  given.  *  Cornet  Voluntaries,' 
as  they  were  called,  were  in  great  vogue  for  a 
very  long  time,  and  consisted  of  runs  and  twirls 
for  the  right  hand,  played  in  single  notes,  first 
on  the  louder  stop  and  then  repeated  on  the 
softer,  the  left  hand  meanwhile  playing  a  soft 
bass.  So  fashionable  were  these  peculiar  display 
pieces  that  Dr.  Dupuis  states  on  the  title-page  of 
his  volume  of  voluntaries,  containing  specimens 
of  the  kind,  that  they  were  '  Performed  before 
their  Majesties  at  the  Chapel  Royal,  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  etc.';  while  Russell,  in  his  book 
printed  in  181 2,  shows  that  the  attachment  for 
the  old  Echo  still  lingered  exactly  a  century 
after  it  had  been  improved  upon  by  the  inven- 
tion of  the  Swell  (in  171 2),  by  directing  at  the 
head  of  one  of  his  pieces  '  The  Swell  Pedal  not 
to  be  used  in  this  movement.'  The  name  '  Echo 
Cornet'  is  still  frequently  applied  to  a  compound 
stop  of  small  scale  and  light  tone  in  swell 
organs.  In  many  of  the  continental  organs  the 
cornet  stop  extends  down  to  tenor  C  ;  and  in 
some  places  it  is  used,  on  account  of  its  strong 
and  travelling  tone,  as  an  accompaniment  to 
the  priest's  voice  at  the  far  end  of  the  church. 
This  is,  or  was,  the  custom  a  few  years  ago  in 
many  of  the  churches  of  Cologne,  including  the 
cathedral. 

As  the  cornet  is  a  compound  stop  that  can  be 
carried  through  the  usual  compass  of  a  manual 
without  any  'break'  in  its  composition,  it  is 
sometimes  looked  upon  as  a  good  stop  for  cover- 
ing the  repetitions  which  necessarily  occur  in  all 
compound  stops  that  rise  to  a  greater  altitude 
than  itself  above  the  unison.  At  such  times  it 
is  made  as  a  'progressive'  stop;  that  is  to  say, 
it  has  fewer  pipes  in  the  bass,  with  an  increasing 
number  up  to  the  middle  of  the  key -board. 
Commencing  with  two  pipes  on  the  CC  key,  a 
third  rank  is  added  at  tenor  C,  and  a  fourth  at 


middle  C ;  and  the  stop  starts  with  a  fifteenth 
and  tierce,  to  which  are  added  first  a  twelfth 
and  then  a  principal,  thus — 

2  ranks 


The  'large  scale'  is  preserved,  but  the  pipes 
have  only  narrow  mouths,  and  produce  a  plea- 
sant and  rather  flute-like  quality  of  tone.  A 
stop  somewhat  of  this  kind  occurs  on  the  great 
manual  of  Schulze's  fine  organ  in  Doncaster 
parish  church.  [E.  J.  H.] 

CORNETTE,  Victor,  son  of  an  organist,  bom 
at  Amiens  1795,  a  musician  of  indefatigable 
activity.  He  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire  in 
181 1,  and  studied  composition  under  Lesueur. 
He  served  in  the  band  of  the  '  Grenadiers  tirail- 
leurs de  la  Garde  Imp^riale '  in  1813  and  18 14, 
and  was  at  "Waterloo ;  was  professor  at  the  Col- 
lege of  St.  Acheul  from  1817  to  1825;  men>ber 
of  the  orchestra  at  the  Oddon  (1825),  Opera 
Comique  (1827);  chorus  master  at  the  Opera 
Comique  (1 831-1837)  ;  director  of  singing  at 
the  Gymnase  de  musique  militaire  (1839)  :  con- 
ductor of  the  Strasburg  theatre  (1842)  ;  chorus 
master  to  the  Opera  national  (1847) ;  and  again 
chorus  master  at  the  Opera  Comique  (1848) ;  also 
trombonist  in  the  band  of  the  Garde  Nationale, 
and  deputy  organist  at  St,  Sulpice  and  the  In- 
valides.  Comette  composed  an  enormous  mass 
of  music  for  every  variety  of  instrument,  and 
published  methodes  for  trombone,  ophicleide,  cor- 
net a  pistons,  bugle,  saxhorn,  saxophone,  bassoon, 
oboe,  horn,  trumpet,  harp,  cello,  viola,  organ, 
and  harmonium.  [M.  C.  C] 

CORNO,  the  Italian  term  for  Horn. 

CORNO  DI  BASSETTO.    See  Basset-horn. 

CORNO  DI  CACCIA,  i.  e.  hunting  horn,  the 
French  horn.  The  name  often  occurs  in  J.  S. 
Bach's  scores. 

CORNOPEAN,  a  name  originally  applied  to 
the  cornet  a  pistons,  though  now  disused. 

CORNYSHE,  or  CORNISH,  William,  was 
master  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  in 
which  office  he  succeeded  Gilbert  Banestre  about 
the  year  1490.  In  the  Privy  Purse  Expenses  of 
Henry  VII  under  date  Nov.  12,  1493,  a  pay- 
ment is  entered  '  to  one  Cornyshe  for  a  prophecy 
in  rewarde,  13s.  4c?.,'  and  in  the  Privy  Purse 
Expenses  of  Hem-y's  Queen,  Elizabeth  of  York, 
under  date  Dec.  1502,  a  similar  amount  for 
'setting  of  a  carralle  upon  Christmas  day.'  When 
the  children  of  the  chapel  under  Cornyshe  took 
part  in  the  performance  of  a  play  at  court  they 
were  rewarded  with  the  sum  of  '61.  13s.  40?.' 
Cornyshe  was  a  great  favourite  with  Henry 
VIII.  We  find  a  payment,  '8  Henry  VUI. 
Nov.  To  Master  Cornishe,  gentylman  of  the 
King's  Chapell,  upon  a  warraunt,  in  rewarde, 


CORNYSHE. 


COSSMANN. 


405 


200?.'  But  this  large  sum,  no  doubt,  included 
gratuities  to  his  brethren  in  the  Chapel.  In 
1504  Cornyshe,  being  confined  in  the  Fleet 
prison,  upon,  as  he  informs  us,  some  false  in- 
formation given  by  an  enemy,  wrote  a  poem 
entitled,  *A  Treatise  between  Trouth  and  In- 
formacion,'  some  extracts  from  which  are  given 
in  Hawkins's  History  of  Music.  The  real  cause 
of  his  incarceration  is  unknown,  but  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  he  had  allowed  his  pen  greater 
freedom  than  was  agreeable  to  some  persons. 
However  in  1508  we  again  find  him  taking  part 
in  a  court  play,  as  appears  by  a  payment  'To 
Mr.  Kite,  Cornishe,  and  other  of  the  ChapeU 
that  played  afibre  the  King  at  Eichmonte,  61. 
135.  40^.'  The  date  of  Cornyshe's  death  is  un- 
certain, but  it  was  before  1 526,  in  which  year  the 
name  of  William  Crane  occurs  as  master  of  the 
children.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CORNYSHE,  William,  junior,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  a  composer  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Three  part-songs  by  him 
are  contained  in  a  manuscript  volume  compiled 
by  Dr.  Robert  Fayrfax,  and  now  in  the  library 
of  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS.  5465.)  Two 
of  those  songs  were  printed  by  Hawkins  in  his 
History  of  Music.  [W.  H.  H.] 

CORRI,  DoMENico,  born  in  Naples  1 744,  died 
in  London  about  1826;  studied  under  Porpora 
from  1763  to  67.  In  74  settled  in  London,  pro- 
ducing there  'Alessandro  nelF  Indie'  (1774),  and 
some  years  later  '  The  Travellers,'  his  best  work  ; 
but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  teaching  singing. 
His  daughter,  a  singer  and  harpist  of  merit, 
married  Dussek,  with  whom  Corri  entered  into 
partnership  as  music-seller  and  publisher  (1797), 
but  the  speculation  failed.  His  compositions  in- 
clude, besides  the  operas  above  named,  a  quantity 
of  songs  to  English,  French,  and  Italian  words  ; 
sonatas,  airs,  and  rondos  ;  '  The  Art  of  Fingering' 
(London  1799);  and  'The  Singer's  Preceptor' 
(ditto  1798) ;  also  a  'Musical  Dictionary'  (Lon- 
don 1 798)  and  a  '  Musical  Grammar.'  He  left 
three  sons,  Antonio,  who  settled  in  America; 
Montagu,  dramatic  composer;  and  Haydn,  a 
teacher  in  Dublin.  [M.  C.  C] 

CORRI-PALTONI,  Mdme.  Frances,  daughter 
of  Natale  Corri,  and  niece  of  Domenico,  born  in 
Edinburgh  1801,  a  dramatic  singer  of  ability; 
studied  under  Catalan!  in  18 15  and  16.  She  sang 
in  London  (1820)  ;  in  Germany  ;  in  Italy,  where 
she  married  Paltoni,  a  singer ;  in  Madrid  (1827) ; 
and  with  Lablache  in  Milan  (1828).  In  1830  she 
returned  to  Germany.  Her  voice  was  a  fine  mezzo- 
soprano,  with  a  brilliant  shake.  [M.  C.  C] 

CORTECCIA,  Fbancesco  di  Bernardo,  born 
early  in  the  i6th  century  at  Arezzo,  died  in 
Florence  1571;  in  1531  organist  of  S.  Lorenzo  in 
Florence,  and  in  42  chapel-master  to  Cosmo  I ; 
also  a  Canon  of  S.  Lorenzo.  His  compositions 
include  nine  pieces  for  4,  6,  and  8  voices  with 
various  instruments,  in  a  rare  work  called  'Mu- 
siche  fatte  nelle  nozze,  etc'  (Venice,  Gardano, 
1539);  'Madrigali  a  quattro  voci/  lib.  i  and  2 


(lb.  1545  and  1547) ;  'Prhno  libro  de'  Madrigali 
a  5  e  6  voci'  (lb.  1547) ;  'Responsoria  et  lecti- 
ones hebdomadae sanctae'  (lb.  1570)  ;  'Residuum 
cantici  Zacchariae'  (lb,  1570)  ;  and  'Canticorum 
liber  primus'  (lb.  15 71),  published  a  few  months 
after  his  death.  A  copy  of  the  madrigals  is  in  the 
Library  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  The  Library 
of  S.  Lorenzo  also  contains  32  hjrmns  in  4-part 
counterpoint.  Corteccia,  with  Striggio,  composed 
music  for  Cini's  intermezzo  '  Psich^  e  I'Amorino,' 
for  the  marriage  of  Francesco  de'  Medici  and 
Joanna  of  Austria  in  1565.  [M.  C.  C] 

CORTELLINI,  Camillo,  a  composer  o f  church 
music,  who  lived  at  the  commencement  of  the 
1 7th  century,  and  was  in  the  service  of  the  muni- 
cipality of  Bologna.  From  his  proficiency  on  the 
violin  he  went  by  the  name  of  II  Violino.  Vin- 
centi  of  Venice  published  several  volumes  of  his 
works,  consisting  of  Psalms,  Litanies,  Masses,  and 
other  sacred  pieces.  The  preface  to  one  of  these 
volumes,  intituled  'Messe  concertate  a  otto  voci,' 
is  interesting  because  it  gives  a  hint  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  in  those  early  times  the  instru- 
mental and  vocal  parts  were  combined  in  church 
music.  The  passage  alluded  to  is  as  follows  :  'La 
Messa  I71  Domino  confido  ha  la  Gloria  concertata ; 
e  dove  saranno  le  lettere  grandi,  il  cantore  canter^ 
solo ;  e  dove  saranno  le  linee,  i  tromboni  e  altri 
simili  stromenti  soneranno  soli.'  [E.  H.  P.] 

CORYPH^US  {Kopvcpaios,  chorus-leader).  An 
officer  on  Dr.  Heather's  foundation  at  Oxford, 
intended  by  the  founder  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
musical  exercises  conducted  by  the  Choragus. 
The  duties  of  the  Coryphaeus  have  long  been 
imaginary :  his  salary  was  never  more  than 
nominal.  [C.  A.  F.] 

COSI  FAN  TUTTE,  ossia  La  scuola  degli 
amanti.  An  opera  bufFa  in  two  acts,  commanded 
by  the  Emperor,  libretto  by  Da  Ponte,  music  by 
Mozart;  produced  at  Vienna  Jan.  26,  1790; 
London,  King's  Theatre,  May  9,  1811.  The 
libretto  is  so  bad  and  the  music  so  good  that 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  fit  the  opera 
with  new  words,  as  *Le  Laboureur  Chinois' 
(1807),  'Peines  d'amour  perdues'  (Barbier  & 
Carre,  1863).  Otto  Jahn  possessed  a  MS.  Mass 
made  up  from  it.  In  England  it  was  translated 
as  '  Tit  for  Tat.'  The  German  version  is  entitled 
Weihertreue. 

COSSMANN,  Bernhard,  an  eminent  violon- 
cellist, son  of  a  Jewish  merchant ;  born  at  Dessau 
May  17,  1822.  His  first  instructors  on  the  cello 
were  Espenhahn  and  Karl  Drechsler  at  Bruns- 
wick, Theodor  Miiller  (of  the  MuUer- quartet) 
and  Kummer  at  Dresden.  After  completing  his 
studies,  Cossmann  went  to  Paris,  where  he  played 
in  the  orchestra  of  the  Grand  Op^ra,  and  thence 
to  London  (1841),  in  the  then  palmy  days  of 
Italian  opera.  In  1 843  he  was  an  acknowledged 
master  of  his  instrument  in  Germany.  Men- 
delssohn secured  him  in  1847  for  the  Gewandhaus 
concerts,  and  he  utilised  his  stay  in  Leipsic  by 
studying  under  Hauptmann.  His  appointment 
as  first  cello  under  Liszt  at  Weimar,  in  1852, 
exercised  an  important  influence  on  his  career. 


406 


GOSSMANN. 


COSTA. 


He  had  a  considerable  share  with  Joachim,  and 
also  with  Billow  and  Tausig,  in  the  movement 
which  took  place  under  Liszt's  leadership.  In 
1 866  he  became  professor  at  the  Conservatoire  at 
Moscow,  where  he  worked  wdth  Laub  and  Nicolaus 
Kubinstein  until  his  return  to  Germany  in  1870. 
Since  then  he  has  lived  without  any  fixed  ap- 
pointment at  Baden-Baden.  Cossmann  is  a 
A^rtuoso  of  the  first  rank.  He  is  remarkable 
alike  for  science,  polished  execution,  and  power 
of  singing  on  the  instrument.  Furthermore  he 
is  a  great  soloist,  and  an  excellent  chamber 
musician,  above  all  in  quartets.  This  last  quality 
he  owes  partly  to  his  studies  under  Miiller,  and 
partly  to  the  general  cultivation  he  acquired  at 
Weimar.  He  is  much  interested  in  compositions 
for  his  instrument ;  he  has  brought  forward  many 
new  concertos,  as  well  as  those  of  Schumann  and 
A.  Rubinstein,  which  are  too  much  neglected. 
His  compositions  embrace  a  concert- stiick  for 
cello,  but  are  not  important.  [A.  M.] 

COSTA,  an  Italian  singer  at  the  King's  The- 
atre about  1 790,  appeared  in  Cimarosa's  'Ninetta,' 
in  the  'Due  Castellani  burlati'  of  Fabrizi,  in 
Nasolini's  'Andromaca,'  Federici's  'L'Usurpatore 
innocente,'  and  Bianchi's  * Villanella  rapita.'  He 
was  a  good  performer  of  what  were  called  mezzi 
caratteri.  [J.  IM.] 

COSTA,  Andrea,  teacher  of  singing ;  bom  at 
Brescia,  settled  in  London  in  1825.  His  best 
pupils  were  Mdme.  Borgondio,  and  Mdme.  Alber- 
tazzi.  He  published  a  method  called  'Ana- 
lytical Considerations  on  the  Art  of  Singing ' 
(London  1 8 38).  [M.C.C.] 

COSTA,  Michael,  son  of  the  late  Cavaliere 
Pasquale  Costa,  of  an  old  Spanish  family,  was 
bom  at  NajDles  Feb.  4,  1810.  Having  a  great 
inclination  for  music,  he  was  placed  at  the 
Eoyal  Academy  of  Music  in  Naples,  and  at  a 
public  examination  obtained  a  free  scholarship 
from  Ferdinand  I,  King  of  the  two  Sicilies.  At 
the  age  of  15,  he  composed  a  cantata,  for  the 
theatre  in  the  college,  entitled  '  L'Immagine.' 
In  1826  he  composed  for  the  same  theatre  an 
opera  called  'II  Delitto  punito';  and  in  1827 
another,  'II  Sospetto  funesto.'  He  composed 
also  at  this  period  a  Grand  Mass  for  4  voices, 
a  'Dixit  Dominus,'  three  symphonies,  and  an 
oratorio,  'La  Passione.'  In  1828  Costa  was  en- 
gaged by  the  manager  of  the  Teatro  Xuovo  to 
compose  an  opera  semi-seria,  called  'II  carcere 
d'lldegonda.'  In  1 8 29  he  composed  '  Malvina,'  an 
opera,  for  Barbaja,  the  famous  impresario  of  San 
Carlo.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  Zingarelli, 
his  maestro,  sent  him  to  Birmingham,  to  direct  a 
psalm  of  his  composition,  '  Super  flumina  Babilo- 
nis.'  On  the  young  Costa's  arrival,  through 
some  misunderstanding,  he  was  obliged,  having 
a  fair  tenor  voice,  to  sing  in  the  psalm,  instead 
of  directing  the  music.  In  1830  he  was  engaged 
by  Laporte,  as  maestro  al  piano  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  In  the  next  year  he  composed  the 
music  of  the  grand  ballet,  'Kenilworth.'  In 
1832  Monck  Mason,  the  then  impresario,  engaged 
him  as  director  of  the  music  ;  and  in  that  capacity 


he  \^Tote  the  ballet,  'Une  heure  k  Naples,'  and 
several  other  pieces  for  operas  and  concert-rooms. 
'  This  was  the  year,'  writes  Mr.  Chorley,  '  when 
(happy  event  for  England  !)  the  Italian  orchestra 
was  placed  under  the  direction  of  Signer  Costa.' 
In  1833,  engaged  by  Laporte  as  director  and 
conductor,  he  composed  the  ballet  'Sir  Huon' 
for  Taglioni,  and  the  favourite  quartet,  'Ecco 
quel  fiero  istante.'  At  the  invitation  of  Severini, 
the  impresario  of  the  Italian  opera  at  Paris,  he 
wrote  the  opera  'Malek  Adhel,'  in  1837,  which 
was  performed  there  in  February  1838  with 
moderate  success,  but  with  better  fortune  in 
London.  The  critic  already  quoted  says  on  this 
point,  '  Whether  a  great  conductor  can  ever  be 
a  great  composer,  is  a  doubtful  matter.  .  .  . 
From  the  fii^st  evening  when  Signer  Costa  took 
up  the  baton, — a  young  man,  from  a  country  then 
despised  by  every  musical  pedant,  a  youth  who 
came  to  England  without  flourish,  announcement, 
or  protection  ...  it  was  felt  that  in  him  were  com- 
bined the  materials  of  a  great  conductor ;  nerve 
to  enforce  discipline,  readiness  to  the  second,  and 
that  certain  influence  which  only  a  vigorous  man 
could  exercise  over  the  disconnected  folk  who 
made  up  an  orchestra  in  those  days.  His  Malek 
Adhel  is  a  thoroughly  conscientious  work,  con- 
taining an  amount  of  melody  with  which  he  has 
never  been  duly  credited.'  It  contained  a  song 
for  Rubini  of  stupendous  difficulty — which  has 
been  a  main  obstacle  to  its  revival — as  well  as 
some  telling  music  for  the  other  singers.  In 
1842  Costa  composed  the  ballet-music  of  'Alma' 
for  Cerito  ;  and  in  1844  the  opera  'Don  Carlos.' 
In  1844  three  new  operas  were  produced  in 
London,  of  which  '  the  worthiest,'  says  Mr. 
Chorley,  'was  Signer  Costa's  Don  Carlos,  which 
had  nevertheless  not  the  good  fortune  to  please 
the  pubKc.  Yet  it  is  full  of  good  music  :  the 
orchestra  is  handled  with  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  efiect  and  colour.  One  trio  for  male  voices 
is  so  solid  and  fine  that  it  ought  not  to  have 
been  soon  forgotten.'  In  1846  he  quitted  the 
opera ;  and  the  orchestra,  which  he  had  brought 
to  a  point  of  perfection  previously  unknown  in 
England,  passed  into  other  hands.  In  1846  Costa 
undertook  the  direction  of  the  Philharmonic 
orchestra;  and  that  of  the  new  Italian  Opera, 
Covent  Garden ;  and  in  48  that  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society.  In  49  he  was  engaged  for 
the  Birmingham  Festival,  which  he  has  since 
continued  to  conduct.  With  the  season  of  54 
he  gave  up  the  baton  of  the  Philhamionic,  and 
was  succeeded  (for  one  year)  by  Richard  Wagner. 
In  55  he  composed  his  oratorio  'Eli'  for  the 
Birmingham  Festival.  He  conducted  the  Brad- 
ford Festival  in  53,  and  the  Leeds  Festival  in 
74  ;  and  as  conductor  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  has  directed  the  Handel  Festivals  from 
57  to  the  present  date.  Beside  other  occasional 
compositions,  liis  second  oratorio,  '  Naaman,'  was 
also  written  for  Birmingham,  in  1864.  He  has 
vrritten  additional  accompaniments  for  '  Solomon,' 
*  Judas,'  and  others  of  Handel's  oratorios  for  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  In  1869  he  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood.    Sir  Michael  is  also 


COSTA. 


COUXTERPOIXT. 


407 


decorated  with  orders  from  the  sovereigns  of 
Germany,  Turkey,  the  Netherlands,  Wiirtemberg, 
Italy,  etc.,  in  recognition  of  his  talent  and  position. 
He  has  been  since  1871  'director  of  the  music, 
composer,  and  conductor '  at  Her  Majesty's  Opera. 
His  services  in  those  capacities  will  not  soon  be 
forgotten  in  London.  [J.  M.] 

COSTAXTIXI,  a  seconda  donna,  who  played 
ailda  in  Handel's  'Otho'  in  1726,  which  had 
sen  Anastasia  Eobinson's  part  in  1 7  2  3.  She  also 
appeared  as  Amiira  in  *  Scipio'  in  the  same  year, 
after  which  her  name  does  not  occur.         [J.  M.] 
COSTAXTIXI,  Fabio,  bom  in  Eorae  about 
1570,  chapel-master  to  the  confraternity  of  the 
Eosary  at  Ancona,  and  afterwards  at  the  cathe- 
dral of  Or\-ieto.  His  compositions  include  motets 
for  2,  3,  and  4  voices  (Eome  1596)  ;  '^Motetti 
.  .  .  .  e  Psahni  e  Magnificat'  (lb.  1618);  and 

*  Condette  amorose,'  a  series  of  canzone  and  mad- 
rigals (Orvieto  162 1),  He  also  published  'Se- 
lectae  cantiones  exceUentissimorum  auctorum' 
(Eome  1614),  a  collection  of  8-part  motets  by 
Palestrina,  the  Xanini,  the  Anerii,  Marenzio, 
Lucatello,  Giovanelli,  and  others  beside  himself ; 
and  another  collection  of  airs  and  madrigals  called 
'Ghirlandetta  amorosa'  (Orvieto  162 1).  [M.C.C.] 

COSTAXZI,  Juan,  known  as  Gioannino  di 
Eoma,  because  he  was  bom  there  ;  was  for  some 
time  in  the  household  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  and 
was  appointed  in  1 754  chapel-master  of  St.  Peter's, 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  in  1778.  He 
composed  an  opera  '  Carlo  Magno '  (Eome  1729) ; 
a  fine  'Miserere' ;  motets  in  16  parts  for  4  choirs, 
offertoriums,  and  other  church  music.    [M, C.  C] 

COSTE,  Gaspard,  chorister  in  the  cathedral 
of  Avignon  about  1530,  composer  of  songs  and 
madrigals,  preserved  in  the  following  coDections  ; 
*Trente-cinq  livres  des  chansons  a  quatre  parties' 
(Paris  1539-1549) ;  'Le  Parangon  des  chansons' 
(Lyons  1540-1543)  ;  'Motetti  del  Fiore'  (lb. 
1532-1539);  'Sdegnosi  ardori;  Musica  di  di- 
versi  authori  sopra  un  istesso  sogetto  di  parole' 
(Mimich  1575);  and  'Ghirlanda  di  Fioretti 
mufiicale'  (Eome  1589).  [M.C.C.] 

COSTELEY,  'William,  a  Scotch  musician, 
bom  1 5  31,  settled  in  France,  and  was  organist  to 
Henri  II  and  Charles  IX.  Author  of  a  treatise 
caUed  'Musique'  (Paris  1579);  songs  in  the 

*  Chansons  a  4  et  5  parties '  published  by  Le  Eoy 
and  Ballard  (lb.  1567).  Some  pieces  of  his  are 
in  the  library  at  Orleans.  Costeley  was  one  of 
the  society  called  '  Puy  de  musique  en  honneur 
de  Ste.  Cecile'  (15  71)  at  Evreux,  and  sometimes 
entertained  the  members  at  his  own  house  in 
Evreux.    He  died  there  in  1606.  [M.C.C.] 

COSYX,  Benjamin,  was  probably  a  son  of 
John  Cosyn,  who  in  15S5  published  sixty  psalms 
in  six  parts  in  plain  counterpoint.  He  was 
eminent  as  a  composer  of  lessons  for  virginals. 
Many  of  his  pieces  are  extant.  He  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  1 7th  century.      [W.  H.  H.] 

COTILLOX  (Le.  *a  pettiooat').  OriginaUy  a 
simple  French  dance  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV, 
which,  according  to  some  authors,  resembled  the 


Braxle,  but,  according  to  others,  was  a  variety  of 
quadrille.  The  modem  cotillon  is  simply  a  species 
of  quick  waltz,  of  great  length  and  elaborate 
contrivances,  but  with  no  special  music  :  for  the 
different  vai-ieties  of  it,  waltzes,  polkas,  mazurkas, 
and  galops,  are  employed.  [E.  P.] 

COTTAGE  PIAXO  (Fr.  Piano  droit ;  Ital. 
and  Ger.  also  Fr.  Piayiino).  An  upright  piano- 
forte usually  about  four  feet  high,  invented  early 
in  this  century,  nearly  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Cabinet  piano,  but  less  thought  of  for  some  years, 
imtil  the  more  convenient  height  and  better  action 
of  the  lower  instrument,  combined  with  cheaper 
construction,  found  appreciation,  and  brought 
about  the  displacement  of  the  Cabinet  and  the 
once  familiar  Square.  To  Eobert  Womum  the 
younger,  whose  patent  (Xo  3419)  for  an  upright, 
with  diagonal  strings,  was  taken  out  in  1811,  is 
due  the  invention  and  earliest  manufacture  of 
oblique  and  vertical  cottage  pianofortes  in  Eng- 
land. In  the  year  18 15  Ignace  Pleyel,  founder 
of  the  house  of  Pleyel,  Wolff,  et  Cie.,  employed 
Henri  Pape,  an  ingenious  mechanician,  to  organise 
the  introduction  of  the  construction  of  these  in- 
struments in  Paris  (Pape,  Sur  les  Inventions,  etc. ; 
Paris,  1845),  from  which  beginning  arose  the 
important  manufacture  of  French  cottage  pianos. 
In  Germany  and  America  upright  pianos  have 
not  made  much  way.  [See  Pianoforte,  also  Cabi- 
net Piano,  Oblique,  and  Piccolo.]     [A.  J.  H.] 

COTUMACCI,  or  COXTUMACCI,  Carlo, 
bom  at  Xaples  169S,  died  there  1775;  pupil  of 
A.  Scarlatti,  succeeded  Durante  at  S.  Onofrio ; 
organist  and  prolific  composer  of  church  music. 
He  wrote  *  Eegole  deU'  accompagnamento '  and 
'Trattato  di  contrapunto,'  works  which  have 
remained  in  MS.,  excepting  some  'Partimenti,' 
published  by  Choron  in  his  '  Principes  de  compo- 
sition des  ecoles  d'ltalie '  (Paris  1808).  [M.C.C.] 

COUAC  (French  for  'quack'),  a  sudden  hor- 
rible noise  to  which  any  clarinet  is  liable  when 
the  reed  is  out  of  order  and  the  wind  not  quite 
under  control.  Called  also  '  the  goose.'  (See  a 
good  story  in  Spohr,  Selbstbiographie,  i.  167.) 

COUXTEEPOIXT  is  '  the  art  of  combining 
melodies.'  Its  name  arose  from  the  ancient 
system  of  notation  by  points  or  '  pricks.'  "When 
one  set  of  points  was  added  to  another,  to  signifS' 
the  simultaneous  performance  of  various  melo- 
dies agreeing  in  harmony,  it  was  called  '  point 
against  point' — i.e.  contrapunctum,  or  counter- 
point. Counterpoint  is  usually  divided  into  two 
kinds — plain  and  double— and  each  of  these  is 
subdivided  into  various  orders  or  species.  There 
are  very  stringent  rules  about  the  use  of  dif- 
ferent intervals  in  plain  counterpoint,  which  are 
more  or  less  relaxed  in  modern  music  ;  when, 
however,  they  are  fully  observed,  the  piece  is 
said  to  be  written  in  '  strict  counterpoint,'  It  is 
usual  to  take  some  fragment  of  an  old  chant  or 
chorale  as  the  '  canto  fermo '  or  plain-chant,  to 
which  other  parts  or  melodies  are  added  as  ac- 
companiments according  to  the  rules  above 
referred  to.  This  is  called  'adding  a  counterpoint 
to  a  given  subject.' 


408 


COUNTERPOINT. 


COUNTERPOINT. 


The  difference  between  the  ancient  strictness 
and  modern  laxity  in  plain  counterpoint  chiefly 
relates  to  the  admission  of  consecutive  octaves 
and  fifths  by  contrary  motion,  even  between 
extreme  parts,  and  the  doctrine  of  false  relations, 
especially  that  of  the  tritone.  Plain  counter- 
point, however,  is  most  useful  as  a  study,  whereby 
facility  may  be  acquired  in  conquering  difficulties 
arising  from  the  various  motions  of  the  diff"erent 
parts  in  a  piece  of  music.  It  is  obvious,  there- 
fore, that  the  more  stringent  rules  should  be 
observed  by  students  with  a  view  to  this  par- 
ticular object,  and  that  therefore  they  are  enforced 
in  the  best  text-books. 

Plain  counterpoint  is  generally  divided  into 
five  species.  The  first  is  called  '  note  against  note.' 
Canto  fermo. 

1 


Counterpoint. 

The  second  species  is  called  '  two  notes  to  one. 
(lanto  fermo. 


4^ 

Counterpoint. 


:2: 


The  third  species  is  called  '  four  notes  to  one.' 

Coiinterpobit. 


i 


c — 
Canto  fermo. 


The  fourth  is  called  '  syncopated  counterpoint. 
Counterpoint.  ^  


I  2?" 

Canto  fermo. 


The  fifth  species  is  called  '  florid  counterpoint,' 
and  is  a  combination  or  rather  alternation  of  the 
last  three,  with  certain  ornamental  variations 
peculiar  to  itself. 

Counterpoint. 


I 


Canto  fermo. 


Plain  counterpoint  may  be  in  any  number  of 
parts,  and  the  canto  fermo  may  be  assigned  to 
the  upper,  middle,  or  lowest  parts,  according 
to  circumstances. 

Double  counterpoint  is  when  two  or  more 
melodies  are  so  constructed  that  either  of  them 
may  form  a  correct  bass  to  the  others ;  and  when 
the  various  melodies  may,  by  transposition,  be 
placed  in  any  relative  order  of  acutencss,  without 
infringing  the  laws  of  harmony.  These  trans- 
positions may  be  such  as  to  produce  counter- 
points at  the  octave,  tenth,  twelfth,  or  any  other 
interval,  but  the  most  usual  is  double  counterpoint 
at  the  octave. 

Examples  of  various  double  counterpoints — 


First  melody. 

'  ^ 


MOZAKT. 


1 


Second  melody. 
Second  melody. 


First  melody. 

IS 

The  above  is  a  specimen  of  double  counter- 
point at  the  octave. 

The  next  species  is  at  the  tenth,  on  a  Canto  fermo. 


Counterpoint. 


Fux. 


Canto  fermo. 


COUNTERPOINT. 


COUPERIN. 


409 


Canto  fiTmo. 


The  above  is  double  counterpoint  at  the  tenih 
below. 

Triple  or  quadruple  counterpoints  consist  of 
three  or  four  melodies  so  adopted  that  any  of 
them  may  be  a  bass  to  the  other.  This  can  only 
be  done  with  counterpoint  at  the  octave. 

Counterpoints  may  also  be  constructed  by  con- 
tr;xry  motion,  or  by  augmentation,  or  diminution, 
or  retrogression.  In  cojupositions  in  more  than 
two  parts,  the  counterpoint  is  often  confined  to  two 
parts,  while  the  others  are  free  accompaniments 
in  order  to  fill  up  and  complete  the  harmony. 

In  a  fugue  the  subject  and  countersubject  are 

•essarily  constructed  in  double  counterpoint. 
•  je  article  Fugue.] 

For  a  good  example  of  coimterpoint  at  the 
twelfth  and  in  diminution,  see  the  fine  chorus  'Let 
all  the  Angels  of  God,'  in  Handel's  '  Messiah,' 

For  an  example  of  five  subjects  in  double  coun- 
terpoint at  the  octave,  see  tlie  finale  of  Mozai-t's 
'  Jupiter  '  Symphony.  [F.  A.  G.  0.] 

COUNTERSUBJECT.    \Mien  the  subject  of 
a  fugue  has  been  proposed  by  one  voice  it  is 
usual  for  the  answer,  which  is  taken  up  by 
another  voice,  to  be  accompanied  by  the  former 
with  a  counterpoint  sufficiently  recognisable  as 
definite  subject  to  take  its  part  in  the  deve- 
■  anent  of  the  fugue,  and  this  is  called  the 
mtersubject ;  as  in  the  chorus  '  Ajid  with  his 
•ipes,'  in  Handel's  '  Messiah' — 
Suhkct. 


4  etc. 

r  r 

r 

It  should  be  capable  of  being  treated  with  the 
original  subject  in  double  counterpoint — that  is, 
either  above  or  below  it,  as  in  the  chorus  just 
named,  where  it  first  appears  in  an  upper  part, 
but  further  on  in  the  tenor,  with  the  original 
subject  in  the  treble  ;  thus— 
Sxbject.  1      ,  I 


I  I  f  I  etc. 
But  it  is  allowable  to  alter  it  slightly  when  thus 
treated,  so  long  as  its  character  is  distinctly 
marked.    The  principal  subject  of  the  above 


was  a  favourite  with  the  composers  of  the  last 
century  ;  instances  of  it  with  different  counter- 
subjects  will  be  found  in  Handel's  '  Joseph,'  in 
Mozart's  Requiem,  and  in  a  quartet  of  Haydn's 
in  F  minor ;  also  in  Corelli's  Solos,  op.  i,  No.  3. 

When  a  second  subject  appears  simultaneously 
with  the  first  proposition  of  the  principal  subject 
it  is  common  to  speak  of  it  as  the  countersubject, 
as  in  the  following,  by  Handel  (6  organ  fugues 
no.  3)— 


S'fbj. 


c.s.\    I"!  n    u  • 

but  many  theorists  think  that  this  tends  to  con- 
fusion, and  wish  it  to  be  called  a  second  subject. 
Cherubini  held  that  a  fugue  could  not  have  more 
than  one  principal  subject,  and  that  therefore 
the  terms  first,  second,  or  thu'd  countersubject 
should  be  used  to  designate  any  subjects  which 
follow  after  the  first ;  but  the  question  does  not 
seem  to  be  of  any  very  great  importance. 

For  further  treatment  of  this  question  see 
Fugue.  [C.H.H.P.] 

COUNTERTENOR.    See  Alto. 

COUNTRY-DANCE.    See  Coxtredaxse. 

COUP  ART,  Antoine  Marie,  born  in  Paris 
1780,  died  there  1854,  originator  and  editor  of 
the  'Almanach  des  Spectacles'  (Paris  1822-1836). 
Coupart  was  for  many  years  an  employe  in  the 
'  Bureau  des  journaux  et  des  thesitres '  and  had 
special  opportunities  for  gaining  his  information. 
He  also  wrote  vaudevilles  and  comedies,  and 
edited  several  collections  of  songs.        [M.  C.  C] 

COUPERIN,  Francois,  called,  like  Louis 
XIV,  'Le  Grand,'  was  born  at  Paris  1668,  and 
died  there  1733.  In  1696  he  became  organist  of 
St.  Gervais,  in  which  office,  from  about  1650  to 
1700,  he  was  both  preceded  and  succeeded  by 
members  of  the  Couperin  family,  who  were 
all  professional  musicians.  But  though  he  is 
reported  to  have  been  a  first-rate  organist,  his 
reputation  rests  upon  his  various  suites  of  pieces 
for  the  'clavecin,'  his  excellent  Me'thode  for  that 
instrument,  and  his  proficiency  as  an  executant 
upon  it.  It  is  of  particular  interest  for  historians 
of  music,  as  well  as  for  professed  pianists,  to  note 
the  tmmistakeable  influence  which  Couperin's 
suites  and  Methode  had  upon  Sebastian  Bach, 
both  in  his  'practice  (mode  of  touch,  finger- 
ing, execution  of  '  les  agi'emens  ' — shakes,  turns, 
arpeggii,  etc.)  [Agrejiexts]  and  in  the  shape  and 
contents  of  some  of  his  loveliest  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  the  instrument,  such  as  his 
suites  and  partitas.  The  principal  pieces  in 
Bach's  'Suites  fran9aises,'  'Suites  anglaises,' 
'Partitas,'  and  even  in  some  of  his  solo  works 
for  violin  and  violoncello,  as  well  as  in  his  suites 
for  stringed  or  mixed  stringed  and  wind  instru- 
ments— 'Concerti  Grossi,'— the  allemandes,  cou- 
rantes,  sarabandes,  gavottes,  gigues,  etc,  are 
frequently  in  close  imitation  of  the  French  types 
of  dance  tunes  then  current,  and  of  which 
Couperin's  suites  furnished  the  best  specimens. 
Bach  here  and  there  goes  to  the  length  of 


410 


COUPERIN. 


COURANTE. 


copying  the  curious  rhythmical  oddities  which 
give  to  some  of  Couperin's  pieces,  particularly  his 
courantes,  an  air  of  stiffness  and  angularity  akin 
to  ill-carved  wooden  puppets  : — compare  Bach's 
second  courante,  in  the  first  of  the  Suites 
anglaises,  particularly  the  first  Double  thereof, 
or  the  courante  in  the  fourth  Partita  in  D  major, 
with  Couperin's  courantes  in  G  minor  and  D 
minor,  C  minor,  A  major,  and  B  minor,  from  the 
first,  second,  third,  fifth,  and  eighth  '  ordre '  of 
his  'Pieces  de  clavecin.'  A  distinction  should 
be  made  between  Couperin's  type  of  'covurante' 
and  the  Italian  'corrente,'  as  it  is  to  be  found  in 
Corelli's  works — of  which  latter  type  Bach  also 
gives  many  specimens,  [Courante.]  Couperin's 
suites,  in  a  word,  are  a  sort  of  refined  ballet 
music.  He  has  re-set  the  dances  played  by  the 
orchestra  in  Lully's  operas  for  the  clavecin,  and 
the  theatrical  twang  noticeable  in  the  quaint 
titles  of  many  of  the  pieces — for  instance,  *La 
majestueuse,'  '  L'enchanteresse,'  'La  prude,'  *La 
flatteuse,'  'La  voluptueuse,'  'Les  enjouments 
bachiques,'  '  Tendresses  bachiques,*  '  Fureurs 
bachiques,'  etc. — has  stood  in  the  way  of  a 
thorough  musical  development, 

Couperin's  published  works  are  four  sets  of 
'  Pieces  de  clavecin ' ;  his  '  Me'thode,  ou  I'art  de 
toucher  le  clavecin,  y  compris  huit  Preludes'; 
*Les  gouts  reunis,  ou  nouveaux  concerts,  aug- 
mentes  de  I'apotheose  de  Corelli';  '  L'apotheose 
de  I'incomparable  Lully';  'Trios  for  two  violins 
and  bass ' ;  and  '  Pieces  de  \aole,'  A  careful 
reprint  of  his  suites  for  the  clavecin,  of  which 
two  volumes  have  hitherto  apjieared,  is  being 
edited  by  Brahms.  [E.  D,] 

COUPLER.  All  modem  organs  are  provided 
with  mechanical  appliances  called  'couplers.' 
These  u.seful  adjuncts  are  of  two  general  kinds — 

*  manual  couplers  '  and  'pedal  couplers.'  (i)  The 
former  operate  in  one  of  three  ways :  either  by 
taking  down  on  one  manual  the  key  corresponding 
to  that  played  on  another,  in  which  case  it  is  a 

*  unison  coupler' ;  or  by  taking  down  the  octave 
above  the  note  pressed  down,  when  it  forms  an 

*  octave  coupler,'  sometimes  incorrectly  called  a 

*  super-octave  coupler '  ;  or  by  operating  on  the 
octave  below,  forming  a  '  sub-octave  coupler.' 
The  octave  and  sub-octave  couplers  sometimes 
act  on  the  manual  on  which  the  note  is  struck. 
The  couplers  are  put  in  action  by  draw-stops  in- 
scribed according  to  circumstances — as  '  Swell  to 
Great,'  '  Great  to  itself,' — or  by  pedals.  Manual 
couplers  date  back  at  least  as  far  as  1651,  when 
Geissler's  organ  at  Lucerne  was  completed ; 
which,  according  to  the  account  formerly  existing 
over  the  keys,  contained  '  several  registers, 
whereby  one  may  make  use  of  the  three  manuals 
together,  or  of  one  or  two  of  them  separately.' 

(2)  A  pedal  coupler  attaches  a  particular 
manual  to  the  pedal-clavier  ;  and  by  bringing  the 
lower  2i  octaves  of  the  compass  of  the  manual 
under  the  control  of  the  feet,  produces  the  effect  of 
a  third  hand  on  any  manual  required.  [E.J.H.] 

COURANTE  (Ital.  Corrente).  (i)  A  dance 
of  French  origin,  the  name  of  which  is  derived 


from  courir,  to  run.  It  is  in  3-2  time,  of  rather 
rapid  movement,  and  begins  with  a  short  note 
(usually  a  quaver)  at  the  end  of  the  bar.  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  predominance  of  dotted  notes, 
as  in  this,  from  Bach's  'English  Suites,'  No,  4, 


i 


W-^ — 

n   ^  J     J  J-  i  -i 

,      •  ^  P  ^     ^  ^   •  m 

+-  -* 

and  requires  a  staccato  rather  than  a  legato  style 
of  performance.  Like  most  of  the  other  old 
dances,  it  consists  of  two  parts,  each  of  which  is 
repeated.  A  special  peculiarity  of  the  courante 
is  that  the  last  bar  of  each  part,  in  contradiction 
to  the  time-signature,  is  in  6-4  time.  This  will 
be  seen  clearly  by  an  extract  from  the  move- 
ment quoted  above  : — 


As  a  component  of  the  suite,  the  Courante 
follows  the  Allemande,  with  which  in  its  cha- 
racter it  is  strongly  contrasted.  In  losing  its 
connection  with  the  dance,  it  underwent  a  slight 
modification  :  whereas  in  its  earlier  shape  the  6-4 
rhythm  was  only  to  be  found  in  the  concluding 
bar  of  each  part,  courantes  are  frequently  to  be 
met  with  in  suites  wherein  the  two  rhythms  are 
mixed  up,  and  sometimes  even  where,  in  spite  of 
the  time-signature,  the  6-4  rhythm  predominates 
throughout.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  many 
of  those  by  Couperin.  The  endeavour  to  bring 
out  these  various  features  clearly  and  promi- 
nently, without  injuring  the  flow  of  the  whole, 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  polyphonic  style,  by 
which  the  Courante  is  so  strongly  contrasted 
with  the  Allemande.  Its  chief  points  may  be 
briefly  summed  up  thus — triple  time,  prevalence 
of  dotted  rhythms,  alternations  of  3-2  and  6-4 
times,  and  polyphonic  treatment. 

(2)  The  Italian  courante  (Courante  Itali- 
enne),  called  also,  like  the  preceding,  simply 
Corrente  or  Courante,  is  a  different  form,  quite 
independent  of  that  just  mentioned.  It  answers 
more  nearly  to  the  etymological  meaning  of  its 
name,  consisting  chiefly  of  running  passages. 
This  courante  is  also  in  triple  time — usually 
3-8,  but  sometimes  3-4 — and  of  rapid  tempo, 
about  allegro,  or  allegro  assai.  It  is  thus,  like 
the  French  courante,  contrasted  with  the  alle- 
mande.   As  an  example  of  this  class  may  be 


COURANTE. 


COUSSEMAKER. 


411 


taken  the  following  from  Bach's  '  Partita ' 
No.  5  :  — 


Other  specimens  of  this  kind  of  courante  may 
found  in  No.  5  of  Handel's  'First  Set  of 

--)ns«/  and  in  Nos,  5  and  6  of  Bach's  'Suites 
t'lancaises,'  these  last  being  in  3-4  time.  They 
are  also  frequent  in  Corelli's  '  Violin  Sonatas.' 

(3)  One  more  species  of  courante  remains  to 
be  noticed,  which  is  founded  upon,  and  attempts 
to  combine  the  two  preceding  ones,  but  with  the 
]ieculiarity  that  the  special  features  of  both — viz, 
the  French  change  of  rhythm,  and  the  Italian 
runs— are  not  introduced.  It  is  in  fact  a  hybrid 
jsrissessing  little  in  common  with  the  other 
\  :irieties,  except  that  it  is  in  triple  time,  and 
i  i.iisists  of  two  parts,  each  repeated.  Most  of 
Handel's  courantes  belong  to  this  class.  The 
commencement  of  one,  from  his  '  Lessons,'  Bk.  i. 
No.  8,  will  show  at  once  the  great  difference  be- 
tween this  and  the  French  or  Italian  courante. 


Baoh,  on  the  other  hand,  chiefly  uses  the  first 
kind  of  courante,  his  movements  more  resembling 
those  of  Couperin.  [E,  P.] 

COURTEVILLE,  Raphael,  was  one  of  the 
gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  He  lived  through  the  interregnum, 
resumed  his  place  in  the  chapel  on  its  re- 
establishment  in  1660,  and  died  Dec.  28,  1675. 

His  son  Raphael,  was  brought  up  as  a  cho- 
rister in  the  Chapel  Royal.  As  a  composer  of 
songs  his  productions  abound  in  the  collections 
published  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  century 
and  at  the  commencement  of  the  next.  His  first 
printed  work  was  '  Six  Sonatas  for  two  Violins,' 
and  he  also  produced,  about  1685,  Sonatas  for 
two  Flutes.  In  1691  he  was  appointed  the  first 
organist  of  St,  James's  church,  Piccadilly,  for 
which  he  composed  the  psalm  tune  well  known 
by  the  name  'St.  James's.'  In  1696  he  was 
one  of  the  composers  associated  with  Henry 
Purcell  in  setting  the  third  part  of  D'Urfey's 
'Don  Quixote.'  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  the  year  1735, 

His  son  Raphael,  succeeded  his  father  as 
organist  of  St.  J ames's  church.  He  wa.s  a  poli- 
tical writer  of  some  repute  and  believed  to  be 
the  author  of  some  articles  in  'The  Gazetteer,' 
a  paper  which  supported  Sir  Robert  Walpole's 
administration,  whence  he  was  nicknamed  by 
the  opposite  party,  'Court-evil.'  He  died  in 
1771. 

John  Courteville,  probably  the  brother  of 
Raphael  the  elder,  was  the  composer  of  several 


songs  which  appeared  in  '  The  Theater  of  Music,' 
1685-87.  [W.H.H.] 

COURTOIS,  Jean,  eminent  composer,  lived  in 
the  first  half  of  the  i6th  century,  chapel-master 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Cambray  in  1539  when 
Charles  V  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way  to 
Ghent,  and  composed  a  motet  in  4  parts,  *  Venite 
populi  terrae,'  which  was  performed  in  the  Ca- 
thedral. Eight  of  his  masses  are  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Munich,  and  one  in  the  library  at 
Cambray.  He  composed  many  motets,  published 
in  the  following  collections,  'Fior  de'  Motetti' 
(Venice  1539);  ' Selectissimae  .  .  .  Canti ones' 
(Augsburg  1540)  ;  'Novum  et  insigne  opus  musi- 
cum'  (Nuremberg  1537) ;  'Liber  quartus  :  XXIX 
musicales quatuor  etc'  (Paris  1534);  'Psalmorum 
selectorum'  (Nuremberg  1539);  '  Cantiones  sa- 
crae'  (Antwerp  1546)  ;  and  in  3  vols  of  motets 
published  at  Lyons  (1532 -1538).  His  French 
songs  include  a  canon  and  two  songs  in  5  and  6 
parts  in  '  Chansons  k  4,  5,  6,  et  8  parties,  de  divers 
auteurs'  (Antwerp  1543-1550)  ;  'Si  par  soufFrir,' 
in  '  Trente  chansons  .  .  .  k  4  parties '  (Paris) ; 
and  two  songs  in  '  Trente -cinq  livres  de  Chansons 
nouvelles'  (Paris  1532-1549).  [M.CC] 

COUSSEMAKER,  Charles  Edmond  Henri 
DE,  a  distinguished  French  writer  on  the  history 
of  music,  bom  at  Bailleul  (Nord),  April  19,  1805 
(not  1795).  His  family  dates  from  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  had  for  many  generations  held  im- 
portant magisterial  posts  in  Bailleul ;  his  father, 
a  'juge  de  paix,'  destined  him  for  the  law  ;  but 
his  musical  aptitude  was  such  that  at  ten  he 
could  play  any  piece  upon  the  piano  at  sight. 
He  also  learned  the  violin  and  violoncello.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Douai  'Lycee,'  and  took 
lessons  in  harmony  from  Moreau,  organist  of  St. 
Pierre.  In  1825  he  went  to  Paris,  and  studied 
counterpoint  under  Lefebvre.  The  recent  re- 
searches of  F^tis  had  roused  a  general  interest  in 
the  history  of  music,  and  Coussemaker's  atten- 
tion was  turned  in  that  direction.  Having  com- 
pleted his  studies  he  was  appointed  '  juge'  suc- 

I  cessively  at  Douai,  Bergues,  Hazebrouck,  Dun- 
kerque,  and  Lille,  He  died  Jan.  10,  1876.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  '  Institut '  for  twenty  years, 

I  and  belonged  to  several  other  learned  societies, 
besides  being  a  'chevalier'  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  and  of  the  order  of  Leopold  of  Belgium. 
His  works  are  'Mdmoire  sur  Hucbald,'  &c. 
(1841)  ;  'Notices  sur  les  collections  musicales  de 
la  bibliothfeque  de  Cambrai,'  etc.  (1852) ;  'His- 
toire  de  I'harmonie  au  moyen  age'  (1852); 
'  Trois  chants  historiques '  (1854) ;  '  Chants  popu- 
laires  des  Flamands'  (1856)  ;  '  Chants  liturgiques 
de  Thomas  k  Kempis '  (1856);  'Notice  sur  un  MS. 
musical  de  .  .  .  S.  Di^'  (1859);  'Drames  litur- 
giques,' etc.  (1861) ;  *  Messe  du  XIIP  sifecle,'  etc. 
(1 861);  'Scriptorum  de  musica  medii  sevi,  nova 
series'^  (1864-76,  4  vol.)  ;  'Les  harmonistes  des 
XII«  et  XIIP  slides'  (1864);  and  'L'art  har- 
monique  au  XIP  et  XIII®  sitjcles'  (1865).  He 
has  also  edited  the  works  of  Adam  de  la  Halle 

1  In  continuation  of  Gerbert's  '  Scriptores  ecclesiastici.' 


412  COUSSEMAKER. 


COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE. 


(Paris,  1873).  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
preparing  a  continuation  of  his  'Art  harmonique' 
to  the  fourteenth  century.  His  legal  writings 
are  good,  especially  one  on  Flemish  law.  In 
early  life  he  composed  some  masses  and  other 
church  music.  In  spite  of  considerable  errors 
his  works  form  a  most  important  contribution 
to  the  history  of  music.  [F.  G.I 

COUSSER  or  KUSSER,  Johann  Sigismund, 
son  of  a  musician  at  Presburg  ;  born  there  1657, 
died  in  Dublin  1727.  He  studied  six  years  in 
Paris  under  Lulli,  and  on  his  return  to  Germany 
was  appointed  chapel-master  at  Wolfenbtittel, 
and  at  Stuttgart.  He  lived  at  Hamburg  from 
1693  to  1697,  conducting  the  performances  at  the 
opera,  and  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  to 
introduce  the  Italian  method  of  singing  into 
Germany.  Between  1700  and  1 705  he  made 
two  journeys  to  Italy  for  study.  Soon  after,  he 
came  to  London,  and  in  17 10  received  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  Cathedral  of  Dublin,  of  which  he 
called  himself  chajDel-master.  He  was  also  con- 
ductor of  the  King's  band  in  Ireland  until  his 
death.  His  published  works  comprise  the  operas 
'Erindo'  (1693)  'Porus,'  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe' 
(1694),  'Scipio  Africanus'  (1695),  and  'Jason' 
(1697),  all  performed  at  Hamburg;  'ApoUon 
enjou^,'  six  operatic  overtures  and  airs ;  an 
opera  *  Ariadne  ' ;  and  '  Heliconische  Musenlust,' 
a  collection  of  airs  from  Ariane  (Nuremberg 
1 700) ;  an  Ode  on  the  death  of  Arabella  Hunt ; 
and  a  'Serenade'  for  the  King's  birthday 
(1724).  [M.C.C.] 

COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE,  opened 
Dec.  7,  1732,  under  the  management  of  Rich, 
who  moved  there  with  all  his  company  from  the 
theatre  he  had  previously  directed  in  Lincoln's 
Inn;  burned  on  the  night  of  Sept.  19,  1808; 
new  theatre  opened  Sept.  1 8,  1 809  ;  converted 
into  an  opera-house  1847;  burnt  down  1856; 
reconstructed  and  opened  again  as  an  opera-house 
1858.  Though  licensed  for  the  performance  of 
the  higher  class  of  dramatic  works,  to  which  the 
name  of  'legitimate'  is  given,  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  has  been  the  scene  of  all  kinds  of  theatrical 
representations  ;  and  two  years  after  the  fiist 
opening  of  the  theatre,  in  1 734,  we  find  the  bill 
for  March  1 1  announcing  '  a  comedy  called  The 
Way  of  the  World,  by  the  late  Mr.  Congreve, 
with  entertainments  of  dancing,  particularly  the 
Scottish  dance,  by  Mr.  Glover  and  Mrs.  Laguerre, 
Mr.  Le  Sac  and  Miss  Boston,  Mr.  de  la  Garde  and 
Mrs.  Ogden ;  with  a  new  dance  called  Pigma- 
lion,  performed  by  Mr.  Malter  and  Mile.  Salle.' 
'No  servants,'  it  is  stated,  in  a  notification  at 
the  end  of  the  programme,  *  will  be  permitted  to 
keep  places  on  the  stage.'  Mile.  Salle  is  said  on 
this  occasion  to  have  produced  the  first  complete 
hallet  d'action  ever  represented  on  the  stage. 
She  at  the  same  time  introduced  important 
reforms  in  theatrical  costume.  [See  Ballet.] 
The  chief  composer  of  eminence  connected  witli 
the  theatre  was  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  who  between 
1810  and  1824  produced  at  Covent  Garden  no 
less  than  fifty  musical  works  of  various  kinds, 
including  'Guy  Mannering,'  'The  Miller  and 


his  Men,'  'The  Slave,'  and  'Clari,'  besides  adap- 
tations of  Rossini's  '  Barber  of  Seville,'  Mozart's 
'  Marriage  of  Figaro,'  and  other  celebrated  operas. 
*Der  Freischutz,'  soon  after  its  production  in 
Germany,  was  brought  out  in  an  English  version 
both  at  Covent  Garden  and  at  Drury  Lane 
(1824).  So  great  was  its  success  that  Weber 
was  requested  to  compose  for  Covent  Garden 
an  entirely  new  opera.  'Oberon,'  the  work  in 
question,  was  brought  out  in  1826  (April  12), 
when,  though  much  admired,  it  failed  to  achieve 
such  popularity  as  '  Der  Freischutz '  had  obtained. 
It  has  been  said  that  Weber  was  much  affected 
by  the  coolness  with  which  'Oberon'  was  received. 
An  excellent  French  critic,  the  late  M.  Scudo, 
writing  on  this  subject  in  the  'Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,'  records  the  fact  that  'Oberon*  was  very 
successful  on  its  first  production  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  adds  that  it  was  '  received  with  enthusiasm 
by  those  who  were  able  to  comprehend  it.'  An 
English  musical  journal,  the  '  Harmonicon,'  pub- 
lished a  remarkable  article  on  '  Oberon,'  in  which, 
says  M.  Scudo,  '  all  the  beauties  of  the  score  were 
brought  out  with  great  taste.  It  is  impossible,' 
he  continues,  'to  quote  an  instance  of  a  great 
man  in  literature  or  in  the  arts  whose  merit  was 
entirely  overlooked  by  his  contemporaries.  As 
for  the  death  of  Weber  it  may  be  explained  by 
fatigue,  by  grief  without  doubt,  but,  above  all, 
by  an  organic  disease  from  which  he  had  suffered 
for  years.'  Nevertheless  the  enthusiasm  exhibited 
by  the  public  at  the  first  performance  of  '  Oberon' 
was  not  maintained  at  the  following  representa- 
tions. The  masterpiece  of  the  German  composer 
experienced  much  the  same  fate  as  '  Guillaume 
Tell'  in  Paris.  In  a  letter  to  his  wife,  written 
on  the  very  first  night  of  performance,  Weber 
says,  *  My  dear  Lina,  Thanks  to  God  and  to  his 
all  powerful  will  I  obtained  this  evening  the 
greatest  success  of  my  life.  The  emotion  pro- 
duced by  such  a  triumph  is  more  than  I  can 
describe.  To  God  alone  belongs  the  glory.  When 
I  entered  the  orchestra,  the  house,  crammed  to 
the  roof,  burst  into  a  frenzy  of  applause.  Hats 
and  handkerchiefs  were  waved  in  the  air.  The 
overture  had  to  be  executed  twice,  as  had  also 
several  pieces  in  the  opera  itself.  At  the  end  of 
the  representation  I  was  called  on  to  the  stage 
by  the  enthusiastic  acclamations  of  the  public  ; 
an  honour  which  no  composer  had  ever  before 
obtained  in  England.  All  went  excellently,  and 
every  one  around  me  was  happy.' 

Between  1826  and  46  operas  and  musical  dra- 
mas were  from  time  to  time  played  at  Covent 
Garden.  But  it  was  not  until  46  that  the  theatre 
was  turned  permanently  into  an  opera-house; 
when,  with  the  interior  reconstructed  by  Mr. 
Albano,  it  was  opened,  in  the  words  of  the  pro- 
spectus, '  for  a  more  perfect  representation  of  the 
lyric  drama  than  has  yet  been  attained  in  this 
country.'  The  director  was  Mr.  Frederick  Beale 
(of  the  firm  of  Cramer,  Beale,  &  Co.),  with 
whom  was  associated  Sign  or  Persiani,  husband 
of  the  eminent  prima  donna  of  that  name,  and 
others.  The  musical  conductor  was  Signer,  now 
Sir  Michael;  Costa.    In  the  company  were  in- 


COVEXT  GARDEN  THEATRE. 


CRAMER. 


413 


eluded  Madame  Grisi  and  Signer  Mario,  who 
with  Signer  Costa  and  nearly  all  the  members 
of  his  orchestra  had  suddenly  left  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre  for  the  now  enterprise,  in  which  they 
were  joined  by  Mme.  Persiani,  Signer  Tam- 
burini,  Signer  Renconi,  and  Mile.  Alboni,  who, 
on  the  opening  night — April  6,  47 — sang  (as 
Arsace  in  '  Semiramide')  for  the  lirst  time  on 
this  side  of  the  Alps.  The  management  of  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera,  as  the  new  musical  theatre 
was  called,  passed  after  a  short  time  into  the 
hands  of  Mr.  Delafield,  who  was  aided  by  Mr. 
Gye  ;  and  since  Mr.  DelafieWs  bankruptcy  the 
establishment  has  been  carried  on  solely  by  Mr. 
Gye  (185 1 ),  who,  when  the  theatre  was  burned 
down  in  1S56,  rebuilt  it  at  his  own  expense  from 
the  design  of  Mr.  Edward  Barry,  R.A.  The 
celebrated  prima  donna,  Adelina  Patti,  made 
her  debut  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  in  1S62, 
when  she  sang  for  the  first  time  on  the  boards 
of  a  European  theatre.  Mile.  Lucca  and  ^Ille. 
Albani,  Siguori  Tamberlik  and  Graziani,  may 
be  mentioned  among  other  artists  of  European 
fame  who  have  appeared  at  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera.  For  some  dozen  years  (between  1840 
and  1855')  M.  Jullien  directed  promenade  concerts 
at  this  theatre ;  and  from  time  to  time,  during 
the  winter  months,  pei-formances  of  English  opera 
have  been  given  at  Covent  Garden.  Thus  Baife's 
'  Rose  of  Castille,'  '  Satanella,'  and  '  Armourer 
of  Nantes,'  Wallace's  '  Lurline,'  and  Benedict's 

*  Lilj-  of  Killamey,'  were  produced  here  under 
the  manaflfement  of  Miss  Louisa  Pj-ne  and  ^Mr. 
William  Harrison.  [H.  S.  E.] 

COWEX,  Frederic  Hyiten-,  bom  Jan.  29, 
1852,  at  Kingston,  Jamaica,  exhibited  early  an 
extraordinary  love  of  music,  was  brought  to 
England  by  his  parents  when  four  years  old,  and 
placed  under  the  tuition  of  Sir  J.  Benedict  and 
Sir  J.  Goss,  whose  pupil  he  remained  until  the 
winter  of  1S65.  He  then  studied  at  the  con- 
servatoires of  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  returning  to 
London  in  1868.  Amongst  his  early  works  are 
an  operetta  entitled  '  Garibaldi,'  a  fantasie- 
senata,  a  trio,  quartet,  pianoforte  concerto,  and 
a  svmpheny  in  C  minor.  He  has  also  written 
a  cantata.  'The  Rose  Maiden'  (1S70) ;  the 
incidental  music  to  Schiller's  '^Maid  of  Orleans' 
(1871');  a  festival  overture  for  Nonvich  (1872) ; 

*  The  Corsair.'  a  cantata  composed  for  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival,  1876,  and  a  symphony  in  F 
major.  On  Nov.  22,  1S76,  his  opera  of  '  Pauline' 
was  brought  out  by  the  Carl  Rosa  company  at  the 
Lyceum  Theatre  with  great  success.  Mr.  Cowen 
is  also  the  composer  of  many  popular  songs. 

COX  AXD  BOX.  a  triumviretta.  A  musical 
farce,  altered  from  Madison  Morton's  '  Box  and 
Cox'  by  F.  C.  Burnand,  music  by  A.  Sullivan. 
Produced  at  the  Adelphi,  May  1 1,  1S67. 

CRAMMER,  a  family  of  German  musicians,  of 
whom  the  head  was  Jacob  Cramer,  bom  at 
Sachau  in  Silesia  1705,  flutist  in  the  then  cele- 
brated band  at  ^lannheim.  where  he  died  in 
1770.  Of  his  sons,  Johaxx,  born  at  Mannheim 
1 743.  ^as  drummer  in  the  court  band  at  Munich, 


and  WiLHELM,  bom  at  Mannheim  I745>  made 
himself  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  violinist 
and  leader.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Johann  Stamitz, 
sen.,  and  of  Cannabich,  and  when  still  very 
young  gave  evidence  of  unusually  brilliant 
abilities.  His  contemporaries  declared  that  his 
playing  united  the  facility  of  Lolli  with  the 
expression  of  Franz  Benda.  At  16  he  was 
admitted  into  the  band  at  Mannheim,  but  left 
it  after  his  father's  death  for  London,  where 
he  was  weU  received  in  1772,  and  soon  ob- 
tained a  creditable  position.  His  first  appear- 
ance was  March  22,  1773.  He  was  appointed 
head  of  the  king's  band,  and  leader  at  the  Opera 
and  Pantheon,  the  Antient  Concerts,  and  the  Pro- 
fessional Concerts.  He  was  famous  as  the  leader 
of  the  Handel  Festivals  at  Westminster  Abbey 
in  1784  and  87.  His  last  appearance  was  at 
the  Gloucester  Festival  in  1799,  and  he  died 
in  London  Oct.  5  of  that  or  the  next  year. 
As  a  solo  player  he  was  for  a  time  considered 
to  be  without  a  rival  in  England  till  superseded 
by  Salomon  and  Viotti.  He  published  eight  con- 
certos (for  the  most  part  in  Paris),  several  solos 
and  trios,  but  they  are  of  no  value.  Of  his  sons  are 
known,  Fraxz,  born  1772,  a  violinist  of  re- 
pute in  London,  died  184S  ;  Carl,  born  1780,  a 
good  pianist  and  valued  teacher ;  and  finally, 
JoHAXX  Baptist,  the  best  known  of  the  whole 
family,  an  eminent  pianist,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal founders  of  the  modem  pianoforte  school, 
born  at  Mannheim  Feb.  24,  1771.  He  was  but 
a  year  old  when  his  father  settled  in  London, 
and  it  was  there  that  he  lived  and  worked  for 
the  greatest  part  of  his  life.  To  his  father's  in- 
struction on  the  violin  and  in  the  elements 
of  the  theory  of  music,  pianoforte  playing  was 
added,  and  for  this  the  boy  manifested  the  most 
decided  preference  and  unmistakable  talent.  His 
teachers  were  a  certain  Benser,  Schi'oeter,  and 
above  all,  ^Muzio  Clementi,  under  whom  he  studied 
for  two  years  till  dementi's  departure  in  1774. 
His  mind  and  taste  were  formed  on  Handel,  Bach, 
Scarlatti,  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  and  by  this  means 
he  obtained  that  musical  depth  and  solidity  so 
conspicuous  in  his  numerous  woi-ks.  Cramer  was 
in  the  main  self-educated  in  theory  and  compo- 
sition. He  had,  it  is  true,  a  course  of  lessons  in 
thoroughbass  from  C,  F.  Abel  in  1785,  but  his 
knowledge  was  chiefly  acquired  through  his  own 
study  of  Kimbei^er  and  Marpurg.  From  1 78S 
Cramer  imdertook  professional  tours  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  in  the  intervals  lived  in  London, 
enjoying  a  world-wide  reputation  as  pianist  and 
teacher.  In  1828  he  established  the  firm  of  J.  B. 
Cramer  and  Co.,  music-publishers,  which,  besides 
bringing  out  his  o^  n  compositions,  was  specially 
employed  in  publishing  the  older  classical  works. 
After  a  residence  of  some  years  in  Paris  he  re- 
tumed  in  1845  to  London,  and  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  retirement.  He  lived  to  play  a 
duet  with  Liszt  in  London,  and  died  April  16, 
1S58.  There  are  references  to  him  in  Beetho- 
ven's letters  of  Jvme  1,  18 15,  and  March  5,  181 8, 
and  frequent  notices  in  Moscheles's  Life.  Ries 
has  left  on  record  (Xotizen,  p.  99),  that  John 


414 


CRAMER. 


CRAMER  &  CO. 


Cramer  was  the  only  player  of  his  time  of  whom 
Beethoven  had  any  opinion — 'all  the  rest  went 
for  nothing.'  [A.M.] 
J.  B,  Cramer's  playing  was  distinguished  by  the 
astonishingly  even  cultivation  of  the  two  hands, 
which  enabled  him,  while  playing  legato,  to  give 
an  entirely  distinct  character  to  florid  inner 
parts,  and  thus  attain  a  remarkable  perfection 
of  execution.  He  was  noted  among  his  con- 
temporaries for  his  expressive  touch  in  adagio, 
and  in  this,  and  in  facility  for  playing  at  sight, 
he  was  able  when  in  Paris  to  hold  his  own 
against  the  younger  and  more  advanced  pianists. 
His  improvisations  were  for  the  most  part  in 
a  style  too  artistic  and  involved  for  general 
appreciation.  Cramer's  mechanism  exhibits  the 
development  between  Clementi  and  Hummel, 
and  is  distinguished  from  the  period  of  Moscheles 
and  Kalkbrenner  which  followed  it,  by  the  fact 
that  it  aimed  more  at  the  cultivation  of  music 
in  general  than  at  the  display  of  the  specific 
qualities  of  the  instrument.  All  his  works  are 
distinguished  by  a  certain  musical  solidity,  which 
would  place  them  in  the  same  rank  with  those 
of  Hummel,  had  his  invention  been  greater 
and  more  fluent ;  but  as  it  is,  the  artistic  style, 
and  the  interesting  harmony,  are  counterbalanced 
by  a  certain  dryness  and  poverty  of  expression 
in  the  melody.  It  is  true  that  among  his 
many  compositions  for  pianoforte  there  are 
several  which  undeniably  possess  musical  vital- 
ity, and  in  particular  his  7  concertos  deserve 
to  be  occasionally  brought  forward ;  but,  speak- 
ing generally,  his  works  (105  sonatas,  i  quartet 
for  pianoforte,  i  quintet,  and  countless  vari- 
ations, rondos,  fantasias,  etc.)  are  now  for- 
gotten. In  one  sphere  of  composition  alone 
Cramer  has  left  a  conspicuous  and  abiding 
memorial  of  his  powers.  His  representative 
work,  '  84  Studies  in  two  parts  of  42  each,'  is 
of  classical  value  for  its  intimate  combination  of 
significant  musical  ideas,  with  the  most  instructive 
mechanical  passages.  No  similar  work  except 
dementi's  *  Gradus  ad  Parnassum '  has  been  so 
long  or  so  widely  used,  and  there  are  probably 
few  pianists  who  have  not  studied  it  with 
profit.  It  forms  the  fifth  part  of  Cramer's 
'  Grosse  practische  Pianoforte-Schule'  (Schuberth, 
Leipsic),  and  has  appeared  in  numerous  separate 
editions.  Of  these  the  earliest  is  probably  the 
lithograph  edition  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  of  which 
the  second  part  appeared  in  18 10  ;  next  in  import- 
ance ranks  the  last  that  was  revised  by  Cramer 
himself,  viz.  the  original  English  edition  of  Cramer 
&  Co.,  which  contained,  as  op.  81,  '16  nouvelles 
£tudes,'  making  in  all  100 ;  and  finally  an  edi- 
tion without  the  additional  Nos.,  revised  by 
Coccius,  and  published  a  few  years  later  than 
that  last  mentioned,  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  A 
selection  of  '  50  ^^tudes,'  edited  by  von  Bulow 
(Aibl,  Munich),  is  specially  useful  to  teachers 
from  the  excellent  remarks  appended  to  it,  though, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  contains  a  number  of 
peculiarities  which  may  or  may  not  be  justifia- 
ble, the  editor  having  transposed  one  of  the 
studies  and  modified  the  fingering  of  them  all  to 


meet  the  exigencies  of  the  modem  keyboard. 
The  above  edition  in  100  numbers  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  '  Schule  der  Gelaufigkeit' 
(op.  100),  also  containing  100  daily  studies,  and 
which  forms  the  second  part  of  the  '  Grosse  Piano- 
forte Schule,'  and  should  be  used  as  a  preparation 
for  the  great  '  i^tudes.' 

If  it  is  asked.  When  did  Cramer  flourish,  and 
what  does  he  represent  to  us  ?  the  answer  usually 
returned  is  that  he  was  bom  after  Clementi  and 
died  after  Hummel,  and  that  he  forms  the  link 
between  those  two  great  players  and  writers  for 
their  instrument.  But  no  pianist  with  his  eyes 
open  would  commit  himself  to  such  a  statement, 
which  rests  solely  upon  two  dates  of  birth  and 
death,  and  leaves  out  of  sight  every  spiritual  con- 
nection, every  indication  of  mental  paternity  and 
relationship.  The  truth  is  that  Cramer  does  not 
surpass  Clementi  as  regards  the  technical  treat- 
ment of  the  pianoforte,  but  stops  considerably 
short  of  him :  Cramer's  best  sonatas  are  as 
much  more  tame  and  timid  than  dementi's  best, 
as  his  most  valuable  etudes  are  technically  easier 
and  less  daring  than  the  chefs-d'oeuvres  of  de- 
menti's Gradus.  Spiritually,  though  not  mecha- 
nically, Cramer  occupies  a  field  of  his  own,  which 
all  pianists  respect.  Many  of  his  etudes  are 
poems,  like  Mendelssohn's  -  Songs  without  words. 
But  in  his  sonatas,  etc.,  he  moves  in  a  restricted 
groove  of  his  own,  near  the  highway  of  Mozart. 
The  name  *  J.  B.  Cramer'  really  signifies  Cramer's 
Etudes — let  us  say  some  forty  or  fifty  out  of  the 
hundred  he  has  published.  These  certainly  are 
good  music  —  a  few,  perhaps  a  dozen,  even 
beautiful  music,  and  always  very  good  practice. 
But  pitted  against  forty  or  fifty  out  of  the  hundred 
numbers  of  Clementi's  Gradus,  which  are  equally 
good  music,  and  decidedly  better  practice,  they 
sink  irretrievably. 

The  treatment  of  the  pianoforte  as  distinct 
from  the  harpsichord,  if  pursued  along  its  plain 
and  broad  high-road  does  not  necessarily  touch 
upon  Cramer.  It  stretches  from  Clementi  to 
Beethoven  on  the  one  side,  from  Mozart  to  Hum- 
mel on  the  other ;  from  Mozart  via  Hummel, 
and  Clementi  vid  Field,  to  Chopin ;  and  from 
Hummel,  vid  Chopin  and  Beethoven,  to  Liszt. 
Cramer,  like  Moscheles  after  him,  though  not  of 
the  first  authority,  must  be  considered  one  of  the 
fathers  of  the  church  of  pianoforte  playing,  and 
worthy  of  consultation  at  all  times.  [E.  D.] 

CRAMER  &  CO.  This  eminent  music  pub- 
lishing house  began  business  in  the  year  1824  in 
the  premises  now  occupied  by  them.  Mr.  J.  B. 
Cramer's  popularity  and  influence  soon  drew 
around  him  a  goodly  proportion  of  the  professors 
of  the  day,  who  with  his  own  pupils  created 
a  large  circulation  for  the  pianoforte  works  of  the 
firm.  The  catalogue  of  publications  continued 
on  the  increase  until,  in  the  year  1830,  the  firm 
bought  the  whole  of  the  music  plates  belonging 
to  the  Harmonic  Institution,  which  contained  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  works  of  Dussek, 
Clementi,  Haydn,  Herz,  Hummel,  Mozart,  and 
Steibelt,  besides  a  few  of  Beethoven  and  Mos- 
cheles,  with  Handel's   choruses   arranged  as 


CRAMER  &  CO. 

solos  and  duets,  many  of  the  popular  songs  of 
C.  Horn,  the  operas  'Oberon'  and  '  Freischtitz,' 
the  oratorio  of  '  Palestine'  by  Dr.  Crotch,  and 
a  large  number  of  Italian  songs  and  duets 
by  Gabussi,  Meyerbeer,  Mozart,  Pacini,  Paer, 
Rossini,  Yaccaj,  and  others,  thus  giving  the 
house  a  very  strong  position  in  the  music  trade. 
Upon  this  followed  the  English  operas  of  Balfe, 
Benedict,  and  Barnett,  the  glees  of  Horsley  and 
Calcott,  the  songs  of  Xeukomm,  pianoforte  works 
of  Dohler,  Moscheles,  Thalberg,  Leopold  de 
Meyer,  etc.  Between  1830  and  40  Mr.  Cramer 
was  much  abroad,  and  in  1843  Mr,  Addison  re- 
tired from  the  business  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mr.  W.  Chappell,  w^hen  the  firm  became  Cramer, 
Beaie,  and  Chappell.  In  1845  Vincent  Wallace 
returned  from  America,  and  Cramer  &  Co. 
secured  his  '  Maritana,'  publishing  also,  as  years 
went  on,  his  other  successful  works.  In  1861 
Mr.  Chappell  retired,  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  firm  by  Mr.  George  Wood.  Mr.  Beale 
dying  in  1S63  the  whole  of  the  business  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Wood,  who  still  carries 
it  on  with  great  success,  giving,  however,  more 
attention  to  pianoforte  manufacturing  than  to 
publishing,  having  introduced  and  very  ex- 
tensively carried  out  a  novel  mode  of  supplying 
pianofortes  on  a  hii-ing  system,  which  seems 
to  have  become  very  general.  [C.H.P.] 

CRANG  &  HANCOCK,  organ  builders.  John 
Crang,  a  Devonshire  man,  settled  in  London  and 
became  a  partner  with  Hancock,  a  good  voicer 
of  reeds.  The  latter  added  new  reeds  to  many 
of  Father  Smith's  organs.  Crang  altered  the  old 
echoes  into  swells  in  many  organs,  as  at  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  St.  Peter's,  CornhiU,  etc.  There 
appear  to  have  been  two  Hancocks,  John  and 
James,  probably  brothers;  both  are  mentioned 
in  the  contract  for  an  organ  at  Chelmsford  in 
1772.  John  died  in  1792,  and  James  was  living 
in  1820,  and  probably  later.  Crang  appears  to 
have  given  his  name  to  Crang  Hancock,  a  piano- 
forte maker.  [V.  de  P.] 

CREATION,  THE.  Haydn's  first  oratorio, 
written  at  the  suggestion  of  Salomon,  The 
book  of  words  was  selected — originally  for  Han- 
del— from  Genesis  and  Paradise  Lost  by  Mr. 
Lidley  or  Liddell,  and  translated  into  German,  as 
•Die  Schopfung,'  with  modifications,  by  Baron 
van  Swieten.  The  music  occupied  Haj^dn  from 
1 796  to  April  1798,  and  was  produced  by  a  body 
of  Dilettanti  at  the  Schwartzenberg  Palace, 
Vienna,  April  29,  1798,  500  ducats  were  sub- 
scribed for  Haydn.  In  iSoo  it  was  pub- 
lished in  score  at  Vieima  with  German  and 
English  words,  the  latter  re-translated  by  Van 
Swieten;  510  copies  were  subscribed  for,  of 
which  nearly  half  were  for  England.  It  was 
first  performed  in  London  at  Covent  Garden, 
March  28,  iSoo,  and  in  Paris  Dec.  24,  1800, 
when  Napoleon  I.  escaped  the  infernal  machine 
in  the  Rue  Nicaise.  A  great  performance  by  the 
same  society  as  before  took  place  at  the  Univer- 
sity Hall,  Vienna,  on  March  2  7,  i  S08,  in  Haydn's 
presence,  a  year  and  two  months  before  his  death. 


CREED.  415 

Its  popularity  in  England  dates  from  March  1 7, 
181 3,  and  reached  its  climax  some  20  years 
ago. 

CREDO  is  the  first  word  of  the  Nicene  Creed 
in  Latin,  and  is  the  name  by  which  it  is  well 
known  to  musicians  by  reason  of  the  magnificent 
music  to  which  it  has  been  set  by  the  greatest 
composers  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  Church  in 
the  Service  of  the  Mass.  The  traditional  figure 
to  which  the  first  sentence  is  given  out  by  the 
priest  is 


Cre  -  do     in     u  -  iiuin    De  -  um 


and  upon  this  Bach  developed  the  stupendous 
contrapuntal  chorus  to  those  words  in  his  B 
minor  Mass.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

CREED.  There  are  three  creeds  in  use  in  the 
services  of  the  English  church — the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Nicene,  and  that  known  by  the  name 
of  St.  Athanasius. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  most  ancient,  and  of 
unknown  origin,  and  was  probably  used  in  early 
times.  It  is  found  in  the  ancient  breviaries  of  the 
churches  of  England,  such  as  those  of  Sarum  and 
York,  in  much  the  same  position  as  it  now  occu- 
pies. In  the  first  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI  it 
was  ordered  to  be  said  or  sung  like  the  other 
creeds,  but  in  later  revisions  the  word  '  sung '  has 
been  removed  and  it  has  become  the  custom  only 
to  intone  it,  and  in  some  churches  the  intonation 
is  supported  by  harmonies  on  the  organ,  but  it  has 
not  been  definitely  set  to  music  for  English  use. 

The  Nicene  Creed  is  distinguished  in  the  Eng- 
lish church  by  an  extensive  musical  treatment. 
It  cannot  be  ascertained  when  it  came  into  use 
in  the  ancient  English  ofiices.  It  is  in  the  bre- 
viaries of  Sarum,  York  and  Hereford,  for  use  on 
feasts  and  solemn  occasions.  It  was  looked  upon 
to  some  extent  as  a  h}-mn,  whence  its  universal 
musical  treatment.  Marbeck's  setting  of  it  in  the 
'  Book  of  Common  Praier  noted  'of  1552  for  the 
use  of  the  English  reformed  church  follows  the 
Roman  originals  much  less  closely  than  most  of 
the  other  parts  of  his  setting  of  the  service,  and 
is  consequently  much  more  free  and  melodious. 
Tallis's  setting  of  it  is  said  to  resemble  the 
Gregorian  Descants  of  the  creed  in  the  Missa  de 
Angelis.  Further  settings  of  it  both  ancient  and 
modem  are  extremely  numerous.  Among  the 
ancient  ones  may  be  mentioned  settings  by  Bird 
(in  6  parts),  Farrant,  Gibbons,  ChikI,  Aldrich, 
Blow,  Purcell.  Rogers  and  BeA-in.  Attempts  have 
been  made  with  very  fair  success  to  adapt  it  to  a 
kind  of  free  chant  form,  which  renders  it  more 
available  for  musical  performance  by  parish  choirs 
and  general  congregations. 

The  Athanasian  Creed,  as  it  is  now  called, 
was  formerly  known  very  generally  as  the  Psalm 
•Quicunque  vult' — the  first  two  words  of  its 
Latin  form.  It  was  sung  at  Prime  after  certain 
other  psalms,  and  the  custom  of  singing  it  as  a 
psalm  has  continued  in  the  Roman  church  to 
the  present  day,  it  being  pointed  and  divided 
into  paragraphs  after  the  manner  of  psalms,  and 


416 


CEEED. 


CKESCENTINI. 


answering  in  its  construction  to  the  principles  of 
ancient  Hebrew  poetry.  The  chant  most  com- 
monly used  is  a  very  simple  one  by  Tallis  (see 
P-  337  There  have  been  many  others  spe- 
cially written  for  it  both  in  ancient  and  modem 
times.  It  has  never  been  customary  to  adapt  it  to 
more  elaborate  forms  of  composition.  [C.H.H.P.] 

CREMONA,  a  considerable  town  in  Lom- 
bardy,  on  the  river  Po,  was  for  the  space  of  two 
centuries,  from  about  1550  to  1750,  the  seat  of 
the  famous  Cremona  school  of  violin-makers. 
The  shape  and  construction  of  the  violin,  and 
the  other  instruments  belonging  to  the  tribe,  hav- 
ing been  finally  settled  by  the  great  makers  of 
Brescia,  Gaspar  de  Salo  and  Paolo  Maggini  (see 
those  names),  it  was  at  Cremona  that  the  last 
step  in  the  art  of  violin-making  was  made,  which 
led  to  that  point  of  perfection  from  which  no 
further  progress  has  yet  been  possible  or  perhaps 
desirable.  The  numerous  makers  of  the  Amati 
family  (see  that  name)  chronologically  head  the 
list  of  the  masters  of  Cremona  :  Antonio  Stradi- 
vari and  Josef  Guarnerius  (see  those  names)  are 
the  greatest  of  all,  and  their  instruments  have 
never  been  rivalled.  The  names  of  Andreas, 
Petrus,  and  Josef  Guarnerius  (brother  of  An- 
dreas), Carlo  Bergonzi,  Guadagnini,  Montagnana, 
Ruggieri,  Storione,  and  Testore  (see  all  these 
names)  make  up  the  list  of  the  masters  of  this 
school,  whose  violins  are  still  highly  valued. 

The  term  '  a  Cremona,'  or  '  a  Cremonese  violin' 
is  often  incorrectly  used  for  an  old  Italian  instru- 
ment of  any  make. 

'Cremona,'  as  applied  to  an  organ  stop,  is  a 
mere  ignorant  corruption  of  '  Krumhorn.'  [P.  D.] 

CREQUILLON  or  CRECQUILLON,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  musicians  of  the  Nether- 
land  school  in  the  period  between  that  of  Josquin 
des  Pr^s  and  that  of  Lassus  and  Palestrina 
(1520-1560).  He  was  attached  to  the  chapel 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  at  Madrid.  His  com- 
positions are  even  more  numerous  than  those  of 
his  contemporaries  Clemens  non  Papa  and  Gom- 
bert.  His  masses,  motets  and  chansons  appear 
in  all  the  great  collections  printed  at  Louvain 
and  Antwerp  in  the  second  half  of  the  i6th 
century,  and  some  of  his  works  were  printed  in 
1544  (i.e.  probably  in  his  life  time)  at  Venice 
by  Gardano.  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

CRESCENDO — increasing,  i.  e.  in  loudness. 
One  of  the  most  important  efi'ects  in  music.  It  is 
expressed  by  cresc.  and  by  the  sign  Some- 
times the  word  is  expanded — cres . . .  cen . .  .do 
— to  cover  the  whole  space  affected.  As  with  so 
many  other  things  now  familiar,  Beethoven  was 
practically  the  inventor  of  the  crescendo.  In 
the  works  of  his  predecessors,  even  in  such  sym- 
phonies as  the  G  minor  and  'Jupiter'  of  Mozart, 
it  is  very  rarely  to  be  found.  Among  the  most 
famous  instances  in  Beethoven  are  that  in  the 
'  working  out '  (after  the  double  bar)  of  the  first 
movement  of  the  Symphony  in  Bb  (No.  4).  This 
immortal  passage,  which  so  excited  the  wrath  of 
Weber,  begins  in  the  strings  and  drum  ppp, 
and  continues  so  for  1 3  bars ;  then  a  shade  louder,  | 


pp,  for  31  bars ;  and  then  a  crescendo  of  8  bars 
with  the  same  instruments,  ending  in  the  reprise 
of  the  subject  fortissimo,  and  with  full  orchestra. 

Another  instance,  on  a  still  more  extended 
scale,  is  in  the  coda  to  the  last  movement  of 
Schubert's  Symphony  in  C  (No.  9),  where  the 
operation  is  divided  into  distinct  steps — first  8 
bars  ppp ;  then  24  bars  pp  ;  then  1 2  bars  p ; 
then  16  bar  crescendo  to  mf;  then  12  bars  cres- 
cendo to  / ;  then  a  crescendo  of  8  bars  to  fffz ; 
and  lastly  a  final  advance  of  36  more  to  fff. 

A  short  crescendo  of  remarkable  effect  is  found 
in  the  Finale  to  Schimiann's  D  ^ 
minor  Symphony.  7k^^ — —j    ^'J  - 

In  the  overtures  of  Spontini    ^       p  gf 
and  Rossini  the  crescendo  is 
employed,  with  a  repetition  of  the  same  figure, 
in  a  manner  at  once  so  effective,  so  characteristic, 
and  so  familiar,  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  allude 
to  it  here.  [G.] 

CRESCENTINI,  Girolamo,  a  very  celebrated 
Italian  sopranist,  who  was  born  in  1766  at 
Urbania,  near  Urbino.  At  the  age  of  ten,  he 
began  the  study  of  music,  and  was  afterwards 
placed  with  Gibelli,  to  learn  singing.  Possessed 
of  a  beautiful  mezzo  soprano  voice,  and  a  perfect 
method  of  vocalisation,  he  made  his  ddbut  at 
Rome  in  1 783.  He  then  obtained  an  engagement 
as  prima  uomo  at  Leghorn,  where  he  appeared  in 
Cherubini's  'Artaserse.'  In  the  spring  of  1785 
he  sang  at  Padua  in  the  'Didone'  of  Sarti,  and 
was  engaged  for  Venice.  In  the  following  summer 
he  was  at  Turin,  where  he  sang  Sarti 's  '  Ritomo 
di  Bacco.'  He  now  came  to  London,  and  remained 
sixteen  months.  He  was  here  thought  so  moderate 
a  performer  that,  before  the  season  was  half  over, 
he  was  superseded  by  Tenducci,  an  old  singer, 
who  had  never  been  first-rate,  and  had  scarcely 
any  voice  left.  'It  is  but  justice,'  says  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe,  'to  add  that,  when  he  was 
here,  Crescentini  was  very  young,  and  had  not 
attained  that  excellence  which  has  since  gained 
him  the  reputation  of  a  first-rate  singer.  He 
never  returned  to  this  country.'  In  1 787  he  was 
engaged  for  the  carnival  at  Milan,  and  sang  for 
two  whole  years  at  the  San  Carlo  in  Naples.  In 
1 79 1  and  93  he  appeared  at  the  Argentina  at 
Rome,  and  in  94  at  Venice  and  Milan,  In  this 
last  city  he  arrived  at  the  highest  degree  of 
excellence  in  Zingarelli's  '  Romeo  e  Giulietta.' 
In  1796  Cimarosa  composed  expressly  for  him 
'Gli  Orazzi  e  Curiazzi'  at  Venice.  An  amusing 
story  is  told,  that  on  one  occasion,  fancying  that 
the  dress  of  the  prime  tenore  (Curiazzio)  was 
more  magnificent  than  his  own  (as  Orazzio),  he 
insisted  on  its  being  given  up  to  him.  An 
exchange  was  therefore  made,  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  the  manager  ;  and  throughout 
the  evening  a  Curiatius,  six  feet  high,  was  seen 
wearing  a  little  Roman  costume,  which  looked 
as  if  it  would  burst  at  any  moment,  while  a 
diminutive  Horatius  was  attired  in  a  long  Alban 
tunic,  with  its  skirt  trailing  on  the  ground. 
After  singing  at  Vienna,  he  returned  to  Milan 
for  the  carnival  of  1797,  for  th^!  'Meleagro'  of 
Zingarelli.  At  the  end  of  this  season  he  engaged 


CRESCEXTIXI. 


CRISTOFORI. 


417 


himself  with  the  Opera  at  Lisbon,  where  he  sang  ! 
for  the  next  four  years.    Eetuming  to  Italy,  he 
reappeared  at  Milan  in  Mayr's  '  Alonzo  e  Cora' 
and  Federici's  '  Ifigenia,'  in  1803.    He  sang  at 
Piacenza,  at  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre, 
and  then  went  to  Vienna  with  the  appointment 
of  professor  of  singing  to  the  Imperial  family. 
Napoleon  having  heard  him  there,  was  so  charmed 
that  he  determined  to  engage  him  permanently, 
and  secured  to  him  a  handsome  salary.    He  also  ; 
gave  him  the  decoration  of  the  Iron  Crown,  1 
which  provoked  almost  as  much  discussion  as  | 
Napoleon's  distribution  of  thrones  and  sceptres  1 
had  done.    It  is  related  that,  in  a  salon  at  Paris,  I 
when  a  pompous  orator  was  holding  forth  on  the  ' 
subject  of  the  honour  conferred  on  Crescentini,  ^ 
and  inquired  what  right  he  could  have  to  such  , 
a  distinction,  —  the  beautiful  Mme.  Grassini,  j 
who  was  present,  rose  majestically,  and  with  | 
theatrical  tone  and  gesture  exclaimed,  '  Et  sa  ^ 
hhssure,  monsieur/^    A  storm  of  laughter  and  ; 
applause  stopped  the  discussion.  Crescentini 
sang  at  Paris  from  1806  to  181 2,  when  his  voice  i 
showed  signs  of  suffering  from  an  uncongenial  j 
climate,  and  he  with  difficulty  obtained  per-  j 
mission  to  retire.    He  went  to  Bologna,  and 
then  to  Eome,  where  he  remained  till  1816,  j 
when  he  settled  at  Naples  as  professor  at  the  1 
Royal  College  of  Music.    He  was  the  last  great  1 
singer  of  his  school.    'Nothing  could  exceed,'  I 
says  Fetis,  '  the  suavity  of  his  tones,  the  force  of 
his  expression,  the  perfect  taste  of  his  ornaments, 
or  the  large  style  of  his  phrasing.'    In  Romeo  j 
he  affected  Napoleon  and  the  whole  of  the  | 
audience  to  tears  by  his  singing  of  the  prayer,  I 
and  the  air  'Ombra  adorata.'    The  prayer  of  1 
Romeo  was  of  his  own  composition,  for  this  j 
excellent  singer  was  also  a  composer ;  he  pub-  | 
lished  at  Vienna  in  1797  several  collections  of 
Ariette,  and  some  admirable  exercises  for  the 
voice,  with  a  treatise  on  vocalisation  in  French 
and  Italian,  at  Paris.     He  died  at  Naples  in 
1S46.  [J.M.] 

CRESPEL,  GuiLLAUME,  a  Belgian  musician  I 
living  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 5th  century,  and  | 
composer  of  a  lament  on  the  death  of  Ockenheim, 
which  is  of  historical  importance  as  giving  what  i 
may  be  considered  an  authentic  list  of  the  most 
distinguished  pupils  of  that  master  : — 
'  Agricola,  Verbonnet,  Prioris, 
Josquin  des  Pres,  Gaspard,  Brimiel,  Compare, 
Ne  parlez  plus  de  joyeux  chants,  ne  ris, 
Mais  composez  un  ne  recorder  is 
Pour  lamenter  nostre  Maistre  et  bon  pere.' 

[J.R.S.B.] 

CREYGHTON,  Rev.  Robert,  D.D.,  bom 
about  1639,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Robert 
Creyghton,  Professor  of  Greek  at  ('ambridge, 
afterwards  Dean  of  "Wells,  and  in  1670  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells.  In  1662  he,  like  his  father, 
held  the  Greek  Professorship  at  Cambridge.  In 
1674  he  was  appointed  canon  residentiary  and 
precentor  of  Wells  Cathedral.  Creyghton  com- 
posed several  services  and  anthems  still  extant 
in  the  library  of  Wells  Cathedral.    Two,  in  E  b 

(c.) 


and  B  b,  are  now  printed.  Tudway's  MS.  (Brit. 
Mus.,  Add.  MSS.  7,338,  39)  contains  a  thii-d,  in 
C,  besides  an  anthem,  '  Praise  the  Lord.*"  He  is 
widely  known  by  his  sweet  little  canon-anthem 
'I  will  arise.'  He  died  at  Wells  in  1736  at  the 
advanced  age  of  97.  [W.  H.H.] 

CRISTOFORI,  BARTOLO^niEO  di  Francesco 
— written  Cristofali  by  Maffei  —  a  harpsichord- 
maker  of  Padua,  and  subsequently' of  Florence,  and 
the  inventor  of  the  pianoforte.  Other  claims  to 
this  discovery  have  great  interest  and  will  be 
noticed  elsewhere  (see  Pianoforte  and  Schro- 
ter),  but  the  priority  and  importance  of  Cristo- 
fori's  invention  have  been  so  searchingly  invest- 
igated and  clearly  proved  by  the  late  Cavaliere 
Leto  Puliti,^  that  the  Italian  origin  of  the  instru- 
ment, which  its  name  would  indicate,  can  be  no 
longer  disputed. 

Cristofori  was  bom  in  165 1  (Fetis  and  Pietrucci 
in  their  respective  memoirs  erroneously  state 
1683).  It  may  be  surmised  that  he  was  the  best 
harpsichord-maker  in  Florence,  inasmuch  as 
Prince  Ferdinand,  son  of  the  Grand  Duke  Cosmo 
III,  a  skilled  harpsichord  player,  who  ^-isited 
Padua  in  1 68  7,  induced  him  then  or  very  soon 
after  to  transfer  himself  from  that  city  to  Flor- 
ence. We  have  evidence  that  in  1693  Cristofori 
wrote  from  Florence  to  engage  a  singer — the  only 
time  he  appears  in  the  Prince's  voluminous  cor- 
respondence. In  1709  Maffei  visited  Florence 
to  seek  the  patronage  of  Prince  Ferdinand  for  his 
'Gioraale  dei  Letterati  d'  Italia'  and  in  vol.  v.  of 
that  work,  published  in  1711,  Maffei  states  that 
Cristofori  had  made  four  '  gravicembali  col  piano 
e  forte,'  three  distinctly  specified  as  of  the  large 
or  usual  harpsichord  form,  the  fourth  differing  in 
construction,  and  most  likely  in  the  clavichord 
or  spinet  form  :  there  was  among  the  Prince's 
musical  instruments  a  'cimbalo  in  forma  quadra,' 
an  Italian  spinet  which  when  altered  to  a  piano- 
forte would  be  termed  a  square.  In  171 9,  in  his 
'Rime  e  Prose,'  published  at  Venice,  Maffei  re- 
produced his  description  of  Cristofori' s  invention 
without  reference  to  the  previous  publication. 
As  these  pianofortes  were  in  existence  in  1711, 
it  is  just  possible  that  Handel  may  have  tried 
them,  since  he  was  called  to  Florence  in  1 708  by 
Prince  Ferdinand  to  compose  the  music  for  a 
melodrama,  remained  there  a  year  and  brought 
out  his  first  opera  '  Rodrigo.* 

The  Prince  died  in  171 3,  and  Cristofori  con- 
tinuing in  the  service  of  the  Grand  Duke,  in 
1 71 6  received  the  charge  of  the  eighty-four  mu- 
sical instrimients  left  by  the  Prince.  Of  these 
nearly  half  were  harpsichords  and  spinets — seven 
bearing  the  name  of  Cristofori  himself.  It  is 
curious  however  that  not  one  of  them  is  described 
as  '  col  piano  e  forte '  and  also  interesting  that  in 
the  receipt  to  this  inventory  we  have  Cristofori's 
own  handwriting  as  authority  for  the  spelling 
now  adopted  of  his  name. 

The  search  for  Cristofori's  workshop  proving 
unsuccessful,  Puliti  infers  that  the  Prince  had 

1  Cenni  Storici  della  vita  del  serenissimo  Ferdinando  dei  Medici,  etc. 
Estratto  dagli  Attl  dell'  Accademia  del  B.  Istituto  Alusicale  di  Fireiuo 
1874. 

Ee 


418 


CRISTOFOEI. 


CROCE. 


given  him  a  room  in  the  Uffizi,  probably  near 
the  old  theatre,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  foundry 
and  workshops  of  the  cabinet-makers.  He 
imagines  the  Prince  suggesting  the  idea  of  the 
pianoforte  and  taking  great  interest  in  the 
gradual  embodiment  of  the  idea  thus  carried  out 
under  his  own  eyes. 

MafFei  gives  an  engraving  of  Cristofori's  action 
or  hammer  mechanism  of  171 1.  It  shows  the 
key  with  intermediate  lever,  and  the  hopper, 
the  thrust  of  which  against  a  notch  in  the  butt  of 
the  hammer  jerks  the  latter  upwards  to  the 
string.  The  instant  return  of  the  hopper  to  its 
perpendicular  position  is  secured  by  a  spring; 
thus  the  escapement  or  controlled  rebound  of  the 
hammer  is  without  doubt  the  invention  of  Cristo- 
fori.  The  fall  of  the  intermediate  lever  governs 
an  under-damper,  but  there  is  no  check  to  gradu- 
ate the  fall  of  the  hammer  in  relation  to  the 
force  exercised  to  raise  it.  For  this  however  we 
have  only  to  wait  a  very  few  years.  There  is  in 
the  possession  of  the  Signora  Ernesta  Mocenni 
Martelli  in  Florence  a  grand  pianoforte  made  by 
Cristofori  in  1720,  the  namepiece  'Bartholomseus 
de  Christoforis  Patavinus  Inventor  faciebat  Flo- 
rentiae  MDCCXX,'  being  the  guarantee  for  its  origin 
and  age.  Puliti  had  two  exact  drawings  made 
of  the  action,  one  with  the  key  at  rest  and  the 
other  when  pressed  down,  and  has  described  each 
detail  with  the  greatest  care.  The  hammer  is 
heavier  than  that  represented  in  1 7 1 1 ,  the  inter- 
mediate lever  is  differently  poised  and  the  damper 
raised  by  the  key  when  in  movement  now  acts 
above  instead  of  under  the  strings.  Finally  there 
is  the  check  completing  the  machine. 

What  doubts  have  not  found  their  solution 
by  the  discovery  of  this  interesting  instrument, 
which  was  exhibited  at  the  Cristofori  Festival  at 
Florence  in  May  1876?  The  story  of  it  begins 
about  sixty  years  since  when  Signer  Fabio  Mo- 
cenni, the  father  of  the  present  owner,  obtained  it 
of  a  pianoforte -tuner  at  Siena  in  exchange  for 
wine.  Its  anterior  history  is  not  known,  but 
Puliti  offers  suggestive  information  in  the  fact 
of  Violante  Beatrice  di  Baviera — the  widow  of 
Cristofori's  master  and  protector  Prince  Fei'- 
dinand — having  lived  at  Siena  at  different  times, 
particularly  when  her  nephew  was  studying  at 
the  Sienese  University  in  1721. 

But  if  it  were  only  a  harpsichord  turned  by  the 
addition  of  hammers  to  a  pianoforte  ?  The  careful 
examination  of  Puliti  is  the  authority  that  all  its 
parts  were  constructed  at  one  time,  and  the  word 
*  Inventor '  appended  to  Cristofori's  name  would 
not  have  been  applied  to  a  simple  harpsichord  or 
spinet.  It  is  a  bichord  instrument,  compass  from 
D  to  F,  exceeding  four  octaves. 

Cristofori  died  in  1731  at  the  advanced  age  of 
eighty.  His  reputation  had  already  extended 
into  Germany,  for  Mattheson  had  published  the 
translation  by  Kcinig  of  Maffei's  article  in  the 
2nd  volume  of  his  '  Critica  Musica'  (Hamburg 
1722-25),  and  Walther,  in  his  * Musikalisches 
Lexicon'  (Leipsic  1732),  article  'Pianoforte,' 
treating  of  the  invention,  attributes  it  exclusively 
to  Cristofori. 


On  May  7,  1876,  a  stone  was  placed  in  the 
cloisters  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence  bearing  the 
following  inscription — 

A  Bartolomeo  Cristofori 
Cembalaro  da  Padova 
che 

in  Firenze  nel  mdccxi 

INVENT5 

IL  Clavicembalo  col  Piano  e  Forte 
il  Comitativo  Fiorentino 
Coadiuvanti  Italiani  e  Stranieri  ' 
pose  questa  Memoria. 

[A.J.H.] 

CRIVELLI,  Gaetano,  an  excellent  tenor  of 
the  old  school,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1774.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  when  very  young ; 
and  married  at  the  age  of  19.  In  1793  he  was 
at  Brescia,  where  he  was  admired  for  his  fine 
voice  and  large  manner  of  phrasing.  He  was 
engaged  to  sing  at  Naples  in  1795,  where  he 
remained  several  years,  profiting  greatly  by  the 
opportunities  of  hearing  the  best  singers,  and  by 
the  advice  of  good  masters,  especially  of  Aprile. 
From  thence  he  went  to  Rome,  Venice,  and  at 
last  to  Milan,  where  he  sang  at  La  Scala  with 
Banti,  Marchesi,  and  Binaghi,  in  the  carnival 
of  1805.  In  1811  he  succeeded  Garcia  at  the 
Italian  Opera  in  Paris,  where  he  produced  a 
great  effect  in  the  *Pirro'  of  Paisiello,  in  which 
he  first  appeared.  His  superb  voice,  excellent 
method,  and  nobly  expressive  style  of  acting, 
combined  to  make  him  a  most  valuable  acquisition 
to  the  stage.  He  remained  there  until  Feb.  181 7. 
He  then  came  to  London,  and  helped  to  make 
that  a  brilliant  season  at  the  opera.  He  had, 
according  to  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe, '  a  sonorous 
mellow  voice,  and  a  really  good  method  of  singing, 
but  he  was  reckoned  dull,  met  with  no  applause, 
and  staid  only  one  year.'  In  1819  and  20  he 
sang  with  success  at  La  Scala  in  Milan ;  but  in 
the  latter  year  signs  of  decay  were  apparent  in 
his  voice,  which  became  more  evident  when  he 
appeared  in  that  town  in  Lent,  1823.  In  25,  at 
Velluti's  suggestion,  Ebers  sent  for  him  to  take 
part  in  '  Teobaldo  ed  Isolina' ;  but  the  opera  was 
not  performed.  For  six  years  he  presented  the 
painful  spectacle  of  a  worn-out  singer  before  the 
public  of  small  provincial  towns.  In  1829  he 
sang,  perhaps  for  the  last  time,  at  Florence; 
and  died  at  Brescia  July  10,  1836.  [J.M.] 

CROCE,  Giovanni  dalla,  a  learned,  original 
composer,  was  born  about  1560  at  Chioggia.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Zarlino,  by  whom  he  was  placed 
in  the  choir  of  San  Marco.  In  1603  he  succeeded 
Donate  as  Maestro  at  that  cathedral,  and  still  held 
the  post  when  he  died  in  1609.  He  was  also  in 
priest's  orders,  and  in  this  capacity  was  attached' 
to  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Formosa.  His 
publications  chiefly  consist  of  a  long  list  of  Mad- 
rigals, Motets,  Psalms,  and  other  pieces  in  the 
ordinary  musical  forms  of  his  epoch,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  one  curious  volume,  they  are 
hardly  worth  enumeration.  This  is  intituled, 
'Triacca  Musicale,  nella  quale  vi  sono  diversi 
capricci  a  4,  5,  6,  and  7  voci,  nuovamente  com- 


CROCE. 


CROSDILL. 


419 


posta  e  data  in  luce'  (Gi.  Vincenti,  Venice, 
1597).  The  pieces  in  it  are  mostly  comic,  and 
are  composed  upon  words  written  in  the  Venetian 
patois.  A  second  edition  of  this  was  issued  in 
1603,  a  third  in  1607,  and  a  fourth  in  1609.  Two 
motets  for  eight  voices  are  in  Bodenschatz  s  '  Flo- 
rilegium  Portense'  (Part  2,  Nos.  iii  and  150). 
A  collection  of  church  music  by  Croce,  set  to 
English  words,  under  the  title  of  '  Musica  Sacra 
to  Sixe  Voyces,'  was  published  in  London  in  1608. 
Several  fine  motets  of  his,  full  of  expression  and 
beauty,  have  been  published  with  English  words 
by  Mr.HuUah  in  his  Part  Music,  and  nine  in  the 
collection  of  the  Motet  Society ;  and  his  madrigal 
'  Cynthia,  thy  song'  is  well  known.  [E.H.P.] 

CROCIATO  IN  EGITTO,  IL,  heroic  opera 
in  two  acts ;  words  by  Rossi ;  music  by  Meyer- 
beer; produced  at  the  Fenice,  Venice,  in  1824, 
and  at  the  Eling's  Theatre,  London,  June  30, 
1825.  Velluti  appeared  in  it,  probably  the  last 
castmto  heard  in  London. 

CROFT  (or,  as  he  sometimes  wrote  his  name, 
Crofts),  William,  Mus.  Doc,  born  in  1677  at 
Nether  Eatington,  Warwickshire,  was  one  of  the 
children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Blow. 
On  the  erection  of  an  organ  in  the  church  of  St. 
Anne,  Soho,  Croft  was  appointed  organist.  On 
July  7,  1700,  he  was  sworn  in  as  a  gentleman 
extraordinary  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  with  the  re- 
version, jointly  with  Jeremiah  Clark,  of  the  first 
vacant  organist's  place.    On  May  25,  1704,  on 
the  death  of  Francis  Piggott,  Croft  and  Clark 
were  sworn  in  as  joint  organists,  and  on  Clark's 
death  in  1707,  Croft  was  sworn  in  to  the  whole 
place.    On  the  death  of  Dr.  Blow  in  1 708  Croft 
was  appointed  his  successor  as  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  master  of  the  children  and 
composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal.    It  was  in  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  the  latter  office  that 
Croft  produced,  for  the  frequent  public  thanks- 
givings for  victories,  etc.,  many  of  those  noble 
anthems  which  have  gained  him  so  distinguished 
a  place  among  English  church  composers.  In 
171 1  he  resigned  his  appointment  at  St.  Anne's 
in  favour  of  John  Isham,  who  had  been  his  de- 
puty for  some  years.    In  171 2  he  edited  for  his 
friend,  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Dolben,  sub- 
dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  a  collection  of  the 
words  of  anthems,  to  which  he  prefixed  a  brief 
historical  account  of  English  church  music.  On 
July  9,  1 71 3,  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Music  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  his  exercise 
(performed  on  July  13)  being  two  odes,  one 
in  English,  the  other  in  Latin,  on  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht ;  these  were  afterwards  engraved  and 
published  under  the  title  of  *  Musicus  Apparatus 
Academicus.'  In  171 5  Croft  received  an  addition 
of  £80  per  annum  to  his  salary  as  master  of  the 
children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  for  teaching  the 
children  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  as  well 
as  playing  on  the  organ  and  composition.  In 
1724  Dr.  Croft  published  in  two  folio  volumes, 
with  a  portrait  of  himself,  finely  engraved  by 
Vertue,  prefixed.  Thirty  Anthems  and  a  Burial 
Service  of  his  composition,  under  the  title  of 


*  Musica  Sacra.'  In  the  preface  he  states  it  to 
be  the  first  essay  in  printing  church  music  in 
that  way,  i.  e.  engraven  in  score  on  plates.  Dr. 
Croft  died  Aug.  14,  1727,  and  was  buried  in  the 
north  aisle  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a 
monument  is  erected  to  his  memory.  His  bio- 
graphers commonly  attribute  his  death  to  an  ill- 
ness contracted  at  the  coronation  of  George  II. 
A  glance  at  the  dates  will  at  once  disprove  this  : 
— Croft  died  Aug.  14,  George  II  was  crowned 
Oct.  4,  1727.  Croft  in  the  earlier  part  of  his 
career  composed  for  the  theatre,  and  produced 
overtures  and  act  tunes  for  *  Courtship  a  la 
mode,'  1700;  'The  Funeral,'  1702  ;  'The  Twin 
Rivals,'  1 703  ;  and  *  The  Lying  Lover,'  1 704. 
He  also  published  sonatas  for  both  violin  and 
flute.  Numerous  songs  by  him  are  to  be  found 
in  the  collections  of  the  period,  and  some  odes 
and  other  pieces  are  still  extant  in  MS.  Two 
psalm  tunes  attributed  to  him,  St.  Ann's  and 
St.  Matthew's,  and  a  single  chant  in  B  minor,  will 
long  live  in  the  Anglican  church,  even  after  his 
fine  anthems  have  become  obsolete.     [W.  H.H.] 

CROOK  (Fr.  Corps  cle  recliange;  Germ.  Ton; 
Bogen).  A  name  given  to  certain  accessory  pieces 
of  tubing  applied  to  the  mouthpiece  of  brass  in- 
struments for  the  purpose  of  altering  the  length  of 
the  tube,  and  thus  raising  or  lowering  their  pitch. 
Since  these  instruments  can  only  play  one  scale, 
the  sole  method  of  enabling  them  to  play  another 
is  to  transpose  the  fundamental  note,  and  this 
is  done  by  the  crooks.  The  largest  number  of 
crooks  is  required  by  the  French  horn,  which  is 
occasionally  written  for  in  every  key,  from  the 
treble  B  tj  down  to  Ab  in  the  bass  octave. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  S-shaped  metal 
tube  connecting  the  body  of  the  bassoon  with  the 
reed  (Fr.  locale).  [W.  H.  S.] 

CROSDILL,  John,  was  born  in  London  in 
1 751.  He  received  his  early  musical  education 
in  the  choir  of  Westminster  Abbey  under  John 
Robinson  and  Benjamin  Cooke.  Upon  quitting 
the  choir  he  became  a  performer  on  the  violon- 
cello, and  soon  attained  to  considerable  pro- 
ficiency. In  1768  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Musicians,  and  in  the  following 
year  appeared  at  Gloucester,  as  principal  violon- 
cello at  the  meeting  of  the  Three  Choirs,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  continued  to  occupy  until  his  re- 
tirement from  his  profession,  with  the  exception 
of  the  year  1778,  when  the  younger  Cervetto 
filled  his  place,  at  Gloucester.  In  76,  on  the 
establishment  of  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music, 
Crosdill  was  appointed  principal  violoncello.  In 
77  he  succeeded  Peter  Gillier  as  violist  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  an  appointment  which  soon  became 
a  sinecure,  but  which  he  continued  to  hold  until 
his  death.  He  also  became  a  member  of  the 
King's  band  of  music,  an  ofiice  which  he  likewise 
retained  until  his  death.  In  1782  he  was  ap- 
pointed chamber  musician  to  Queen  Charlotte, 
and  about  the  same  time  taught  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  George  IV,  to  play  the  violon- 
cello. In  84  he  filled  the  post  of  principal 
violoncello  at  the  Commemoration  of  Handel. 

Ee2 


420 


CROSDILL. 


CEOTCH. 


In  88,  having  married  a  lady  of  considerable 
fortune,  he  retired  from  the  public  exercise  of 
his  profession.  In  1821  he  resumed  its  duties 
for  one  day,  to  play,  as  a  member  of  the  King's 
band,  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV.  F^tis 
says  that  about  1772  Crosdill  visited  Paris,  where 
he  took  lessons  of  the  elder  Janson ;  that  he 
resided  in  Paris  for  some  years,  and  played  in 
the  orchestra  of  the  'Concerts  des  Amateurs'  at 
the  *  Loge  Olympique ' ;  and  that  he  returned 
to  London  about  1780.  But  this  account  cannot 
be  correct  as  respects  the  dates,  as  we  have  seen 
that  Crosdill  was  engaged  in  England  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  mentioned  by  Fetis. 
His  visit  was  probably  in  1778-79  and  occupied 
some  months  instead  of  some  years.  Crosdill 
died  in  October  1825  at  Eskrick,  Yorkshire, 
leaving  all  his  property  to  his  only  son.  Lieu- 
tenant Colonel  CrosdiU,  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's service,  who,  by  his  father's  desire,  pre- 
sented to  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians  the 
munificent  donation  of  looo^.  [W.  H.H.] 

CRO>SS,  Thomas,  an  engraver  of  music  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  17th  and  early  part  of  the  i8th 
centuries.  He  resided  in  Catherine  "Wheel  Court, 
on  the  south  side  of  Snow  Hill,  near  Snow  Hill 
Conduit.  At  a  time  when  printing  by  metal 
types  was  the  almost  universally  adopted  means 
for  placing  music  before  the  public,  he  commenced 
the  issue  of  a  long  succession  of  single  songs 
engraved  on  copper  plates  by  the  graver,  and 
printed  on  one  side  only  of  the  leaf,  and  led  the 
way  to  the  general  adoption  of  that  method  of 
printing  music,  Henry  Hall,  organist  of  Here- 
ford Cathedral,  mentions  him  in  some  verses  pre- 
fixed to  Dr.  Blow's  '  Amphion  Anglicus,'  1700  ; 
*  While  at  the  shops  we  daily  dangling  view 

False  concord  by  Tom  Cross  engraven  true.' 
And  again  in  some  lines  prefixed  to  the  second 
book  of  Purcell's  'Orpheus  Britannicus,'  1702  ; 

'  Then  honest  Cross  might  copper  cut  in  vain.' 
It  is  probable  that  he  engraved  some  of  the 
earlier  publications  of  the  elder  Walsh. 

Thomas  Cross,  junior,  his  son,  was  a  stamper 
of  music,  and  (according  to  Sir  John  Hawkins) 
'stamped  the  plates  of  Geminiani's  Solos  and 
a  few  other  publications,  but  in  a  very  homely 
and  illegible  character,  of  which  he  was  so  little 
conscious  that  he  set  his  name  to  everything  he 
did,  even  to  single  eongs.'  He  probably  bore 
in  rnind  his  father's  superscription,  'Exactly 
engraved  by  T.  Cross.'  [W.H.H.] 

CROSSE,  John,  a  native  of,  and  resident  in, 
Hull,  published  in  1825  a  large  quarto  volume 
entitled  'An  Account  of  the  Grand  Musical  Festi- 
val held  in  September,  1823,  in  the  Cathedral 
Church  of  York,  ...  to  which  is  prefixed  a 
Sketch  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  Musical  Festi- 
vals in  Great  Britain,  with  biographical  and 
historical  notes' — an  admirably  executed  work, 
replete  with  valuable  and  useful  information. 
He  died  in  1829.  [W.H.H.] 

CROTCH,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  was  bom  at 
Norwich,  July  5,  1775.    His  father,  a  master 


carpenter,  who  combined  a  taste  for  music  and 
mechanics,  had  constructed  for  himself  a  small 
organ.  When  little  more  than  two  years  old  the 
child  evinced  a  strong  desire  to  get  to  this  in- 
strument, and  being  placed  before  it,  contrived 
shortly  to  play  something  like  the  tune  of  '  God, 
save  the  King,'  which  he  soon  was  able  to  play 
with  its  bass,  and  other  tunes.  His  ear  was  re- 
markably sensitive,  and  readily  distinguished  any 
note  when  struck,  or  detected  faulty  intonation. 
The  Hon.  Daines  Barrington,  a  well-known 
amateur,  published  an  interesting  account  of 
him,  and  Dr.  Bumey  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society  an  account,  which  was  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  for  1779.  In  the 
spring  of  1780  the  child  was  brought  to  London, 
and  performed  in  public  on  the  organ.  Besides 
his  musical  ability  he  displayed  considerable  skill 
in  drawing,  to  which  art  he  remained  attached 
through  life,  and  attained  to  much  eminence  in 
it.  In  1786  Crotch  went  to  Cambridge,  and 
remained  there  about  two  years  as  assistant  to 
Dr.  Randall,  the  Professor  of  Music,  and  organist 
of  Trinity  and  King's  Colleges,  and  Great  St. 
Mary's  Church.  At  fourteen  years  of  age  he 
composed  an  oratorio,  '  The  Captivity  of  Judah,' 
which  was  performed  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, June  4,  1789.  In  1788  he  removed  to 
Oxford,  where  he  studied,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Rev.  A.  C.  Schomberg,  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, with  a  view  of  entering  the  church.  His 
patron  dying,  he  resumed  the  profession  of  music, 
and  in  September,  1790,  was  appointed,  on  the 
death  of  Thomas  N orris,  organist  of  Christ 
Church,  On  June  5,  1794,  he  graduated  as 
Bachelor  of  Music,  In  March,  1797,  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Philip  Hayes,  deceased,  as  organist  of 
St.  John's  College,  and  Professor  of  Music  in  the 
University.  On  Nov.  21,  1799,  he  proceeded 
Doctor  of  Music,  composing  as  his  exercise  Dr. 
Joseph  Warton's  'Ode  to  Fancy,'  the  score  of 
which  he  afterwards  published.  From  1800  to 
1804  he  delivered  lectures  in  the  Music  School. 
In  181 2  he  produced  his  oratorio  'Palestine,' 
which  was  received  with  great  favour,  and  also 
published  a  treatise  on  the  '  Elements  of  Musical 
Composition.'  About  1820  he  was  appointed 
music  lecturer  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London, 
and  on  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music  in  1822  was  placed  at  its  head  as  prin- 
cipal. On  June  10,  1834,  he  produced  at  Ox- 
ford^ on  the  installation  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton as  Chancellor,  an  oratorio,  '  The  Captivity  of 
Judah,'  wholly  different  from  his  juvenile  work 
bearing  the  same  title, ^  On  June  28  in  the  same 
year  he  made  his  last  public  appearance  as  a 
performer,  by  acting  as  organist  for  part  of  the 
third  day's  performance  at  the  Royal  Musical 
Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Dr.  Crotch 
died  at  Taunton  at  the  house  of  his  son,  the  Rev., 
William  Robert  Crotch,  then  Head  Master  of  the 
Grammar  School  there,  where  he  had  for  some  time 
resided,  while  seated  at  dinner,  Dec.  29,  1847,  and 
was  interred  in  the  neighbouring  church  of  Bishop's 
Hull,  where  a  monumental  inscription  is  placed 

1  The  MS.  is  now  (1876)  in  possession  of  the  Rev.  Sir  F.  Ouseler,  Bart,  i 


CROTCH. 


CRUVELLI. 


421 


to  his  memory.  Besides  the  works  above  specified, 
Dr.  Crotch  produced  '  Ten  Anthems,'  some  chants, 
a  motet,  *  Methinks  I  hear '  ;  several  glees  ; 
some  fugues  and  concertos  for  the  organ  ;  several 
pianoforte  pieces  ;  an  ode  on  the  accession  of 
George  IV,  performed  at  Oxford,  1820  ;  Funeral 
Anthem  for  the  Duke  of  York,  1827;  'The  Lord 
is  King,'  anthem  for  voices  and  orchestra,  1843  ; 
and  some  works  on  Thorough  Bass  and  Harmony. 
He  also  published  '  Specimens  of  various  styles 
of  Music  referred  to  in  a  course  of  Lectures  on 
Music  read  at  Oxford  and  London,'  and  in  1831 
the  '  Substance  of  several  courses  of  Lectures  on 
Music  read  at  Oxford  and  in  the  Metropolis.'  As 
a  teacher  he  enjoyed  a  high  and  deserved  repu- 
tation. [W.H.H.] 
CROTCHET,  a  note  which  is  half  the  value 
of  a  minim,  and  twice  that  of  a  quaver,  and  is 
represented  thus  •.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
not  known.  It  is  apparently  derived  from  the 
French  croche ;  but  croclie  is  a  quaver,  ^ ,  and  is 
so  called  on  account  of  the  hook  at  the  end  of  its 
tail,  whereas  a  crotchet  has  no  hook.  The  French 
name  for  this  note  is  noire,  the  Italian,  semi- 
minima,  and  the  German  Viertel,  'a  quarter' — 
i.e.  of  a  serai-breve.  The  French  call  a  crochet 
rest,  r,  by  the  pretty  name  of  un  soupir.  [G.] 

CROUCH,  F.  NiCHOLLS,  a  composer  of  songs 
and  ballads  during  the  second  quarter  of  the 
present  century,  was  the  author  of  many  pro- 
ductions which  gained  great  popularity,  and  one 
— 'Kathleen  Mavoumeen' — which  still  retains 
its  place  in  public  favour.  He  quitted  England 
about  the  year  1 845  and  went  to  America,  where, 
it  is  believed,  he  is  still  living.  [W.H.H.] 

CROUCH,  Mrs.  Anna  Maria,  born  April 
20,  1 763,  was  the  daughter  of  Peregrine  Philhps, 
a  solicitor.  Being  gifted  with  a  remarkably 
sweet  voice  Miss  Phillips  was  at  an  early  age 
placed  under  the  instruction  of  a  music-master 
named  Wafer,  and  some  time  afterwards  was 
articled  to  Thomas  Linley,  under  whose  auspices 
blie  made  her  appearance  in  the  winter  of  1780, 
at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  as  Mandane  in  Dr. 
Arne's  *  Artaxerxes.'  Her  success  was  great, 
aud  for  upwards  of  twenty  years  she  held  a  high 
jilace  in  public  esteem,  both  as  actress  and  singer. 
Early  in  1785  she  married  ^Mr.  Crouch,  a  lieutenant 
in  the  navy,  but  after  an  union  of  about  seven 
years  the  parties  separated  by  mutual  consent. 
About  iSoo  Mrs.  Crouch's  health  became  im- 
paired, she  withdrew  from  public  life,  and  died 
at  Brighton,  Oct.  2,  1805.  [W.H.H.] 

CROWN  DIAMONDS,  THE,  the  EngUsh 
rsion  of  Auber's  opera  'Les  Diamans  de  la 
'uronne' ;  produced  at  the  Princess"  s  Theatre, 

London,  May  2,  1844,  IMme.  Anna  Thillon  as 

•.'atarina. 

CROZIER,  William.  A  few  words  are  due  to 
tlie  memory  of  this  oboe  player,  whose  tone  and 
t  xtjuisite  taste  will  not  soon  be  forgotten  by  those 
who  heard  him  in  the  Crystal  Palace  orchestra  and 
elsewhere.  He  learned  the  oboe  from  Barret ; 
joined  the  C.  P.  orchestra  1855  ;  appeared  at  the 


Philharmonic  Feb.  29,  1864.  He  died  in  harness 
at  Upper  Norwood,  Dec.  20,  1870.  [G.] 

CRUGER,  JoHANN,  born  April  9,  1598,  at 
Gross-Breese  near  Guben  in  Prussia,  educated 
chiefly  at  the  Jesuit  college  of  Olmiitz,  at  the 
school  of  poetry  at  Regensburg,  and  the  uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg;  in  1622  was  appointed 
cantor  at  the  church  of  St.  Nicolaus  at  Berlin, 
a  post  which  he  retained  till  his  death  in  1662. 
His  reputation  in  his  own  day  both  as  an  author 
and  composer  was  great,  but^he  is  now  chiefly 
known  as  the  composer  of  some  of  the  most 
favourite  chorales.  The  best-known  of  them  are 
'Nun  danket  alle  Gott' ;  *Jesu  meine  Zuver- 
sicht' ;  'Jesu  meine  Freude' ;  and  'Schmiicke 
dich  O  liebe  Seele.'  They  were  published  under 
the  title  'Praxis  pietatis  melica,  oder  Kirchen- 
melodien  iiber  D.  Luthers  und  Anderer  Gesange,' 
for  four  voices  and  two  instruments  (Leipsic, 
1649).  This  work  has  passed  through  in- 
numerable editions ;  the  30th  bears  date  Berlin 
1703.  He  also  composed  many  concertos  and 
motets  which  no  longer  exist.  Other  works  have 
been  preserved  ;  they  are  '  Meditationum  musica- 
rum  Paradisus  primus,  oder  Erstes  musikalisches 
Lust-Gartlein,'  in  three  and  four  parts  (Frank- 
fort, 1622);  and  'Med.  mus.  Parad.  secundus' 
(Berlin,  1626) ;  a  collection  of  new  Magnificats 
in  German,  in  two  and  eight  part  harmony, 
arranged  in  all  the  eight  tones.  Also  '  Re- 
creationes  musicae,  das  ist  neue  poetische  Amo- 
rosen'  (Leipsic,  1651),  containing  33  pieces. 
Among  his  theoretical  works  may  be  mentioned 
(i)  'Synopsis  musices,'  a  method  for  thorough- 
bass (Berlin,  1624) — the  thfrd  edition  (Berlin, 
1634)  has  a  difi"erent  title  ;  (2)  'Preceptae  musi- 
cae practicae  figuralis'  (1625),  also  published  in 
a  German  form  as  '  Rechter  Weg  zur  Singekunst ' 
(Berlin,  1660) ;  (3)  '  Quaestiones  musicae  practi- 
cae' (Berlin,  1650).  [A.M.] 

CRUVELLI,  Jeanne  Sophie  Charlotte, 
whose  family -name  was  Cruwell,  was  born  March 
12,  1826,  at  Bielefeld  in  Westphalia.  Her  father 
was  fond  of  music,  and  played  the  trombone 
tolerably.  Her  mother,  had  a  fine  contralto 
voice,  and  sang  with  expression.  She  had  a 
voice  of  admirable  quality,  compass,  and  truth, 
but  did  not  receive  the  instruction  which  should 
have  developed  its  advantages,  and  enabled  her 
to  avoid  those  faults  and  imperfections  which 
are  inevitable  without  it.  She  made  her  ddbut 
at  Venice  in  1847,  and  the  beauty  of  her  voice 
ensured  her  a  brilliant  success,  which  was  con- 
firmed when  she  sang  in  Verdi's  'Attila'  at  the 
theatre  of  Udine  on  July  24,  and  in  'I  Due 
Foscari.'  Coming  now  to  London,  in  the  height 
of  her  fame,  she  Italianised  her  name,  and  be- 
came known  as  CruveUi,  on  her  appearance  in 
'Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,'  and  ever  after.  The  role 
of  the  Countess  was  not  suited  to  her  fiery  style, 
nor  was  the  comparison  between  her  and  J eimy 
Lind,  who  played  Susanna,  to  her  advantage. 
After  this  partial  failure,  she  returned  to  Italy, 
and  continued  to  earn  success  by  the  mere  beauty 
of  her  organ,  and  even  by  the  exaggeration  of 


422 


CEUVELLT. 


CRYSTAL  PALACE  CONCERTS. 


her  dramatic  effects.  In  185 1  she  went  to  Paris, 
where  she  had  sung  in  concerts  before  her  first 
appearance  in  Italy.  She  appeared  with  immense 
success  in  'Ernani'  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  for 
Verdi's  music  seemed  made  for  her.  She  sang 
again  in  London  that  year,  and  was  very  suc- 
cessful, in  spite  of  many  faults.  Beside  her 
splendid  voice,  she  had  a  very  fine  face  and 
figure,  and  enormous  energy  of  accent  and 
dramatic  force  :  her  performance  in  '  Fidelio '  was 
especially  admirable.  In  Jan.  1854  she  was 
engaged  at  the  Grand  Op^ra  at  Paris,  and 
appeared  as  Valentine  in  '  Les  Huguenots,'  when 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  public  knew  no  bounds. 
But  a  violent  reaction  soon  succeeded,  and  the 
last  opera  in  which  she  preserved  some  of  her 
former  popularity  was  the  *  Vepres  Siciliennes ' 
of  Verdi.  In  this  work  she  exercised  the 
greatest  control  of  voice  and  action :  it  was  her 
last  role.  In  the  following  winter  she  retired, 
and  married  the  Comte  Vigier.    •  [J.M.] 

CRWTH  (i.e.  Crooth)  or  CROWD,  as  far 
as  we  know  the  oldest  stringed  instrument 
played  with  the  bow ;  probably  at  home  in 
India,  but  in  its  European  use  apparently 
limited  to  England,  and  especially  to  Wales. 
It  is  first  mentioned  in  some  elegiacs,  written 
about  609,  by  Venantius  Fortunatus,  Bishop  of 
Poitiers,  running  thus  : 

'Romanusque  lyra  plaudat  tibi,  Barbarus 
harp  a, 

Graecus  achilliaca,  chrotta  Brittanna  canat.' 


Its  oldest  form  was  probably  the  '  crwth  trithant,' 
or  with  three  strings,  pictures  of  which  are  found 
in  manuscripts  of  the  iith  century.    We  first 


hear  it  mentioned  again  by  Daines  Barrington, 
a  Welsh  judge  and  archaeologist,  who  relates  that 
he  knew  one  John  Morgan,  born  1711  in  the 
isle  of  Anglesey,  who  still  played  the  crwth. 
Bingley  also  heard  it  played  at  Carnarvon  as  late 
as  1 801;  but  it  is  now  entirely  out  of  use.  In 
its  later  form  it  was  mounted  with  six  strings,  four 
stretched  over  the  finger-board  and  played  with 
the  bow,  and  two,  lying  at  the  side  of  the  finger- 
board, pinched  with  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand. 
The  strings  were  tuned  either  as  (a) — according 
to  Edward  Jones,  the  celebrated  Welsh  harp- 
player — 

(a)  (Jb) 


m 


«v  '—ri — i..    On  the  finger- 
On  the  side  of  the  board 
finger-board. 

or  as  (h) — according  to  Bingley  ('Musical  Bio- 
graphy,' 1814).  The  sound-holes  are  perfectly 
circular,  and  have  a  diameter  of  i;^  inch.  The 
bridge  does  not  &tand  straight,  but  inclines  to- 
ward the  right,  and  its  left  foot,  which  is  2^ 
inches  in  length  (while  the  right  foot  measures 
only  f  of  an  inch),  passes  through  the  sound -hole 
and  rests  on  the  back  of  the  instrument,  thus 
acting  the  part  of  the  sound-post  in  the  violin. 
The  crwth  is  2  2^  inches  in  length  ;  its  width  near 
the  tailpiece  is  10^  inches,  near  the  top  9  inches  ; 
the  height  of  the  sides  is  2  inches.  [P'D-] 
CRYSTAL  PALACE  SATURDAY  CON- 
CERTS, of  orchestral  and  vocal  music.  These 
concerts  were  begun  on  Sept.  22,  1855,  and 
assumed  their  present  well-known  character  in 
i860,  after  the  construction  of  the  concert-room. 
They  have  been  throughout  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Manns,  their  present  conductor.  The 
concerts  begin  with  the  first  Saturday  in  Oc- 
tober, and  last,  with  an  interval  at  Christmas, 
till  the  end  of  April.  The  orchestra  consists 
of  16  first  and  14  second  violins,  ii  violas,  10 
cellos,  and  10  double  basses,  with  single  wind, 
etc.  The  chorus,  who  appear  only  occasionally, 
are  300  strong.  The  solo  players  are  the  greatest 
who  can  be  obtained.  The  programmes  usually 
contain  2  overtures,  a  symphony,  a  concerto,  or 
some  minor  piece  of  orchestral  music,  and  4 
songs.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  con- 
certs is  their  choice  and  performance  of  or- 
chestral music.  Not  to  mention  the  great  works 
of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn, 
Spohr,  Weber,  and  other  time-honoured  classics, 
the  audience  were  familiar  with  Schumann's 
symphonies  and  overtures,  and  with  Schubert's 
symphonies  and  Rosamunde  music,  at  a  time 
when  those  works  were  all  but  unknown  in  the 
concert-rooms  of  the  metropolis.  Mendelssohn's 
Reformation  Symphony  was  first  played  here; 
so  was  his  overture  to  Caraacho  ;  Brahms's  Sym- 
phony, Pianoforte  Concerto,  Variations  on  a 
theme  of  Haydn's,  and  Song  of  Destiny ;  Raffs 
Lenore  and  G  minor  Symphonies ;  Wagner's 
Faust  Overture ;  SuUivan's  Tempest  Music  and 
Symphony  in  E ;  Benedict's  Symphony  in  G 


CRYSTAL  PALACE  CONCERTS. 


CURIONI. 


423 


minor,  and  many  other  works  were  obtained 
(often  in  MS.)  and  performed  before  they  were 
heard  in  any  other  place  in  the  metropolis. 
Bennett's  'Parisina'  was  first  played  there  after 
an  interval  of  a  quarter  of  a  century, 

A  disposition  is  apparent  in  the  managers  of 
these  concerts  to  present  the  audience  with 
pieces  of  special  interest ;  such  as  the  MS. 
works  of  Schubert,  and  of  Mendelssohn ;  Bee- 
thoven's arrangement  of  his  Violin  Concerto  for 
the  piano,  and  his  Leonora  Overture,  '  No.  2  '  ; 
an  alternative  Andante  written  by  Mozart  for 
his  Parisian  Symphony ;  the  first  version  of 
Mendelssohn's  Hebrides  Overture,  and  other 
rare  treasures  of  the  same  nature. 

The  performances  are  of  that  exceptional 
quality  which  might  be  inferred  from  the  ability, 
energy,  and  devotion  of  the  conductor,  and  from 
the  fact  that  owing  to  the  wind  and  a  portion 
of  the  strings  of  the  orchestra  being  the  per- 
manent band  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  Mr.  Manns 
has  opportunities  for  rehearsal  which  are  en- 
joyed by  no  other  conductor  in  London.  [G.] 

CSARDAS.  A  national  dance  of  Hungary, 
which  consists  of  two  movements,  an  andante  and 
an  allegro,  both  in  conmaon  (4-4  or  2-4)  time 
and  in  the  same  key.  The  andante,  which  is 
written  in  the  Hungarian  Lied-form,  has  usually 
no  repeats  ;  but  the  Allegro  consists  generally  of 
eight-  and  sixteen-bar  phrases  which  are  repeated. 
The  character  of  the  latter  is  wild  and  impetuous, 
and  the  whole  is  sometimes  in  a  major  key, 
sometimes  in  alternating  majors  and  minors. 
The  music  of  the  cs^rdas  is  always  performed 
by  gipsies,  and  it  partakes  strongly  of  the 
peculiar  character  of  Hungarian  national  music, 
in  its  accents  on  the  weak  beats  of  the  bar,  its 
cadences,  etc.  An  example  of  the  csardas, 
which  is  too  long  to  be  quoted  here,  may  be 
see  at  p.  91  of  F.  L.  Schubert's  'Die  Tanz- 
musik,'  from  which  book  the  above  particulars 
are  derived.  [E.P.] 

CUDMORE,  RiCHAED,  was  born  at  Chichester 
in  1 787,  and  received  his  first  instruction  in  music 
from  James  Forge tt,  an  organist  in  that  city.  At  a 
very  early  age  he  became  a  proficient  on  the  violin, 
and  at  eleven  years  old  was  placed  under  Salomon. 
The  next  year  he  led  the  band  at  the  Chichester 
Theatre,  and  was  engaged  in  the  orchestra  at 
the  Italian  Opera,  London.  He  next  resided  for 
nine  years  in  Chichester,  and  then  removed  to 
London  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  piano- 
forte under  Woelfl,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society's  band.  He  afterwards 
settled  in  Manchester  as  leader  of  the  Gentle- 
men's Concerts  there.  He  composed  several  con- 
certos for  the  violin  and  others  for  the  pianoforte, 
as  also  an  oratorio,  'The  Martyr  of  Antioch' 
(published)  portions  of  which  were  performed  in 
Manchester  and  Liverpool.  Cudmore  died  at 
Manchester  in  January  1 84 1 .  [W.  H.  H.] 

CUE,  i.  e.  queue,  the  tail  of  the  preceding  pas- 
sage. Where  a  player  or  singer  is  reading  from 
a  separate  part,  and  not  from  the  score,  some 
help  is  advisable  to  aid  him  in  coming  in  cor- 


rectly after  the  long  pauses.  A  few  notes  of 
some  other  part  immediately  preceding  the  en- 
trance of  his  own  are  therefore  printed  small  in 
the  stave  as  a  guide  ;  and  this  is  called  a  cue  : — 

^^^5^-~£EEfe^  e.=. 

ho  ....  ly  Sing  ye  the  Lord  and 
CUMBERLANDS,  Royal  Society  of.  This 
is  an  ancient  society  of  change-ringers  long  es- 
tablished in  London,  and  originally  called  the 
Society  oi  London  Scholars.  But  in  the  early 
pai't  of  the  1 8th  century  some  members  of  the 
society  rang  the  bells  of  Shoreditch  Church  in 
honour  of  the  public  entrance  into  London  of  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  to  commemorate  this 
event  a  medal  was  presented  to  the  society  bearing 
a  likeness  of  the  Royal  Duke.  It  was  on  receipt 
of  this  that  its  members  changed  the  name  of 
their  society  to  that  of  '  Cumberland  Youths '  or 
'  Royal  Cumberlands.'  [C.  A.  W.  T.] 

CUMMINGS,  William  Hayman.  native  of 
Sidbury,  Devon,  born  1835,  placed  at  an  early 
age  in  the  choir  of  St,  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  after- 
wards in  that  of  the  Temple  Church.  On  leaving 
the  latter  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Waltham 
Abbey,  and  after  a  time  admitted  as  tenor- 
singer  in  the  Temple,  Westminster  Abbey,  and 
the  Chapels  Royal,  appointments  which  he  sub- 
sequently resigned.  Mr.  Cummings  is  much  in 
request  for  the  important  tenor  parts  in  Bach's 
Passion,  Bach's  Mass,  and  other  works  where  an 
accomplished  musician  is  as  necessary  as  a  good 
singer.  His  publications  include  several  prize 
glees,  a  Morning  Service,  an  Anthem,  various 
songs,  a  Cantata,' The  Fairy  Ring,'  and  a  Primer 
of  the  Rudiments  of  Music  (Novello).  [G.] 
CURIONI,  a  seconda  donna,  engaged  at  the 
King's  Theatre  about  1754.  Among  other  parts, 
she  sang  that  of  Plistene,  a  male  character  in 
the  '  Ipermestra '  of  Hasse  and  Lampugnani. 
She  was,  perhaps,  the  mother  of  Alberico 
CuRiONi,  a  distinguished  tenor,  born  about  1 790, 
After  singing  at  the  San  Carlo  at  Naples,  and 
other  theatres,  he  went  to  Barcelona,  and  had 
great  success.  Benelli,  catering  for  the  London 
Opera,  found  him  there  and  engaged  him  for  the 
season  of  182 1  at  £600.  He  had  a  very  sweet 
and  pleasing  voice,  was  a  very  agreeable,  if  not 
yet  a  great,  singer,  and  was  one  of  the  hand- 
somest men  that  ever  appeared  on  the  Italian 
stage.  As  time  went  on,  his  talent  developed 
and  he  improved  in  dramatic  force  and  value. 
His  expression  and  taste  were  pure,  and  he  sang 
with  much  intelligence.  In  182 1  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  London  as  Tito  with  Camporese. 
He  then  seemed  the  best  tenor  that  had  belonged 
to  the  theatre  for  some  time,  but  he  hardly  gave 
the  full  promise  of  his  future  excellence.  Curioni 
was  re-engaged  in  1822,  at  an  increased  salary, 
and  appeared  in  '  0 telle '  with  renewed  eclat ; 
and  again  in  '  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,'  in  '  La 
Donna  del  Lago,'  and  'Ricciardo  e  Zoraide,'  in 
1823.  In  24  and  25  he  was  again  engaged.  In 
the  latter  year  he  appeared  as  Orosmane  in 


424  CURIONI. 

'Pietro  TEremrta,'  and  in  'Otello,'  in  'Cosi  fan 
tutte,'  and  *I1  Crociato.'  In  the  latter  opera  he 
reappeared  in  1826,  as  also  in  'Medea,'  where 
he  was  very  effective  in  the  part  of  Giasone.  His 
portrait  was  drawn  by  Hayter  in  this  character, 
and  there  is  a  good  lithograph  of  it.  He  was 
re-engaged  in  1827,  at  the  increased  salary  of 
£1450,  and  played  a  principal  part  in  Pacini's 
'Schiava  in  Bagdad.'  In  1828  he  was  again  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  where  he  was  heard  by 
Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  in  1834,  singing  with 
undiminished  powers.  He  was  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  [J.M.] 

CCJRIOSO  INDTSCRETO,  IL.  An  opera  of 
Anfossi's,  produced  at  Milan  in  1778;  of  little 
interest  for  the  present  day,  except  for  the  fact 
that  Mozart  added  three  songs  to  it  on  the 
occasion  of  its  performance  at  Vienna  in  1783. 
Two  of  these,  'Vorrei  spiegarvi'  and  'No,  no, 
no '  (bravura),  were  for  Madame  Lange ;  the 
third,  'Per  pieta  non  ricercate,'  was  for  Adam- 
berger,  but  owing  to  a  trick  of  Salieri's  was  not 
sung  (Kochel,  418,  419,  420). 

CURSCHMANN,  Karl  Friedrich,  born  at 
Berlin  June  21,  1805.  As  a  child  he  showed 
considerable  talent  for  music,  and  had  a  beau- 
tiful soprano  voice,  but  having  been  intended 
for  the  law  it  was  not  till  1824  that  he  decided 
to  adopt  music  as  a  profession.  He  studied 
for  four  years  under  Spohr  and  Hauptmann  at 
Cassel,  and  in  1824  settled  in  Berlin,  making 
occasional  concert  tours  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy.  He  died  in  the  prime  of  life  Aug,  24, 
1841.  Curschmann's  fame  rests  on  his  'Lieder.' 
He  was  the  favourite  song-writer  before  Schu- 
bert's songs  were  known,  and  when  Schumann 
had  scarcely  attempted  vocal  composition.  His 
songs  are  full  of  real  melody,  and  if  they  do  not 
possess  the  intensity  of  expression  which  cha- 
racterise the  creations  of  Schubert,  Schumann, 
and  Brahms,  they  are  far  superior  to  the  shallow 
productions  which  deluged  Germany  at  that  and 
a  later  period.  The  fact  that  many  of  them 
are  still  sung  speaks  much  for  their  inherent 
merit.  Curschmann's  collected  'Lieder'  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1871)  comprise  83  solos,  and  9  songs  in 
2  and  3  parts.  A  few  of  them  have  Italian 
words.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  men- 
tioned a  one-act  opera,  'Abdul  und  Erinnieh,' 
written  and  performed  at  Cassel,  and  some 
church  music  now  forgotten.  In  England  he  is 
best  known  by  his  song  '  In  every  opening  flower' 
and  his  trios  'Ti  prego'  and  'Addio,'  the  former 
a  general  favourite  with  amateurs.  [A.M.] 

CUSANINO.    See  Carestini. 

CUSHION  DANCE  (i.e.  possibly  'kissing- 
dance').  An  old  English  dance,  dating  from  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century — especially  used  at 
weddings.  The  curious  old  melody  is  as  follows  : — 


CUTLER. 


[E.P.] 

CUSINS,  William  George,  was  born  in 
London,  Oct.  14,  1833,  and  in  his  tenth  year 
entered  the  Chapel  Royal,  as  so  many  good 
English  musicians  have  done  before  him.  In 
1844  he  entered  the  Brussels  Conservatoire 
under  Fetis  for  the  study  of  the  piano,  violin, 
and  harmony.  In  47  he  gained  the  Kings 
Scholarship  at  the  R.  A.  M.  of  London,  where 
his  Professors  were  Potter,  Stemdale  Bennett, 
Lucas,  and  Sainton.  In  49  his  scholarship  was 
prolonged  for  two  years  and  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  public  as  a  piano  player  in  Men- 
delssohn's D  minor  Concerto,  and  as  composer 
with  a  MS.  overture.  In  49  he  was  appointed 
organist  to  the  Queen's  Private  Chapel,  and 
entered  the  orchestras  of  the  Royal  Italian  Opera 
and  the  principal  concerts  of  London,  in  which 
he  played  the  violin  for  about  five  years.  In  51 
he  was  appointed  Assistant  Professor  at  the 
R.  A.  M.  and  afterwards  Professor.  In  67  he 
became  Conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
vice  Sir  W.  Stemdale  Bennett  resigned.  In  70 
he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Music  to  the 
Queen ;  in  75  succeeded  Bennett  as  examining 
Professor  at  Queen's  College  ;  and  in  76  became 
joint  examiner,  with  Mr,  Hullah  and  Mr.  0. 
Goldschmidt,  of  scholarships  for  the  National 
Training  School  of  Music.  Besides  these  posts 
Mr.  Cusins  has  been  often  before  the  public  as  a 
player  and  concert  giver,  having  amongst  other 
places  performed  at  the  Gewandhaus  Leipzig, 
and  at  Berlin,  as  well  as  the  Philharmonic  and 
Crystal  Palace  at  home.  His  works,  if  not 
numerous,  are  all  on  an  important  scale  : — Royal 
Wedding  Serenata  (1863) ;  Gideon,  an  oratorio 
(Gloucester,  1871)  ;  two  Concert  overtures,  'Les 
Travailleurs  de  la  Mer'  (1869),  'Love's  Labour's 
Lost'  (1875);  Piano  Concerto  in  A  minor; 
besides  marches,  songs,  etc. 

CUTELL,  Richard,  an  English  musician  of 
the  15th  century,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
counterpoint,  a  fragment  of  which  is  preserved 
among  the  manuscripts  in  the  Bodlean  Library, 
Oxford.  [W.H.H,] 

CUTLER,  William  Henry,  Mus,  Bac,  was 
born  in  the  city  of  London  in  1792.  Having 
manifested  a  precocious  musical  ability,  he  was 
instructed  in  pianoforte  playing  by  Little  and 
Griffin,  and  in  singing  by  Dr.  Arnold.  In  1 803 
he  became  a  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  on 
quitting  which  he  studied  under  William  Rus- 
sell, Mus.  Bac.  In  181 2  he  took  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  his  exercise  for 
which  (an  anthem  for  voices  and  orchestra)  he 
afterwards  published.  In  181 8  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  St.  Helen's,  Bishopsgate, 
and  about  the  same  time  opened  an  academy 
for  teaching  music  on  Logier's  system,  but  which 
he  gave  up  after  about  three  years'  trial.  In 


CUTLEE. 


CZERNr. 


425 


1 82 1  he  appeared  as  a  singer  at  the  oratories  at 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  but  failed  from  neirous- 
ness.  In  1823  he  resigned  the  organistship  of 
St.  Helen's  for  that  of  Quebec  Chapel,  Portman 
Square.  Cutler's  compositions  comprise  a  ser- 
vice, anthems,  songs,  and  numerous  pianoforte 
pieces.  [W.H.H.] 
CUVILLON,  Jean  Baptiste  Philemon  de, 
a  distinguished  violinist,  was  born  at  Dunkirk  in 
1809.  As  a  pupil  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire  he 
studied  the  violin  under  Habeneck  sen.  and 
Baillot,  and  composition  under  Reicha.  He  is 
considered  as  one  of  the  best  representatives  of 
the  modem  French  school  of  violin-playing  at 
Paris,  where  he  occupies  the  post  of  professor  of 
the  violin  at  the  Conservatoire.  He  is  mentioned 
in  Killer's  'Mendelssohn,'  pp.  20,  21.  [R.D.] 

CUZZONI,  Feancesca.    See  Sandoni. 

CYMBALS  are  a  pair  of  thin  round  metal 
plates,  with  a  leather  strap  through  the  centre 
of  each,  by  which  the  performer  holds  one  in 
each  hand.  The  metal  is  an  alloy  of  So  parts 
of  copper  to  20  of  tin.  To  produce  a  good 
tone  they  should  not  be  struck  so  as  to  coincide 
together,  but  should  rather  be  rubbed  against 
each  other  in  a  single  sliding  motion  (French 
froisner).  The  part  for  the  cymbals  is  generally, 
but  not  always,  the  same  as  that  for  the  bass- 
drum,  and,  from  motives  of  economy,  it  is  gene- 
rally played  by  the  same  performer.  One  cymbal 
is  then  tied  to  the  drum,  and  the  other  held  in 
his  left  hand,  while  his  right  hand  uses  the  drum 
1!    stick.  [PiATTi.]  [V.deP.] 

CZAKAN,  or  Stockflote,  a  Bohemian  or 
Transylvanian  instrument  of  the  flageolet  family, 
usually  standing  in  the  key  of  A,  though  made 
to  other  pitches.  It  is  said  to  have  been  lost 
for  many  years  after  its  original  invention,  and 
to  have  been  rediscovered  in  a  Transylvanian 
monastery  in  1825.  However  this  may  be,  it 
rose  to  great  popularity  at  Vienna  about  1830, 
and  received  many  additions  and  improvements. 
It  consisted  of  a  large  flageolet  mouthpiece,  with 
a  long  slender  body,  bored  with  an  inverted 
conical  tube  like  that  of  the  old  flute,  at  right 
angles  to  the  mouthpiece.  It  thus  resembled  an 
ordinary  handled  walking-stick,  and  indeed  was 
commonly  put  to  that  use.  It  had  the  octave 
scale  of  the  old  concert  flute,  with  fingering 
I  intermediate  between  that  and  the  oboe.  There 
was  also  a  small  vent-hole  for  the  thumb  at  the 
back,  as  in  the  flageolet.  It  possessed  about  two 
(  octaves  compass,  starting  from  the  low  B  of  the 
1  flute.  There  exists  a  Method  for  this  almost 
forgotten  instrument  by  Kramer  dated  1830. 
Its  music  appears  to  have  been  written  in  the 
key  of  C.  [W.H.S.] 
CZAR  UND  ZIMMERMANN.  Opera  in  3 
acts,  by  Lortzing;  produced  in  Berlin  1854, 
at  the  Gaiety  Theatre,  London,  translated,  as 
'  Peter  the  Shipwright,'  April  15,1871. 

CZERNY,  Karl,  excellent  pianoforte  teacher 
and  prolific  composer,  born  at  Vienna  Feb.  21, 
1 79 1.    His  father,  a  cultivated  musician,  taught 


him  the  pianoforte  when  quite  a  child,  and  at 
the  age  of  ten  he  could  play  by  heart  the  princi- 
pal compositions  of  all  the  best  masters.  He 
gained  much  from  his  intercourse  with  Wenzel 
Krumpholz  the  violinist,  a  great  friend  of  his 
parents,  and  a  passionate  admirer  of  Beethoven. 
Having  inspired  him  with  his  own  sentiments, 
Krumpholz  took  his  small  friend  to  see  Beethoven, 
who  heard  him  play  and  at  once  oS"ered  to  teach 
him.  Czerny  made  rapid  progress,  and  devoted 
himself  especially  to  the  study  of  the  works  of 
his  master,  whose  friendship  for  him  became 
quite  paternal.  Czerny  also  profited  much  by 
his  acquaintance  with  Prince  Lichnowsky,  Bee- 
thoven's patron ;  with  Hummel,  whose  playing 
opened  a  new  world  to  him ;  and  with  Clementi, 
whose  method  of  teaching  he  studied.  He  was 
soon  besieged  by  pupils,  to  whom  he  communicated 
the  instruction  he  himself  eagerly  imbibed.  In 
the  meantime  he  studied  composition  with  equal 
ardour.  Czerny  was  always  reluctant  to  perform 
in  public,  and  early  in  life  resolved  never  to 
appear  again,  at  the  same  time  withdrawing 
entirely  from  society.  In  1804  he  made  prepa- 
rations for  a  professional  tour,  for  which  Beetho- 
ven wrote  him  a  flattering  testimonial,  but  the 
state  of  the  continent  obhged  him  to  give  up  the 
idea.  Three  times  only  did  he  allow  himself  to 
travel  for  pleasure,  to  Leipsic  in  1836,  to  Paris 
and  London  in  1837,  and  to  Lombardy  in  1846. 
He  took  no  pupils  but  those  who  showed  special 
talent;  the  rest  of  his  time  he  devoted  to  self- 
culture,  and  to  composition  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  classical  works.  His  first  published  work 
'  20  Variations  concertants '  for  pianoforte  and 
violin  on  a  theme  by  Krumpholz,  appeared  in 
1805.  It  was  not  till  after  his  acquaintance  with 
the  publishers  Cappi  and  Diabelli  that  his  second 
work,  a  'Rondo  Brillante'  for  four  hands  fol- 
lowed (181 8).  From  that  time  he  had  difficulty 
in  keeping  pace  with  the  demands  of  the  pub- 
lishers, and  was  often  compelled  to  write  at 
night  after  giving  10  or  12  lessons  in  the  day. 
From  1816  to  1823  Czerny  had  musical  per- 
formances by  his  best  pupils  at  his  parents'  house 
every  Sunday.  At  these  entertainments  Bee- 
thoven was  often  present,  and  was  so  charmed 
with  the  peaceful  family  life  he  witnessed,  as  to 
propose  living  there  entirely ;  the  project  how- 
ever fell  through  owing  to  the  illness  of  the 
parents.  One  of  Czerny's  most  brilliant  pupils 
was  Ninette  von  Belleville,  then  8  years  old,  who 
in  1816  lived  in  the  house,  and  afterwards  spread 
the  fame  of  her  master  through  the  many  countries 
in  which  she  performed.  She  married  Oury  the 
violinist,  and  settled  in  London.  She  was  fol- 
lowed by  Franz  Liszt,  then  10  years  old,  whose 
father  placed  him  in  Czerny's  hands.  The  boy's 
extraordinary  talent  astonished  his  master,  who 
says  of  him  in  his  autobiography  *  it  was  evident 
at  once  that  Nature  had  intended  him  for  a 
pianist.'  Theodor  Dohler  and  a  host  of  other 
distinguished  pupils  belong  to  a  later  period. 
About  1850  Czerny's  strength  visibly  declined ; 
his  health  gave  way  under  his  never-ceasing 
activity,  and  he  was  compelled  to  lay  aside  his 


426 


CZERNY. 


DA  CAPO. 


indefatigable  pen.  His  active  life  closed  on  July 
15,  1857,  shortly  after  he  had,  with  the  help  of 
his  friend  Dr.  Leopold  von  Sonnleithner,  disposed 
of  his  considerable  fortune  in  a  princely  manner. 
Czerny  was  never  married,  and  had  neither 
brothers,  sisters,  nor  other  near  relations.  He 
was  modest  and  simple  in  his  manner  of  life, 
courteous  and  friendly  in  his  behaviour,  just  and 
kindly  in  his  judgment  on  matters  of  art,  and 
helpful  to  all  young  artists  who  came  in  his  way. 
His  disposition  was  so  gentle  that  he  shrank 
from  a  harsh  or  coarse  word  even  spoken  in  jest, 
which  was  partly  the  cause  of  his  living  so  much 
in  retirement.  His  industry  was  truly  astound- 
ing. Besides  his  numerous  printed  works,  which 
embrace  compositions  of  every  species  for  piano- 
forte he  left  an  enormous  mass  of  MS.,  now  in 
the  archives  of  the  '  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde'  at  Vienna.  These  compositions  com- 
prise 24  masses,  4  requiems,  300  graduales 
and  offertoires,  symphonies,  overtures,  concertos, 
string-trios  and  quartets,  choruses,  songs  for  one 
or  more  voices,  and  even  pieces  for  the  stage. 
His  book  '  Umriss  der  ganzen  Musikgeschichte ' 
was  published  (185 1)  by  Schott  of  Mayence,  and 
in  Italian  by  Ricordi  of  Milan.  His  arrange- 
ments of  operas,  oratorios,  symphonies,  and  over- 
tures for  2  and  4  hands,  and  for  8  hands  on  2 
pianofortes  are  innumerable.  As  a  special  com- 
mission he  arranged  the  overtures  to  *  Semiramide ' 
and  *  Guillaume  Tell '  for  8  pianofortes  four  hands 
each.  An  arrangement  for  pianoforte  of  Beetho- 
ven's 'Leonora,'  which  he  made  in  1805,  was  of 


great  service  in  training  Czerny  for  this  kind  of 
work.  He  says  in  his  Autobiography,  '  It  is  to 
Beethoven's  remarks  on  this  work  that  I  owe  the 
facility  in  arranging  which  has  been  so  useful  to 
me  in  later  life.'  His  printed  compositions 
amount  to  nearly  1000  :  of  which  many  consist 
of  50  numbers  or  even  more.  A  catalogue  con- 
taining op.  1-798,  with  the  arrangements  and  the 
MS.  works,  is  given  in  his  '  School  of  practical 
composition'  (op.  600,  3  vols.  Cocks  and  Co.). 
Czerny 's  pianoforte  compositions  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  scholastic,  solid,  and  brilliant. 
The  best  of  all,  especially  if  we  include  the  earlier 
works,  are  undoubtedly  the  scholastic,  op.  299, 
300j  335j  355>  399'  4°^^  and  500,  published  under 
the  title  '  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical 
Pianoforte  School'  (3  vols.  Cocks).  However 
worthy  of  admiration  Czerny's  industry  may 
be,  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  weakened  his 
creative  powers  by  over-production,  and  the  effect 
has  been  that  the  host  of  lesser  works  have 
involved  the  really  good  ones  in  undeserved 
forgetfulness.  [CP.  P.] 

CZERWENKA,  Joseph,  bom  at  Benadek  in 
Bohemia  1759,  ^^^^  Vienna  1S35,  one  of  the 
finest  oboists  of  his  time.  In  1789  entered  the 
private  band  of  Count  Schafgotsche  at  Johannis- 
berg  in  Silesia.  In  the  following  year  played  in 
Prince  Esterhazy's  band,  under  Haydn,  where 
his  uncle  played  the  bassoon.  In  1 794  he  settled 
in  Vienna  as  solo  oboist  in  the  Imperial  band, 
and  the  Court  Theatre,  and  professor  at  the 
Conservatorium.    He  retired  in  1820.  [M.  C.  C] 


CANTABILE,  i.  e.  singable,  a  direction  placed  against  an  instrumental  phrase  when  it  is  to  be 
'sung'  with  feeling.  Beethoven  does  not  often  use  it,  and  when  he  does  it  is  always  with  special 
intention,  as  in  the  2nd  subject  of  the  Larghetto  of  the  Bb  Symphony,  and  in  the  semiquaver  figure 
in  the  working  out  of  the  first  movement  of  the  9th  Symphony : — 


He  has  before  marked  it  'expressivo' — but  now  it  is  as  if  he  said  'you  may  see  no  special  melody 
in  this  group,  but  /  do,  and  will  have  it  played  accordingly.' 


Cantabilt 

-LJ  

Car 
--f— >— 1 

tabile 

Viol.l  s 

— i-^^  1 

DThe  second  note  of  the  natural  scale.  In 
solfaing  it  is  called  Re.    The  scale  of  D 
•  major  contains  Fj  and  Cj,  and  its  relative 
minor  is  B  ;  that  of  D  minor  contains  Bb,  and  its 
relative  major  is  F.    The  dominant  of  D  is  A. 

Among  the  most  important  compositions  in  D 
major  are  the  Missa  Solennis  and  2nd  Symphony 
of  Beethoven ;  Handel's  Dettingen  Te  Deum ; 


Mozart's  Parisian  Symphony.  In  D  minor  there 
are  a  noble  Toccata  and  Fugue  by  Bach ;  the 
Choral  Symphony,  Schumann's  Do.  No.  4,  Piano* 
forte  Concertos  by  Mendelssohn  and  Brahms,  etc. 

DA  CAPO,  or  D.C.— 'from  the  beginning'— 
is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  second  part  of  an  air, 
or  chorus  ('0  the  pleasure'),  or  scherzo  and  trio, 
or  other  movement  in  two  portions,  to  show  that 


DA  CAPO. 

the  first  portion  is  to  be  played  over  again  as 
a  conclusion.  In  airs  the  direction  is  often  Dal 
Segno — 'from  the  sign' — the  sign  being  a  at 
the  beginning  of  the  first  portion.  In  scherzo8 
and  minuets,  with  trios,  the  direction  at  the  end 
of  the  trio  is  usually  '  Scherzo,  or  Minuetto,  D.C. 
senza  repetizione.'  The  first  known  occurrence 
of  Da  Capo  is  in  Tenaglia's  opera  of  'Clearco' 
(1661), 

DACHSTEIN,  Wolfgang,  Eoman  Catholic 
priest  at  Strassburg,  adopted  the  Keformed  prin- 
ciples in  1524,  married,  and  Ijecame  ricar  and 
organist  of  St.  Thomas's  Church  there.  He  is 
known  chiefly  as  a  composer  of  chorales,  especi- 
ally '  An  Wasserflussen  Babylon.'        [M.  C.  C] 

DACTYL,  a  metrical  'foot'  (-^.v.),  exactly 
ex])ressed  by  the  original  word  5dKTv\os,  a  finger 
— one  long  joint  and  two  short  ones.  A  fine 
example  of  dactyls  in  instrumental  music  is  in 
the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  7th  Sym- 
phony, alterna:ely  with  spondees,  or  alone  : — 


etc. 


DALAYEAC,  Nicolas,  a  celebrated  French 
composer,  was  bom  at  Muret  (Languedoc)  in 
1753.    His  father  occupied  a  high  civil  appoint- 
ment in  his  province,  and  in  spite  of  his  son's 
early  passicn  for  music  destined  him  for  the  bar. 
His  studies  of  the  violin  were  put  a  stop  to,  and 
it  is  said  that  the  young  enthusiast,  in  order  to 
play  without  interruption,  used  every  night  to 
ascend  the  roof  of  the  house.    This  however  in- 
terfered with  the  nocturnal  exercises  of  a  neigh- 
bouring nunnery.    But  the  complaints  of  the 
pious  damsels  addressed  to  his  father  ultimately 
led  to  the  fulfilment  of  young  Dalayrac's  dearest 
wish.    His  aversion  to  the  law  was  considered 
conclusive,  and  he  was  sent  in  1774  to  Paris, 
where  a  commission  in  the  guards  of  the  Count 
of  Artois  had  been  obtained  for  him.    But  the 
love  of  his  art  was  proof  against  the  attraction 
of  a  military  career.    Immediately  on  his  arrival 
in  the  capital  he  took  lessons  in  harmony  from 
Langle,  and  soon  made  his  debut  as  a  dramatic 
composer  with  a  comic  opera  called  'Le  petit 
Souper,'  first  performed  at  the  French  court  in 
1 781.    Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  produced 
in  the  following  year  an  opera,  'L'Eclipse  totale,' 
at  the  Opera  Comique.   This  also  was  successful, 
and  secured  Dalayrac's  position  amongst  the  best 
and  most  fertile  composers  of  his  time.    He  con- 
tinued for  the  remainder  of  his  life  producing 
operas  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  a  year.  Not 
even  the  Eeign  of  Terror  interrupted  or  in  any 
way  influenced  the  inexhaustible  productiveness 
of  his  pen.    Two  of  his  most  charming  operas, 
•  L'actrice  chez  elle'  and  '  Ambroise,  ou  Voila 
ma  joumee,'  bear  the  terrible  date  of  1793.  In 
1 790  he  lost  much  of  his  property,  but  in  spite 
of  this  misfortune  he  refused  to  avail  himself  of 
his  father's  will,  which  excluded  his  younger 
brother  from  a  share  in  the  family  property. 
At   the   beginning   of  the   century  he  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  by 


DALLAM.  427 

■  Napoleon,  and  he  died  in  1S09  at  Paris.  Of  the 
numerous  works  of  Dala\Tac  none  have  sm-vived. 
j  The  titles  of  the  more  important  ones  may  be 
cited  : — 'Le  Corsaire'  (1783),  'L'Amant  Statue' 
(17S5),  'Nina'  (17S6),  'Azemia'  (one  of  his  best 
works,  first  performed  on  May  3,  1787),  'Eaoul 
de  Crequi'  (17S9),  'Fanchette'  (same  year), 
'Adele  et  Dorsan'  (1794"),  'Adolphe  et  Clara' 
(1799),  'Maison  a  vendre'  (iSoo),  'Une  Heure 
de  Marriage'  (1S04),'  Le  Poete  et  le  Musicien' 
(first  pertbrmed  in  I  Si  I,  two  years  after  the 
composer's  death),  and  many  others. 

Ajnongst  the  earlier  composers  of  the  modem 
French  school  of  dramatic  music  Dalayrac  takes 
a  high  position.  To  us  his  means  of  expression 
appear  primitive,  but  considering  the  date  of  his 
earlier  works,  his  skill  in  orchestral  treatment, 
and  his  keen  perception  of  dramatic  effects  and  pro- 
prieties, are  by  no  means  of  a  despicable  order. 
The  opera  comique,  consisting  of  simple  airs  and 
short  ensembles,  was  his  favourite  mode  of  pro- 
duction. Such  a  work  as  the  one-act  operetta 
'Maison  h,  vendre'  is  not  deprived  of  a  certain 
archaic  charm  even  at  the  present  day.  Lise's 
song  'Fiez  vous,'  with  which  it  opens,  a  piece 
of  music  much  affected  by  our  great-grand- 
mothers, is  a  charming  specimen  of  the  French 
romance,  and  the  finale  of  the  same  work  is  re- 
markable for  the  skilful  and  fluent  treatment  of 
the  vocal  parts.  The  same  feature  is  noticeable 
in  his  more  elaborate  compositions,  as  for  instance 
in  the  finale  of  'Azemia,'  which  winds  up  with 
a  charming  bit  of  choral  writing.  It  may  briefly 
be  said  that  Dalayrac's  style  contains,  aJ though 
in  a  somewhat  embryo  n'c  stage,  all  t^e  qualities 
which  have  made  the  French  school  justly  popular 
in  Europe.  He  is  a  unit  amongst  a  galaxy  of 
brilliant  stars.  His  claim  to  remembrance  lies 
perhaps  less  in  his  individual  merits  than  in  the 
fact  that  without  him  and  other  composers  of  his 
t\-pe  and  epoch  there  would  have  been  no  Gretrj-, 
no  Auber,  and  no  Boieldieu.  [F.H.] 
DALLAM  (spelt  also  Dalham,  Dallum,  and 
Dallaxs),  the  name  of  a  family  of  English 
organ-builders  in  the  17th  centur\-.  The  eldest 
was  employed  in  1605-6  to  build  an  organ  for 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  for  which  purpose  he 
closed  his  workshop  in  London  and  removed  his 
whole  establishment  to  Cambridge,  He  and  his 
men  were  lodged  in  the  town,  but  boarded  in  the 
College  Hall.  Dr.  Pumbault  ('History  of  the 
Organ')  gives  a  very  curious  account  of  every 
item  paid  for  building  this  organ.  It  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  time  of  the  Long  Parliament,  but 
the  case,  with  some  alterations,  remains  to  this 
day.  This  Dallam's  Christian  name  does  not 
appear  in  the  college  books,  but  he  is  most  pro- 
bably identical  with  Thomas  Dallam,  who  built 
an  organ  for  Worcester  Cathedral  in  161 3.  The 
three  following  were  probably  his  sons  : — 

Egbert,  bom  1602,  died  1665,  and  buried  in 
the  cloisters  of  New  College,  Oxford,  for  which 
college  he  built  the  organ  ;  but  his  principal  work 
was  that  of  York  Minster,  since  destroyed  by 
fire.  He  also  built  similar  organs  for  the  cathe- 
drals of  St.  Paul  and  Durham. 


428 


DALLAM. 


DAMOREAU. 


Ralph  built  the  organ  for  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor,  at  the  Restoration,  as  well  as  those  at 
Rugby,  Hackney,  and  Lynn  Regis.  The  Windsor 
organ  is  still  preserved  at  St.  Peter' s-in-the-East, 
St.  Alban's.  He  died  while  making  the  organ  at 
Greenwich  Church,  begun  by  him  in  Feb.  1672. 
James  White,  his  partner,  finished  it  1673. 

George  lived  in  Purple  Lane  in  1672,  and  in 
1 686  added  a  '  chaire  organ '  to  Harris's  instru- 
ment in  Hereford  Cathedxal.  [V.deP.] 

DAL  SEGNO,  'from  the  sign,'  or  al  Segno, 
'to  the  sign' ;  the  'sign'  being  a  -S-,  probably  a 
capital  S.  'Da  capo  al  Segno  vS'-'  is  the  full 
direction,  as  at  the  end  of  the  second  part  of  \ 
•Consider,  fond  shepherd'  in  *Acis/  the -iS- being 
in  bar  2  of  the  first  part. 

DAMASCENE,  Alexander,  a  foreigner,  of 
probably  Italian  extraction,  but  French  birth, 
who,  on  June  26,  1682,  obtained  letters  of 
denization  in  England,  was  an  alto  singer.  On 
August  30,  91,  Damascene  was  sworn  in  as  a 
gentleman  extraordinary  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
and  on  the  d«ath  of  Henry  Purcell  in  95  was 
advanced  to  a  full  place.  He  died  July  14, 
1 719.  Damascene  was  a  prolific  song  writer, 
and  many  of  his  compositions  may  be  found  in 
the  following  collections,  viz.  *  Choice  Ayres 
and  Songs,'  1676-84;  '  The  Theatre  of  Musick,' 
1685-87  ;  '  Vinculum  Societatis,'  1687-91  ; 
'The  Banquet  of  Musick,'  1688-92;  'Comes 
Amoris,'  1687-94;  'The  Gentleman's  Journal,' 
1692-94.  [W.H.H.] 

DAME  BLANCHE,  LA.  Opera  comique  in 
3  acts,  founded  on  Scott's  'Monastery' ;  libretto 
by  Scribe,  music  by  Boieldieu  ;  produced  at  the 
Opera  Comique  Dec.  10,  1825;  played  at  the 
same  theatre  for  the  1 000th  time  on  Dec.  16, 
62.  Produced  in  English  as  'The  White  Maid' 
at  Covent  Garden  Jan.  2,  1827.  j 

DAMON,  William,  one  of  the  musicians  to  , 
Queen  Elizabeth,  harmonised  for  the  use  of  a 
friend  the  psalm  tunes  then  in  common  use,  to  ' 
the  number  of  about  forty.    His  friend,  in  1 5  79, 
published  them  under  the  following  title  : — 'H  The  1 
Psalmes   of   David   in   English  Meter  with  ' 
Notes  of  foure  partes  set  unto  them  by  Guilielmo  j 
Damon,  for  John  BuU  [who  is  called  in  the  j 
preface,  'Citezen  and  Goldsmith  of  London  '],  to  , 
the  use  of  the  godly  Christians  for  recreatyng  ' 
themselves  in  stede  of  fond  and  unseemly  Bal-  1 
lades.    At  London,  Printed  by  John  Daye.  j 
Cum  privilegio.'    This  work  seems  to  have  been 
but  ill  received,  and  Damon  set  himself  to  work 
to  reharmonise  the  tunes.    The  new  work  was 
published  in  1 591  with  the  title  of  '  1  The  former 
Booke  of  the  Musicke  of  M.  William  Damon, 
late  one  of  her  Majesties  Musitions,  containing  ; 
all  the  tunes  of  David's  Psalms,  as  they  are 
ordinarily  soung  in  the  Church :  most  excellently 
by  him  composed  into  4  partes.    In  which  sett 
the  Tenor  singeth  the  Church  tune.  Published 
for  the  recreation  of  such  as  delight  in  Musicke  by 
W.  Swayne,  Gent.  Printed  by  T.  Este,  the  assign^ 
of  W.  Byrd,  1591.'    The  work  is  in  two  parts, 
the  second  being  entitled  '  ^  The  second  Booke 


of  the  Musicke  of  M.  William  Damon,  contain- 
ing all  the  Tunes  of  David's  Psabns,  differing 
from  the  former  in  respect  that  the  highest 
part  singeth  the  Church  tune.'  [W.  H.H.] 

DAMOREAU,  Laure  Cinthie  Montalant, 
bom  at  Paris  Feb.  6,  i8oj,  was  admitted  into 
a  vocal  class  at  the  Conservatoire  Nov.  28,  1808. 
She  made  quick  progress,  and  soon  began  to 
study  the  piano.  In  18 14  she  left  the  piano- 
class  to  enter  that  of  vocalisation.  She  began 
her  career  by  giving  some  concerts  which  were 
not  successful.  Engaged  at  the  The'atre  Italien 
in  second  parts  at  the  age  of  18,  Mile.  Cinti, 
as  she  now  called  herself,  made  her  first  appear- 
ance as  Cherubino  in  'Le  Nozze.'  She  played 
the  part  with  great  charm  and  grace,  but  her 
time  was  not  yet  come.  It  was  not  till  182 1 
that  she  attempted  principal  parts.  In  22  she 
was  engaged  by  Ebers  for  the  London  opera,  at 
a  salary  of  £500.  She  was  young  and  pretty, 
her  manners  pleasing  and  elegant,  and  her  acting 
correct  and  imaffected,  if  not  forcible ;  but  her 
voice  was  not  strong  enough  for  the  size  of  the 
theatre,  and  she  created  little  sensation.  She 
returned  to  Paris,  where  she  soon  began  to  take 
a  higher  place ;  her  salaiy  was  raised,  and  the 
arrival  of  Rossini  was  a  fortunate  event  for  her. 
She  made  her  d^but  at  the  Grand  Op^ra  Feb. 
24,  1826,  in  'Fernand  Cortez,'  and  her  success 
was  complete.  Rossini  wrote  for  her  the  prin- 
cipal female  parts  in  the  'Siege  de  Corinthe' 
and  'Mo'ise,'  which  contributed  to  her  reputation. 
In  consequence,  however,  of  some  misunder- 
standing with  the  management,  Cinti  quitted  the 
theatre  abruptly  in  27,  and  went  to  Brussels, 
where  she  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 
Concessions  having  been  made  she  returned  to 
Paris  ;  but,  before  leaving  Brussels,  was  married 
to  Damoreau,  an  unsuccessful  actor.  This  union 
was  not  happy.  Returned  to  Paris  she  resumed 
her  career,  singing  in  'La  Muette  de  Portici,' 
'Le  Comte  Ory,'  'Robert  le  Liable,'  and  'Le 
Serment,'  in  each  more  excellent  than  before. 
In  29  she  took  part,  with  Sontag  and  Malibran, 
in  the  '  Matrimonio  Segreto.'  Never  was  there 
a  more  brilliant  combination ;  nor  did  Cinti 
sujffer  by  comparison.  Fetis  boldly  declares  that 
she  now  became  one  of  the  best  singers  the 
world  has  known.  In  32  she  came  over  with  a 
French  company,  and  sang  at  Covent  Garden  in 
Meyerbeer's  'Robert  le  Liable.'  Her  engage- 
ment was  not  renewed  in  1835,  and  she  was 
gladly  welcomed  at  the  Op^ra  Comique,  where 
Auber  v^ote  for  her  such  works  as  the  '  Domino 
noir,'  'L'Ambassadrice,'  and  'Zanetta.'  Cinti 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1843,  sang  again  in 
London  in  that  year,  then  at  the  Hague,  at 
Ghent  in  1845,  at  St.  Petersburg,  at  Brussels  in 
1 846,  and  made  a  tour  in  the  United  States  with 
the  violinist  Artot.  In  1834  she  had  been  ap- 
pointed professor  of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire 
in  Paris ;  this  place  she  resigned  in  1856,  and 
retired  to  Chantilly,  and  died  in  1863. 
.  Mme.  Cinti  published  an  'Album  de  romances,' 
and  a  few  separate  pieces.  She  \vrote  also  a 
*  Mdthode  de  chant,'  dedicated  to  her  pupils. 


DAMOREAU. 


DANKERTS. 


420 


Her  son  died  at  an  early  age  after  distinguishing 
himself  by  some  vocal  compositions  ;  and  her 
daughter,  a  singer,  married  M.Weckerlin.  [J.  M.] 
DAMPER  (Fr.  VEtouffoir;  Ital.  Saltarello, 
Spegnitoio,  or  Smorzo  ;  Ger.  Dampfer),  that  part 
of  the  action  of  a  pianoforte  contrived  to  stop 
the  vibration  of  the  strings  belonging  to  a  note 
when  the  finger  is  raised  from  the  key.    It  com- 
prises several  folds  or  thicknesses  of  cloth  or  soft 
felt,  elevated  upon  a  wire  upright,  which  rest 
upon  or  press  upwards  against  the  strings  when 
the  key  is  not  touched,  but  quit  the  strings  when 
I  the  key  is  pressed  down.    The  pedal  movement 
I  connected  with  the  dampers  removes  them  col- 
!  lectively  from  the  strings,  and  so  long  as  the 
i  pedal  is  pressed  down  the  instrument  has  virtually 
no  dampers,  the  strings  continuing  to  sound  until 
their  vibrations  cease.    There  are  no  dampers  to 
I  the  treble  notes,  as  the  duration  of  vibration  in 
I  this  part  of  the  scale  is  too  short  to  need  arresting. 
[See  Pianoforte.]  ^  [A.  J.H.] 

DANBY,  John,  bom  1757,  one  of  the  most 
:  distinguished  glee  composers    Between  178 1  and 
94  he  obtained  ten  prizes  from  the  Catch  Club 
1  for  eight  glees  and  two  canons.    He  published 
;  three  books  of  his  compositions,  and  a  fourth 
t  was  issued  after  his  decease.    In  1787  he  pub- 
lished an  elementary  work  entitled  'La  Guida 
alia  Musica  Vocale.'    He  held  the  appointment 
of  organist  at  the  chapel  of  the  Spanish  embassy, 
near  Manchester  Square,  for  the  service  of  which 
he  composed  some  masses  and  motets.    He  died 
May  16,  1798,  during  the  performance  of  a  con- 
cert which  his  friends  had  got  up  for  his  benefit, 
■  he  having  long  lost  the  use  of  his  limbs  by 
having  been  placed  in  a  damp  bed  at  an  inn. 
He  was  buried  in  Old  St.  Pancras  churchyard, 
where  an  altar  tomb  was  raised  to  his  memory. 
His  fine  glee,  'Awake,  ^olian  lyre ! '  will  not  soon 
be  forgotten.  [W.H.H.] 
DANCE   MUSIC.    Music  designed  as  an 
accompaniment  to  dancing,  national,  social  or 
on  the  stage — the  ballet ;  also  music  written  in 
dance  rhythms  though  not  for  dancing  purposes, 
such  as  the  Polonaises  of  Beethoven,  Weber, 
and  Chopin  ;  Schulhoff 's  '  Valses  de  Concert,' 
Liszt's  '  Galop  Chromatique.' 

The  music  of  the  individual  dance  tunes  has  been 
examined  under  the  separate  heads  of  Allemande, 
Bolero,  Courante,  Gigue,  Minuet,  Waltz,  etc. 
The  influence  of  the  dance  on  music  in  general, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  gradually  communi- 
cated the  rhythm  and  accent  which  are  its  very 
essence  to  the  unrhythmical  and  unaccented 
strains  of  church  music,  and  thus  built  up  the 
fabric  of  modern  composition,  will  be  examined 
under  the  head  of  Rhythm.  The  more  direct 
and  material  connexion  between  the  Suite — 
a  mere  string  of  dances  in  one  key — and  the 
modem  Sonata  and  Symphony,  which  grew  out 
of  the  Suite,  will  be  most  conveniently  discussed 
under  the  last-named  headings. 

DANCE,  William.    An  English  musician 
whose  name  deserves  preservation  as  one  of  the 
\  founders  of  the  Philharmonic  Society.    He  was 


born  in  1755,  was  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Opera 
from  1775  to  93,  and  led  the  band  at  the  Handel 
Commemoration  of  1 790  in  the  absence  of  Cramer. 
He  died  full  of  years  and  credit  in  1840.  The 
circular  proposing  the  meeting  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Philharmonic,  was  issued  by 
'  Messrs.  Cramer,  Corri,  and  Dance,'  from  Mr. 
Dance's  house,  1 7  Manchester  Street,  on  Sunday, 
Jan.  17,  1 81 3.  He  was  afterwards  one  of  the 
Directors,  and  Treasurer.  His  son  Henry  was 
secretary  to  the  society  for  the  first  year,  181 3, 

DANDO,  Joseph  Haydon  Bourne,  was  born 
in  Somers  Town  in  1806.  At  an  early  age  he 
commenced  the  study  of  the  violin  under  his 
uncle,  Signor  Brandi.  In  18 19  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Mori,  with  whom  he  continued  about 
seven  years.  In  1 831  he  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  Philharmonic  orchestra.  For  many  years 
he  filled  the  post  of  leader  of  the  bands  of  the 
Classical  Harmonists  and  Choral  Harmonists 
Societies  (both  now  extinct),  whose  concerts 
were  given  in  the  City.  Dando  was  the  first 
to  introduce  public  performances  of  instrumental 
quartets.  It  is  true  that  in  the  earlier  days  of 
the  Philharmonic  Society  a  quartet  occasionally 
formed  part  of  the  programme,  but  no  concerts 
consisting  exclusively  of  quartets  had  before 
been  given.  The  occasion  on  which  the  experi- 
ment was  first  tried  was  a  benefit  concert  got  up 
by  Dando  at  the  Hom  Tavem,  Doctors'  Com- 
mons, on  23rd  Sept.  1835.  The  programme  was 
entirely  composed  of  quartets,  trios,  etc.  The 
experiment  proved  so  successful  that  two  more 
similar  concerts  were  given  in  October,  each 
proving  more  attractive  than  its  precursor. 
Dando  then  formed  a  party  consisting  of  Henry 
Blagrove,  Henry  Gattie,  Charles  Lucas,  and 
himself,  to  give  regular  series  of  Quartet  Con- 
certs, and  they  commenced  their  enterprise 
on  March  17,  1836,  at  the  Hanover  Square 
Rooms.  They  continued  their  performances 
annually  until  42,  when  Blagrove  seceded  from 
the  party,  upon  which  Dando  assumed  the  first 
violin,  the  viola  being  placed  in  the  hands  of 
John  Loder.  Thus  constituted  they  removed  to 
Crosby  Hall,  where  they  continued  until  the 
deaths  of  Gattie  and  Loder  in  53  broke  up 
the  party.  Dando  occupied  a  prominent  position 
in  all  the  best  orchestras  until  75,  when  the 
fingers  of  his  left  hand  becoming  crippled  he  was 
compelled  to  desist  from  performing.  During 
his  long  career  he  has  ever  shown  himself  an  ex- 
cellent violinist  and  amiable  man.  [W.H.H.] 

DANIEL,  Hermann  Adalbert,  a  German 
theologian,  born  181 2  at  Cothen  near  Dessau, 
professor  in  the  University  of  Halle.  His 
'Thesaurus  Hymnologicus '  (5  vols.  Loschke, 
Leipsic)  is  a  valuable  work  on  the  history  of 
early  church  music  and  collection  of  hymns. 

[M.C.C.] 

DANKERTS,  Ghiselain,  a  native  of  Tholen 
in  Zeeland,  and  a  singer  in  the  Papal  Chapel  in 
,the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  An  eight-part 
motet  of  his  composition,  '  Laetamini  in  Domino,' 
is  included  in  Uhlard's  *  Concentus  octo  .  .  . 


430 


DANKERTS. 


DAEGOMYSKI. 


vocum'  (Augsburg  1545),  and  a  six-part  motet 
*Tua  est  potentia'  in  the  '  Selectissimse  cantiones 
ultra  centum'  (Augsburg  1540).  Also  two  books 
of  madrigals  for  4,  5,  and  6  voices  were  published 
by  Gardano  (Venice  1559). 

Notwithstanding  the  new  school  of  composers, 
already  well  established  in  Rome,  with  Costanzo 
Festa,  Arcadelt,  etc.  at  its  head,  there  were  still 
many  conservative  musicians  in  that  city,  and 
Dankerts  was  one  of  them,  who  adhered  strictly 
to  the  old  Netherland  school,  and  remained  un- 
influenced by  the  new  art  that  had  grown  up 
around  them.  He  gained  great  celebrity  as  judge 
in  the  dispute  between  two  ecclesiastical  musicians, 
Vicentino  and  Lusitano,  upon  the  nature  of  the 
scales  on  which  the  music  of  their  time  was 
constructed.  Dankerts  was  obliged  to  defend  his 
verdict  against  Vicentino,  in  a  learned  and  ex- 
haustive treatise  on  the  matter  in  dispute,  the 
original  MS.  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Valli- 
cellan  library  at  Rome.  A  full  account  of  this 
controversy  is  given  by  Hawkins.      [J.  R.S.B.] 

DANNELEY,  John  Feltham,  born  at  Oak- 
ingham  in  1786,  was  the  second  son  of  a  lay- 
clerk  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  At 
fifteen  years  of  age  he  studied  thorough  bass 
under  Samuel  Webbe,  and  the  pianoforte  first 
under  Charles  Knyvett  and  afterwards  under 
Charles  Neate.  He  resided  with  his  mother  at 
Odiham  until  he  reached  his  twenty-sixth  year, 
when  he  established  himself  at  Ipswich  as  a 
teacher  of  music,  and  in  a  few  years  became 
organist  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Tower 
in  that  town.  In  1816  he  visited  Paris,  and 
studied  under  Antoine  Reicha.  Danneley  pub- 
lished in  1825  'An  Encyclopaedia,  or.  Dictionary 
of  Music,'  and  in  1826  'A  Musical  Grammar.' 
He  died  in  London  in  1836.  [W.H.H.] 

DANNREUTHER,  Edward,  bom  Nov.  4, 
1844,  at  Strassburg,  When  five  years  old  was 
taken  to  Cincinnati,  U.  S.,  where  he  learned 
music  from  F.  L.  Ritter.  In  59  entered  the 
Conservatorium  at  Leipzig,  and  remained  there 
till  63,  under  Moscheles,  Hauptmann,  and  Rich- 
ter.  His  career  was  very  brilliant,  and  he  held 
all  the  scholarships  of  the  Conservatorium.  From 
Leipzig  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  has 
since  resided  (excepting  two  professional  visits 
to  the  United  States),  and  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
minent musicians  of  the  metropolis,  well  known 
as  a  pianoforte-player  and  teacher,  litterateur  and 
lecturer,  and  a  strong  supporter  of  progress  in 
music.  He  is  especially  known  as  the  friend  and 
champion  of  Wagner.  He  founded  the  Wagner 
Society  in  1872,  and  conducted  its  two  series  of 
concerts  in  73  and  74.  He  was  also  a  warm 
promoter  of  the  'Wagner  Festival'  in  1877, 
translated  his  'Music  of  the  Future'  (Schott 
1872),  and  received  Wagner  in  his  house  during 
his  stay  in  London.  He  was  the  first  to  play  the 
concertos  of  Liszt  and  Tschaikowsky  (Crystal 
Palace,  Jan.  27,  72;  Nov.  21,  74;  March  11,  76). 

But  while  Mr.  Dannreuther  is  an  earnest 
apostle  of  the  new  school,  he  is  no  less  zealous 
for  the  old,  as  the  range  of  the  programmes  of  his 


well-known  chamber  concerts,  bis  own  able  in- 
terpretations of  Bach  and  Beethoven,  his  lectures 
on  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  Chopin,  his  article 
on  Beethoven  in  Macmillan  s  Magazine  (July, 
76),  and  other  acts  and  words  abundantly  prove. 
He  has  not  yet  published  any  music. 

DANZI,  Feancesca.  See  Lebrun",  Madame. 

DANZI,  Franz,  composer  and  violoncellist, 
bom  at  Mannheim  1763,  studied  chiefly  under  his 
father,  first  violoncellist  to  the  Elector  Palatine, 
and  in  composition  under  the  Abbe  Vogler. 
At  1 5  he  was  admitted  into  the  Elector's  band. 
In  1778  the  band  was  transferred  to  Munich, 
and  there  Danzi  produced  his  first  opera  'Aza- 
kiah '  in  1 780,  which  was  followed  by  *  Der 
Kuss,'  'Iphigenia,'  and  others.  In  1790  he 
married  Marguerite  Marchand,  a  distinguished 
singer,  and  in  the  following  year  started  with 
her  on  a  professional  tour  which  lasted  six  years. 
At  Prague  and  Leipsic  he  conducted  the  per- 
formances by  Guardassoni's  Italian  company, 
and  his  wife  was  especially  successful  in  the 
parts  of  Susanna  in  'Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,'  and 
Caroline,  and  Nina,  in  '  II  Matrimonio  Segreto.' 
They  were  also  favourably  received  in  Italy, 
especially  at  Venice  and  Florence.  In  1797 
they  returned  to  Munich,  where  Mdme.  Danzi 
died  in  1799.  Her  husband  soon  after  resigned 
his  post  of  vice -chapel -master  to  the  Elector. 
In  1807  he  was  appointed  chapel-master  to  the 
King  of  Wiirtemberg,  but  was  soon  compelled 
to  leave  Stuttgart  on  account  of  the  political 
changes  in  that  part  of  Germany.  He  then 
became  chapel -master  at  Carlsruhe,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death  in  1826.  He  composed 
1 1  operas,  besides  a  mass  of  orchestral,  chamber, 
and  church  music.  For  list  see  Fetis.  None  pf 
it  has  survived.  He  was  a  sound  musician,  but 
strained  too  much  after  orchestral  effects.  He 
was  an  excellent  teacher  of  singing,  and  his  '  Sing- 
ing Exercises'  were  used  for  long  after  his  death 
and  form  his  most  permanent  work.  [M.C.C.] 

DARGOMYSKI,  Alexander  Sergoyitch, 
Russian  noble  and  composer,  bom  181 3  near 
Toula,  Smolensk.  He  early  manifested  a  taste 
for  music,  and  at  seven  composed  little  sonatas 
etc.  for  the  pianoforte.  He  afterwards  leamt  the 
violin,  and  studied  harmony  and  counterpoint 
under  Schoberlechner.  In  1830  he  appeared  with 
great  success  in  Petersburg  as  a  pianist,  and 
in  31  received  an  appointment  in  the  Emperor's 
household,  but  in  35  gave  it  up,  and  devoted 
himself  for  eight  years  to  severe  study.  His 
intimate  friendship  with  Glinka  and  v%dth  the 
dramatic  poet  Kukolnik  were  of  great  service  to 
him.  In  1845  he  visited  Gemiany,  Brussels,  and 
Paris.  In  1847  he  produced  in  Moscow,  with 
brilliant  success,  an  opera  'Esmeralda,'  libretto 
from  Victor  Hugo's  'Notre  Dame  de  Paris,'  which 
he  had  composed  in  1838,  and  which  was  re- 
peated in  Petersburg.  Besides  'Esmeralda,' 
'Rusalka'  (Petersburg  1856),  and  'Kozacek,* 
which  have  kept  their  place  on  the  stage,  his 
published  works  consist  of  60  songs  with  piano- 
forte accompaniment ;  variations,  fantasies,  etc. 


DARGOMYSKI. 


DAUVEEGNEE.  431 


for  pianoforte,  and  orchestral  dance  music.  He 
died  Jan.  17,  1868,  while  at  work  on  an  opera 
by  Pu-shkin,  called  'Kamenyi  goat'  (Don  Juan), 
and,  besides  the  operas  named,  left  an  immense 
number  of  orchestral  works.  His  melodies  are 
noble  and  poetical,  but  his  composition  is  more 
distinguished  for  grace  than  force.  As  a  pianist 
he  was  remarkable  for  the  facility  with  which  he 
accompanied  at  sight.  [M.C.C.] 

DASH.  The  sign  of  staccato,  written  thus  ( T ), 
and  placed  under  or  over  a  note  to  indicate  that 
the  duration  of  the  sound  is  to  be  as  short  as 
possible,  the  value  of  the  note  being  completed 
by  an  interval  of  silence  ;  for  example — 
Written  Perfm-med 

A  round  dot  {')  \^  also  used  for  a  similar  purpose, 
but  with  this  difference,  that  notes  marked  with 
dots  should  be  less  staccato  than  those  with 
dashes,  being  shortened  about  one  half,  thus — 
Written  Performed 


^1 

This  distinction,  which  is  enforced  by  all  the 
most  celebrated  teachers  of  modem  times,  such 
as  dementi,  Czemy,  and  others,  is,  strange  to 
say,  often  ignored  by  modem  editors  of  classical 
compositions,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in  such 
valuable  and  conscientious  editions  of  Beethoven's 
works  as  those  of  Von  Biilow  ( *  Instructive  Aus- 
gabe ' ;  Cotta,  Stuttgart),  Pauer  (Augener  &  Co. 
London),  and  others,  only  one  sign  should  have 
been  employed  for  the  two  effects.  That  Bee- 
thoven himself  considered  the  distinction  of 
importance  is  proved  by  various  corrections  by 
his  hand  of  the  orchestral  parts  of  the  7th 
symphony,  still  extant,  and  also  by  a  letter 
written  in  1825  to  Carl  Holz,  in  which  he  ex- 
pressly insists  that  *|i  p  |»  and  j»  |a  ^  is  not  a 
matter  of  indifference.'  See  Nottebohm's  '  Bee- 
thoveniana,'  No,  xxv,  in  which  extracts  are  given 
from  several  of  Beethoven's  works,  with  the  signs 
of  staccato  as  originally  marked  by  himself  And 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  every  effort  ought  to 
be  made,  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  Beethoven, 
to  ascertain  what  were  the  intentions  of  the 
composer  on  a  point  so  essential  to  correct 
phrasing,  [F,  T.] 

DAUBLAINE  ET  CALLINET,  Organ 
builders  established  in  Paris  in  1838  as  Daublaine 
&  Cie.  In  39  the  firm  was  joined  by  Louis 
Callinet,  member  of  an  old  Alsatian  family  of 
organ  builders.  But  he  brought  bad  fortune  to 
the  house,  for  in  43  or  44,  in  a  fit  of  rage,  excited 
by  some  dispute,  Callinet  destroyed  all  the  work 

hich  he  and  his  partners  had  just  added  to  the 

J  an  at  St.  Sulpice,  After  this  feat  he  retired 
Cavaille's  factory  as  a  mere  journeyman, 

vUKER  then  took  the  lead  at  Daublaine's  and 
.  iider  him  the  S,  Eustache  organ  was  built,  to  be 
ilt'stroyed  by  fire  in  45.    The  same  year  the  firm 


became  Ducroquet  &  Cie;  they  built  a  new 
organ  at  S,  Eustache,  and  exhibited  at  Hyde 
Park  in  51,  obtaining  a  council  medal  and  the 
decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  55 
Ducroquet  was  succeeded  by  a  Soci^te  anonyme, 
and  that  again  by  Merklin,  Schiitze,  et  Cie. 
The  business  is  now  carried  on  by  Merklin  alone, 
whose  principal  factory  is  at  Lyons,  with  a 
branch  in  Paris.  [V.deP.] 

DAUGHTER  OF  ST.  MARK,  THE.  An 
opera  in  3  acts,  founded  on  '  La  reine  de  Chypre,' 
words  by  Bunn,  music  by  Balfe ;  produced  at 
Drury  Lane  Nov.  2  7,  1 844. 

DAUNEY,  William,  son  of  William  Dauney 
of  Falmouth,  Jamaica,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
the  year  1800.  He  commenced  his  education  at 
Dulwich,  and  completed  it  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  On  June  13,  1823,  he  was  called 
to  the  Scottish  bar.  He  found  in  the  A  dvocates' 
Library  at  Edinburgh  a  MS.  collection  of  music, 
\\'ritten  between  1614  1^20  and  known  as  the 
Skene  Manuscript.  It  consists  of  114  English  and 
Scottish  ballad,  song,  and  dance  tunes,  written  in 
tableture.  This  manuscript  Dauney  deciphered 
and  published  in  1838  in  a  4to  vol.  under  the  title 
of  'Ancient  Scottish  Melodies  from  a  manu- 
script of  the  reign  of  James  VI,'  He  accompanied 
it  with  a  long  and  ably  written  'Dissertation 
illustrative  of  the  history  of  the  music  of  Scot- 
land,' and  some  interesting  documents.  The 
work  is  valuable  as  showing  the  (probably) 
earliest  versions  of  such  tunes  as  'The  flowers 
of  the  forest,'  'John  Anderson  my  jo,'  'Adieu, 
Dundee,'  etc.  Shortly  after  1838  Dauney  quitted 
Scotland  for  Demerara,  where  he  became  Soli- 
citor General  for  British  Guiana.  He  died  at 
Demerara,  July  28,  1843.  [W.H.H.] 

DAUVERGNE,  Antoine,  violin-player  and 
composer,  bom  at  Clermont-Ferrand  in  1713. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  leader  of  the  band 
at  Clermont,  In  1739  he  went  to  Paris  to  com- 
plete his  studies,  and  very  soon  played  with 
success  at  the  Concert  spirituel  and  entered  the 
band  of  the  King  and  of  the  Opera.  It  is  how- 
ever more  as  a  composer  of  operas  than  as  a 
violin-player  that  Dauvergne  claims  our  attention. 
Up  to  his  time  an  opera  comique  meant  merely 
a  vaudeville,  a  comic  play  interspersed  with 
couplets.  In  his  first  opera,  'Les  Troqueurs,' 
Dauvergne  adopted  the  forms  of  the  Italian 
intermezzi,  retaining  however  spoken  dialogue 
in  place  of  recitative,  and  thereby  introduced 
that  class  of  dramatic  works,  in  which  French 
composers  have  ever  since  been  so  eminently 
successful.  Dauvergne  wrote  15  operas  in  all. 
Fetis  also  enumerates  15  motets  of  his  com- 
position, trios  for  two  violins  and  bass  (1740), 
sonatas  for  the  violin,  and  two  sets  of  symphonies 
in  four  parts  (1750). 

In  1755  Dauvergne  bought  the  appointment 
of  composer  to  the  king  and  the  next  pre- 
sentation as  master  of  the  band.  From  1751 
he  conducted  the  Opera,  and  from  1762  the 
Concert  spirituel ;  and  finally,  with  some  inter- 
ruptions, became  manager  of  the  Opera.  He 


432  DAVID,  r^LICIEN. 


DAVID,  F^LICIEN. 


retired  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  and 
died  at  Lyons  in  1797. 

DAVID,  Felicien,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  French  composers,  was  born  March  8,  18 10, 
at  Cadenet,  in  the  south  of  France.  His  father 
was  an  accomplished  musical  amateur,  and  it 
is  said  that  Felicien  at  the  mature  age  of  two 
evinced  his  musical  taste  by  shouts  of  applause 
at  his  father's  performances  on  the  fiddle.  At 
the  age  of  four  the  boy  was  able  to  catch  a  tune. 
Two  years  later  Gamier,  first  oboe  at  the  Paris 
Opera,  happened  to  hear  the  child  sing,  and 
strongly  advised  his  mother  to  cultivate  Felicien's 
talent.  Soon  afterwards  the  family  removed  to 
Aix,  where  David  attended  the  Maitrise  (school) 
du  Saint  Sauveur,  and  became  a  chorister  at  the 
cathedral.  He  is  said  to  have  composed  hynms, 
motets,  and  other  works  at  this  early  period,  and 
a  quartet  for  strings,  written  at  the  age  of  13,  is 
still  preserved  at  the  Maitrise.  In  1825  he  went 
to  the  Jesuit  college  at  Aix  to  complete  his 
studies.  Here  he  continued  his  music,  and  ac- 
quired some  skill  on  the  violin.  He  also  de- 
veloped an  astonishing  memory  for  music,  which 
enabled  him  to  retain  many  pieces  by  Mozart, 
Haydn,  Cherubini,  and  Lesueur,  by  heart. 
When  he  left  the  college,  at  the  age  of  18,  want 
of  means  compelled  him  to  enter  the  office  of 
his  sister's  husband,  a  lawyer,  but  he  soon 
afterv\'ards  accepted  the  appointment  of  second 
conductor  at  the  Aix  theatre,  which  he  occupied 
till  1829,  when  the  position  of  maitre  de  chapelle 
at  St.  Sauveur  was  offered  to  him.  During  the 
one  year  he  occupied  this  place  he  wrote  several 
compositions  for  the  choir  of  the  church ;  one  of 
these,  a  'Beatus  Vir,'  afterwards  excited  the  ad- 
miration of  Cherubini. 

In  1830  David  went  to  Paris  to  finish  his 
musical  education.  He  had  a  small  allowance 
from  his  uncle,  but  his  wants  were  moderate  and 
his  enthusiasm  great.  Cherubini  received  him 
kindly,  and  under  his  auspices  David  entered  the 
Conservatoire,  and  studied  harmony  under  Millot. 
He  also  took  private  lessons  from  Eeber,  and 
thus  accomplished  his  course  of  harmony  within 
six  months.  He  then  entered  the  class  of  Fetis 
for  counterpoint  and  fugue.  An  'Ave  verum' 
composed  at  this  time  proves  his  successful  ad- 
vance. On  the  withdrawal  of  his  allowance 
David  had  to  support  himself  by  giving  lessons. 
At  the  same  period  he  narrowly  escaped  the  con- 
scription. 

In  1 83 1  we  have  to  date  an  important  event  in 
our  composer's  life,  viz.  his  joining  the  St.  Si- 
moniens.  David  lived  for  some  time  in  the  kind 
of  convent  presided  over  by  the  Pfere  Enfantin, 
and  to  his  music  were  sung  the  hymns  which 
preceded  and  accompanied  the  religious  and 
domestic  occupations  of  the  brethren.  When, 
in  1833,  the  brotherhood  was  dissolved,  David 
joined  a  small  group  of  the  dispersed  members, 
who  travelled  south,  and  were  received  with  en- 
thusiasm by  their  co-religionists  at  Lyons  and 
Marseilles.  The  music  fell  to  our  composer's 
share,  and  several  of  his  choruses  were  received 
with  great  applause. 


At  Marseilles  David  embarked  for  the  East, 
where  he  remained  for  several  years,  at  Constan- 
tinople, Smyrna,  Egypt,  and  the  Holy  Land. 
The  impressions  thus  received  were  of  lasting 
influence  on  his  talent.  He  managed  wherever 
he  went  to  take  with  him  a  piano,  the  gift  of  an 
admiring  manufacturer  at  Lyons.  Soon  after  his 
return,  in  1835,  he  published  a  collection  of 
•Melodies  orientales'  for  piano.  In  spite  of  the 
melodious  charm  and  exquisite  workmanship  of 
these  pieces  they  met  with  total  neglect,  and  the 
disappointed  composer  left  Paris  for  several  years, 
and  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Igny,  rarely 
visiting  the  capital.  Two  symphonies,  24  quin- 
tets for  strings,  several  nonets  for  wind,  and 
numerous  songs  (one  of  which  latter,  '  Les  Hiron- 
delles,'  was  at  one  time  very  popular  in  England) 
belong  to  this  period.  One  of  his  symphonies, 
in  F,  was  in  1838  performed  at  the  Valentino 
concerts,  but  without  success.  In  1841  David 
again  settled  in  Paris,  and  his  name  began  to 
become  more  familiar  to  the  public,  owing  to  the 
rendering  of  some  of  his  songs  by  M.  Walter,  the 
tenor.  But  his  chief  fame  is  founded  on  a  work 
of  very  different  import  and  dimensions — his 
*Ode-symphonie'  'Le  Desert,'  in  which  he  has 
embodied  the  impressions  of  his  life  in  the  East, 
and  which  was  produced  Dec.  8,  1844.  The 
form  of  this  composition  is  difficult  to  define. 
Berlioz  might  have  called  it  a  'melologue.'  It 
consists  of  three  parts  subdivided  into  several 
vocal  and  orchestral  movements,  each  introduced 
by  some  lines  of  descriptive  recitation.  The 
subject  is  the  mighty  desert  itself,  with  all  its 
gloom  and  grandeur.  On  this  background  is 
depicted  a  caravan  in  various  situations,  singing 
a  hymn  of  fanatic  devotion  to  Allah,  battling 
with  the  simoom,  and  resting  in  the  evening 
by  the  fountain  of  the  oasis.  Whatever  one's 
abstract  opinion  of  programme  music  may  be, 
one  cannot  help  recognising  in  the  'Desert'  a 
highly  remarkable  work  of  its  kind.  The  vast 
monotony  of  the  sandy  plain,  indicated  by  the 
reiterated  C  in  the  introduction,  the  opening 
prayer  to  Allah,  the  '  Danse  des  Almees,'  the 
chant  of  the  Muezzin,  founded  on  a  genuine 
Arabic  melody — are  rendered  with  a  vividness 
of  descriptive  power  rarely  equalled  by  much 
greater  musicians.  David,  indeed,  is  almost  the 
only  composer  of  his  country  who  can  lay  claim 
to  genuine  local  colour.  His  Arabs  are  Arabs, 
not  Frenchmen  in  disguise. 

The  'Desert'  was  written  in  three  months. 
It  was  the  product  of  spontaneous  inspiration, 
and  to  this  circumstance  its  enormous  success  is 
mainly  ascribable.  None  of  Davdd's  subsequent 
works  have  approached  it  in  popularity.  'Le 
Desert'  was  followed,  in  46,  by  'Moise  au  Sinai,' 
an  oratorio  written  in  Germany,  where  David 
had  gone  on  a  concert-tour,  and  where  he  met 
with  much  enthusiasm  not  unmixed  with  adverse 
criticism.  '  Moise,'  originally  destined  for  Vienna, 
was  performed  in  Paris,  its  success  compared 
with  that  of  its  predecessor  being  a  decided  anti- 
climax. The  next  work  is  a  second  descriptive 
symphony,  'Christophe  Colomb'  (1847),  and  its 


DAVID,  F^iLICIEN. 


DAVID,  FERDINAND.  433 


success  again  was  anything  but  brilliant.  '  Eden, 
a  Mystery,'  was  first  performed  at  the  Opera  in 
48,  but  failed  to  attract  attention  during  that 
stormy  political  epoch.  His  first  genuine  success 
since  1844  David  achieved  with  an  opera  comique, 
*La  Perle  du  Bresil'  (1S51).  His  remaining 
dramatic  works  are  *  La  Fin  du  Monde'  (in  four 
acts,  never  performed),  'Herculanum'  (serious 
opera  in  four  acts;  1859  at  the  Opera 'Lalla 
Rouldi'  (two  acts;  1862),  and  'Le  Saphir'  (in 
three  acts;  1865  both  at  the  Opera  Comique). 
Another  dramatic  work,  *La  Captive,'  was  in 
rehearsal,  but  was  withdrawn  by  the  composer 
for  reasons  unknown. 

David's  power  as  an  operatic  writer  seems  to 
lie  more  in  happy  delineation  of  character  than 
in  dramatic  force.  Hence  his  greater  success 
with  comedy  than  with  tragedy.  '  Lalla  Roukh' 
particularly  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  felicitous 
expression,  and  easy  but  never  trivial  melodious- 
ness. Here  again  his  power  of  rendering  musically 
the  national  type  and  the  local  surroundings  of 
his  characters  becomes  noticeable.  This  power 
alone  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  distinguished 
position  he  holds.  As  to  his  final  place  in  the 
history  of  his  art  it  would  be  prematm-e  to  give 
a  definite  opinion.  Felicien  David  died  on  Aug. 
29, 1876.  Since  his  death  several  of  his  works — 
*Le  Desert'  and  'LaUa  Roukh'  amongst  the 
number — have  been  revived  with  much  success 
in  Paris,  and  his  quartets  are  now  (1877)  being 
played. 

An  essay  on  David's  life  and  works  up  to 
1854  is  found  in  the  collection  called  Mirecourt's 
•Contemporains.'  For  the  earlier  part  of  his  life 
a  brochure  (Biographie  de  F.  David,  Marseilles, 
1845,  out  of  print),  by  M.  Saint-Etienne,  is  a 
valuable  source.  [F.  H.] 

DAVID,  Ferdinand,  one  of  the  best  and 
most  influential  violin -players  and  teachers  of 
Germany;  born  at  Hamburg  Jan.  19,  1810. 
His  musical  talent  showed  itself  very  early,  and, 
after  two  years  study  at  Cassel  in  1823  and  1824 
under  Spohr  and  Hauptmann,  he  entered,  when 
stiU  a  mere  boy,  on  that  artistic  career  which 
was  destined  to  be  so  eminently  successful. 

His  first  appearance  at  the  Gewandhaus  at 
Leipzig,  with  which  he  was  afterwards  so  closely 
identified,  was  in  1825,  in  company  with  his  sister 
Louise — ultimately  famous  as  Mme.  Dulcken. 
He  passed  the  years  1827  and  1828  as  a  member 
of  the  band  of  the  Konigstadt  Theatre,  Berlin, 
where  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Men- 
delssohn. In  1829  he  accepted  an  engagement 
as  leader  of  a  quartet  in  the  house  of  a  noble  and 
influential  amateur  at  Dorpat,  whose  daughter 
he  subsequently  married.  He  remained  in  Russia 
till  1835,  making  frequent  and  successful  tours 
to  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Riga,  etc.  In  1836 
Mendelssohn,  on  becoming  conductor  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts,  obtained  for  him  the  post 
of  leader  of  the  band  (Concertmeister),  which  he 
filled  with  such  distinction  and  success  untU  his 

1  It  appears  that  in  'Herculanum'  a  great  many  pieces  from  the 
'Fin  du  Monde'  have  been  embodied.  The  present  writer  has  no 
personal  knowledge  of  either  work. 


death.  Of  the  intimate  nature  of  their  connection 
a  good  instance  is  aSbrded  by  the  history  of  Men- 
delssohn's Violin  Concerto.  It  is  first  mentioned 
in  a  letter  from  Mendelssohn  to  David,  dated 
July  30,  1838.  Constant  letters  on  the  subject 
of  the  work  passed  between  them  during  the 
process  of  composition;  hardly  a  passage  in  it 
but  was  referred  to  David's  taste  and  practical 
knowledge,  and  canvassed  and  altered  by  the 
two  friends ;  and  he  reaped  his  reward  by  first 
performing  it  in  public  at  the  Gewandhaus 
concert  of  JMarch  13,  1845.^  The  autograph  is 
now  in  the  possession  of  David's  family.  In 
like  manner  'Antigone'  (letter  of  Oct.  21,  1841), 
and  probably  many  another  of  Mendelssohn's 
works,  was  referred  to  him ;  and  he  was  one 
of  the  three  trustees  to  whom  the  publication 
of  the  MS.  works  of  his  illustrious  friend  was 
confided  after  his  death. 

As  a  virtuoso  David  combined  the  sterling 
qualities  of  Spohr' s  style,  with  the  greater  facility 
and  piquancy  of  the  modern  school ;  as  a  leader 
he  had  a  rare  power  of  holding  together  and 
animating  the  band ;  while  as  a  quartet -player 
his  intelligence  and  tact  enabled  him  to  do 
justice  to  the  masterpieces  of  the  most  difierent 
periods  and  schools.  Among  numerous  com- 
positions of  the  most  various  kinds  his  solo-pieces 
for  the  violin  are  most  pleasing  and  effective, 
and  are  so  founded  on  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  instrument  as  to  be  indispensable  to  the 
student.  As  a  teacher  his  influence  was  probably 
greater  than  that  of  any  preceding  master,  and 
to  him  the  German  orchestras  owe  many  of  their 
most  valuable  members.  He  took  a  warm  per- 
sonal interest  in  his  pupils,  amongst  whom  the 
most  eminent  are  Joachim  and  Wilhelmj .  Within 
the  sphere  of  his  influence  he  was  always  ready 
to  help  a  friend  or  to  further  the  true  interests  of 
musical  art  and  artists. 

It  is  one  of  David's  special  merits  that  he 
revived  the  works  of  the  eminent  violin-players 
of  the  old  Italian,  German,  and  French  schools, 
which  he  edited  and  published  with  accompani- 
ments, marks  of  expression,  etc.  He  also  edited 
nearly  the  whole  classical  repertoire  of  the  violin 
for  purposes  of  stud;)^,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  works  of 
Beethoven,  Haydn,  and  other  great  masters. 
His  imremitting  activity  was  as  earnest  as  it  was 
quick.  He  was  particularly  fond  of  intellectual 
pursuits,  was  eminently  well  read,  full  of  manifold 
knowledge  and  experience.  His  conversation 
abounded  in  traits  of  wit  and  humour,  he  was 
the  pleasantest  companion,  a  faithful  friend,  and 
an  exemplary  husband  and  father. 

In  1 86 1  the  25th  anniversary  of  his  appoint- 
ment as  leader  was  celebrated  at  Leipzig.  He  died 
very  suddenly  July  18,  1873,  while  on  a  mountain 
excursion  with  his  children,  near  Klosters  in  the 
Grisons.  He  was  buried  at  Leipzig,  where  he 
was  highly  honoured,  and  where  a  street  has 
recently  been  named  after  him. 

Among  his  numerous  compositions  the  five 

1  See  details  in  the  programme  of  the  Crystal  Falace  Saturday 
Concert,  Dec.  19,  UsTl. 

Ff 


484 


DAVID. 


DAVIDOFF. 


violin  concertos,  a  number  of  variations,  and 
other  concert  pieces  for  the  violin  hold  the  first 
rank.  He  also  published  for  piano  and  violin 
*  Bunte  Eeihe,'  *  Kammerstiicke,'  etc.  Besides 
these,  two  symphonies,  an  opera  '  Hans  Wacht,' 
a  sextet  and  a  quartet  for  strings,  a  number  of 
songs  and  concert  pieces  for  trombone  and  other 
wind  instruments,  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  His 
'Violin  School'  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  works 
of  the  kind,  and  the  publication  of  the  '  Hohe 
Schule  des  Violinspiels '  (a  collection  of  standard 
works  of  old  violinists)  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
development  of  modern  violin-playing.  [H.] 

DAVIDDE  PENITENTE.  A  '  cantata' for 
3  solo  voices,  chorus,  and  orchestra,  to  Italian 
words  by  an  unknown  author,  adapted  by  Mozart 
in  1785  from  his  unfinished  mass  in  C  minor 
(K.  427),  with  the  addition  of  a  fresh  soprano 
and  fresh  tenor  air,  for  the  widows'  fund  of  the 
Society  of  musicians  (Tonkiinstler-Societat)  ;  and 
performed  on  March  13  and  15,  1785,  in  the 
Burgtheatre  at  Vienna. 

DA  VIDE,  GiACOMO,  a  very  great  Italian 
tenor,  better  known  as  'David  le  pfere,'  bom  at 
Presezzo,  near  Bergamo,  in  1750,  Possessing  a 
naturally  beautiful  voice,  he  made  the  best  use 
of  it  by  long  and  careful  study.  To  a  pure  and 
perfect  intonation  he  joined  good  taste  in  the 
choice  of  style  and  ornament.  Having  studied 
composition  under  Sala,  he  was  able  to  suit  his 
fioriture  to  the  harmony  of  the  passage  he 
wished  to  embroider;  but  he  was  even  more 
distinguished  in  serious  and  pathetic  music,  and 
that  of  the  church,  than  in  bravura.  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe  heard  him  at  Naples  in  1 785, 
and  thought  him  excellent  in  opera.  In  that 
year  he  went  to  Paris,  sang  at  the  Concert 
Spirituel,  and  made  a  great  sensation  in  the 
'Stabat'  of  Pergolese.  Returning  to  Italy,  he 
sang  during  two  seasons  at  the  Scala.  In  90 
he  was  at  Naples  again,  and  in  91  he  came 
to  London.  Owing,  however,  to  the  Pantheon 
having  been  licensed  as  the  King's  Theatre,  it 
was  impossible  to  obtain  a  licence  for  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre,  at  which  Davide  was  engaged, 
except  for  concerts  and  ballets.  This,  and  the 
want  of  good  singers  to  support  him,  prevented 
him  from  becoming  as  well  known  here  as  he 
deserved.  '  He  was  undoubtedly  the  first  tenor 
of  his  time,'  says  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe,  '  pos- 
sessing a  powerful  and  well-toned  voice,  great 
execution  as  well  as  knowledge  of  music,  and 
an  excellent  style  of  singing.  He  learned  to 
pronounce  English  with  tolerable  correctness, 
and  one  of  his  last  performances  was  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  at  the  last  of  the  Handel 
festivals.  In  1802  he  was  at  Florence;  and, 
although  52  years  of  age,  had  still  all  his  old 
power,  and  was  able  to  sing  every  morning  in 
some  church,  and  at  the  opera  every  evening. 
He  returned  in  1812  to  Bergamo,  where  he  was 
appointed  to  sing  at  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore.  It  is  said  that  he  sang  at  Lodi 
in  1820;  but  he  was  then  no  more  than  the 
shadow  of  his  former  self.  He  formed  two 
pupila,  one  of  whom  was  his  son,  and  the  other 


Nozzari.  Davide  died  at  Bergamo  December  31, 
1830. 

•  2.  His  son  Giovanni  was  bom  in  1789,  and 
long  enjoyed  the  reputation  in  Italy  of  a  great 
singer,  though  his  method  of  producing  his  voice 
was  defective,  and  he  frequently  showed  want 
of  taste,  abusing  his  magnificent  voice,  with  its 
prodigious  compass  of  three  octaves  comprised 
within  four  B  flats.    He  had,  however,  a  great 
deal  of  energy  and  spirit,  and  his  style  was 
undoubtedly  original.    He  made  his  dehut  at 
Brescia   in  18 10,   and  sang  with  success  at 
Venice,  Naples,  and  Milan.    He  was  engaged 
at  the  Scala  for  the  whole  of  1 814.    In  the 
autumn  of  that  year  he  was  first  employed  by 
Rossini  in  his  'Turco  in  Italia.'    Rossini  then 
wrote  roles  for  him  in  'Otello'  (1814),  'Ricciardo  e 
Zoraide'  (1818),  'Ermione'  and  *La  Donna,  del 
Lago'  (1819).  In  1818  he  sang  at  Rome, Vienna, 
and  London.    Ebers  had  made  overtures  to  him 
in  1822,  and  his  engagement  was  on  the  point  of 
completion,  when  he  was  engaged  for  seven  years 
by  Barbaja,  who  at  that  time  directed  the  operas 
of  Naples,  Milan,  Bologna,  and  Vienna.  Davide 
appeared  here  in  29,  singing,  among  other  operas, 
with  Mrs.  Wood  in  Pacini's  'L'Ultimo  giomo 
di  Pompei' ;  but  he  was  'passe,  and  his  voice 
so  unsteady  that  he  was  obliged  to  conceal  its 
defects  by  superfluity  of  ornament.    He  arrived 
in  Paris  in  the  same  year.    His  voice  had  now 
become  nasal,  and  his  faults  of  taste  and  judg- 
ment more  apparent.   Yet,  with  all  these  faults, 
he  was  able  occasionally  to  rise  to  a  point  that 
was  almost  sublime.    Edouard  Bertin,  a  French 
critic,  said  of  him,  'it  is  impossible  for  another 
singer  to  carry  away  an  audience  as  he  does,  and 
when  he  will  only  be  simple,  he  is  admirable ; 
he  is  the  Rossini  of  song.    He  is  a  great  singer ; 
the  greatest  I  ever  heard.'     After  his  return 
into  Italy,  Davide  sang  at  Milan  and  Bergamo 
in  1 831,  at  Genoa  and  Florence  in  32,  at  Naples 
in  32,  34,  and  40,  at  Cremona  and  Modena  in 
35,  at  Verona  in  38,  and  at  Vienna  in  39.  He 
retired  in  41  to  Naples,  where  he  founded  a 
school  of  singing,  which  was  not  much  fre- 
quented.  A  few  years  later  he  accepted  the  post 
of  manager  at  the  Opera  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  is 
said  to  have  died  there  about  1851.         [J.  M.] 
DAVIDOFF,  Charles,  eminent  cello-player, 
born  at  Goldingen  in  Courland  March  15,  1838, 
received  his  first  musical  instruction  from  H. 
Schmitt  at  Moscow.    His  bent  was  to  mathe- 
matics, which  he  studied  in  the  Moscow  uni- 
versity from  1854  to  58,  but  at  length  decided  to 
embrace  music  as  his  profession,  and  then  leamed 
the  cello  under  C.  Schuberth  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  composition  under  Hauptmann  at  Leipzig. 
His  first  appearance  in  public  was  at  the  Gewand- 
haus  Dec.  j  5,  59,  after  which  he  at  once  became 
leading  cello  in  that  orchestra  and  Professor  at 
the  Conservatoire,  vice  Griitzmacher.     In  1862 
he  was  appointed  solo  cello  to  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  and  professor  at  the  new  music  school 
and  Conservatoire  of  St.  Petersburg.  Davidoff 
made  his  first  appearance  in  London  at  the 
Philharmonic  on  May  19,  1862,  in  a  concerto 


DAVIDOFF. 


DAVT. 


435 


of  his  own.  Hi3  position  among  cello-players  is 
high.  His  tone  is  expressive,  his  intonation 
certain,  especially  in  the  higher  registers,  and 
his  execution  extraordinary,  and  there  is  great 
individuality  in  his  style.  He  has  composed 
much  both  for  the  cello  and  piano. 

DAVIDSEUNDLEE.  An  imaginary  asso- 
ciation of  Schumann  and  his  friends,  banded 
together  against  old  -  fashioned  p)edantry  and 
stupidity  in  music,  like  David  and  his  men 
agadnst  the  Philistines.  The  personages  of  this 
association  rejoiced  in  the  names  of  Florestan, 
Eusebias,  Raro,  Chiara,  Serpentinus,  Jonathan, 
Jeanquirit,  etc.,  and  their  displays  took  place  in 
the  p£^es  of  the  Xeue  Zeitschrift  for  Musik, 
Schumann's  periodical.  It  was  Schumann's  half 
humorous,  half  melancholy  way  of  expressing 
his  opinions.  He  himself,  in  the  preface  to  his 
Gesammelte  Schriften  (Leipzig,  1854),  speaks  of 
it  as  'an  alliance  which  was  more  than  secret, 
since  it  existed  only  in  the  brain  of  its  founder.' 
The  Davidsbiindler  did  not  confine  themselves  to 
literary  feats;  their  names  are  to  be  found  in 
Schumann's  compositions  also.  Florestan  and 
Eusebius  not  only  figure  in  the  Cameval  (op. 
9),  but  the  Grande  Sonate,  Xo.  i  (op.  11),  was 
,  originally  published  with  their  names,  and  so 
was  the  set  of  pieces  entitled  'Davidsbiindler* 
(op.  6).  The  most  humorous  of  all  these  utter- 
ances is  the  'Marche  des  Davidsbiindler  contre 
les  Philistins,'  which  winds  up  the  Cameval,  and 
in  which  the  antiquated  '  Grosvatertanz '  is  gra- 
dually surrounded  and  crushed  by  the  strains  of 
the  new  allies.  [G.] 

DA  VIES,  the  Misses  Martaxxz  and  Cectlia, 
were  daughters  of  a  relative  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 
Marianne,  the  elder,  attained  some  distinction 
as  a  performer  on  the  harpsichord  and  pianoforte, 
but  about  1762  achieved  much  more  repute  for 
her  skill  on  the  harmonica,  or  musical  glasses, 
then    recently  much   improved   by  Franklin. 
Cecilia,  bom  1740,  won  considerable  renown  as 
a  vocalist.    She  made  her  first  public  appearance 
at  the  Concert  Eoom  in  Dean  Street,  Soho,  April 
28,  1756.     In  68  the  sisters  quitted  England 
and  went  to  Paris,  and  Vienna.    "Whilst  there, 
Metastasio  wrote  and  Hasse  composed  an  ode, 
which  was  sung  by  Cecilia,  accompanied  by 
Marianne  on  the  harmonica.    Metastasio,  in  a 
letter  dated  Jan.  16, 1 772,  describes  the  beautiful 
tone  of  the  in.strument,  and  the  admirable  manner 
•  in  which  Cecilia  assimilated  her  voice  to  it,  so 
:  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  distinguish  the  one 
I  from  the  other.    From  Vienna  the  sisters  went 
,  to  Milan,  where  Cecilia  appeared  in  1771,  with 
great  success,  in  the  opera  of  Ruggiero,  written 
bv  Metastasio  and  composed  by  Hasse,  being  the 
~t  Englishwoman  accepted  in  Italy  as  prima 
'  na.  The  Italians  bestowed  on  her  the  sobriquet 
ot  '  L'Inglesina,'  and  confessed  her  to  be  superior 
;  to  any  Italian  singer  but  Gabrielli.    She  after- 
I  wards  sang  at  Florence.    In  1773  the  two  ladies 
returned  to  London,  where  Cecilia  appeared  at 
the  Italian  Opera  with  the  greatest  success. 
She  ia  described  as  having  no  great  power  or 


Toltmie  of  voice,  bnt  a  leraaikablj  neat  and 

facile  execution.  She  saheeqnentlj  revisited 
Florence,  and  performed  there  tmtil  about  1784, 
when  she  returned  to  "KnglaTMl.  Marianne's 
nerves  had  become  so  seriously  affected  by  her 
performance  on  the  harmonica  (a  so  frequent 
result  of  continued  performance  on  the  instnnnent 
as  to  have  occasioned  official  prohibition  of  its 
use  in  many  continental  towns),  that  she  was 
compelled  to  retire  from  her  profession.  She 
died  in  1792,  and  Cecilia  shortly  afterwards  also 
ceased  to  perform.  About  181 7  die  published  a 
collection  of  six  songs  by  Hasse,  Jomelli,  Galuppi, 
etc.  She  survived  imtil  July  3, 1836,  having  for 
years  suffered  from  the  acctmaulated  miseries  of 
old  age.  disease,  and  poverty.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DAVT,  John,  was  bom  in  the  parish  of 
ITpton  Helion,  near  Exeter,  in  1765,  From  his 
earliest  infancy  he  discovered  a  remarkable 
propensity  for  music.  After  many  other  mani- 
festations of  his  inclination,  he  was,  when  about 
six  years  of  age,  detected  as  the  purloiner  of 
from  twenty  to  thirty  horse-shoes  from  a  neigh- 
bouring smithy.  From  these  he  had  selected  as 
many  as  formed  a  complete  octave,  and,  having 
suspended  them  in  an  upper  room,  was  amusing 
himself  by  imitating  upon  them  the  chimes  of  the 
neighbouring  church  of  Crediton.  By  the  advice 
of  the  Eev.  Mr.  Eastcott,  he  was  articled  to 
Jackson  of  Exeter.  Some  years  afterwards  Davy 
came  to  London,  and  obtained  employment  in 
the  orchestra  of  one  of  the  theatres  and  as  a 
teacher.  His  ability  for  compos-ition  soon  became 
known,  and  he  was  engaged  to  supply  music  for 
several  dramatic  pieces.  After  upwards  of  twenty 
years  of  such  employment  his  frame  gave  way 
under  the  pressure  of  infirmities  rather  than  of 
age,  and  he  gradually  sank  until  he  died,  in 
May's  Buildings,  St.  Martin's  Lane,  Feb.  22, 
1824.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Martin's  church- 
yard on  Feb.  28  following.  Da\-y  composed  the 
music  for  the  following  dramatic  pieces  : — *^Vhat 
a  Blunder  1'  i8co;  'Perouse'  (with  J.  Moore- 
head),  1801;  'The  Brazen  Mask'  (with  Moun- 
tain), 1S02  ;  'The  Cabinet'  (with  Braham  and 
others),  1802  ;  '  The  Caffres'  (with  others),  1 802 ; 
'Red  Roy,'  1803;  'The  MiUers  Maid,'  1S04; 
'Harlequin  Quicksilver,'  1804;  'Thirty  Thou- 
sand' (with  Braham  and  Reeve),  1805  ;  'Spanish 
DoUars,'  1805;  'Harlequins  Maffnet,'  1S05; 
'The  Blind  Boy,  iSoS;  'The  Farmer's  Wife' 
(with  others),  181 4;  'Rob  Rov  Macgreeor,' 
1 81 8;  '  Woman's  Will,  a  Riddle,''  1820.  Also 
an  overture  and  other  music  tor  Shakspere's 
'Tempest,'  performed  in  conjunction  with  the 
songs  of  PurceU,  Arae,  and  Linley. 

Many  of  Davy's  songs  gained  great  popularity. 
'Just  like  love,'  'May  we  ne'er  want  a  friend,' 
and  '  The  Death  of  the  Smuggler,'  have  perhaps 
passed  out  of  remembrance,  but  '  The  Bay  of 
Biscay'  retains,  and  in  all  probability  will  long 
retain,  its  place  in  the  public  favour.  [W. H.H.J 

DAVY,  Richard,  an  English  composer  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i6th  century.     Some  of  his 
compositions  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
Ff  2 


43G 


DAVY. 


DAY. 


in  the  volume  known  as  the  Fayrfax  Manuscript 
(Add.  MSS.  5465).  [W.  H.  H.] 

DAY,  Alfked,  M.D.,  the  author  of  an  im- 
portant theory  of  ^  harmony,  was  bom  in  London 
in  January  1810.  In  accox'dance  with  the  wishes 
of  his  father  he  studied  in  London  and  Paris  for 
the  medical  profession,  and,  afcer  taking  a  degree 
at  Heidelberg,  practised  in  London  as  a  homoeo- 
pathist.  His  father's  want  of  sympathy  for  his 
musical  inclinations  in  his  earlier  years  having 
prevented  him  from  attaining  a  sufficient  degree 
of  practical  skill  in  the  art,  he  turned  his  attention 
to  the  study  of  its  principles,  and  formed  the 
idea  of  malang  a  consistent  and  complete  theory 
of  harmony,  to  replace  the  chaos  of  isolated  rules 
and  exceptions,  founded  chiefly  on  irregular 
observation  of  the  practice  of  great  composers, 
which  till  comparatively  lately  was  aU  that  in 
reality  supplied  the  place  of  system.  He  took 
some  years  in  maturing  his  theory,  and  published 
it  finally  in  1845,  three  years  only  before  his 
death,  Feb.  11,  1849. 

In  this  work  there  was  hardly  any  department 
in  which  he  did  not  propose  reforms.  For  instance, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  figures  used  in 
thorough  bass  did  not  distinguish  the  nature  of 
the  chord  they  indicated — since  the  same  figures 
stood  for  entirely  different  chords,  and  the  same 
chords  in  different  positions  would  be  indicated 
by  different  figures — he  proposed  that  the  same 
chord  should  always  be  indicated  by  the  same 
figures,  and  that  its  inversions  should  be  indicated 
by  capital  letters  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  placed  under  the 
bass,  so  that  the  chord  of  the  seventh  in  its  various 
positions  would  be  indicated  as  follows  : — 

t     I  I 

instead  of 


A  B     C  D 

as  under  the  old  system.  And  whenever  a  chord 
had  also  a  secondary  root,  as  the  chord  of  the  aug- 
mented sixth,  it  would  be  indicated  by  a  capital 
letter  with  a  line  drawn  through  it,  and  lines  also 
drawn  through  the  figures  which  indicated  the 
intervals  derived  from  that  secondary  root. 

With  respect  to  the  differences  of  opinion 
about  the  minor  scale,  he  insisted  with  determined 
consistency  that  the  principles  of  its  construction 
precluded  the  possibility  of  its  containing  a  major 
sixth  or  a  minor  seventh,  and  that  the  only  true 
minor  scale  is  that  with  a  minor  sixth  and  major 
seventh,  the  same  ascending  and  descending  ;  and 
his  concluding  remarks  are  worth  quoting  as  char- 
acteristic : — '  This  scale  may  not  be  so  easy  to 
some  instruments  and  to  voices  as  the  old  minor 
scale,  therefore  let  all  those  who  like  it  practise 
that  form  of  passage,  but  let  them  not  call  it  the 
minor  scale.  Even  as  a  point  of  practice  I  deny 
the  old  minor  scale  to  be  the  better ;  as  practice 
is  for  the  purpose  of  overcoming  difficulties,  and 
not  of  evading  them.'  The  principle  which 
throughout  characterises  his  system  is  to  get 
behind  the  mere  shallow  statement  of  rules  and 
exceptions  to  the  underlying  basis  from  which 

»  TreatUe  ou  llarmony.  by  Alfred  Day.  Eoyal  8vo.  Novello  &  Co. 


the  exceptions  and  rules  will  alike  follow.  Thus, 
in  dealing  with  the  theory  of  false  relations,  he 
points  out  that  the  objectionable  nature  of  con- 
tradictory accidentals, such  as  CHj  and  Cj!  occurring 
in  the  same  chord,  or  in  succeeding  chords  or 
alternate  chords,  arises  from  the  obscurity  of 
tonality  which  thereby  results,  and  which  must 
always  result  when  accidentals  imply  change 
of  key :  but  since  accidentals  under  particular 
circumstances  do  not  imply  change  of  key,  con- 
tradictory accidentals  are  not  necessarily  a  false 
relation;  and  he  gives  as  an  extreme  instance, 
among  others,  the  succession  of  the  chords  of  the 
subdominant  and  supertonic  in  the  key  of  C,  in 
which  F  and  Fj  follow  one  another  in  different 
parts  in  successive  chords. 

nJ  I 


i 


i  i  i  J  J. 


Proceeding  after  the  same  manner  in  his 
discussion  of  forbidden  progressions  of  parts,  he 
points  out  that  as  the  objectionable  effect  of 
consecutive  fifths  is  caused  by  the  two  parts 
seeming  to  move  simultaneously  in  two  different 
keys,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  progression 
of  the  bass  on  which  they  are  founded  would 
prevent  that  effect  and  render  them  admissible  ; 
as,  for  instance,  when  the  bass  moves  from  Tonic 
to  dominant,  as  in  the  Pastoral  Symphony  of 
Beethoven, 


The  most  important  part  of  his  theory,  and 
that  which  most  distinguishes  it,  is  its  division 
of  styles  into  Strict  or  Diatonic,  and  Free  or 
Chromatic,  and  the  discussion  of  the  fundamental 
discords  which  can  be  used  without  preparation. 
His  explanation  of  the  '  Chromatic  system '  was 
quite  new,  and  his  prefatory  remarks  so  well 
explain  his  principles  that  they  may  be  fitly 
quoted.  After  pointing  out  that  the  laws  of 
diatonic  harmony  had  been  so  stretched  to  apply 
them  to  modern  styles  that  they  seemed  '  utterly 
opposed  to  practice,'  he  proceeds  —  'Diatonic 
discords  require  preparation  because  they  are 
unnatural ;  chromatic  do  not  because  they  may 
be  said  to  be  already  prepared  by  nature' — since 
the  harmonics  of  a  root  note  give  the  notes  which 
form  with  it  the  combinations  he  calls  funda- 
mental discords.  'The  harmonics  from  any 
given  note  are  a  major  third,  perfect  fifth,  minor 
seventh,  minor  or  major  ninth,  eleventh,  and 
minor  or  major  thirteenth.'  And  this  series 
gives  the  complete  category  of  the  fundamental 
chords  of  Day's  chromatic  system.  Moreover,  with 
the  view  of  simplifying  the  tonal  development 


DAY. 


DAY. 


437 


of  music,  and  giving  a  larger  scope  to  the  basis 
of  a  single  key — and  thereby  avoiding  the  con- 
sideration of  innumerable  short  transitions — he 
gives  a  number  of  chromatic  chords  as  belonging 
essentially  to  every  key,  though  their  signatures 
may  not  be  sufficient  to  supply  them,  and  with 
the  same  object  builds  his  fundamental  discords 
on  the  basis  of  the  supertonic  and  tonic  as  well 
as  on  the  dominant.  In  respect  of  this  he  says — 
'  The  reason  why  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  super- 
tonic  are  cho.^en  for  roots,  is  because  the  l)armonics 
in  nature  rise  in  the  same  manner;  first  the 
harmonics  of  any  given  note,  then  those  of  its 
fifth  or  dominant,  then  those  of  the  fifth  of  that 
dominant,  being  the  second  or  supertonic  of  the 
original  note.  The  reason  why  the  harmonics 
of  the  next  fifth  are  not  used,  is  because  that  note 
itself  is  not  a  note  of  the  diatonic  scale,  being 
a  little  too  sharp,  as  the  fifth  of  the  supertonic, 
and  can  only  be  used  as  part  of  a  chromatic 
chord.'  The  advantages  of  this  system  of  taking 
a  number  of  chromatic  chords  under  the  head 
of  one  key  will  be  obvious  to  any  one  who  wishes 
for  a  complete  theory  to  analyse  the  progressions 
of  keys  in  modem  music  as  well  as  their  harmonic 
structure.  For  instance,  even  in  the  early 
'Sonata  Pathetique*  of  Beethoven,  under  a  less 
comprehensive  system,  it  would  be  held  that 
in  the  first  bar  there  was  a  transition  from  the 
original  key  of  C  minor  to  G;  whereas  under  this 
system  the  first  modulation  would  be  held  to 
take  place  in  the  4th  bar,  to  Eb,  which  is  far 
more  logical  and  systematic. 

The  detailed  examination  of  the  series  of 
chords  which  have  been  summarised  above  is 
very  elaborate.  In  most  cases  his  views  of  the 
resolutions,  even  of  well-known  chords,  are  more 
varied  and  comprehensive  than  is  usual  with 
works  on  harmony,  and  point  to  the  great  patience 
and  care  bestowed  on  the  elaboration  of  the 
theory.  The  most  salient  points  of  this  part 
of  the  work  are  the  reduction  of  weU-knoum 
chords  and  their  recognised  and  possible  reso- 
lutions under  the  author's  system  of  fundamental 
discords.  The  chord  of  the  diminished  seventh 
(a)  he  points  out  to  be  the  first  (a)  (b) 

inversion  of  that  of  the  minor      ^  ^ 
ninth  (b)  ;  and  though  this  in-    /u  g^ir^—^ 
in  which  the  root  ^ 


version, 


omitted,  is  decidedly  more  common  than  the 
original  chord  (6),  yet  the  latter  is  n 
to  be  found  complete — as  is  also  the 
major  ninth,  without  omission  of  the 
root — in  the  works  of  the  great  masters  ;  and  that 
on  tonic  and  supertonic  as  well  as  dominant  roots. 
Thechordof  thedominanteleventh, 
when  complete  (as  c),  is  hardly 
likely  to  be  found  unabridged ; 
and  it  is  even  doubtful  whether 
any  examples  of  its  first  position 
exist,  even  with  some  notes  omitted,  which  can 
be  pointed  to  with  certainty  as  an  essential  chord. 
But  in  this  scheme  the  chord  is 
important  as  giving  in  its  fourth 
inversion  the  chord  known  as  the 
added  sixth  (rf),  in  which  case  the 


fifth  of  the  original  chord  is  at  the  top  and  the 
root  and  third  are  omitted,  and  the  free  treatment 
which  has  generally  characterised  this  formerly 
isolated  chord  fully  agrees  with  the  rest  of  the 
principles  of  the  system.  This  chord  of  the 
eleventh,  unlike  the  others  in  the  series,  can 
only  be  used  on  the  dominant,  because  if  used 
on  either  the  tonic  or  supertonic  it  would  resolve 
out  of  the  key.  The  last  chord  of  the  series  is 
that  of  the  major  or  minor  thirteenth  on  either 
of  the  before-mentioned  roots  ;  of  which  the 
whole  chord  on  the  dominant  of  C  (for  example) 
would  stand  as  (e).  It  is  not 
suggested  that  all  these  notes 
occur  at  once,  but  that  the 
discordant  ones  have  their  own 
proper  resolutions,  which  they 
will  follow  in  whatever  positions  they  may  be 
combined ;  their  resolutions  being  liable  to  modi- 
fication by  the  omission  of  any  notes  with  which 
they  form  dissonances.  The  commonest  and 
smoothest  form  of  the  chord  is 


i 


which  will  be  readily  recognised ;  and  there  are 
various  resolutions  given  of  the  interval  which 
makes  the  thirteenth  with  the  root  in  this  com- 
bination. One  of  the  resolutions  of  the  minor 
thirteenth  deserves  special  consideration,  namely, 
that  in  which  it  rises  a  semitone  while  the  rest 
of  the  chord  moves  to  tonic  harmony.  This 
makes  the  chord  appear  to  be 
the  same  as  that  which  was  and 
is  commonly  known  as  that  of 
the  sharp  fifth,  as  (/).  To  the 
whole  doctrine  of  a  sharpened 
fifth  Dr.  Day  strongly  opposed  himself,  and  main- 
tained that  the  two  chords  marked  (g)  and  (A)  in 
the  example  were  identical ;  and  brought  to  bear 


i 


(9) 


{h) 


both  mathematics  and  practical  experiment  to 
prove  it.  The  combinations  and  resolutions 
which  result  from  his  views  of  the  nature  of 
this  chord  are  some  of  them  very  curious  and 
original,  and  would  probably  be  impossible  if 
the  chord  were  not  a  minor  thirteenth  but  a 
sharp  fifth.  Still,  the  case  against  the  sharp  fifth 
cannot  be  said  to  be  thoroughly  substantiated, 
and  the  singular  results  of  his  views  in  this 
special  case  are  not  to  be  found  in  great  numbers 
in  the  works  of  composers. 

The  chord  of  the  augmented  sixth  he  derives 
from  the  primary  harmonics  arising  from  a  pri- 
mary root,  and  the  secondary  harmonics  arising 
from  a  secondary  root.  Thus  in  the  following 
chord  in  the  key  of  C,  the  lower  note  Ab  he 


438 


DAY. 


DEFESCH. 


explains  to  be'  the  minor  ninth  of  the  dominant 
root,  and  the  remaining  three  notes  to  be  the 
seventh,  ninth,  and  third  of  the  supertonic  or 
secondary  root ;  both  these  notes  being  ab-eady 
recognised  as  capable  of  being  taken  as  roots 
in  any  key.  .  The  progressions  of  the  component 
notes  of  the  chord  are  the  same  as  they  would 
be  in  their  positions  in  the  respective  fun- 
damental discords  of  tonic  and  supertonic  of 
which  they  form  a  part.  His  views  of  the 
capacity  of  the  interval  of  the  augmented  sixth 
for  being  inverted  as  a  diminished  third  are 
opposed  to  the  practice  of  the  greatest  com- 
posers, who  though  they  use  the  inversion  rarely 
use  it  with  great  effect.  He  says :  '  This  in- 
terval should  not  be  inverted,  because  the  upper 
note  being  a  secondary  harmonic  and  capable 
of  belonging  only  to  the  secondary  root,  should 
not  be  beneath  the  lower,  which  can  only  belong 
to  the  primary  root.'  As  in  his  views  with  re- 
spect to  the  sharp  fifth  and  the  minor  thirteenth, 
the  question  cannot  be  said  to  be  definitely 
settled.  Thus  the  musical  feeling  of  people  of 
cultivated  taste  may  still  count  for  something, 
and  it  seems  probable  that  if  the  inversion  were 
vicious  Bach  and  Beethoven  would  not  have 
used  it. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  point  out  in  what 
respects  Dr.  Day's  hypothesis  is  vulnerable ; 
theorists  of  very  high  standing  repudiate  the 
chords  of  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth,  and  even 
cast  doubts  on  the  essential  nature  of  the  ninths ; 
but  whatever  may  be  said  of  its  hypothetical 
and  as  yet  incompletely  substantiated  views  it 
must  be  confessed  that  no  other  theory  yet  pro- 
posed can  rival  it  in  consistency  and  compre- 
hensiveness. The  strong  adhesion  given  to  it  by 
one  of  our  most  distinguished  living  musicians, 
the  Professor  of  Music  at  Cambridge,  should  be 
sufficient  to  recommend  it ;  and  the  study  of  it, 
even  if  it  lead  to  dissent  on  some  points,  can 
hardly  fail  to  be  profitable.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

DAY,  John,  one  of  the  earliest  of  English 
musical  typographers,  began  printing  about 
1549  in  Holborn,  a  little  above  the  Conduit. 
He  afterwards  dwelt  *  over  Aldersgate  beneath 
Saint  Martyns,'  and  subsequently  had  a  shop 
in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard.  He  used  the  motto 
'Arise,  for  it  is  Day,'  which  was  probably  in- 
tended as  a  reference  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformed  religion,  as  well  as  a  punning  allusion 
to  his  own  name.  On  March  25,  1553,  he 
obtained  a  licence  to  print  *A  Catechism  in 
English  with  an  A  B  C  thereunto  annexed,'  and 
also  the  works  of  John  Poynet,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  Thomas  Beacon,  Professor  of 
Divinity.  He  subsequently  procured  a  patent 
to  be  granted  to  him  and  his  son  for  printing 
the  Psalms,  etc.  He  was  the  printer  of  Fox's 
'Acts  and  Monuments.'  In  1582  he  was  Master 
of  the  Stationers'  Company.  He  died  July  23, 
1584.  The  musical  works  printed  by  Day  were 
*  Certaine  Notes  set  forth  in  foure  and  three 
partes  to  be  sung  at  the  Morning,  Communion 
and  Evening  Prayer.'  1560;  'The  whole  Booke 
of  Psalmes  in  foure  partes,'  which  may  be  sung 


to  all  Musicall  Instruments,'  1563,  reprinted  in 
1565;  'Songes  of  three,  fower  and  five  voyces 
composed  and  made  by  Thomas  Whythome,' 
1571  ;  'The  Psalmes  of  David'  by  WiUiam 
Damon,  1579.    [Damon.]  [W.  H.  H.] 

DEANE,  Thomas,  Mus.  Doc,  bom  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  was  organist  at 
Warwick  and  Coventry.  He  composed  a  service 
and  other  church  music,  and  in  1 703  the  instru- 
mental music  for  Oldmixon's  tragedy '  The  Gover- 
nor of  Cyprus.'  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  perform  a  sonata  of  CoreUi  in  this  country  in 
1709.  Many  compositions  by  him  for  the  violin 
are  contained  in  the  collection  called '  The  Division 
Violin.'  He  graduated  as  Doctor  of  Music  at  Ox- 
ford July  9,  1 73 1 .  [W.  H.  H.] 

DEBAIN,  Alexandre  Francois,  keyed  in- 
strument maker,  born  in  Paris  1809.  Originally 
foreman  in  a  pianoforte  factory,  but  in  1834 
established  a  factory  of  his  own.  Has  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  invention  of  several 
musical  instruments,  amongst  others  the  Anti- 
phonel  —  a  kind  of  barrel-organ — the  Harmoni- 
corde — a  combination  of  reeds  and  strings — and 
the  Harmonium,  or  Orgue  expressif.  Died  Nov.  77. 

DEBORAH.  An  oratorio  of  Handel's,  the 
words  by  Humphreys;  completed  Feb.  21,  1733 ; 
first  performed  at  the  King's  Theatre,  Hay- 
market,  March  17,  1733.  No  less  than  14  of 
the  airs  and  choruses  are  founded  on,  adapted, 
or  tratisferred,  from  other  works  of  Handel's — 
Dixit  Dominus  (1707);  the  Passion  (1716); 
the  ode  on  Queen  Anne's  birthday  (1715);  the 
Coronation  Anthems  (1727).  Deborah  was 
revived  by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  Nov. 
i5j  1843- 

DECANI.  The  words  Decani  and  Cantoris 
are  used  to  distinguish  the  two  sides  of  the  choir 
for  the  purposes  of  antiphonal  singing  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  The  names  are  derived  from 
the  position  of  the  stalls  of  the  Decanus  or  Dean 
and  the  Cantor  or  Precentor,  which  are  the  first 
on  either  side  on  entering  the  choir  of  a  cathedral, 
the  Dean  always  on  the  south  side.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DECRESCENDO,  decreasing— the  opposite 
of  crescendo — consists  in  gradually  lessening  the 
tone  from  loud  to  soft.  It  is  also  expressed  by 
dec,  decresc,  and  by  the  sign  Zzz^=~.  Whether 
there  was  originally  any  difference  between 
decrescendo  and  diminuendo  or  not,  at  present 
the  two  terms  appear  to  be  convertible.  There 
is  a  splendid  instance  of  the  thing,  where  both 
words  are  used,  at  the  end  of  the  first  section  of 
the  Finale  of  Schubert's  Symphony  in  C,  No.  9, 
in  a  decrescendo  of  48  bars  from  fff,  the  bass  at 
the  same  time  going  down  and  down  to  the  low  G. 

DEFESCH,  William,  a  Fleming  by  birth, 
was  organist  of  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Antwerp,  and  in  1725  succeeded  Alfonso  D'Eve 
as  chapel-master  there,  but  was  in  T731  dismissed 
on  account  of  his  ill-treatment  of  some  of  the 
choir-bo3'S  under  his  charge.  He  then  came  to 
England,  and  established  himself  in  London, 
where,  in  33,  he  produced  an  oratorio  entitled 


DEFESCH. 


delde^t:z. 


439 


*  Judith,'  which  enjoyed  some  degree  of  popularity, 
and  in  45  another  called  'Joseph.'  Whilst 
at  Antwerp  he  composed  a  mass  for  voices  and 
orchestra.    His  published  works  comprise  several  i 

I     sets  of  sonatas  and  concertos  for  stringed  and 

j  other  instruments,  some  solos  for  the  violoncello, 
and  a  collection  of  canzonets  and  airs,  and  some 

I  single  songs.  He  was  an  able  violinist.  An 
engraved  portrait  of  him  was  published  in  London 

,    in  1757.    He  died  about  1758.  [W.H.H.] 

i       DEGREE.    The  word  'degree'  is  used  to 
express  the  intervals  of  notes  from  one  another 
on  the  stave.    When  they  are  on  the  same  line  1 
or  space  they  are  in  the  same  degree.  The 
interval  of  a  second  is  one  degree,  the  interval 
1    of  a  third  two  degrees,  and  so  on,  irrespective  of 
!    the  steps  being  tones  or  semitones,  so  long  as 
i    they  represent  a  further  line  or  space  in  the  stave. 
Hence  also  notes  are  in  the  same  degree  when  they 
are  natural,  flat,  or  sharp  of  the  same  note,  as  C  and 
CS,  E  and  Eb  ;  and  they  are  in  different  degrees 
when,  though  the  same  note  on  an  instrument  of 
fixed  intonation,  thev  are  called  by  different 
names,  as  Fj  and  Gb,"'C  and  Dbb.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DEGREE.  For  the  degrees  in  music  at  the 
English  Universities  see  Bachelob  and  Doctor. 
Since  Bachelor  was  printed  an  addition  has 
been  made  to  the  Oxford  examination  by  requiring 
candidates  to  pass  previously  either  Responsions 
!  or  a  local  examination  in  English,  ^Mathematics, 
Latin,  and  one  of  four  modern  languages — Greek, 
I  French,  German,  or  Italian.  Additions  of  a  similar 
j  nature  have  also  been  made  by  Cambridge  and 
I  Dublin,  and  the  London  University  has  adopted  a 
'  report  to  the  same  effect.  Thus  the  degree  will 
henceforward  be  evidence  of  a  certain  general  edu- 
cation as  well  as  of  musical  attainments.  [C.A.F.] 
DEHN,  Siegfried  Wilhelii,  musical  writer, 
bom  at  Altona  1796,  died  at  Berlin  1858.  His 
studies  at  the  University  of  Leipsic  were  inter- 
rupted in  1813  by  having  to  join  the  army  against 
the  French.  On  the  restoration  of  peace  he 
went  to  Plon  and  Leipsic,  and  in  1823  to  Berlin, 
where  he  studied  under  Bemhard  Klein  in 
harmony  and  composition.  He  possessed  strong 
literary  tastes,  and  being  a  good  linguist,  made 
diligent  researches  on  various  subjects  conuaected 
with  music  both  in  Germany  and  Italy,  which 
he  utilised  in  Marx's  'Berliner  Musikzeitung ' 
and  other  periodicals.  In  1842,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  Meyerbeer,  he  was  appointed  libra- 
rian of  the  musical  portion  of  the  royal  library  at 
Berlin,  a  choice  he  amply  justified.  He  cata- 
logued the  entire  collection,  and  added  to  it  a 
nmnber  of  valuable  works  scattered  throughout 
Prussia,  especially  Poelchau's  collection,  con- 
taining, besides  many  interesting  theoretical  and 
historical  works,  an  invaluable  series  of  original 
MSS.  of  the  Bach  family.  Dehn  scored  no  less 
than  500  motets  of  Orlando  Lasso,  and  copied 
for  the  press  an  enormous  number  of  works  by 
J.  S.  Bach.  He  it  was  who  first  published  Bach's 
six  concertos  for  various  instruments  (Peters, 
1850) ;  the  concertos  for  one,  two,  and  three  piano- 
f     fortes ;  and  two  comic  cantatas.    At  his  instiga- 


tion Griepenkerl  undertook  his  edition  of  Bach's 
complete  works  for  clavier  and  organ  (Peters, 
Leipsic).  Dehn  also  published  a  collection  of 
vocal  compositions  in  4,  5,  6,  8,  and  10  parts, 
called  'Sammlung  alterer  Musik  aus  dem  XVI 
und  XYII  Jahrh.'  (Crantz,  Berlin).  He  suc- 
ceeded Gottfried  Weber  in  the  editorship  of  the 
musical  periodical  'Caecilia'  (Schott).  He  re- 
edited  Marpiirg's  treatise  on  Fugue  (Leipzig 
1858),  had  translated  Delmotte's  work  on  Or- 
lando Lasso,  under  the  title  'Biographische  Notiz 
iiber  Roland  de  Lattre,'  and  was  preparing  a 
larger  work  on  the  same  subject,  from  valuable 
materials  collected  with  great  labour,  when  he 
died.  In  addition  to  these  and  similar  labours 
he  conducted  a  large  correspondence  on  musical 
subjects  and  formed  many  distinguished  pupils, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Glinka,  KuUak, 
A.  Rubinstein,  and  F.  Kiel.  Among  his  friends 
were  Kiesewetter  and  Fetis,  for  the  latter  of 
whom  he  collected  materials  equal  to  two  volumes 
of  his  '  Biographic  universelle.'  His  theoretical 
works  were  '  Theoretisch-praktische  Harmonie- 
lehre'  (Berlin  1840;  2nd  edition  Leipsic  1858); 
'  Analyse  dreier  Fugen  .  .  .  J.  S.  Bach's  .  .  .  imd 
Bononcini's  etc'  (Leipzig  1858),  ^nd  'Lehre  vom 
Contrapunkt'  (Schneider,  1859).  Th®  latter,  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  pupil  Scholz,  con- 
tains examples  and  analyses  of  canon  and  fugue 
by  Orlando  Lasso,  Marcello,  Palestrina,  etc. 
Dehn  was  a  good  practical  musician  and  violon- 
ceUist.  [M.C.C] 

DEISS,  Michael,  musician  to  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  I  of  Germany,  for  whose  obsequies  in 
1564  he  composed  a  motet  for  four  voices,  and 
eight  other  pieces,  published  by  Joannelli  in  his 
'  Thesaurus  Musicus.'  Other  motets  of  his  are 
contained  in  Schad's  '  Promptuarium  Musicum.' 
Deiss's  part-writing  was  fluent  and  natural  for 
his  time,  as  is  shown  in  his  motet  '  Misit  Herodes 
rex.'  [M.  C.  C] 

DELDEVEZ,  Erxest,  bom  in  Paris  May  31, 
181 7,  studied  at  the  Conservatoire,  where  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Habeneck,  and  obtained  the  first  violin 
prize  in  1833,  the  second  prize  for  fugue  in  1837, 
and  the  second  'prix  de  Rome'  in  1838  for  his 
cantata  'La  Vendetta,'  which  he  subsequently 
revised  and  printed  (op.  16).  That  he  is  not 
only  a  talented  violinist  and  leader,  but  also  a 
sound  and  melodious  composer,  is  shown  in  his 
published  works.  These  consist  of  songs,  sacred 
choruses,  2  trios  (op.  9  and  23),  quartets  (op.  10), 
a  quintet  (op.  22),  concert-overtures  (op.  i  and  3), 
symphonies  (op.  2,  8,  15),  besides  some  still  un- 
published;  a  'Requiem'  (op.  7),  and  dramatic 
works,  besides  others  still  in  MS.  Among  his 
ballets  performed  at  the  Opera  we  may  mention 
*  Lady  Henri ette'  (3rd  act),  'Eucharis'  (1844), 
'Paquita'  (1846),  and  'Vertvert'  (1851),  which 
contain  much  pleasing  and  brilliant  music.  This 
learned  and  conscientious  musician  has  also  pub- 
lished an  Anthology  of  Violinists,  4  vols.  (op.  19) 
— a  selection  of  pieces  by  various  composers,  from 
Corelli  to  Viotti ;  a  work  '  Des  Principes  de  la 
formation  des  intervaUes  et  des  accords';  the 


440 


DELDEVEZ. 


DEPART,  CHANT  DU. 


'  Cours  comple't  d'harmonie  et  de  haute  composi- 
tion' of  Fenaroli;  'Transcriptions  et  Realisa- 
tions d'oeuvres  anciennes';  'Curiosit^s  Musicales' 
(Didot,  1873),  on  certain  peculiarities  in  the 
works  of  the  great  masters,  and  '  L'art  du  Chef 
d'Orchestre'  (Didot,  1878).  On  the  death  of 
George  Hainl  (1873)  Deldevez  was  appointed  first 
leader  to  the  'Academie'  and  to  the  'Societe  des 
Concerts.'  In  October  1873  he  was  chosen  to 
direct  the  class  for  instrumental  performance, 
instituted  at  the  Conservatoire  at  the  instance  of 
Ambroise  Thomas,  and  hitherto  most  successful. 
He  retired  from  the  Opera  July  1,1877.  Deldevez 
is  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  [G.  C] 
DELICATI,  Maeghekita,  an  Italian  soprano 
engaged  at  the  King's  Theatre  with  her  husband 
in  1 789.  They  played  principally  in  opera  buflFa. 
She  sang  with  Marchesi  in  Tarchi's  '  Disertore,' 
and  they  both  took  part  in  'La  Cosa  rara'  and 

*  La  Villana  riconosciuta.'  Delicati  also  plaj^ed  a 
small  part  in  Paisiello's  'Barbiere  di  Siviglia.' 
Their  subsequent  history  is  unknown.  [J.M.] 

DELMOTTE,  Henri  Florent,  born  at  Mons 
1799,  died  there  1836,  librarian  of  the  public 
library  at  Mons,  and  author  of  'Notice  bio- 
graphique  sur  Koland  Delattre,  etc'  (Valen- 
ciennes 1836).  This  work  was  translated  into 
German  by  Dehn.  The  authenticity  of  the 
chronicler  Vinchant,  from  whom  Delmotte  took 
the  chief  part  of  his  facts,  has  been  contested 
since  his  death.  (See  Lasso.)  At  the  time  of 
his  death  Delmotte  was  collecting  materials  for 
the  life  of  Philippe  de  Mons.  [M.  C.  C] 

DEMANTIUS,  Christoph,  composer,  born 
at  Reichenberg  1567;  was  cantor  at  Zittau 
about  1596,  and  in  1607  at  Freyberg  in  Saxony 
where  he  died  1643.  His  works  (for  list  see 
Fetis)  comprise  songs  sacred  and  secular,  dances, 
and  threnodies,  or  funeral  laments,  besides  two 
elementary  works,  '  Isagoge  artis  musicae '  etc. 
(Nuremberg  1605,  12th  edition  Freyberg  1671) 
and  'Forma  mu sices,  griindlicher  . . .  Bericht  der 
Singekunst'  (Budissin  1592).  Four  8-part  mo- 
tets are  printed  in  the  Florilegium  Portense,  and 
a  short  'Domine  ad  adjuvandum,'  a  4,  in  Proske's 

*  Musica  Divina' — Lib.  Vesperarum.    [M.  C.  C] 

DEMI-SEMI-QUAVER,  the  half  of  a  semi- 
quaver; in  other  words,  a  note  the  value  or 
duration  of  which  is  the  quarter  of  a  quaver  and 
the  eighth  part  of  a  crotchet.  In  French  '  triple 
croche' ;  in  Italian '  semi-bis-croma.'  It  is  shown 
by  ^>  or,  when  joined,  by  ^  ,  and  its  rest  by  q. 

DEMOPHON,  trag^die  lyrique,  in  3  acts; 
words  by  Marmontel ;  music  by  Cherubini,  his 
first  opera  in  Paris ;  produced  at  the  Acaddmie 
royale  Dec.  5,  1788. 

DENEFVE,  Jules,  violoncellist  and  composer, 
bom  at  Chimay  18 14,  entered  the  Brussels  Con- 
servatoire in  1833.  He  studied  the  violoncello 
under  Platel  and  Demunck  ;  became  professor  of 
the  violoncello  at  the  Ecole  de  Musique,  and  first 
violoncello  at  the  theatre,  and  at  the  Societe  des 
Concerts  at  Mona    Within  a  few  years  he  be- 


came director  of  the  Ecole,  conductor  of  the 
Societe  des  Concerts,  and  founder  and  conductor 
(1841)  of  the  Roland  de  Lattre  choral  society. 
He  composed  three  operas  for  the  Mons  theatre ; 
a  number  of  choruses  for  men's  voices ;  several 
cantatas  (one  for  the  erection  of  a  statue  to  Or- 
lando Lasso  in  1858) ;  a  Requiem,  and  various 
orchestral  pieces.  Denefve  is  a  member  of  the 
•Societe  des  beaux  arts  et  de  litt^rature'  of 
Ghent,  and  honorary  member  of  the  most  im- 
portant choral  societies  in  Belgium  and  the  north 
of  France.  [M.C.C.] 

D^:PART,  chant  du.  This  national  air 
was  composed  by  M^ul  to  some  fine  lines  by 
Marie  Joseph  Chenier,  for  the  concert  celebrating 
the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  the  Bas- 
tille (July  14,  1794).  Chenier  was  in  hiding  at 
the  house  of  Sarrette  when  he  wrote  the  words, 
and  the  original  edition,  by  order  of  the  National 
Convention,  states  merely  '  Paroles  de  .  .  .  .  ; 
musique  de  M^hul.'  Of  all  the  French  patriotic 
songs  this  is  the  only  one  actually  written  during 
the  Terror.    The  first  verse  is  as  follows  : — - 


Tempo  di  marcia 


rie  -  re.  La  li-ber-te     gui-de  nos  pas;  Et  du  Nord   au  mi 


di     la  trom  -  pet  -  te  guer  -  rie  -  re  a  sonne  I'heu  -  re  des  com- 


bats.      Trem  -  blez,  en  -  ue  -  mis  de  la     Fran  -  ce,  Eois 


i  -  vres  de  sang  et  d'or  -  gueil !        Le  peuple  souve  -  rain  s'a 


=3= 


avan  -  ce ;      Ty  -  rans,  descendez   au  cer  -  cueil '.     La  r6  -  pu  ■ 


bli  -  que  nous  ap  -  pel  -  le,   Sa-chons  vaincre  ou  sa-chons  pa- 


ella   un  Francals  doit  mou  -  rir !    Un  Fran9-ais  doit  vi  -  vre  pour 


el    -   le.      Pour    elle    un  Francais  doit  mou  -  rir ! 

The  opening  phrase  is  spirited  and  sonorous; 
the  modulation  in  the  middle  recalls  perhaps 
involuntarily  that  in  the  Marseillaise  ;  while  the 
end  foreshadows  too  definitely  the  melodies  of 
the  Empire.  Apart  from  its  merit  as  music,  the 
air  is  appropriate  to  Che'nier's  words,  and  produces 
an  almost  overwhelming  eflfect  when  sung  by 
a  multitude.  [G-  C] 


DEEING. 


DEVIN  DU  VILLAGE,  LE.  441 


BERING,  Richard,  Mus.  Bac,  a  member  of 
the  ancient  Kentish  family  of  that  name,  was 
educated  in  Italy.  He  returned  to  England 
with  a  great  reputation  as  a  musician,  and  for 
some  time  practised  his  profession  in  London. 
In  1610  he  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music 
at  Oxford.  Being  strongly  importuned  thereto  he 
became  organist  to  the  convent  of  English  nuns 
at  Brussels.  Upon  the  marriage  of  Charles  I, 
in  1625,  Bering  was  appointed  organist  to  the 
queen,  Henrietta  Maria,  which  office  he  continued 
to  hold  until  she  was  compelled  to  leave  England. 
He  died  in  the  Romish  cormnunion  about  the 
year  1658.  Bering's  published  works  are  wholly 
of  a  sacred  kind.  They  consist  of  'Cantiones 
Sacrae  quinque  vocum  cum  basso  continuo  ad 
Organum,'  Antwerp,  1597;  '  Cantica  Sacra  ad 
Melodium  Madrigalium  elaborata  senis  Vocibus,' 
Antwerp,  161 8  ;  'Cantica  Sacra  ad  Buos  &  Tres 
Voces,  composita  cum  Basso-continuo  ad  Orga- 
num,' London,  1662.  On  the  title-page  of  this 
work,  which  is  dedicated  to  the  Queen  Bowager, 
Henrietta  Maria,  Bering  is  styled  'Regise 
Majestatis  quondam  Organista.'  In  1674  Play- 
ford  published  a  second  set  of  Cantica  Sacra  by 
various  composers,  in  which  are  eight  motets 
attributed  to  Bering,  but  which  Playford,  in  his 
preface,  candidly  actaiits  were  *  by  some  believed 
not  to  be  his.'  In  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonio  Society  are  preserved  in  manuscript 
imperfect  sets  of  parts  of  the  following  com- 
positions by  Bering :  anthem,  *  Unto  Thee,  O 
Lord';  madrigal,  'The  Country  Cry';  some 
motets,  and  several  fancies  for  viols.  [W.H.  H.] 

BESERTEUR,  LE,  a  musical  drama  in  3 
acts,  words  by  Sedaine,  music  by  Monsigny — his 
best ;  produced  at  the  Theatre  des  Italiens  March 
6,  1769,  and  revived  at  the  Opera  Comique  Oct. 
30,  1843. 

BETTINGEN  TE  BEUM,  THE,  written  by 
Handel  to  celebrate  the  victory  of  Bettingen 
(June  26,  1743).  'Begun  July  1743' ;  first  per- 
formed (not  at  the  thanksgiving  service  July  28, 
but)  at  the  Chapel  Royal,  St.  James's,  Nov.  27, 
43.  Many  of  the  themes  and  passages  are  from 
Urio. 

BEUS  MISEREATUR  is  . the  psalm  (Ixvii.) 
used  in  the  evening  service  of  the  AngHcan  church 
after  the  lessons,  alternatively  with  the  Nunc 
Bimittis,  It  is  considered  as  a '  responsory  psalm ' 
in  conformity  with  the  1 7th  canon  of  the  Council 
of  Laodicea,  which  appointed  lessons  and  psalms 
to  be  read  alternately. 

In  the  ancient  church  the  psalm  was  used  at 
Lauds,  and  in  the  Sarum  use  it  was  coupled  with 
the  bidding  prayer  on  Sundays.  Nevertheless  it 
is  not  in  Cranmer's  Prayer -Book  of  1549, 
consequently  has  no  special  chant  given  for  it 
in  Marbeck's  *  Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted,' 
of  1550.  It  was  appointed  as  an  alternative  to 
the  Nunc  Bimittis  in  the  revised  edition  of  the 
Prayer-Book,  1552.  Like  its  fellow,  the  98th 
Psalm,  it  is  not  so  often  used  as  the  'Nunc  Bi- 
mittis,' partly  because  it  seems  less  appropriate 
than  that  canticle,  and  partly  because  it  is  longer. 


Settings  of  it  are  comparatively  rare.  To  take 
for  example  the  most  famous  ancient  collections  of 
services ;  there  is  only  one  setting  in  Barnard's 
collection,  viz.  that  by  Strogers ;  there  are  three 
in  Boyce's,  and  only  two  in  Arnold's.  With  re- 
gard to  the  setting  in  Barnard's  collection,  it  is 
worth  remarking  that  there  is  a  quaint  note  at 
the  end  of  the  index  suggesting  that  it  should  be 
sometimes  used  as  an  anthem.         [C.  H.  H.P.] 

BEUX  JOURNEES,  LES.  Comedie  lyrique 
in  3  acts,  words  by  Bouilly,  music  by  Cherubini  ; 
produced  at  the  Theatre  Feydeau  Jan.  16,  1800. 
Translated  into  Gennan  as  '  Ber  Wassertrager,' 
and  into  English  as  'The  Escapes  ;  or,  the  Water 
Carrier' ;  produced,  in  a  very  mutilated  state, 
in  London  1801,  and  at  Covent  Garden  Nov.  12, 
1824,  with  the  'overture  and  all  the  music' 
In  Italian  produced  at  Brury  Lane  June  20, 
1872,  as  Le  due  Giomate,  for  one  night  only. 
Beethoven  thought  the  book  of  this  opera  the 
best  in  existence.  [G.] 

BEVELOPMENT.  A  word  used  in  two 
somewhat  different  senses ;  on  the  one  hand  of  a 
whole  movement,  in  a  sense  analogous  to  its  use 
with  reference  to  an  organism ;  and  on  the  other 
of  a  subject  or  phrase,  with  reference  to  the 
manner  in  which  its  conspicuous  features  of 
rhythm  or  melody  are  employed  by  reiteration, 
variation,  or  any  other  devices  which  the  genius 
or  ingenuity  of  the  composer  suggests,  with  the 
object  of  showing  the  various  elements  of  interest 
it  contains. 

The  term  is  very  apt  and  legitimate  when  used 
in  the  above  senses,  which  are  in  reality  no  more 
than  the  converse  of  one  another ;  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a  movement  is  rightly  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ideas  contained  in  its  subjects ; 
otherwise  in  instrumental  music  neither  purpose 
nor  unity  of  design  could  be  perceived.  It  must 
however  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  mere  state- 
ment of  a  transformed  version  of  a  subject  is  not 
development.  A  thing  is  not  necessarily  devel- 
oped when  it  is  merely  changed,  but  it  is  so 
generally  when  the  progressive  steps  between 
the  original  and  its  final  condition  can  be  clearly 
followed. 

The  most  perfect  types  of  development  are  to 
be  found  in  Beethoven's  works,  with  whom  not 
seldom  the  greater  part  of  a  movement  is  the 
constant  unfolding  and  opening  out  of  all  the 
latent  possibilities  of  some  simple  rhythmic  figure. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  examples,  owing  to  the 
space  they  would  require ;  but  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  first  movement  of  the  Symphony  in 
C  minor ;  the  Scherzo  of  the  9th  Symphony ; 
the  Allegro  con  brio  of  the  Sonata  in  C  minor, 
opus  III;  the  last  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  F, 
opus  10,  no.  2 ;  and  the  last  movement  of  the 
Sonata  in  A,  opus  loi.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

BEVIL'S  OPERA,  THE,  in  two  acts,  words 
by  G.  Macfarren,  music  by  G.  A.  Macfarren;  pro- 
duced at  the  English  Opera  House  Aug.  13, 1838. 

BEVIN  BU  VILLAGE,  LE  (the  village 
sorcerer),  an  Intermdde,  in  one  act ;  words  and 
music  by  J.  J.  Rousseau ;  played  for  the  first 


442      DEVIN  DU  VILLAGE,  LE. 


DIBDIN. 


time  at  Fontainebleau  Oct.  i8,  1752,  and  at  the 
Acad^mie  royale  March  i,  53.  Last  played  in 
1829,  after  more  than  400  representations  ;  some 
one  threw  a  perruque  on  the  stage,  which  de- 
cided its  fate.  It  was  translated  and  adapted  as 
'  The  Cunning  Man'  by  Dr.  Burney  in  1 766.  One 
of  Jullien's  very  first  public  feats  was  a  Quadrille 
on  the  motifs  of  the  Devin,  1836  or  37.  [G.] 

DEVRIENT,  WiLHELMiNE  ScHRbDEB.  See 
Schroder. 

DIABELLI,  Anton,  head  of  the  firm  of  Dia- 
belli  &  Co.,  music  publishers  in  Vienna,  and 
composer  of  pianoforte  and  church  music,  born 
Sept.  6,  1 78 1,  at  Mattsee  in  Salzburg.  His 
piano  pieces  are  well  written,  at  once  graceful 
and  good  practice,  and  both  these  and  his  nume- 
rous arrangements  had  an  immense  popularity. 
His  masses,  especially  the  'Landmessen'  (for 
country  churches),  are  widely  spread  in  Austria, 
being  for  the  most  part  easy  to  execute,  and 
interesting,  if  not  particularly  solid.  He  also 
composed  songs  for  one  and  more  voices,  and  an 
operetta,  'Adam  in  der  Klemme.'  Being  intended 
for  the  priesthood  he  received  a  good  general  edu- 
cation, and  profited  much  from  association  with 
Michael  Haydn,  who  superintended  his  musical 
studies.  When  the  Bavarian  convents  were  secu- 
larised in  1803,  he  gave  up  the  idea  of  taking 
orders,  went  to  Vienna,  and  was  warmly  received 
by  Joseph  Haydn.  He  soon  became  a  popular 
teacher  of  the  pianoforte  and  guitar,  made  money 
enough  to  become  partner  with  Peter  Cappi  the 
music-publisher  in  181 8,  and  in  24  the  firm  be- 
came Diabelli  &  Co.  The  latter  half  of  his  life 
is  much  more  interesting  than  the  former,  as  it 
brings  us  into  contact  with  one  of  the  first  music- 
publishing  establishments  in  Vienna,  where 
Czerny  was  for  many  years  a  daily  visitor,  and 
where  all  the  leaders  of  the  musical  world  went 
in  and  out.  In  1852  the  firm  became  C.  A, 
Spina,  and  in  July  72  F.  Schreiber,  under  which 
name  it  still  continues,  though  the  business  was 
purchased  in  May  76  by  A.  Cranz  of  Hamburg. 
Their  publications  at  this  moment  amount  to 
over  25,000.  In  Diabelli's  time  they  acquired 
the  publications  of  the  extinct  firms  of  M. 
Artaria,  L.  Kozeluch,  Th.  Weigl,  Berka,  Leides- 
dorf,  Pennauer,  and  Traeg,  and  in  1855  those  of 
Carlo  Mecchetti.  They  published  specially  for 
Schubert,  Czerny,  Strauss,  and  Lanner ;  also 
Marpurg's  'Abhandlung  von  der  Fuge'  revised 
by  Sechter,  and  Reicha's  '  Lehrbuch' ;  and,  under 
the  title  *  Ecclesiasticon,'  a  collection  of  church 
music.  In  1874  they  issued  a  fresh  catalogue  of 
their  publications,  and  a  thematic  catalogue  of 
Schubert's  published  works,  compiled  with  his 
usual  exhaustive  accuracy  by  Nottebohm.  Dia- 
belli died  April  8,  1858.  His  quiet  and  un- 
assuming life  made  him  many  friends,  some  of 
whom  in  1871  erected  a  tablet  to  his  memory 
on  the  house  at  Mattsee  in  which  he  was  born. 
Beethoven  wrote  his  33  Variations  (op.  120)  on 
a  waltz  of  Diabelli's,  and  this  alone  will  preserve 
his  name  to  posterity  should  it  disappear  in  other 
ways.  [C.F.P.] 


DIADESTE.  A  buffo  Italian  opera,  words 
by  Fitzball,  music  by  Balfe ;  produced  at  Drury 
Lane  May  17,  1838. 

DIAMANTS  DE  LA  COURONNE,  LES. 
Opera  comique  in  3  acts,  words  by  Scribe  and 
St.  George,  music  by  Auber ;  produced  at  the 
Opdra  Comique  March  6, 1841 ;  at  the  Princess's 
Theatre,  London,  May  2,  44,  as  Crown  Diamonds. 

DIAPASON  originally  meant  the  interval  of 
an  octave,  because  it  was  dioi  itaowv  xopSwi' 
(xv/xcpcjvia,  the  consonance  arrived  at  by  going 
*  through  all  the  strings  of  the  lyre '  from  first  to 
last.    In  this  sense  it  is  used  by  Dry  den  : — 

*  Through  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 

The  diapason  closing  full  in  man.' 

In  French  it  came  to  mean  a  tuning-fork, 
and  hence  also  the  pitch  which  was  as  it  were 
registered  by  it,  the  'Diapason  normal'  being 
the  standard  of  pitch  supposed  to  be  generally 
accepted  in  France,  which  gave  435  vibrations 
for  the  A  above  middle  C.  In  England  the  name 
is  given  to  the  most  important  foundation  stops 
of  the  organ.    (See  Organ.)         [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

DIAPENTE  was  the  ancient  Greek  name  for 
the  consonance  of  the  5th.  By  the  musicians  of 
the  17  th  and  T8th  centuries  a  canon  in  the  fifth 
was  called  in  Epidiapente  or  Subdiapente,  as  it 
answered  above  or  below. 

DIATESSARON  was  the  ancient  Greek 
name  for  the  consonance  of  the  4th — 5id  reaadpoov 
XopSwy  (TVfj.(pa>via. 

DIATONIC  is  the  name  given  to  music  which 
is  confined  to  notes  proper  to  the  signature  of 
the  key  in  which  they  occur — such  as  the  white 
notes  only,  in  the  key  of  C  major.  The  different 
forms  of  the  minor  scale  are  considered  diatonic. 
Therefore  the  major  7th  and  major  6th,  which 
often  occur  instead  of  the  minor  7th  and  minor 
6th  in  the  signature  of  a  minor  scale,  can  be 
used  without  the  passage  ceasing  to  be  dia- 
tonic. The  theme  of  the  Finale  of  the  Choral 
Symphony  is  a  splendid  example  of  a  diatonic 
melody.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DIBDIN,  Charles,  was  the  son  of  a  silver- 
smith at  Southampton,  where  he  was  bom  March 
15,  1745,  his  mother  being  in  her  fiftieth  year 
and  he  being  her  eighteenth  child.  His  grand- 
father was  a  considerable  merchant,  who  founded 
the  village  near  Southampton  which  bears  his 
name.  Dibdin's  eldest  brother,  who  was  twenty- 
nine  years  his  senior,  was  captain  of  an  Indiaman 
and  father  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Frognall 
Dibdin,  the  well-known  bibliographer.  Charles 
Dibdin,  being  intended  by  his  father  for  the 
Church,  was  placed  at  Winchester  College,  but 
a  passion  for  music  took  possession  of  him,  and 
he  sang  with  the  choristers  both  at  the  cathedral 
and  college.  He  had  a  good  voice  and  a  quick- 
ness in  learning,  which  induced  Kent  to  compose 
anthems  for  him  and  teach  him  to  sing  them, 
and  Fussel,  who  afterwards  succeeded  Kent  as 
organist,  taught  him  the  rudiments  of  music  and 
a  few  common  tunes.  All  musical  knowledge 
beyond  that  he  acquired  for  himself,  studying 


DIBDIN. 


DIBDIN. 


443 


chiefly  tlie  concertos  of  Corelli  and  the  theoretical 
works  of  Eameau.  The  place  of  organist  at 
Bishop's  Waltham  becoming  vacant,  Dibdin  of- 
fered himself  for  it,  but  was  rejected  on  account 
of  his  youth.  "When  fifteen  years  old  his  eldest 
brother  brought  him  to  London  and  placed  him 
in  the  music  warehouse  of  Johnson  in  Cheapside, 
where  however  he  did  not  remain  long,  a  friend 
having  advised  him  to  try  the  stage.  He  obtained 
an  engagement  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre  as  a 
singing  actor.  About  the  same  time  he  began 
to  write  verses  as  well  as  music,  in  which  he  was 
encouraged  by  Beard,  then  become  manager  of 
the  theatre,  who  advised  him  to  try  his  hand  at 
something  for  the  stage,  promising  to  bring  it  out 
at  Dibdin's  benefit.  He  accordingly  set  to  work 
andwTote  and  composed  'The  Shepherd's  Artifice,' 
a  pastoral,  which  was  performed  at  his  benefit 
in  the  season  of  1762-63,  and  repeated  in  the 
following  season,  the  author -composer  performing 
the  character  of  Strephon.  He  had  performed 
in  the  summer  of  62  at  the  Kichmond  theatre 
on  the  hill ;  and  he  now  obtained  an  engage- 
ment at  Birmingham,  where  he  not  only  played 
at  the  theatre  but  sung  at  Vauxhall.  In  the 
beginning  of  65  the  opera  of  'The  Maid  of 
the  Mill'  was  about  to  be  produced  at  Covent 
Garden,  and  some  difficulty  arising  with  Dunstall, 
who  was  to  have  played  Ealph,  Dibdin  was 
requested  by  Beard  to  undertake  the  part.  He 
made  a  decided  hit,  and  at  once  established 
himself  firmly  in  the  public  favour.  In  1767  he 
composed  part  of  the  music  for  'Love  in  the 
City,'  and  in  the  next  year  two-thirds  of  that  of 
*  Lionel  and  Clarissa.'  In  68  Dibdin  transferred 
his  services  fi'om  Covent  Garden  to  Drury  Lane, 
where  he  signalised  himself  by  his  composition 
of  the  music  of '  The  Padlock,'  and  his  admirable 
performance  of  Mungo  in  it.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  engaged  to  compose  for  Banelagh, 
where  he  produced  'The  Maid  the  Mistress,' 
and  'The  Kecruiting  Sergeant.'  He  likewise 
composed  some  of  the  music  for  the  Shakspere 
Jubilee  at  Stratford-on-Avon  in  that  year.  In 
-  - :  Thomas  King,  having  become  proprietor 
-adler's  Wells,  engaged  Dibdin  to  write  and 
L  juipose  some  little  musical  pieces  to  be  brought 
out  there.  In  74  Dibdin  produced  'The  \V^ater- 
man,'  and  in  75  'The  Quaker,'  pieces  which 
have  kept  uninterrupted  possession  of  the  stage 
ever  since,  the  songs  being  still  listened  to  with 
as  much  pleasure  as  when  first  heard.  At 
the  end  of  the  latter  season  he  quitted  Drury 
Lane  owing  to  differences  that  had  arisen  be- 
tween him  and  Garrick,  and  exhibited  at  Ex- 
eter Change  a  piece  called  '  The  Comic  Mirror,' 
in  which  well-known  characters  of  the  day 
^  were  personated  by  puppets.  In  1776  he  took 
,  a  journey  into  France,  where  he  remained  some 
'<  months.  On  his  return  he  was  engaged  as 
composer  to  Covent  Garden  Theatre  at  a  salary 
of  £10  a  week,  but  he  held  the  appointment  for 
two  or  three  seasons  only.  In  1782  he  projected 
the  erection  of  the  Royal  Circus  (afterw^ards  the 
,  Surrey  Theatre),  which  was  opened  Nov.  7, 
I  1782,  Dibdin  imdertaking  the  general  manage- 


ment, Hughes  the  equestrian  department,  and 
j  Grimaldi  (father  of  the  afterwards  famous  clown) 
the  stage  direction.  For  this  theatre  the  ever- 
I  active  pen  of  Dibdin  was  employed  in  the  pro- 
j  duction  of  numerous  little  musical  pieces  and 
pantomimes.  The  first  season  was  remarkably 
I  successful.  In  the  second,  dissensions  broke  out 
I  amongst  the  managers,  in  consequence  of  which 
I  he  retired  from  the  theatre.  He  then  made  an 
1  attempt  to  regain  his  position  at  the  patent 
j  theatres,  and  succeeded  in  getting  his  opera, 
j  '  Liberty  Hall'  (containing  the  popular  songs  of 
I  '  Jack  Eatlin,'  'The  high-mettled  racer,'  and  'The 
I  Bells  of  Aberdovey'),  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
I  on  Feb.  8,  1785.  Soon  afterwards  he  listened  to 
a  proposal  to  erect  a  theatre  at  Pentonville, 
I  where  he  purposed  representing  spectacles  in 
which  hydraulic  effects  should  be  introduced. 
He  proceeded  to  some  extent  with  the  building, 
which  he  intended  to  call  'Helicon,'  but  his 
application  for  a  licence  was  refused,  and  shortly 
afterwards  a  gale  of  wind  destroyed  the  edifice 
and  put  an  end  to  the  project.  Dibdin  next 
meditated  a  visit  to  India,  and,  to  raise  funds 
for  the  purpose,  in  1787-88  made  a  tour  through 
a  large  part  of  England  and  gave  entertainments, 
He  published  an  account  of  this  tour  in  1788. 
in  a  quarto  volume,  under  the  title  of  'The 
Musical  Tour  of  Mr.  Dibdin.'  In  the  summer 
of  88  he  sailed  for  India,  but  the  vessel  being 
driven  to  take  shelter  in  Torbay,  he  finally  aban- 
doned his  intention  and  returned  to  London. 
Dibdin  next  resolved  to  rely  on  his  own  unaided 
exertions,  and  in  1789  produced  at  Hutchins' 
Auction  Eoom,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  the 
first  of  those  'table  entertainments'  which  he 
originated,  and  of  which  he  was  author,  com- 
poser, narrator,  singer,  and  accompanyist,  under 
the  title  of  '  The  Whim  of  the  Moment.'  On  the 
first  evening  there  was  an  attendance  of  only 
sixteen  persons.  Dibdin,  however,  persevered  ; 
he  engaged  the  Lyceum  and  brought  out  'The 
Oddities,'  the  success  of  which  was  at  once  de- 
cisive ;  and  no  wonder,  for  it  contained,  amongst 
others,  the  songs,  'To  Bachelors'  Hall,'  ''Twas 
in  the  good  ship  Eover,'  'The  Flowing  Can,' 
'  Saturday  night  at  sea,'  '  Ben  Backstay,'  '  I 
sailed  from  the  Downs  in  the  Xancy,'  'The 
Lamplighter,'  and  'Tom  Bowling';  the  last 
written  on  the  death  of  his  eldest  brother,  Cap- 
tain Dibdin.  And  here  it  may  be  observed 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  those  sea  songs  that 
contributed  so  largely  durirg  the  war  to  cheer 
and  inspire  the  hearts  of  our  seamen,  and  gained 
for  their  author  the  appellation  of  the  Tyrtaeus 
of  the  British  Navy,  were  written  by  Dibdin 
for  his  entertainments.  In  1790  'The  Oddities' 
was  revised,  and  ran  79  nights,  when  it  was 
succeeded  by  'The  Wags,'  which  was  performed 
for  108  nights.  The  great  sale  of  'Poor  Jack,' 
the  copj-right  of  which  and  eleven  other  songs 
he  had  sold  for  £60,  and  which  in  a  short  time 
had  brought  its  purchaser  a  profit  of  £500, 
induced  Dibdin  about  this  time  to  become  his 
own  publisher.  In  1791  he  removed  from  the 
Lyceum  to  a  room  in  the  Strand,  opposite  Beau- 


DIBDIN. 


fort  Buildings,  whicli  he  opened  under  the  name 
of  Sans  Souci,  and  where  he  remained  for  four 
years.  He  then  built  for  himself  a  small  theatre 
on  the  east  side  of  Leicester  Place,  which  he 
opened  under  the  same  name  in  1 796,  Towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century  Dibdin  published  a 
*  History  of  the  Stage,'  in  live  volumes,  and  in 
1803  his  'Professional  Life,'  in  four  volumes. 
In  1805  he  sold  his  theatre  and  retired  from 
public  life.  In  1802  government  granted  him 
a  pension  of  £200  per  annum,  but  this  being 
withdrawn  on  a  change  of  ministry  he  was  led  to 
open  a  music  shop  in  the  Strand  as  a  means  of 
subsistence.  The  speculation,  however,  failed, 
and  he  became  bankrupt.  A  subscription  for  his 
relief  was  opened  in  18 10,  with  part  of  which  an 
annuity  of  £30  was  purchased  for  himself,  his 
wife  and  daughter  successively.  Subsequently 
his  pension  was  restored  to  him.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  year  181 3  Dibdin  was  attacked  by 
paralysis,  and  on  July  25,  181 4,  he  died  at  his 
residence  in  Arlington  Street,  Camden  Town. 
He  was  biu-ied  in  the  cemetery  belonging  to  the 
parish  of  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields,  in  Pratt  Street, 
Camden  Town,  where  there  is  a  monument  to 
his  memory.  Dibdin's  two  sons,  Charles  and 
Thomas,  were  well-known  dramatists. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Dibdin's  operas  and 
other  dramatic  pieces.  Of  those  marked  thus  * 
he  was  author  as  well  as  composer  : — 

• '  The  Shepherd's  Artifice,'  17fi3 ;  Hunter,'  and  • '  All's  not  Gold  that 
'Love  in  the  City'  part  of  the!  Glitters,'  1T76;  *'l'oor  Vulcan,' 
music),1767; 'Damon and Phillida,']*'Eose  and  Colin,'  •'The  Wives 


'Lionel  and  Clarissa'  (part  of  the 
music),  and  'The  Padlock,'  17G8; 

•  The  Maid  the  Mistress,'  '  The  Ke- 
cruiting  Sergeant,'  '  The  Ephesian 
Matron,'  'The  Jubilee.'  'Queen 
Mab,'  and   'The  Captive,'  1769; 

•  Pigmy  Bevels,'  1770 ;  '  The  Wed- 
ding King,'  and  '  The  Institution  of 
the  Garter,' 1771 ;  *'The  Ladle,' 
* '  The  Mischance,' '  The  Brickdust 
Man.'  * '  The  Widow  of  Abingdon,' 
and  'The  Palace  of  Mirtli,"  1772  ; 
'A  Christmas  Tale.'  'The  Trip  to 
Portsmouth,' '  The  Deserter '  (part- 
ly selected  from  Monsigny  and 
Philidor),  and  »'The  Grenadier,' 
1773;  *  '  The  Waterman,' and  *'  The 
Cobler,'  1774 ;  * '  The  Quaker.'  and 
'The  Two  Misers,'  1775;  ♦'The 
Seraglio,' '  The  Blackamoor,'  *'  The 
Metamorphoses,'  *  'The  Razor 
Grinder,'  *  '  Yo,  Yea,  or.  The 
Friendly  Tars,'  * '  The  Old  Woman 
of  Eighty,'  ♦'The  Mad  Doctor,' 

•  'She  is  mad  for  a  Ilusband, '  *  'Eng- 
land against  Italy,'  •  '  The  Fortune 


Revenged,'  * '  Annette  and  Lubin,' 
and  •  '  The  Milkmaid,'  1T78 ;  '  Ply- 
mouth in  an  Uproar.'  •  The  Chel- 
sea Pensioner,'  * '  The  Mirror,'  and 
♦'The  Touchstone,'  1779;  ♦'The 
Shepherdess  of  the  Alps,'  ♦  '  Har- 
lequin Freemason,'  and  ♦  "  The 
Islanders,"  1780;  ♦'Jupiter  and 
Alcmena,'  1781 ;  * '  Isone  so  blind 
as  those  who  won't  see,'  1782; 
*'  The  Barrier  of  Parnassus,'  *  '  The 
Graces,'  ♦  ■  The  Saloon,'  ♦ '  Manda- 
rina,  or.  The  Refusal  of  Harlequin,' 

*  '  The  Land  of  Simplicity,'  ♦  '  The 
Passions,'  ♦ '  The  Statue,'  ♦  '  Clump 
and  Cudden,'  ♦  '  The  Benevolent 
Tar."  ♦'The  Regions  of  Accomplish- 
ment,' ♦ '  The  Lancashire  Witches,' 

♦  '  The  Cestus,'  ♦ '  Pandora,'  ♦ '  The 
Long  Odds,'  and  'Harlequin  the 
Phantom  of  a  Day'  ^all  for  the 
Royal  Circus),  1783  and  1784  ;♦ '  Li- 
berty Hall,"  1785  ;  '  Harvest  Home,' 
1787;  ♦'A  Loyal  Effusion.'  1797; 
and  ♦ '  Hannah  Hewett,'  1798. 


His  table  entertainments  were- 


'Tlie  Whim  of  the  Moment,'  and 
'  The  Oddities,'  1789 ;  '  The  Wags, 
1790;  'Private  Theatricals,'  1791; 
•  The  Quizzes,'  1792 ;  '  Castles  in  the 
Air,'  1793;    'Great  News,'  1794 


Laud's  End,"  and  '  Tom  Wilkins,' 
1799 ;  '  The  Cake  House,'  1800  ;  '  A 
Frisk.'  1801;  'Most  Votes,"  1802; 
'New  Year"s  Gifts,"  '  Britons,  strike 
home,'  '  Heads  and  Tails,'  '  The 


'  Will  of  the  Wisp,"  and  '  Christmas ;  Frolic," '  Datchet  Mead," '  The  Pro- 
Gambols,"   1795;    'The   General  I  fessional  Volunteers,"  'Rent  Day," 
Election,"  1796; 'The  Sphinx,"  and 'and  'Commodore  Penuant,"  be- 
'  Valentine's  Day,"  1797 ;  '  King  and  tween  1802  and  1805. 
Queen,'  1798;  'A   Tour   to  the' 

Besides  these  Dibdin  was  author  of  '  The 
Gipsies,'  a  comic  opera  for  which  Dr.  Arnold 
composed  the  music,  'The  Harmonic  Preceptor/ 
a  didactic  poem,  1804,  'The  Musical  Mentor,' 
'Music  Epitomised,'  and  a  few  novels  and 
miscellaneous  works.  [W*.  H.  H.] 

DIBDIN,  Henry  Edwakd,  the  youngest  son 
of  Charles  Dibdin  the  younger,  was  born  in  the 


DICTIONAPJES  OF  MUSIC. 

'Dibdins'  house,'  Sadler's  Wells,  Sept.  8,  1813, 
He  acquired  his  first  knowledge  of  music  from 
his  eldest  sister,  Mary  Anne,  afterwards  Mrs. 
Tonna,  an  excellent  harpist,  pupil  of  Challouer 
and  Bochsa.  He  subsequently  studied  the  harp 
under  Bochsa,  and  also  became  proficient  on  the 
organ  and  violin.  Early  in  1833  Dibdin  went 
to  Edinburgh,  where  he  established  himself  as 
a  teacher.  He  died  May  6,  1866.  Dibdin  com- 
posed a  few  psalm  tunes  and  some  pieces  for  the 
organ  and  pianoforte,  but  he  is  best  known  as 
the  compiler  of '  The  Standard  Psalm  Tune  Book,' 
the  largest  and  most  authentic  collection  of  psalm 
tunes  ever  published,  the  contents  being  mainly 
derived  from  ancient  psalters.  Besides  his  attain- 
m.ents  as  a  musician  Dibdin  possessed  considerable 
skill  as  a  painter  and  illuminator.       [W.  H.  H.] 

DICKONS,  Mrs.,  daughter  of  a  gentleman 
named  Poole,  was  born  in  London  about  1 7  70.  Her 
musical  talent  was  early  developed.  She  became  a 
pupil  of  Rauzzini,  and  in  1787  appeared  at  Vaux- 
hall  Gardens  as  a  singer.  Her  progress  was  rapid, 
and  she  became  engaged  at  the  Concert  of  An- 
cient Music  and  other  concerts.  On  Oct,  9,  1793, 
she  made  her  appearance  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  as  Ophelia  in  '  Hamlet.'  She  next  sang 
in  several  of  the  principal  towns  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  with  great  success.  She 
was  subsequently  engaged  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
where  she  performed  the  Countess  in  Mozart's 
'Nozze  di  Figaro'  to  the  Susanna  of  Mme. 
Catalani.  She  afterwards  sang  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre.  In  1816  she  was  engaged  at  the 
Italian  Opera  at  Paris.  From  thence  she  went 
to  Italy.  On  her  return  to  England  she  was 
again  engaged  at  Covent  Garden,  where  she  ap- 
peared Oct.  13,  1 81 8  as  Rosina  in  Bishop's  adapta- 
tion of  Rossini's  'Barber  of  Seville.'  In  22  she 
was  compelled  by  ill  health  to  relinquish  her 
profession.   She  died  May  4,  1833.     [W.H.  H.] 

DICTIONARIES  OF  MUSIC.    The  oldest 
known  work  of  the  kind  is  that  of  the  learned 
Flemish  musician  Jean  Tinctor,  entitled  '  Termi- 
norum  musicae  Diffinitorium,'   15  sheets,  4to, 
undated,  but  in  all  probability  printed  with  the 
type  of  Gerard  de  Flandre,  and  published  in 
1474.    The  original  is  extremely  rare,  but  Forkel 
has  reprinted  it  in  his  '  AUgemeine  Litteratur  der 
Musik,'  and  thus  placed  it  within  the  reach  of 
students.    The  'Glossarium'  of  Du  Cange  also 
includes  many  musical  terms  and  explanations  use- 
ful to  historians  of  music.    Musical  archieologists 
will  further  do  well  to  consult  Manage— whose 
'  Dictionnaire  etymologique  de  la  langue  Fran- 
9oise'  appeared  in  1650 — and  the  'Dictionnaire 
Universel'  (Rotterdam,  1690)  of  Furetiere,  after- 
wards remo(ielled  by  Basnage  (the  Hague,  1 701). 
These  works  are  often  overlooked,  and  the  credit 
of  having  written  the  two  oldest  dictionaries  oi 
music  is  generally  assigned  to  Janowka  and 
the  Abbe  Sebastien  de  Brossard.    The  Bohemiar 
organist  wrote  in  Latin,  and  his  '  Clavis  ac 
thesaurum  magnae  artis  musicae' (Prague,  1701" 
was  unknown  to  Brossard  when  he  published  hif 
'Dictionnaire  deMusique'  (Ballard,  Paris  1703) 


DICTIOXARIES  OF  MUSIC. 


DICTIOXAEIES  OF  MI'SIC.  445 


Taking  into  account  the  enormous  difficulties 
under  which  they  labovtred,  both  authors  are 
deserving  of  great  praise  for  works  so  eminently 
useful  to  students  of  musical  terminology. 
Amongst  their  imitators  may  be  named  Wal- 
thern,  Grassineau,  and  J.  J.  Rousseau.  Wal- 
thern's  work,  *  Alte  und  neue  musikalische 
Bibliothek,  oder  musikalisches  Lexicon,'  was 
originally  published  at  Weimar,  but  the  second 
edition  (Leipsic,  1732)  is  the  important  one. 
lu  it  he  so  far  adopted  the  plan  suggested  by 
Brossard  at  the  end  of  his  dictionarj",  that  his 
work  forms  a  kind  of  complement  to  that. 
In  his  'Musical  Dictionary'  (London,  1740, 
I  vol.  Svo. ;  2nd  ed.  1769)  James  Grassineau 
has  made  ample  use  of  Brossard's  definitions  and 
examples  ;  but  his  work  is  much  more  complete, 
and  his  remarks  on  the  music  of  the  ancients  and 
on  musical  instruments  evince  much  reading, 
and  may  still  be  consulted  with  advantage. 
J.  J.  Eousseau  in  his  '  Dictionnaire  de  Musique' 
(Geneva,  1767)  also  utilised  the  labours  of  Bros- 
sard, especially  with  regard  to  ancient  music ; 
but  it  is  to  his  literary  ability  rather  than  to  his 
elevated  views  on  aesthetics  that  the  enormous 
success  of  his  dictionary  is  due.  Xot  only  was  it 
I  translated  into  several  languages,  but  it  was 
I  imitated  by  Meude-Monpas  (Paris,  1788)  and  by 
i  Reynvaan  (A:nsterdam,  1 795),  only  half  of  whose 
I  '  Musikaal  Ktmst  Woorden-book'  was  ever  pub- 
'  lished.  Rousseau's  influence  may  be  traced  also 
in  the  ' Dictionnaire  de  Musique'  contained  in 
'  the  '  Encyclopedic  Me'thodique.'  That  enormous 
mass  of  undigested  material  forms  two  huge  4to. 
volumes,  of  which  the  first  (1791)  was  compiled 
\mder  the  superintendence  of  Framery  and  Gin- 
guene,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Abb^  Feytou 
and  of  Surremain  de  Missery,  and  is  far  superior 
to  the  second  (181S)  edited  by  Momigny,  whose 
theories  were  not  only  erroneous  but  at  variance 
1  with  those  of  the  first  volume.  In  spite  however 
of  its  contradictions  and  errors,  both  scientific 
and  chronological,  a  judicious  historian  may  still 
find  useful  materials  in  this  dictionary. 

Whilst  Rousseau's  writings  were  exciting  end- 
less discussions  among  French  musicians,  the 
labours  of  Gerber  and  Forkel  in  Germany  were 
marking  a  new  era  in  the  literature  of  music. 
By  his  History  (AUg.  Geschichte  der  Musik, 
Leipsic  17S8-1801)  Forkel  did  as  much  for  the 
musicians  of  Europe  as  Burney  and  Hawkins 
had  in  aU  probability  done  for  him.  His  influ- 
ence may  be  recognised  in  Koch's  'Musikalisches 
Lexicon'  (Frankfort  1S02),  a  work  m  all  respects 
superior  to  that  of  G.  F.  Wolf  (Halle  1787). 
Koch  also  published  his  '  Kurzgefasstes  Hand- 
worterbuch  der  ^Nlusik'  (Leipsic  1S07),  a  work 
distinct  from  his  Lexicon,  but  quite  as  useful  and 
meritorious.  But  the  happy  influence  of  Forkel 
is  more  especially  evident  in  the  biographical 
work  of  Gerber,  '  Neues  historisch-biographisches 
Lexicon  der  Tonkiinstler '  (Leipzig,  1812-14,  4 
vols.)  a  work  in  every  way  a  great  improvement 
on  his  first  edition  (Leipzig,  1790-92,  2  vols.), 
although  incomplete  without  it,  owing  to  his 
habit  of  referring  baok.    Gerber  was  the  model 


for  the  'Dictionnaire  historique  des  musiciens' 
of  Choron  and  Fayolle  iParis,  iSio-ii),  the  first 
book  of  the  kind  published  in  France,  and  pre- 
ceded by  an  excellent  Introduction,  by  Choron, 
of  which  Fetis  in  his  turn  has  made  good 
use. 

In  Italy  the  Abbe  Gianelli  was  the  author  of  the 
first  dictionary  of  music  printed  in  Italian  (Venice 
1 801,  2nd  ed.  1820) ;  but  his  book  has  been  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  '  Dizionario  e  Biblio- 
grafia  della  Musica'  of  Dr.  Lichtenthal,  the  first 
two  volumes  of  which  are  devoted  to  music 
proper,  while  the  last  two  contain  an  historical 
and  critical  catalogue,  which  has  been  largely 
utilised  by  Fetis.  Lichtenthal  doubtless  took 
many  of  his  materials  from  Forkel  and  Gerber, 
but  his  work  shows  a  marked  advance  upon 
those  of  Koch  and  Rousseau  in  the  definitions 
of  words,  the  descriptions  of  instruments,  and 
the  historical  articles.  It  was  translated  into 
French  by  Mondo  (Paris  1S21,  2  vols.  Svo.). 
The  '  Dictionnaire  de  Musique  modeme'  of  Castil 
Blaze  (Paris  1S21  2nd  ed.  1825,  2  vols.),  in  part 
copied  from  that  of  Rousseau,  attained  a  certain 
amount  of  success  from  the  position  of  its  author 
and  its  animated  style;  but  it  is  by  no  means 
equal  either  in  extent  or  accuracy  to  Lichtenthal's 
work.  Partly  founded  on  a  similar  model  is  the 
'  Dictionnaire  de  Musique  d'apres  les  theoriciens, 
historiens,  et  critiques  les  plus  ce'lebres'  (1S44; 
5th  ed.  72)  by  MM.  Marie  et  Le'on  Escudier, 
a  compilation,  as  its  title  indicates,  but  contain- 
ing much  useful  information  in  a  small  space, 
especially  on  ancient  musical  instruments  and  on 
contemporaneous  matters.  Jos.  d'Ortigue,  on  the 
other  hand,  opened  up  a  new  line  in  his  'Dic- 
tionnaire liturgique,  historique,  et  theorique  de 
Plain-chant  et  de  Musique  d'e'glise  .  .  . '  (Paris 
1854  and  60),  an  interesting  and  valuable  work 
written  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  orthodox 
Roman  Catholic.  It  has  the  merit  of  quoting 
distinctly  all  the  sources  from  which  the  author 
derived  his  information,  and  of  mentioning  by 
name  aU  those  who  assisted  him;  and  for  the 
special  branch  of  which  it  treats  this  dictionary 
is  hitherto  without  a  rival. 

The  'Biographic  tmiverseUe  des  Musiciens,' 
by  the  late  F.  J.  Fetis,  is  hitherto  equally 
unrivalled.  The  first  edition  (Paris  and  Brussels, 
1835-44),  ^  8  vols.  8vo.,  double  columns,  contains 
a  long  and  admirable  introduction,  not  republished 
in  the  second  edition.  That  edition  (Paris, 
1860-65),  also  in  8  vols.  8vo.,  though  a  great 
advance  on  the  former  on'^,  is  still  very  imperfect. 
It  swarms  with  inaccurate  dates ;  its  blunders, 
especially  in  regard  to  English  musicians,  are 
often  ludicrous;  it  contains  many  biographies 
evidently  written  to  order ;  and  its  author,  while 
severely  criticising  his  victims,  has  an  ugly  knack 
of  borrowing  from  them  at  the  same  time :  but 
his  labour  and  spirit  were  prodigious,  he  is 
always  readable  and  often  impartial,  and  while 
he  developes  a  shrewd  and  even  philosophic 
critical  faculty,  he  has  the  art  of  expressing  his 
judgment  with  great  clearness.  The  misfortune 
of  biographical  dictionaries  is  that  they  are  never 


446      DICTIONARIES  OF  MUSIC. 


DIEUPART. 


complete,  and  a  supplement  to  Fetis  is  on  the 
point  of  publication. 

Whilst  the  French  authors  were  writing  their 
dictionaries,  either  on  Rousseau's  plan  or  were 
following  the  lead  of  Choron,  Ft^tis,  and 
d'Ortigue,  by  enlarging  their  sphere  beyond 
that  of  musical  terminology,  the  tendency  in 
Germany  was  to  include  in  dictionaries  not  only 
all  that  concerns  the  technical  part  of  music,  but 
the  biography  of  musicians,  and  the  philosophy, 
literature,  and  bibliography  of  the  art.  Gustav 
Schilling  therefore  justly  entitles  his  dictionary 
*  Encyclopadie  der  gesammten  musikalischen 
Wissenschaften,  oder  universal  Lexicon  der  Ton- 
kunst'  (Stuttgart  1835-38,  7  vols.  8vo.).  In  this 
work  biography  holds  an  important  place,  but 
the  other  departments  are  treated  with  equal 
skill  and  research,  so  that  the  whole  forms  a  pre- 
cious depository  of  information,  and  is  a  notable 
advance  on  all  previous  works  of  the  kind  in 
other  countries.  Gassner,  in  his  '  Universal  Lex- 
icon der  Tonkunst '  (Stuttgart  1 849,  I  vol.),  and 
Bernsdorf,  in  his  'Neues  universal  Lexicon  der 
Tonkunst,'  in  continuation  of  Schladebach  (Dres- 
den and  Offenbach  1856-61,  3  vols.),  have 
obviously  made  considerable  use  of  Schilling,  and 
both  works  have  a  well-merited  reputation. 
Koch's  'Lexicon'  has  been  re-edited  by  Dommer 
(Heidelberg  1865),  and  Oscar  Paul  has  published 
a  useful  'Handlexicon  der  Tonkunst'  (Leipsic 
1873),  in  which  condensation  is  carried  to  its 
utmost  limit.  But  of  all  the  German  works 
which  have  followed  Schilling  the  most  important 
and  deserving  of  mention  is  the  Musikalisches 
Conversations- Lexicon,  edited  by  Mendel,  and 
since  his  unfortunate  death  by  Reissmann 
(Berlin,  1870  etc.),  of  which  7  vols,  have  already 
appeared,  carrying  the  work  down  to  '  Paisiello.' 
There  is  a  want  of  proportion  in  some  of  the 
articles,  a  cumbrousness  of  style  and  an  oc- 
casional appearance  of  bias,  but  the  staff  of 
writers  is  unequalled  for  eminence  and  number, 
and  there  is  much  in  their  essays  which  has 
never  been  collected  before  and  which  is  highly 
valuable.  In  dictionaries  however  one  work  can 
never  supersede  another,  and  perfect  information 
is  only  to  be  got  by  consulting  all. 

Space  compels  us  to  confine  ourselves  to  a 
mere  mention  of  such  works  as  the  Swedish 
dictionary  of  Envalson  (Stockholm  1802);  the 
illustrated  dictionary  of  Soullier  (Paris  1855)  ; 
and  the  Spanish  dictionaries  of  Melcior  (Lerida 
1859)  and  Parada  (Madrid  1868).  Besides  mu- 
sical lexicons  properly  so  called  there  are  a  cer- 
tain number  of  Encyclopedias  and  Dictionaries  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  which  contain  important  articles 
on  music  and  musical  terms.  Amongst  these 
may  be  cited  the  '  Encyclopedie '  of  Diclerot  and 
D'Alembert  (Paris  1751-80,  35  vols.) ;  the  *A11- 
gemeine  Theorie  der  schonen  Kiinste'  (Leipsic 
1773),  by  Sulzer,  of  which  Millin  has  made  great 
use  in  his  '  Dictionnaire  des  Beaux  Arts '  (Paris 
1806);  the  'AUgemeine  Encyclopadie  der  Wis- 
senschaften und  Kunste'  (Leipsic  1818-47),  by 
Ersch  and  Gruber,  an  enormous  collection,  con- 
taining many  remarkable  articles  on  music ;  and 


the  '  Dictionnaire  de  I'Academie  des  Beaux  Arts,' 
begun  in  1858,  of  which  the  3rd  vol.  (1869-75) 
concludes  with  the  words  'Choeur,'  'Choral,'  and 
'  Chor^gique.'  It  contains  new  and  striking  arti- 
cles by  Halevy,  Henri  Rdber,  and  other  eminent 
musicians. 

In  England,  among  cyclopaedias,  the  earliest 
place  is  held  by  that  of  Rees  (18 19),  the  musical 
articles  in  which  were  written  by  the  eminent 
Dr.  Burney.  In  the  new  issue  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  (begun  1875)  the  musical 
articles — restricted  in  number — are  written  by 
Dr.  Franz  Hueffer.  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia 
(1741-53  or  1778-91)  on  a  smaller,  and  Brande's 
Dictionary  (1842  ;  3rd  ed.  1853)  on  a  still  smaller 
scale,  contain  good  articles  on  musical  topics,  the 
former  including  the  leading  biographies.  The 
Dictionaries  are  few  and  unimportant : — Grassi- 
neau  (1740),  Busby  (1786),  Jousse  (1829),  Wil- 
son, or  Hamilton's  and  Hiles's  Dictionaries  of 
Musical  Terms — each  a  small  8vo.  volume — are 
specimens  of  the  manner  in  which  this  department 
has  been  too  long  filled  in  England.  A  great 
advance  has  been  recently  made  in  the  '  Dic- 
tionary of  Musical  Terms '  edited  by  Dr.  Stainer 
and  Mr.  W.  A.  Barrett  (i  vol.  8vo.,  NoveUo 
1876),  though  even  that  leaves  something  to  be 
desired.  As  regards  biography,  the  '  Dictionary 
of  Musicians'  (2  vols.  8vo.,  1822  and  27),  though 
good  in  intention,  is  imperfectly  carried  out.  , 

An  excellent  work  for  its  date  and  its  intention 
is  the  '  Complete  Encyclopaedia  of  Music '  by  John 
W.  Moore  (Boston,  U.S.A.,  1852),  a  large  8vo. 
volume  of  1000  pages,  constructed  on  a  popular 
basis,  and  which  would  be  more  valuable  if  it 
were  corrected  and  modified  to  date.         [G.  C] 

DIESIS,  from  the  Greek  dieois  which  means 
division,  and  was  the  name  given  to  quarter  tones 
in  their  system.  Aristotle  takes  it  as  the  unit 
of  musical  tones,  the  last  subdivision  of  intervals. 
In  modem  acoustics  it  means  the  interval  which 
results  from  the  two  sounds  which  are  arrived  at 
by  tuning  up  3  perfect  thirds  and  an  octave, 
which  is  the  same  as  the  difference  between  a 
major  or  diatonic  semitone,  and  a  minor  or  chro- 
matic semitone,  the  ratio  of  their  vibrations 
being  125  :  128.  It  is  commonly  called  the 
Enharmonic  Diesis,  enharmonic  being  the  word 
which  is  applied  to  intervals  less  than  a  semitone. 

Diese  has  been  adopted  by  the  French  as  their 
term  for  sharp.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

DIEUPART,  Charles,  a  native  of  France, 
who  came  to  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
1 7th  century,  was  a  fine  performer  on  the  violin 
and  harpsichord.  In  1707  he  was  associated 
with  Clayton  and  Haym  in  introducing  trans- 
lations of  Italian  operas  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre. 
[Clayton.]  After  the  discontinuance  of  those 
operas  and  the  failure  of  their  subsequent  con- 
cert speculation,  Dieupart  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  teaching  the  harpsichord,  and  for  some 
time  with  considerable  success,  but  towards  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  acquired  low  habits, 
and  frequented  alehouses,  where  l\e  entertained 
the  company  by  his  fine  performance  of  Corelli's 
violin  solos.    He  died  in  necessitous  circum- 


DIEUPART. 


DIMINISHED  INTERVALS.  447 


stances,  and  at  an  advanced  age,  about  the  year 
1740.  He  published  'Six  Suittes  de  Clavessin, 
divis^es  en  Ouvertures,  Allemandes,  Courantes, 
Sarabandes,  Gavottes,  Minuets,  Rondeaux,  et 
Gigues,  composees  et  mises  en  Concert  pour  un 
Violin  et  Flute,  avec  une  Basse  de  Viole  et  un 
ArchUut.'  [W.H.H.] 

DI  GIOVANNI,  a  very  useful  Italian  second 
tenor  engaged  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  181 8 
and  subsequent  years.  In  1821  he  received  a 
salary  of  £  1 2  7  from  Ebers,  which  was  increased  in 
1822  and  23  to  £180.  In  the  latter  year  he  played 
Serano  in  'La  Donna  del  Lago';  and  continued 
to  play  similar  parts  as  late  as  1827.       [J.  M.] 

DIGITORIUM.  An  apparatus  for  exercising 
and  strengthening  the  fingers,  intended  especially 
for  the  use  of  pianists,  but  claimed  by  its  inventor, 
Myer  Marks,  to  be  of  great  service  to  all  who 
require  flexible  and  well-trained  fingers. 

It  consists  of  a  small  box  about  six  inches 
square,  provided  with  five  keys\  fitted  with 
strongly  resisting  springs,  upon  which  keys  such 
exercises  as  the  five-finger  exercises  to  be  found 
in  every  Pianoforte  School  are  to  be  practised. 
In  addition,  there  are  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  box  certain  appliances  for  stretching  the 
fingers,  and  a  support  for  the  wrist. 

The  idea  of  sparing  the  ears  of  pianoforte 
students,  and  those  who  may  be  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood, by  the  use  of  dumb  keyboards  is  by  no 
means  new,  either  here  or  abroad.  Great  com- 
posers in  boyhood,  practising  under  difficulties, 
have  been  reduced  to  muffiing  the  wires  that 
they  might  practise  unheard.  It  is  difficult  how- 
ever to  say  when  the  first  '  dumb-piano '  was 
manufactured.  In  1847  a  long  article  appeared 
in  the  '  Allgemeine  Musikalische  Zeitung '  cen- 
suring the  employment  of  the  dumb  piano,  and 
Schumann  in  his  'Musikalische  Haus-  und  Le- 
bensregeln'  says,  'There  have  been  invented 
so-called  dumb  keyboards ;  try  them  for  a 
while,  that  you  may  discover  them  to  be  of 
no  value.  One  cannot  learn  to  speak  from  the 
dumb.'  Though  this  may  be  incontrovertible 
the  question  is  worth  consideration,  whether  the 
muscles  of  the  fingers  may  not  be  increased  in 
speed  and  endurance  (two  essential  quaKties 
in  pianoforte  playing),  by  a  suitable  covu-se  of 
properly  regulated  gymnastic  exercises,  just  as 
the  other  muscles  of  the  body  are  trained  for 
running,  rowing,  etc. 

That  considerable  muscular  power  is  required 
in  pianoforte  playing  at  the  present  day,  wiU 
be  seen  from  the  following  table  of  resistances, 
the  one  set  being  taken  from  one  of  the  most 
recent  concert  grand  pianos,  and  the  other  from  a 
grand  made  in  181 7,  both  by  Messrs.  Broadwood 
and  Sons^ 

Lowest  C.      ]\Iiddle  C.     Highest  C. 
181 7       24  oz.         2|oz.  ifoz. 
1877       40Z-  3ioz.  2|oz. 

1  Dtgitoriums  are  occasionally  made  of  greater  compass,  with  black 
and  white  keys,  the  ordinary  digitorium  having  only  white  keys. 

2  It  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  resistance  is  not  equal  through- 
ont  the  key-board,  and  that  the  left  hand,  although  the  weaker,  has 
Um  greatest  re&i^tauca  to  overcome. 


The  resistance  offered  by  the  Digitorium  is 
far  in  excess  of  the  above  numbers  ;  it  is  manu- 
factured in  three  different  degrees  of  strength, 
the  resistance  of  the  medium  touch  being  no 
less  than  12  ounces.  On  this  account,  and  also 
because  the  resistance  is  obtained  by  metal 
springs,  instead  of  by  weights  at  the  farther 
end  of  the  lever  (as  in  the  old  dumb  pianos), 
the  touch  of  the  digitorium  does  not  in  the  least 
resemble  that  of  the  pianoforte,  but  rather  a 
heavily  weighted  organ -touch,  and  it  should 
tlierefore  be  looked  upon  as  a  gymnastic  ap- 
paratus, and  by  no  means  as  a  substitute  for  the 
pianoforte  in  the  practice  of  exercises. 

The  question  of  finger  gymnastics  has  received 
very  full  consideration  from  Mr.  E.  Ward 
Jackson,  in  a  work  entitled  '  Gymnastics  for  the 
Fingers  and  Wrist '  (London,  Metzler  and  Co, 
1874),  in  which  he  quotes  opinions  in  favour  of 
his  system  of  exercises,  not  only  from  musicians, 
but  from  very  eminent  surgeons.  [F.  T.] 

DIGNUM,  Charles,  son  of  a  master  tailor, 
was  born  at  Rotherhithe  in  1765.  His  father, 
being  a  Roman  Catholic,  placed  him  when  a  boy 
in  the  choir  of  the  Sardinian  ambassador's  chapel 
in  Duke  Street,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  where  his 
fine  voice  attracted  the  attention  of  Samuel 
Webbe,  the  glee  composer,  then  organist  there, 
who  undertook  to  instruct  him.  On  leaving  the 
choir  he  had  no  idea  of  pursuing  music  as  a  pro- 
fession, but  was  rather  solicitous  of  being  sent  to 
Douay  to  be  educated  for  the  priesthood.  His 
father's  pecuniary  embarrassments  however  and 
other  circumstances  prevented  it.  He  decided  on 
adopting  the  profession  of  music,  and  articled  him- 
self to  Thomas  Linley  for  seven  years.  Linley 
bestowed  the  utmost  attention  on  his  pupil,  and 
would  not  allow  him  to  sing  in  public  until  his 
powers  were  sufficiently  matured.  In  1784  Dig- 
num  made  his  first  appearance  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  as  Young  Meadows  in  '  Love  in  a  Vil- 
lage,' and,  although  his  figure  was  somewhat 
unsuited  to  the  part,  the  beauty  of  his  voice  and 
his  judicious  singing  secured  him  a  favourable 
reception.  He  next  appeared  as  the  hero  in 
Michael  Arne's  '  Cymon,'  and  fully  established 
himself  in  public  favour.  In  1787,  on  the  re- 
moval of  Charles  Bannister  to  the  Royalty  Theatre, 
Dignum  succeeded  to  a  cast  of  characters  better 
suited  to  his  person  and  voice.  In  96  he  gained 
much  credit  by  his  performance  of  Crop  the 
miller,  in  Storace's  '  No  song  no  supper,'  of 
which  he  was  the  original  representative.  After 
singing  at  the  theatres,  at  VauxhaU  Gardens, 
and  at  concerts  for  several  years,  he  retired  in 
easy  circumstances.  He  died  March  29,  1827. 
Dignum  composed  several  ballads.  He  published 
a  volume  of  songs,  duets,  and  glees,  composed 
and  adapted  by  himself,  to  which  an  engraved 
portrait  of  him  is  prefixed.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DIMINISHED  INTERVALS  are  such  as 
are  either  less  than  perfect  or  less  than  minor  by 
one  semitone.  Thus  (a)  being  a  perfect  fifth, 
(6)  is  a  diminished  fifth ;  and  (c)  being  a  perfect 
fourth,  (d)  is  a  diminished  fourth  : — 


448      DIMINISHED  INTEKVALS. 


DISCOED. 


These  are  both  of  discordant  nature,  the  dimin- 
ished fourth  always  so ;  but  if  a  major  sixth  be 
added  below  the  bass  note  of  the  diminished  fifth 
it  is  considered  to  modify  the  discordance  so  far 
as  to  admit  of  its  being  used  as  a  concord.  This 
rule  is  of  old  standing,  especially  in  regard  to 
the  occurrence  of  the  chord  diatonicaUy,  as  (e)  in 
the  key  of  C,  which  was  admitted  in  the  strict 
old  style  where  discords  were  excluded.  Of  in- 
tervals which  are  changeable  into  major  or  minor 
the  diminished  seventh  is  the  commonest,  (/), 
which  is  a  semitone  less  than  the  ordinary  minor 
seventh  (gr),  according  to  the  rule  above  given. 
The  complete  chord,  which  is  commonly  kno-mi 
as  that  of  the  '  diminished  seventh,'  {h),  is 
properly  speaking  an  inversion  of  a  chord  of  the 
minor  ninth,  (i).  It  occurs  with  remarkable 
(")         (/)         (P)        (h)  (i) 


frequency  in  modem  music,  part  of  its  popularity 
no  doubt  arising  from  the  singular  facilities  for 
modulation  which  it  affords.  For  the  notes  of 
which  it  is  composed  being  at  equal  distances 
from  one  another,  any  one  of  them  can  be  chosen 
at  will  to  stand  as  minor  ninth  to  the  root  which 
is  understood.  Thus  the  above  chord  might  be 
written  in  either  of  the  following  ways — 


i 


lifr-.  fr^: 


— 

in  which  Db,  Eb,  and  G  are  respectively  the 
minor  ninths  to  C,  Eb,  and  Fjf,  the  absent  root 
notes,  and  could  pass  into  as  many  different  keys 
as  those  root  notes  could  serve,  either  as  domi- 
nant, tonic,  or  supertonic.  [See  Change,  Mo- 
dulation.] 

The  chord  of  the  diminished  third,  as  (k),  oc- 
curs in  music  as  the  inversion  of  the  chord  of  the 
augmented  sixth,  as  (Z).  It  has  such  a  strongly 
(A)  (0 


i 


marked  character  of  its  own  that  great  composers 
seem  agreed  to  reserve  it  for  special  occasions. 
Bach  uses  it  with  powerful  effect  at  the  end  of 
the  'Crucifixus'  in  his  B  minor  Mass,  and  Bee- 
thoven in  the  chorus  to  the  same  words  in  his 
*  Missa  Solennis.'  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

DLMINUENDO.  Lessening  the  tone  from 
loud  to  soft ;  employed  indiscriminately  with 
decrescendo.  Expressed  by  dim.  or  dimin.,  and 
by  the  sign  i;iir=-. 

DIMINUTION,  in  Counterpoint,  is  the  re- 
petition of  a  subject  or  figure  in  notes  of  less 
value  than  in  its  original  statement,  as — 
I     ^  .  J  I 


It  is  a  device  almost  confined  to  music  of  a  con- 
trapuntal character,  such  as  fugues  and  canons, 
and  is  not  of  as  frequent  occurrence  as  augmenta- 
tion, which  is  its  converse.  There  is  an  example 
in  Handel's  chorus  'Let  aU  the  angels  of  God' 
in  the  Messiah ;  in  Bach's  well-known  fugue 
in  E,  No.  33  in  the  *  Wohltemperirte  Clavier'; 
and  in  the  Overture  to  the  Meistersinger  by 
Wagner.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DINORAH,  The  original  and  Italian  title 
of  Meyerbeer's  opera  which  was  brought  out  in 
Paris  (Opera  Comique,  April  4,  1859)  as  *Le 
Pardon  de  Ploermel' — Cabel  as  Dinorah.  Di- 
norah  was  produced,  with  recitatives  by  Meyer- 
beer, and  under  his  own  direction,  at  Covent 
Garden  July  26,  1859,  in  3  acts,  with  ISIiolan 
Cai-valho  as  the  heroine ;  and  in  English  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  at  Drury  Lane  by  Pyne 
and  Harrison. 

DIEECT.  A  mark  (w)  to  be  found  in  music 
up  to  the  present  century  at  the  end  of  a  page, 
and  even  of  a  line,  to  warn  the  performer  of  the 
note  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  page  or  line, 
like  the  catchword  at  the  foot  of  a  page, 
formerly  universal,  and  still  retained  in  the 
Quarterly  Eeview.  . 

0  b  -^^T^     ^    mdicates  that  the  first 
Thus  "TTb    I*  ^  I— ^  note  of  the  next  line 
 ^         wiU  be  G. 

DIEECT  MOTION  is  the  progression  of  parts 
or  voices  in  a  similar  direction,  aa — 


P 


As  a  matter  of  contrapuntal  effect  it  is  weaker 
and  less  effective  than  Contkary  Motion,  which 
see.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DIS.  The  German  term  for  Dj(,  and  also, 
according  to  a  cmious  former  Viennese  custom, 
for  Eb.  The  Eroica  Symphony  was  announced 
at  Clement's  concert  April  7,  1805  (its  first 
performance),  and  at  ^Meier's  concert,  1808,  as 
'  in  Dis.'    Des  is  the  term  for  Db. 

DISCANT,  dis-cantus,  a  double  song ;  ori- 
ginally the  melody  or  'counterpoint'  sung  with  a 
plain-song;  thence  the  upper  voice  or  leading 
melody  in  a  piece  of  part-music  ;  and  thence  the 
canto,  cantus,  or  soprano  voice,  which  was  for- 
merly— as  late  as  Mendelssohn,  who  used  to  saj 
■zmzi  he  had  learnt  it  from  Zelter — written  in 
the  C  clef.    Thus  in  earlier  English  the 


ini      word  'discant'  or  'descant'  means  an  air: 

'And  sprightly  voice  sweet  descant  sing.' 
And  the  violin,  because  it  took  the  upper  part 
in  the  quartet,  was  called  the  'diskant- Violin.' 

DISCOED  is  a  combination  of  notes  which 
produces  a  certain  restless  craving  in  the  mind 
for  some  further  combination  upon  which  it  can 
rest  with  satisfaction. 

Discords  comprise  such  chords  as  contain  notes 
which  are  next  to  each  other  in  alphabetical 
order,  and  such  as  have  augmented  or  diminished 
intervals,  with  the  exception  in  the  latter  case  of 


DISCOED. 


DITTERSDORF.  449 


the  chord  of  the  6th  and  3rd  on  the  second  note 
of  any  key.  The  changed  combination  which 
must  follow  them  in  order  to  relieve  the  sense  of 
pain  they  produce  is  called  the  resolution.  For 
the  various  kinds  of  discords  and  their  reso- 
lutions see  Harmony.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DISSOLUTO  PUXITO,  IL,  Ossia  il  don 
GiovAXXi.  The  full  title  of  Mozart's  opera,  so 
well  known  by  the  latter  half  of  its  name.  [See 
Don  GIOVAN^^.] 

DISSONANCE  is  any  combination  of  notes 
which  on  being  sounded  together  produces  beats  ; 
that  is,  an  alternate  strengthening  and  weakening 
of  the  sound,  arising  from  the  opposition  of  the 
vibrations  of  either  their  prime  tones,  or  their  har- 
monics or  their  combination  tones,  which  causes 
a  painful  sensation  to  the  ear.  [C.H.H.P.] 

DITAL  HAEP,  or  cliromatic  harp-lute,  one 
1  of  the  numerous  attempts  made  about  the  be- 
I    ginning  of*  this  century  to  improve  or  replace 


theguitar.^  Edward  Light  appears  to  have  in- 
vented this  form  of  stringed  instrument  about 


the  year  1798.  The  harp-lute  had  originally 
twelve  catgut  strings — 


but  this  notation  was  a  major  sixth  higher  in 
pitch  than  the  actual  sounds.  In  1 816  the  same 
Edward  Light  took  out  a  patent  for  an  improve- 
ment in  this  instrument,  which  he  now  denomi- 
nated 'the  British  harp-lute,'  The  patent  was 
for  the  application  of  certain  pieces  of  mechanism 
called  'ditals'  or  'thumb-keys,'  in  distinction 
from '  pedals '  or '  foot-keys ' ;  each  dital  producing 
by  pressure  the  depression  of  a  stop-ring  or 
eye  to  draw  the  string  down  upon  a  fret  and 
thus  shorten  its  effective  length,  and  render  the 
pitch  more  acute.  The  most  complete  instrument 
of  this  construction  he  named  the  'Dital  harp.' 
In  this  each  string  has  a  '  dital '  to  raise  it  a 
semitone  at  pleasure.  [A.  J.  H.] 

DITTEESDOEF,  Kabl  Dittees  ton— whose 
original  name  was  Ditters — distinguished  vio- 
linist, and  prolific  composer  in  all  branches  of 
music,  but  specially  esteemed  for  his  German 
national  operas  ;  bom  at  Vienna,  Nov.  2,  1739. 
He  soon  outstripped  his  early  teachers  on  the 
violin,  Konig  and  Ziegler  (not  Ziigler,  as  he 
calls  him  in  his  biography).  Ziegler  worked  his 
pupil  in  the  orchestra  at  St.  Stephen's,  and  also 
in  that  of  the  Schottenkirche.  Here  Ditters  was 
noticed  by  his  chiefs,  and  on  their  recommenda- 
tion was  received  into  the  private  band  of  the 
Prince  von  Hildburghausen,  who,  being  himself 
a  man  of  high  cultivation,  looked  after  the  gen- 
eral education  of  his  young  page  (a  lad  of  11), 
and  had  him  instructed  in  composition  by  Bonno, 
the  court-composer,  in  the  violin  by  Trani,  and  in 
foreign  languages,  fencing,  dancing,  arid  riding. 
The  formation  of  his  taste  was  much  assisted  by 
hearing  Yittoria  Tesi,  who  sang  regularly  at  the 
Prince's  concerts,  and  he  soon  formed  an  intimacy 
with  Gluck  and  Haydn.  When  the  Prince  dis- 
missed his  band  in  1759  procured  a  place  for 
Ditters  in  the  Empress's  opera,  but  wishing  to  see 
the  world  he  started  in  1761  with  Gluck  on  a 
professional  tour  in  Italy,  where  his  playing  was 
much  admired.  Meantime  the  famous  LoUi  had 
been  performing  in  Vienna  with  great  success, 
but  Dittersdorf  on  his  return  vanquished  him ; 
the  general  verdict  was  '  Each  has  marvellous 
execution,  but  Ditters  also  speaks  to  the  heart.' 
His  intimacy  with  Haydn  was  of  service  to  them 
both.  'Whenever  we  heard,'  says  he,  'a  new 
piece,  we  went  through  it  carefully  together, 
doing  justice  to  aU  that  was  good,  and  criticis- 
ing what  was  bad  in  it' — an  impartial  course 
seldom  pursued  by  young  composers.  In  the 
early  part  of  1764  he  went  with  Gluck  and 
Guadagni  to  Frankfort  for  the  election  and  coro- 
nation (April  3)  of  the  Archduke  Joseph  as  King 
of  the  Eomans.  He  played  twice  at  court  with 
brilliant  success,  but  his  expectations  were  not 
otherwise  fulfilled,  and  on  his  return  to  Vienna 
the  rudeness  of  Count  Wenzel  Spork,  the  then 
manager  of  the  theatre,  made  him  gladly  accept 


450  DTTTERSDORF. 


DIVERTIMENTO. 


the  post  of  capeUmeister  to  the  Bishop  of  Gross- 
wardein,  vice  Michael  Haydn  departed  to  Salz- 
burg. For  his  new  master  he  composed  sympho- 
nies, ^dolin-concertos,  string- quartet?,  and  his 
first  oratorio,  '  Isacco  figura  del  Redentore,'  to  a 
Latin  adaptation  of  Metastasio  by  the  Bishop 
himself.  He  also  started  a  small  theatre  in  the 
castle,  for  which  he  wrote  several  pieces,  includ- 
ing his  first  comic  opera,  'Amore  in  Musica.' 
But  in  69  the  Bishop  received  a  rebuke  from 
the  Empress  on  the  laxity  of  his  life,  and  dis- 
missed his  whole  band.  At  Troppau  Dittersdorf 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Count  Schafgotsch, 
Prince  Bishop  of  Breslau,  who  invited  him  to 
his  estate  at  Johannisberg,  where  he  was  living 
in  retirement  and  disgrace.  The  versatile  mu- 
sician foimd  means  to  cheer  his  master  s  solitude. 
He  got  together  a  band,  engaged  singers  and 
musicians,  set  up  a  theatre,  wrote  operas  and 
oratorios,  and  went  out  hunting,  all  with  equal 
zest.  In  return  for  his  services  he  was  made, 
through  the  Bishop's  influence  (in  1770),  Knight 
of  the  Golden  Spur  (a  distinction  enjoyed  by  Gluck 
and  Mozart),  and  Amtshauptmann  of  Freiwaldau 
(1773),  and  received  a  title  of  nobility — '  Ditters 
von  Dittersdorf.'  The  oratorio  '  Da  vide'  and  the 
comic  opera  '  D  viaggiatore  Americano'  belong  to 
this  period,  and  it  was  while  rehearsing  them  that 
he  fell  in  love  with  Fraxileia  Xicolini,  whom  he 
had  engaged  from  Vienna,  and  married  her.  Dur- 
ing a  visit  to  Vienna  he  composed  '  Ester,'  words 
by  the  Abbe  Pintus,  for  the  concerts  (Dec.  19  and 
2  1.  1773)  aid  of  the  widows'  fund  of  the 
Tonkiinstler  Societat.  Between  the  parts  he 
played  a  concerto  of  his  own,  and  so  pleased  the 
Emperor,  that  on  Gassmann's  death  (Jan.  22, 
1774),  he  wished  to  appoint  him  court-capell- 
meister,  but  Dittersdorf  was  too  proud  to  apply 
for  the  post,  and  the  Emperor  was  not  inclined 
to  ofi'er  it  unsolicited.  *  Ester '  was  repeated  be- 
fore the  court  in  1785  ;  'Isacco'  was  performed 
in  Vienna  (i  776) ;  and  '  Giobbe,'  also  written  for 
the  Tonkiinstler  Societat,  on  April  8  and  9, 
1786,  one  part  each  night,  Dittersdorf  himself 
conducting.  In  1789  it  was  produced  in  Berlin 
with  marked  success.  On  another  visit  to  Vienna, 
in  1786,  he  produced  a  symphony  on  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses  at  the  morning  concerts  in  the 
Augarten,  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  the 
often-quoted  conversation  with  the  Emperor  Jo- 
seph II  took  place.  *Der  Apotheker  und  der 
Doctor'  (July  11),  a  lively,  sound,  though  some- 
what rough  operetta,  which  has  kept  the  stage 
to  the  present  day;  'Betrug  durch  Aberglauben' 
(Oct.  3,  1786)  ;  'Democrito  corretto'  (Jan.  24, 
1787);  'DieLiebe  im  Xarrenhause'  (April  12), 
all  at  Vienna  ;  and  '  Hieronymus  K nicker'  (Leo- 
poldstadt,  July  1789),  were  brilliant  successes, 
with  the  exception  of  '  Democrito.'  In  the  mean- 
time things  had  changed  at  Johannisberg.  The 
Bishop's  band,  dismissed  during  the  war,  had 
reassembled  after  the  Peace  of  Teschen,  1779. 
About  1 790  Dittersdorf  was  obliged  to  attend  to 
his  duties  at  Freiwaldau,  and  during  his  absence 
his  enemies  slandered  him  to  the  Bishop.  Dit- 
tersdorf nursed  him  devotedly  during  his  long 


j  illness,  but  on  his  death  (1795)  was  dismissed 
1  with  500  gulden,  a  sum  soon  exhausted  in 
visiting  the  baths  with  a  view  to  restore  his 
'  health,  shattered  by  his  irregularities.    His  next 
asylum  was  at  the  house  of  Count  von  Stillfried 
at  Rothlhotta  in  Bohemia,  and  here,  in  spite  of 
I  constant  suffering,  he  composed  operas,  sym- 
I  phonies,  and  innumerable  pianoforte  pieces,  for 
j  which  he  in  vain  sought  a  purchaser.  On 
his  death-bed  he  dictated  his  autobiography  to 
his  son,  and  died  two  days  after  it  was  com- 
pleted, Oct.  31,1 799.  Dittersdorf  was  a  thoroughly 
popular  composer.    He  possessed  a  real  vein  of 
j  comedy,  vivacity,  and  quick  invention,  bright 
i  spontaneous  melody,  original  instrumentation,  and 
j  breadth  in  the  'ensembles'  and  'finales,'  qualities 
which,  exercised  on  pleasing  librettos,  made  him 
the  darling  of  his  contemporaries.    He  held  the 
same  position  in  Germany  that  Gretry  did  in 
I  France,  though  inferior  to  Gretry  in  delicacy, 
I  spirituality,  and  depth  of  sentiment.    His  ora- 
j  torios,  much  valued  in  their  time  ;  his  symphonies, 
j  in  the  style  of  Haydn,  though  inferior  to  Haydn 
I  in  grace  and  liveliness ;  his  violin-concertos,  string- 
quartets  (of  which  12  were  published  in  1866), 
duos,  '  divertimenti,'  a  concerto  with  11  instru- 
ments obbligato,  masses,  motets,  and  songs — all 
contributed  to  his  fame,  and  if  they  did  not  sur- 
vive him,  were  of  moment  in  their  day.  Besides 
I  the  operas  already  named  he  composed  '  Lo  sposo 
burlato'  (1775) ;  *La  Contadina  fedele'  (1785) ; 
'  Orpheus  der  z^-eite'  (1787) ;  '  Das  rothe  Kapp- 
chen'  (1 788) ;  '  Der  Schiffspatron '  (i  789) ;  '  Ho- 
cus Pocus '  (i  790) ;  '  Das  Gespenst  mit  der  Trom- 
,  mel'  (1794) ;  *Gott  Mars  oder  der  eiseme  Mann'; 
j  'Don  Quixotte'  ;  *Der  Schach  von  Schiras'  (all 
I  ^  795)  j  '  Ugolino,'  grand  '  opera  seria ' ;  '  Die  lus- 
tigen  "Weiber  von  Windsor' ;  '  Der  schone  Herb- 
stag' (all  1796);  'Der  Temenge winnst ' ;  'Der 
j  Madchen-markt' ;  ' Die  Opera  buffa ' ;  'Don  Cori- 
,  baldi'  (1798) ;  *I1  Tribunale  di  Giove,'  serenata 
■  (1788) ;  and  'Das  Madchen  von  Cola,'  a  song  of 
Ossian's,  for  pianoforte  (1795).     Of  his  sym- 
phonies, '  Six  Simphonies  a  8  parties' ;  '  Trois 
Simphonies  a  4  parties  obi.,  etc.';  and  'Sim- 
phonie  dans  le  genre  de  cinq  nations,  etc.,'  were 
published  in  Paris  in  1770.    On  the  title-page  of 
the  first  set  he  is  called  '  first  violin  and  maitre 
,  de  musique  to  Prince  Esterhazy.'    His  autobio- 
I  graphy  (Leipsic  1801)  forms  the  foundation  of 
Arnold's  'Karl  von  Dittersdorf,  etc.  Bildungsbuch 
fiir  junge  Tonkiinstler'  (Erfurt  18 10).  [C.F.P.] 
DR^RTIMEXTO,  a  term  employed  for  va- 
rious pieces  of  music. 

I .  In  Mozart  it  designates  a  piece  closely  akin 
to  a  Serenade  or  Cassation,  usually  in  6  or  7 
movements — though  sometimes  only  4,  and  once 
as  manj^  as  10;  indifferently  for  trio  or  quartet 
of  strings,  vrind  alone,  or  wind  and  strings  mixed. 
Kochel's  Catalogue  contains  no  less  than  22  of 
such  Divertimenti.  The  following  is  the  order 
of  the  movements  in  one  of  them  (no.  287): — 
(i)  Allegro;  (2)  Andante grazioso  (6 variations); 
(3)  Minuet;  (4)  Adagio ;  (5^  Minuet;  (6)  An- 
dante and  Allegro  molto.  The  changes  of  key 
i  are  slight ;  in  some  there  is  no  change  at  all. 


DIVERTIMENTO. 


DOCTOR  OF  MUSIC. 


451 


2.  A  Pot-pourri  or  arrangement  of  the  airs  of 
an  opera  or  other  piece  for  orchestra  or  piano. 

DIVERTISSEMENT.  A  kind  of  short  baUet, 
such  as  Taglioni's  'Divertissement  Silesien,'  some- 
times mixed  with  songs.  Also  a  pot-pourri  or 
piece  on  given  motifs,  such  as  Schubert's  '  Diver- 
tissement h,  I'hongroise.'  Also  the  French  term 
fur  an  entr'acte.    The  term  is  no  longer  used. 

DIVISION  VIOLIN,  THE,  the  title  of  a 
work  which,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  was  the 
favourite  vade-mecum  of  amateur  violinists.  It 
was  the  successor  of  'The  Division  Violist'  of 
Christopher  Simpson,  first  published  in  1659. 
Both  works  consist  of  divisions,  or  variations, 
upon  a  given  theme  or  subject,  denominated  the 
'  ground.'  The  earlier  work  contains  instructions 
for  performing  such  divisions  extempore,  but  the 
later  one  is  confined  to  divisions  already  com- 
posed. These  are  often  upon  popular  song-tunes 
or  other  well-known  subjects.  The  first  edition 
of 'The  Division  Violin'  appeared  in  1684,  en- 
graved on  copper  plates,  and  a  second  part  a 
few  years  later.  Both  parts  went  through  several 
editions,  the  contents  of  which  varied,  but  were 
always  derived  from  the  best  composers  of  the 
day,  amongst  whom  were  Henry  and  Daniel 
Purcell,  Davis  Mell,  John  Banister,  Solomon, 
John,  and  Henry  Eccles,  G,  B.  Draghi,  Jeremiah 
Clark,  etc.  Some  pieces  by  Corelli  are  included 
in  some  of  the  later  editions.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DIVISIONS,  in  the  musical  nomenclature  of 
the  17th  and  iSth  centuries,  were  rapid  pas- 
sages— slow  notes  divided  into  quick  ones— as 
naturally  takes  place  in  variations  on  a  theme  or 
ground.  Hence  the  word  can  be  applied  to  quick 
consecutive  passages  like  the  long  semiquaver 
runs  in  Handel's  bravura  songs,  as  : — 


angel  t 

etc. 


DIVITIS,  Antonius,  or  Antoine  le  Ri€HE, 
a  French  composer,  and  colleague  of  Mouton  a,s 
singer  in  the  chapel  of  Louis  XII,  who  reigned 
from  1498  to  151 5.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
his  works  at  present  known  : — (i)  A4-partmass, 
*Gaude  Barbara'  (MS.),  in  the  library  at  Cam- 
bray.  (2)  A  6-part  Credo  (MS.)  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Munich.  (3)  A  mass,  '  Quem  dicunt 
homines'  (of  which  Ambros  gives  a  description 
in  his  history  of  music),  in  the  15th  book  of 
the  collection  by  Pierre  Attaignant  of  Paris. 
(4)  A  motet,  'Gloria  laus,'  in  the  loth  book 
of  the  collection  of  ancient  motets  by  Pierre 
Attaignant  (Paris  1530)  who  has  also,  in  his 
collection  of  Magnificats  (Paris,  1534),  included 
one  by  Divitis.  (5)  A  motet, '  Desolatorum  conso- 
lator,'  in  4  parts,  in  the  ist  book  of  the  'Motetti 
della  corona '  (Petrucci,  Venice  1 5 14).  (6)  Many 
motets  for  3  voices  in  the  collection  'Trium 


vocum  cantiones  centum  D'  published  by  Petreius 
(Nuremberg  1540).  (7)  A  setting  of  the  words 
*  Ista  est  speciosa,'  in  the  collection  *  Bicinia 
Gallica,  Latina,  Germanica,  etc.,'  published  by 
Rhaw  (Wittenberg).  (8)  Two  chansons,  under 
the  name  Le  Riche,  in  the  collection  'des  plus 
excellentes  chansons'  published  by  Nicolas  Duche- 
mininissi.  [J.R.S.B.] 
DLABACZ,  Gottfried  Johann,  librarian  and 
choir-master  of  the  Premonstratensian  convent 
of  Strahov,  Prague;  born  July  17,  1758,  died 
Feb.  4,  1820.  Author  of  'Allgem.  historisches 
Kiinstlerlexikon  fur  Bohmen,'  etc.  (Prague  1815- 
18,  3  vol^.) ;  *  Versuch  eines  Verzeichniss  der 
vorzuglichsten  Tonkiinstler,'  etc.  (in  Rigger's 
Statistik  von  Bohmen) — two  exact  and  valuable 
works. 

DO.  The  syllable  used  in  Italy  and  England 
in  solfaing  instead  of  Ut.  It  is  said  by  Fetis  to 
have  been  the  invention  of  G.  B.  Doni,  a  learned 
Delia  Cruscan  and  writer  on  the  music  of  the 
ancients,  who  died  1669.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
'Musico  pratico'  of  Bononcini  (1673),  where  it  is 
said  to  be  employed  '  per  essere  piu  resonante.' 

DOCTOR  OF  MUSIC.  The  superior  degree 
in  music  conferred  by  the  English  Universities, 
the  inferior  one  being  that  of  Bachelor.  These 
degrees  can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  15th 
century  :  an  outline  of  their  history  and  of  the 
history  of  musical  study  at  the  Universities  has 
been  given  under  the  title  Bachelor.  In  the 
ordinary  course  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music 
must  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  precede  that  of 
Doctor  by  a  period  of  five  years ;  but  by  special 
leave  of  the  University  the  degrees  may  be  taken 
together,  and  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Music  has  occasionally  been  conferred  on 
musicians  of  distinction  who  had  not  graduated 
Bachelors.  At  Dublin  no  interval  of  time  is 
necessary,  and  the  degrees  may  in  all  cases  be 
taken  on  the  same  day,  other  conditions  being 
fulfilled.  Among  Oxford  Doctors  of  Music  the 
following  are  the  best  known  names  :  —  John 
Marbeck,  1550;  John  Bull,  1586;  W.  Heather 
(founder  of  the  Professorship),  1622  ;  Ame,  1 759 ; 
Bumey,  1769;  Callcott,  1785;  Crotch,  1799;  S. 
Wesley,  1839;  Bishop,  1854.  Haydn  received 
an  honorary  degree  on  his  visit  to  Oxford  in 
1 791,  when  his  Symphony  in  G,  thence  called 
the  Oxford  Symphony,  was  performed.  The  same 
distinction  is  said  to  have  been  ofiered  to  Handel 
in  1733,  when  his  'Esther'  was  performed  at 
Commemoration,  and  to  have  been  refused  by 
him  with  characteristic  humour.  Cambridge 
owns  the  following  names  : — Greene,  1 730 ;  Boyce, 
1749;  Randall,  1756;  Nares,  1757  ;  Cooke,  1775  ; 
Walmisley,  1848 ;  Sterndale  Bennett,  1856  ;  Mac- 
farren,  1875  ;  Sullivan,  1876;  Joachim,  1877. 

During  the  last  centiuy  there  was  no  examina- 
tion for  either  degree ;  it  was  sufficient  for  the 
candidate  to  present  an  *  exercise,'  or  composition, 
to  be  performed  in  the  Music  School.  Stricter 
regulations  have  been  now  established,  with  the 
view  of  giving  a  more  genuine  character  to  these 
degrees ;  and  the  following  rules  are  in  force. 


452  DOCTOR  OF  MUSIC. 


DON  QUIXOTE. 


At  Oxford  the  candidate  for  a  degree  of  Mus. 
Doc.  must  compose  and  send  in  to  the  Professor 
a  vocal  composition  secular  or  sacred,  containing 
real  eight -part  harmony  and  good  eight-part  fugal 
counterpoint,  with  accompaniments  for  a  full 
orchestra,  of  such  a  length  as  to  occupy  from 
foHy  to  sixty  minutes  in  performance.  The 
exercise  having  been  approved  by  the  Professor, 
an  examination  follows,  embracing  the  following 
subjects: — Harmony;  Eight-part  counterpoint; 
Canon,  Imitation,  etc,  in  eight  parts ;  Fugue ; 
Form  in  composition  ;  Instrumentation  ;  Musical 
History;  A  critical  knowledge  of  the  scores  of 
the  standard  works  of  the  great  composers ;  and 
so  much  of  the  science  of  Acoustics  as  relates  to 
the  theory  of  Harmony.  After  duly  passing  this 
examination  (which  is  entirely  in  writing)  the 
candidate  must  have  his  exercise  publicly  per- 
formed in  Oxford,  with  complete  band  and  chorus 
at  h".s  own  expense ;  and  must  deposit  the  MS. 
full-score  in  the  Library  of  the  Music  School. 
The  fees  on  takingthis  degree  amount  to  about  £  20. 
The  regulations  at  Cambridge  and  Dublin  are  al- 
most identical  with  those  of  Oxford,  and  the  amount 
of  the  fees  much  the  same.  Degrees  in  music  are 
not  conferred  by  the  University  of  London. 

An  anomalous  power  of  creating  a  Doctor  of 
Music  by  diploma  still  vests  in  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  The  only  regulation  existing  in 
connection  with  this  strange  prerogative  is  that 
the  person  for  whose  benefit  it  is  exercised  shall 
pay  £63  in  fees.  [C.  A.  F.] 

DOHLER,  Theodor,  of  a  Jewish  family, 
bom  April  20,  1814,  at  Naples;  died  Feb.  21, 
1856,  at  Florence;  an  accomplished  pianist,  and 
composer  of 'salon'  music — a  vendor  of  the  sort 
of  ware  for  which  the  epithet  '  elegant '  seems  to 
have  been  invented.  His  Fantasias,  i.e.  operatic 
tunes  embroidered  with  arpeggios ;  his  '  Varia- 
tions de  concert,'  or  *de  salon' — similar  tunes 
not  necessarily  operatic,  but  bedizened  with  the 
same  cheap  embroidery;  his  'Transcriptions' — 
nondescript  tunes  bespangled  after  the  selfsame 
fashion;  his  'Nocturnes' — sentimental eau sucree, 
made  up  of  a  tearful  tune  for  the  right  hand  prop- 
ped upon  undulating  platitudes  for  the  left,  in 
D  flat ;  his  'Etudes,'  also  'de  salon'  or  'de  concert' 
— some  small  piece  of  digital  gjmmastics  with 
little  sound  and  less  sense, — are  one  and  all  of  the 
same  calibre,  reprehensible  from  an  artistic  point 
of  \'iew,  and  lacking  even  that  quaintness  or 
eccentricity  which  might  ultimately  claim  a  nook 
in  some  collection  of  musical  hric-a.-hrac.  Dohler 
was  an  infant  phenomenon,  and  as  such  the  pupil 
of  Benedict,  then  resident  at  Naples.  In  1829 
he  was  sent  to  Vienna,  and  became  Carl  Czemy's 
pupil.  From  Vienna,  where  he  remained  till  34, 
he  went  to  Naples,  Paris,  and  London — then 
travelled  in  Holland,  Denmark,  Poland,  and 
Russia — as  a  successful  fashionable  virtuoso.  He 
lied  of  a  disease  of  the  spinal  marrow  which 
troubled  him  for  the  last  nine  years  of  his  life. 
His  works,  if  works  they  can  be  called,  reach  as 
far  as  opus  75.  [E.  D.] 

DOLBY,  Charlotte.  See  Sainton,  Ma- 
dame. 


DOLCE,  i.e.  sweetly;  a  sign  usually  accom- 
panied by  piano,  softly — p  dol.,  and  implying  that 
a  sweet  melodious  feeling  is  to  be  put  into  the 
phrase.  Beethoven  (op.  59,  no.  i)  has  mf  e  dolce; 
and  Schumann  begins  the  Finale  of  his  Eb  Sym- 
phony with  /  dolce,  which  is  difficult  to  realise. 

DOMINANT  ii  the  name  now  given  to  the  5th 
note  of  the  scale  of  any  key  counting  upwards. 
Thus  G  is  the  dominant  in  the  key  of  C,  F  in 
that  of  Bb,  and  Fjf  in  that  of  B.  It  is  so  called 
because  the  key  of  a  passage  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished for  certain  unless  some  chord  in  it 
has  this  note  for  root ;  for  which  reason  also  it  is 
called  in  German  '  Der  herrschende  Ton.'  The 
dominant  plays  a  most  important  part  in  ca- 
dences, in  which  it  is  indispensable  that  the  key 
should  be  strongly  marked ;  and  it  is  therefore 
the  point  of  rest  in  the  imperfect  cadence  or 
half  close,  and  the  point  of  departure  to  the  tonic 
in  the  perfect  cadence  or  full  close,  [Modes.] 

It  also  marks  the  division  of  the  scale  into  two 
parts ;  as  in  fugues,  in  which  if  a  subject 
commences  with  the  tonic  its  answer  commences 
with  the  dominant,  and  vice  versa.  In  the 
sonata  form  it  used  to  be  almost  invariable  for 
the  second  subject  to  be  in  the  key  of  the 
dominant,  except  when  the  movement  was  in 
a  minor  key,  in  which  case  it  was  optional  for 
j  that  part  of  the  movement  to  be  in  the  relative 
I  major.  In  lighter  and  simpler  kinds  of  com- 
position the  harmonic  basis  of  the  music  often 
alternates  chiefly  between  tonic  and  dominant, 
and  even  in  the  most  elaborate  and  deeply  thought 
works  the  same  tendency  is  apparent,  though  the 
ideas  may  be  on  so  extended  a  scale  as  to  make  the 
alternation  less  obvious.  [C.H.H.P.] 
DOMINO  NOIR,  LE.  Op^ra  comique  in  3 
acts,  words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber  ;  produced 
Dec.  2,  1837.  Translated  by  Chorley  and  pro- 
duced in  English  (an  earlier  attempt  had  failed) 
Feb.  20,  1 861,  at  Covent  Garden. 

DON  CARLOS,  (i)  An  opera  seria  in  3  acts, 
words  by  Tarantini,  music  by  Costa  ;  produced  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  June  20,  1844. 
(2)  Grand  opera  in  5  acts,  words  by  Demery 
and  Du  Locle,  music  by  Verdi ;  produced  at  the 
Grand  Opera,  Paris,  March  ii,  1867,  and  in 
London,  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  June  4  of 
the  same  year. 

DON  GIOVANNI— or,  full  title,  H  dissolute 
punito,  ossia  il  Don  Giovanni — opera  buffa  in  2 
acts  ;  words  by  Da  Ponte  ;  music  by  Mozart. 
Produced  at  Prague  Oct.  29,  1787  (the  overture 
written  the  night  before)  ;  at  Vienna  May  7, 
1788,  with  3  extra  pieces,  'In  quali,'  'Mi  tradi,' 
'Dalla  sua  pace';  in  London,  King's  Theatre, 
April  12,  1 81 7,  Autograph  in  possession  of 
Mme.  Viardot  Garcia. 

DON  PASQUALE,  opera  buffa  in  3  acts; 
music  by  Donizetti.  Produced  Jan.  4,  1843,  a* 
the  Italiens,  Paris;  in  London,  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  June  30,  1843. 

DON  QUIXOTE,  a  comic  opera  in  2  acts; 
words  by  G.  Macfarren,  music  by  G.  A.  Mac- 
farren  ;  produced  at  Drury  Lane,  Feb.  3,  1846. 


DONIZETTI. 


DONIZETTI. 


453 


DONIZETTI,  Gaetano,  was  bom  at  Bergamo, 
Nov.  29, 1 797,  six  years  after  Rossini ;  and  though 
he  began  his  career  at  a  very  early  age,  he  never 
achieved  any  important  success  until  after  Rossini 
had  ceased  to  compose.  Having  completed  his 
studies  at  the  Conservatorio  of  Naples,  under 
Mayer,  he  produced  at  Vienna,  in  1 81 8,  his  first 
opera  '  Enrico  di  Borgogna,'  which  was  rapidly 
followed  by  *  II  Falegname  di  Livonia '  (Mantua, 
1 81 9).  His  'Zoraide  di  Granata,'  brought  out 
inmiediately  after  '  II  Falegname '  at  Rome,  pro- 
cured for  the  young  imitator  of  Rossini  exemption 
from  the  conscription,  and  the  honour  of  being 
carried  in  triumph  and  crowned  at  the  Capitol. 
The  first  work  however  by  Donizetti  which 
crossed  the  mountains  and  the  seas  and  gained 
the  ear  of  all  Europe,  was  'Anna  Bolena,'  given 
for  the  first  tin^e  at  Milan  in  1830.  This  opera, 
which  was  long  regarded  as  its  composer's  master- 
piece, was  written  for  Pasta  and  Rubini.  It  w^as 
in  '  Anna  Bolena '  too,  as  the  impersonator  of 
Henry  VIII,  that  Lablache  made  his  first  great 
success  at  our  'King's  Theatre,'  as  the  Haymarket 
opera  house  was  called  until  the  close  of  the  past 
reign.  The  graceful  and  melodious  'Elisir  d'Amore' 
was  composed  for  'Milan  in  1832.'  'Lucia  di 
Lammermoor,'  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all 
Donizetti's  works,  was  written  for  Naples  in  1 835, 
the  part  of  Edgardo  having  been  composed  ex- 
pressly for  Duprez,  that  of  Lucia  for  Persiani. 
The  lively  little  operetta  called  '  II  Campanello 
di  Notte  *  was  produced  under  very  interesting 
circumstances,  to  save  a  Neapolitan  manager  and 
his  company  from  ruin.  '  If  you  would  only  give 
us  something  new  our  fortunes  would  be  made,' 
said  one  of  the  singers.  Donizetti  declared  they 
should  have  an  operetta  from  his  pen  within  a 
week.  But  where  was  he  to  get  a  libretto  ?  He 
determined  himself  to  supply  that  first  necessity 
of  the  operatic  composer ;  and,  recollecting  a 
vaudeville  which  he  had  seen  some  years  before 
at  Paris,  called  *La  Sonnette  de  Nuit,'  took  that 
for  his  subject,  re-arranged  the  little  piece  in 
operatic  form,  and  forthwith  set  it  to  music.  It 
is  said  that  in  nine  days  '  the  libretto  was  written, 
the  music  composed,  the  parts  learned,  the  opera 
performed  and  the  theatre  saved.'  Donizetti 
seems  to  have  possessed  considerable  literary  fa- 
cility. He  designed  and  wrote  the  last  acts  both 
of  the  •  Lucia '  and  of  '  La  Favorita ' ;  and  he 
himself  translated  into  Italian  the  libretto  of 
'Betly'  and  'La  Fille  du  Regiment.'  Donizetti 
had  visited  Paris  in  1835,  when  he  produced,  at 
the  Theatre  des  Italiens,  his  'Marino  Faliero.' 
Five  years  later  another  of  his  works  was  brought 
out  at  the  same  establishment.  This  was  'Lu- 
crezia  Borgia'  (composed  for  Milan  in  1834) ;  of 
which  the  '  run  '  was  cut  short  by  Victor  Hugo, 
who,  as  author  of  the  tragedy  on  which  the 
libretto  is  founded,  forbad  the  representations. 
*  Lucrezia  Borgia '  became,  at  the  Italian  Opera 
of  Paris,  'La  Rinegata'  —  the  Italians  of  Alex- 
ander the  Sixth's  Court  being  changed  into  Turks. 
'  Lucrezia '  may  be  ranked  with '  Luf^ia '  ai)d  '  La 
Favorita'  among  the  most  successful  of  Doni- 
zetti's operas.  '  Lucia '  contains  some  of  the  most 


beautiful  melodies  in  the  sentimental  style  that 
its  composer  has  ever  produced ;  it  contains  too 
a  concerted  finale  which  is  well  designed  and 
admirably  dramatic.  The  favour  with  which 
'Lucrezia  Borgia'  is  everywhere  received  may 
be  explained  partly  by  the  merit  of  the  music, 
which,  if  not  of  a  very  high  order,  is  always 
singable  and  tuneful — partly  by  the  interest  of 
the  story,  partly  also  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  interest  is  divided  between  four  principal 
characters,  so  that  the  cast  must  always  include 
four  leading  singers,  each  of  whom  is  well  provided 
for  by  the  composer.  But  of  the  great  dramatic 
situation,  in  which  a,  voluptuous  drinking  song  is 
contrasted  with  a  funeral  chant,  not  so  much  has 
been  made  as  might  have  been  expected.  The 
musical  effect,  however,  would  naturally  be  more 
striking  in  the  drama  than  in  the  opera ;  since 
in  the  former  singing  is  heard  only  in  this  one 
scene,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  is  heard  throughout 
the  opera.  'Lucrezia  Borgia'  may  be  said  to 
mark  the  distance  half  way  between  the  style 
of  Rossini,  imitated  by  Donizetti  for  so  many 
years,  and  that  of  Verdi  which  he  in  some  mea- 
sure anticipated  :  thus  portions  of  '  Maria  di 
Rohan'  (1843)  might  almost  have  been  written 
by  the  composer  of  'Rigoletto.'  In  1840  Doni- 
zetti revisited  Paris,  where  he  produced  succes- 
sively '  I  Martiri '  (which  as  '  Poliuto '  had  been 
forbidden  at  Naples  by  the  censorship) ;  'La  Fille 
du  Regiment, '  composed  for  the  Op^ra  Conaique, 
and  afterwards  brought  out  in  the  form  of  an 
Italian  opera,  with  added  recitatives  ;  and  '  La 
Favorite,'  represented  at  the  ^4.cademie.  Jenny 
Lind,  Sontag,  Patti,  Albani,  have  all  appeared 
with  great  success  in  '  La  Figlia  del  Reggimento.' 
But  when'  La  Fille  du  Regiment'  was  first  brought 
out,  with  Madame  ThiUon  in  the  chief  part,  it 
produced  comparatively  but  little  effect.  'La 
Favorite,'  on  the  other  hand,  met  from  the  first 
with  the  most  decided  success.  It  is  based  on  a 
very  dramatic  subject  (borrowed  from  a  French 
drama,  '  Le  Comte  de  Commingues'),  and  many 
of  the  scenes  have  been  treated  by  the  composer 
in  a  highly  dramatic  spirit.  For  a  long  time, 
however,  it  failed  to  please  Italian  audiences.  In 
London  its  success  dates  from  the  time  at  which 
Grisi  and  Mario  undertook  the  two  principal 
parts.  The  fourth  and  concluding  act  of  this 
opera  is  worth  all  the  rest,  and  is  probably  the 
most  dramatic  act  Donizetti  ever  wrote.  With 
the  exception  of  the  cavatina  '  Ange  si  pur,'  taken 
from  an  unproduced  work.  '  Le  Due  d'Albe,'  and 
the  slow  movement  of  the  duet,  which  was  added 
at  the  rehearsals,  the  whole  of  this  fine  act  was 
composed  in  from  three  to  four  hours.  Leaving 
Paris,  Donizetti  visited  Rome,  Milan,  and  Vienna, 
at  which  last  city  he  brought  out  '  Linda  di  Cha- 
mouni,'  and  contributed  a  Miserere  and  Ave 
Maria  to  the  Hofkapelle,  written  in  strict  style, 
and  much  relished  by  the  Germa,n  critics.  Then, 
coming  back  to  Paris,  he  wrote  (1843)  'Don 
Pasquale '  for  the  Theatre  Italien,  and  *  Dom 
Sebastien'  for  the  Academic.  'Dom  Sebastien* 
has  been  described  as  'a  funeral  in  five  acts,' 
and  the  mournful  drama  to  which  the  music 


454 


DOXIZETTT. 


DORIAX. 


of  this  work  is  wedded  rendered  its  success  all 
but  impossible.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  did  not 
succeed.  The  brilliant  gaiety,  on  the  other  hand, 
of  '  Don  Pasquale '  charmed  all  who  heard  it,  as 
did  also  the  delightful  acting  and  singing  of  Grisi, 
Mario,  Tamburini  and  Lablache,  for  whom  the 
four  leading  parts  were  composed.  For  many 
years  after  its  first  production  '  Don  Pasquale ' 
was  always  played  as  a  piece  of  the  present  day ; 
but  the  singers  perceived  at  last  that  there  was 
a  little  absurdity  in  prima  donna,  baritone,  and 
basso  wearing  the  dress  of  every -day  life  ;  and  it 
is  usual  now,  for  the  sake  of  picturesqueness  in 
costimie,  to  put  back  the  time  of  the  incidents  to 
the  last  century.  'Don  Pasquale'  and  'Maria 
di  Rohan '  (Vienna)  belong  to  the  same  year ; 
and  in  this  last  opera  the  composer  shows  much 
of  that  earnestness  and  vigour  for  which  Verdi 
has  often  been  praised.  Donizetti's  last  opera, 
'  Catarina  Comaro,'  was  produced  at  Naples  in 
1844,  and  apparently  made  no  mark.  This  was 
his  sixty-third  work,  without  counting  two  operas 
which  have  never  been  played.  One  of  the^e  is 
the '  Due  d' Albe,'  composed  to  a  libretto  originally 
meant  by  Scribe,  its  author,  for  Rossini,  but  which 
Rossini  returned  when,  after  '  William  Tell,'  he 
resolved  to  write  no  more  for  the  operatic  stage  ; 
the  other  a  piece  in  one  act  composed  for  the 
Opera  Comique,  and  which,  some  years  ago, 
used  every  now  and  then  to  be  announced  for 
performance.  Of  Donizetti's  sixty-three  operas, 
counting  those  only  which  have  been  represented, 
at  least  two-thirds  are  quite  unknown  in  England. 
Donizetti,  during  the  last  three  years  of  his  life, 
was  subject  to  fits  of  melancholy  and  abstraction 
which  became  more  and  more  intense,  until  in 
1848  he  was  attacked  with  paralysis  at  Bergamo, 
where  he  expired.  Buried  some  little  distance 
outside  the  town,  he  was  disinterred  in  1 8  76  and 
reburied  in  Bergamo  itself. 

The  following  list  of  Donizetti's  operas  is 
probably  not  far  from  complete ;  the  dates  are 
not  quite  certain  : — 


Enrico  di  Bonroma.  1818. 

II  Falegnanae  di  Livonia,  1819, 

Le  Nozze  in  Villa.  18~20. 

Zora  de  di  (irauata,  ib'-22. 
5  La  /ingara. 

La  lettera  anonima. 

Chiara  e  Serafina. 

11  fortunate  Inganno,  1823. 

Alfredo  il  Grande. 
10  UnaFoUia. 

L'ajo  neir  imbarazzo,  1824. 

Emilia  di  Liverpool. 

Alabor  in  Granata.  1826. 

11  Castello  degli  Invalid!. 
15  II  Gievedi  grasso,  1827. 

Olivo  e  Pasquale. 

II  Borgomestro  di  Faardam. 

Le  Convenienzi  teatrali. 

Otto  mese  in  due  ore,  1828. 
20  Elisabetta  a  Kenilworth. 

La  Begina  di  Golconda. 

Gianni  di  Calais. 

L'esule  de  Eoma,  1829. 

L'Elisire  d'amore. 
25  II  Paria. 

II  Castello  de  Kenilvforth. 

II  Diluvio  universale,  IfcSO. 

1  pazzi  per  progetto. 

Kraiic;sf  a  di  Koix. 
SO  ImaMadI  LambertazzL 

La  honianziera. 

Anoa  Boleua,  1831. 

65  Eli 


Faust  a. 

fgo  Conte  di  Parigi,1832. 
35  Sancia  di  Castella. 
II  nuovo  Pourceaugnac. 
11  Furioso.  1833. 
Parisina. 
Torquato  Tasso. 
40  L'As«edio  di  Calais. 
Lucrezia  Borgia,  1834. 
Bosamoiida  d'  Inghilterra. 
JIaria  Stuarda. 
Gemma  di  Vergy,  1835. 
45  Marino  Faliero. 

Lucia  di  Lammermoor. 
Belisario,  1836. 
11  Campanello  di  Xotte. 
Betly. 
50  Roberto  Devereux. 
Pio  di  Tolomei.  1837. 
Maria  di  Eudenz,  1838. 
Pollute. 

Gianni  di  Parigi,  1839. 
55  Gabriella  di  Vergy. 

La  Fille  du  Regiment,  1840. 
La  Favorite. 
Adelasia,  184L 
Slaria  I'adilla. 
60  Linda  di  Chamounix,  1842. 
Maria  di  Rohan. 
Don  Pasquale,  1843. 
Dom  Sebastien. 
Catarina  Cornaro,  1644. 
sabeth,  1853. 


(Operas  adapted.)  F'^^'^'^^^l^jJitSi'^^"^"'*""''*' 
Baondelmonte-Maria  Stuarda.     |  Lgs  Martyrs.  mo-Poliuto. 

[H.S.E.] 

DOXNA  DEL  LAGO,  LA,  opera  in  2  acts, 
founded  on  'The  Lady  of  the  Lake';  libretto 
,  by  Tottola,  music  by  Rossini.    Produced  at  San 
^  Carlo,  Naples,  Oct.  4,  1819;  in  London,  King's 
Theatre,  Feb.  18,  1823. 

DONZELLI,  DoMENico,  was  bom  at  Bergamo 
about  1790,  and  studied  in  his  native  place. 
In  1 81 6  he  was  singing  at  the  Valle  Theatre 
in  Rome.  Rossini  wrote  for  him  the  part  of 
Torvaldo,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself. 
At  the  carnival  of  the  next  year  he  sang  at 
the  Scala  in  Milan,  and  was  engaged  for  two 
seasons.  From  thence  he  went  to  Venice  and 
Naples,  returning  to  Milan,  where  '  Elisa  e 
Claudio '  was  written  for  him  by  Mercadante. 
He  was  very  successful  in  1822  at  Vienna, 
and  obtained  an  engagement  at  Paris  for  1824. 
There  he  remained,  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  until 
the  spring  of  31.  As  early  as  1822  efforts  had 
been  made,  unsuccessfully,  to  get  him  engaged 
at  the  King's  Theatre  in  London.  At  length, 
in  28,  he  was  announced  ;  but  did  not  actually 
come  until  29 — making  his  first  visit  to  England 
at  the  same  time  with  Mendelssohn.  When  he 
did  appear,  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  thought  him 
'a  tenor,  with  a  powerful  voice,  which  he  did 
not  modulate  well.'  Another  critic,  in  1830, 
says  of  him,  'He  had  one  of  the  most  melli- 
fluous, robust,  low  tenor  voices  ever  heard,  a 
voice  which  had  never  by  practice  been  made 
suflficiently  flexible  to  execute  Rossini's  operas 
as  they  are  written,  but  even  in  this  respect  he 
was  accomplished  and  finished,  if  compared  with 
the  violent  persons  who  have  succeeded  him  in 
Italy.  The  volume  of  his  rich  and  sonorous 
voice  was  real,  not  forced.  He  had  an  open 
countenance  and  a  manly  bearing  on  the  stage, 
but  no  great  di'amatic  power,'  He  was  re- 
engaged in  1832  and  33.  In  34  his  place  was 
taken  by  Rubini.  Returning  to  Italy,  he  sang 
at  various  theatres;  and  in  41  at  Verona  and 
Vienna.  About  the  end  of  that  year  he  retired 
to  Bologna.  He  was  an  associate  member  of 
the  Accademia  Filarmonica  at  Bologna,  and  of 
that  of  Santa  Cecilia  at  Rome.  He  published  a 
set  of  '  Esercizi  giomalieri,  basati  sull'esperienza 
di  molti  anni'  (Ricordi,  Milan).  He  died  at 
Bologna,  March  31,  1873.  [J.M.] 

DOPPIO,  Italian  for  double.  '  Canone  doppio,' 
double  canon,  4  in  2.  'Doppio  raovimento,' 
double  the  speed  of  the  preceding.  *  Pedale 
doppio,'  two  parts  in  the  pedals  (organ  music),  etc. 

DORIAN,  OR  DORIC,  the  first  of  the  '  au- 
thentic' church  modes  or  tones,  from  D  to  D, 
with  its  dominant  A — 


It  resembles  D  minor,  but  with  B!j  and  no 
Cjf.  Many  of  the  old  German  chorales  were 
written  in  this  mode,  such  as  'Vater  unser'; 


i 


DORIAN. 


DOT. 


455 


*Wir  glauben  all';  'Christ  unser  Herr  zum  Jor- 
dan kam';  'Christ  lag  in  Todesbanden.'  For 
longer  compositions  see  Orlando  Lasso's  5 -part 
motet  'Animam  meani,'  in  Commer's  '  Musica 
sacra,'  viii.  No.  20,  and  the  fugue  in  Bach's 
well  known  Toccata  (Dorffel,  No.  818),  marked 
*  Dorisch.' 

DORN,  Heinrtch  Ludwig  Edmund,  a  very 
considerable  musician  of  modern  Germany,  bom 
at  Konigsberg,  Prussia,  Nov.  14,  1804.  His 
turn  for  music  showed  itself  early,  and  was  duly 
encouraged  and  assisted,  but  not  so  as  to  interfere 
with  his  general  education.  He  went  through 
the  curriculum  of  the  Konigsberg  University,  and 
after  visiting  Dresden  (where  he  made  Weber's 
acquaintance)  and  other  towns  of  Germany,  fixed 
himself  at  Berlin  in  1824  or  25,  and  set  seriously 
to  work  at  music  under  Zelter,  Klein,  and  L. 
Berger,  mixing  in  the  abundant  intellectual  and 
musical  life  which  at  that  time  distinguished 
Berlin,  when  Rahel,  Heine,  Mendelssohn,  Klinge- 
mann,  Marx,  Spontini,  Devrient,  Moscheles,  Reis- 
siger,  and  many  more,  were  among  the  elements 
of  society.  With  Spontini  and  Marx  he  was  very 
intimate,  and  lost  no  opportunity  of  defending 
the  former  with  his  pen.  At  Berlin  he  brought 
out  an  opera,  'Die  Rolandsknappen,'  with  success. 
In  1S17  he  left  Berlin,  and  after  travelling  for 
some  time  returned  to  his  native  place  as  con- 
ductor of  the  theatre.  In  1829  he  went  to 
Leipzig  in  the  same  capacity,  and  remained  there 
till  32.  During  this  time  he  had  the  honour  of 
giving  instruction  in  counterpoint  to  Schumann. 
After  leaving  Leipzig,  his  next  engagements  were 
at  the  theatres  of  Hamburg  and  Riga,  in  the 
latter  place  succeeding  Wagner.  During  the 
whole  of  this  time  he  added  much  teaching  to 
his  regular  duties,  and  exercised  an  excellent 
influence  on  the  musical  life  of  the  places  in 
which  he  lived.  At  Riga  he  remained  till  1843, 
when  he  was  called  to  succeed  C.  Kreutzer  at 
Cologne.  During  the  five  years  of  his  residence 
there  he  was  fully  occupied,  directing  the  Festivals 
of  44  and  47,  founding  the  Rheinische  Musik- 
schule  (1845),  and  busying  himself  much  about 
music,  in  addition  to  the  duties  of  his  post  and 
much  teaching.  In  47  he  succeeded  0.  Nicolai 
as  conductor  of  the  Royal  Opera  in  Berlin,  in 
conjunction  with  Taubert.  This  post  he  retained 
till  the  end  of  68,  when  he  was  pensioned  off  in 
favour  of  Eckert,  and  became  a  'Koniglicher 
Professor.'  Since  then  he  has  occupied  himself 
in  teaching  and  writing,  in  both  which  capacities 
he  has  a  great  reputation  in  Berlin.  Dorn  is 
of  the  conservative  party,  and  a  bitter  opponent 
of  Wagner.  He  is  musical  editor  of  the  Post, 
and  writes  also  in  the  Gartenlaube  and  the 
Hausfreund.  His  account  of  his  career,  *Aus 
meinem  Leben'  (Berlin,  1870,  2  vols.)  and 
'  Ostracismus'  (lb.  74),  are  both  valuable  books. 
A  paper  of  his  on  Mendelssohn  appeared  in 
'Temple  Bar'  for  February  1872.  His  compo- 
sitions embrace  10  operas,  of  which  '  Die  Nibe- 
lungen'  (1854)  is  the  most  remarkable ;  a  requiem 
(1851) ;  many  cantatas;  symphonies  and  other 
orchestral  works ;  many  pianoforte  pieces,  songs, 


etc.  As  a  conductor  he  was  one  of  the  first  of  his 
day,  with  every  quality  ot  intelligence,  energy,  tact, 
and  industry,  to  fill  that  difficult  position.  [F.G.] 

DORUS-GRAS,  Julie  Aimee.   See  Gkas. 

DOT  (Fr.  Point ;  Ger.  PimU ;  Ital.  Punto). 
A  point  placed  after  a  note  to  indicate  that  its 
length  is  to  be  increased  one  half ;  a  semibreve 
with  the  addition  of  a  dot  being  thus  equal 
to  three  minims,  a  minim  with  a  dot  to  three 
crotchets,  and  so  on. 

So  far  as  regards  rhythm,  this  is  at  the  present 
time  the  only  use  of  the  dot,  and  it  is  necessitated 
by  the  fact  that  modern  notation  has  no  form  of 
note  equal  to  three  of  the  next  lower  denomina- 
tion, so  that  without  the  dot  the  only  way  of 
expressing  notes  of  three-fold  value  would  be  by 
means  of  the  bind,  thus  ^  p  instead  of  p*, 
p  ^  instead  of  |* ' ,  which  method  would 
greatly  add  to  the  difficulty  of  reading.  The 
sign  itself  is  however  derived  from  the  ancient 
system  of  'measured  music'  (musica  mensuralis, 
about  A.  D.  1300),  in  which  it  exercised  various 
functions,  and  where  it  is  met  with  in  four  forms, 
called  respectively  '  point  of  perfection,'  '  point  of 
alteration,' '  point  of  division,'  and  *  point  of  addi- 
tion.' The  different  uses  of  these  points  or  dots 
was  as  follows. 

The  rhythm  of  the  measured  music  was  at 
first  always  triple  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  accent  fell 
upon  the  first  beat  of  every  three  (the  division 
of  music  into  bars  is  of  later  date,  see  Bar),  and 
each  note  was  of  the  value  of  three  of  the  next 
lower  denomination,  the  long  ^  being  equal  to 
three  breves  ■,  and  the  breve  to  three  semibreves 
♦,  and  so  on.  But  whenever  a  long  note  was 
followed  or  preceded  by  one  of  the  next  shorter 
kind,  and  the  latter  sung  to  an  unaccented 
syllable,  it  became  necessary  to  shorten  the  long 
note  by  one  third,  in  order  to  preserve  the  triple 
character  of  the  rhythm.  Thus  Ex.  i  would 
be  sung  as  Ex.  2,  and  not  as  Ex.  3,  notwith- 
standing the  breve  under  other  circumstances 
would  be  worth  three  semibreves : — 

I.  Written      2.  Performed  3-  Not  thus 


The  note  thus  shortened  was  termed  imperfect. 

Cases  often  arose,  however,  in  which  the  long 
note  was  required  to  be  perfect,  i.  e.  worth  three 
beats,  in  spite  of  its  being  followed  by  a  shorter 
note;  in  these  cases  a  dot  called  the  'point  of 
perfection,'  and  written  either  as  a  simple  dot  or 
a  dot  with  a  tail  /  (pundus  caudatus),  was  intro- 
duced after  the  note,  the  function  of  which  was 
to  preserve  the  long  note  from  being  made 
imperfect  by  the  next  following  short  note,  thus— 

4-  Written  Performed 

Another  kind  of  dot,  the  'point  of  alteration,' 
written  like  the  foregoing,  but  placed  either 


456 


DOT. 


DOT. 


before  the  first  or  above  the  second  of  Invo  similar 
notes,  indicated  that  the  second  of  the  two  was 
to  be  '  altered,'  i.  e.  doubled  in  length,  again  for 
the  sake  of  preserving  the  triple  rhythm ;  for 
example — 


5-  WrUten 


Or 


Performed 


In  the  absence  of  the  dot  in  the  above  example, 
there  would  be  a  doubt  as  to  whether  the  two 
breves  ought  not  to  be  rendered  imperfect  by 
means  of  their  respective  semibreves,  as  in  Ex.  i . 
Like  the  point  of  perfection  therefore  this  dot 
preserves  the  first  note  from  imperfection;  but 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  followed  by  two  short 
notes  (instead  of  three  as  in  Ex.  4),  it  also 
indicates  the  'alteration'  or  doubling  of  the 
second  of  the  two. 

The  third  kind  of  dot,  the  '  point  of  division,' 
answers  to  the  modern  bar,  but  instead  of  being 
used  at  regular  intervals  throughout  the  com- 
position, it  was  only  employed  in  cases  of  doubt ; 
for  example,  it  would  be  properly  Introduced 
after  the  second  note  of  Ex.  i,  to  divide  the 
passage  into  two  measures  of  three  beats  each, 
and  to  show  that  the  two  breves  were  to  be  made 
imperfect  by  means  of  the  two  semibreves,  which 
latter  would  become  joined  to  them  as  third  and 
first  beats  respectively,  thus — 

6, 


Written 


Performed 


Without  the  point  of  division  the  example  might 
be  mistaken  for  the  *  alteration '  shown  in  Ex.  5. 

The  last  of  the  four  kinds  of  dots  mentioned 
above,  the  'point  of  addition,'  was  identical  with 
our  modern  dot,  inasmuch  as  it  added  one  half  to 
the  value  of  the  note  after  which  it  was  placed. 
It  is  of  somewhat  later  date  than  the  others 
(about  A.  D.  1400),  and  belongs  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  so-called  tempus  imperfectum,  in 
which  the  rhythm  was  duple  instead  of  triple. 
It  was  applied  to  a  note  which  by  its  position 
would  be  imperfect,  and  by  adding  one  half  to  its 
value  rendered  it  perfect,  thus  exercising  a  power 
similar  to  that  of  the  '  point  of  perfection.' 

In  modern  music  the  dot  is  frequently  met 
with  doubled ;  the  effect  of  a  double  dot  is  to 
lengthen  the  note  by  three-fourths,  a  minim 
with  double  dot  being  equal  to  seven 

quavers,  a  doubly  dotted  crotchet  {f")  to  seven 
semiquavers,  and  so  on.  The  double  dot  was  the 
invention  of  Leopold  Mozart,  who  introduced  it 
with  the  view  of  regulating  the  rhythm  of  certain 
adagio  movements,  in  which  it  was  at  that  time 
customary  to  prolong  a  dotted  note  slightly,  for 
the  sake  of  effect.  Leopold  Mozart  disapproved 
of  the  vagueness  of  this  method,  and  therefore 
wrote  in  his  *  Violinschule'  (2nd  edition,  Augs- 
burg, 1769),  *It  would  be  well  if  this  pro- 
longation of  the  dot  were  to  be  made  very 
definite  and  exact ;  I  for  my  part  have  often 
made  it  so,  and  have  expressed  my  intention  by 


means  of  two  dots,  with  a  proportional  shortening 
of  the  next  following  note.'  His  son,  Wolfgang 
Mozart,  not  only  made  frequent  use  of  the  double 
dot  invented  by  his  father,  but  in  at  least  one 
instance,  namely  at  the  beginning  of  the  symphony 
in  D  vsrritten  for  Hafher,  employed  a  triple  dot^ 
adding  seven  eighths  to  the  value  of  the  note 
which  preceded  it.  The  triple  dot  is  also  em- 
ployed by  Mendelssohn  in  the  Overture  to  Ca. 
macho's  wedding,  bar  2,  but  has  never  come 
into  general  use. 

Dots  following  rests  lengthen  them  to  the  same 
extent  as  when  applied  to  notes. 

In  old  music  a  dot  was  sometimes  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  a  bar,  having  reference  to  the 
last  note  of  the  preceding  bar  (Ex.  7)  ;  this 
method  of  writing  was  not  convenient,  as  the  dot 
might  easily  escape  notice,  and  it  is  now  super- 
seded by  the  use  of  the  bind  in  similar  cases 
(Ex.  8). 


When  a  passage  consists  of  alternate  dotted 
notes  and  short  notes,  and  is  marked  staccato, 
the  dot  is  treated  as  a  rest,  and  the  longer  notes 
are  thus  made  less  staccato  than  the  shorter  ones. 
Thus  Ex.  9  (from  the  third  movement  of  Bee- 
thoven's Sonata,  Op.  22)  should  be  played  as  in 
Ex.  10,  and  not  as  in  Ex.  11. 


In  aU  other  cases  the  value  of  the  dotted  note 
should  be  scrupulously  observed,  except— in  the 
opinion  of  some  teachers — in  the  case  of  a  dotted 
note  followed  by  a  group  of  .short  notes  in 
moderate  tempo ;  here  it  is  sometimes  considered 
allowable  to  increase  the  length  of  the  dotted 
note  and  to  shorten  the  others  in  proportion,  for 
the  sake  of  effect.  (See  Koch,  '  Musikalisches 
Lexicon,'  art.  Punht;  Lichtenthal,  'Dizionario 
della  Musica,'  art.  Punto.)  Thus  Ex.  1 2  would 
be  rendered  as  in  Ex.  13. 


Andante 


DOT. 


In  view  however  of  the  fact  that  there  are  a 
variety  of  means  such  as  double  dots,  binds,  etc. 
by  which  a  composer  can  express  with  perfect 
accuracy  the  rhythmic  proportions  which  he 

I  requires,  it  certainly  seems  advisable  to  employ 
the  utmost  caution  in  making  use  of  such  licences 

I  as  the  foregoing,  and  in  particular  never  to 
introduce  them  into  movements  the  rhythmical 
character  of  which  is  dependent  on  such  pro- 
gressions of  dotted  notes  as  the  above  example, 
such  for  instance  as  the  14th  of  Beethoven's 
33  Variations,  Op.  120,  or  the  coda  of  the 
Fantasia,  Op.  77. 

2.  Besides  the  employment  of  the  dot  as  a 
sign  of  augmentation  of  value,  it  is  used  to 
indicate  staccato,  being  placed  above  or  below 
the  note,  and  written  as  a  round  dot  if  the 
staccato  is  not  intended  to  be  very  marked,  and 
as  a  pointed  dash  if  the  notes  are  to  be  extremely 
short.  [Dash.]  As  an  extension  of  this  practice 
dots  are  used  to  denote  the  repetition  of  a  single 
note ;  and  they  are  also  placed  before  or  after  a 
double  bar  as  a  sign  of  the  repetition  of  a  passage 
or  section.  In  old  music  for  the  clavecin  they 
are  used  as  an  indication  of  the  Bebung.  [Ab- 
breviations ;  Bebung.]  [F.  T.] 

DOTTI,  Anna,  a  distinguished  seconda  donna 
who  formed  part  of  Handel's  company  at  the 
King's  Theatre  in  London  for  some  years.  She 
appeared  first  as  Irene  in  'Tamerlane'  with 
Cuzzoni  in  1724,  and  as  Agamira  in  the  *  Arta- 
serse'  of  Ariosti.  In  25  she  sang  in  'Rodelinda  ' 
and  'Giulio  Cesare,'  as  well  as  in  the  anony- 
mous 'Elisa,'  the  'Dario'  of  Attilio,  and  Vinci's 
*  Elpidia.'  During  the  next  season  she  played 
in  the  'Ottone'  and  'Alessandro'  of  Handel; 
and  in  27  was  again  in  London,  and  took  the 
part  of  Orindo  in  the  first  representations  of 
'  Admeto,'  and  that  of  Pilade  in  'Astianatte.' 
After  1727  her  name  does  not  occur  again  in  the 
libretti.  [J.  M.] 

DOTZAUER,  Justus  Johann  Friedrich,  one 
of  the  greatest  composers,  players,  and  teachers  of 
the  violoncello;  bom  at  Hildburghausen,  Jan.  20, 
1 783.  His  teachers  were  Henschkel,  Gleichmann, 
and  Riittinger— a  pupil  of  Kittl's,  and  therefore 
only  two  removes  from  J.  S.  Bach.  For  the  cello 
he  had  Kriegk  of  Meiningen,  a  famous  virtuoso 
and  teacher.  He  began  his  career  in  the  Mein- 
ingen court  band,  in  1801,  and  remained  there 
till  1805.  He  then  went  by  way  of  Leipzig  to 
Berlin,  where  he  found  and  profited  by  B.  Rom- 
berg. In  1 811  he  entered  the  King's  band  at 
Dresden,  and  remained  there  till  his  death,  March 
9,  1 860,  playing,  composing,  editing,  and,  above 
all,  teaching.  His  principal  pupils  were  Kum- 
mer,  Drechsler,  C.  Schuberth,  and  his  own  son, 
C.  Ludwig.  His  works  comprise  an  opera  ('  Gra- 
ziosa,'  1 841),  a  mass,  a  symphony,  several  over- 
tures, 9  quartets,  12  concertos  for  cello  and  or- 


DOUBLE  BASS.  457 

chestra,  sonatas,  variations,  and  exercises  for  the 
cello.  He  edited  Bach's  6  sonatas  for  cello  solo, 
and  left  an  excellent  Method  for  his  instrument. 

DOUBLE  BAR  divides  a  piece  or  a  movement 
into  main  sections,  and  when  accompanied  by 
dots  indicates  that  the  section  on  the  same  side 
with  the  dots  is  to  be  repeated. 

(1)  (2)  (3) 

The  double  bar  is  a  principal  feature  in  the 
symphony  or  sonata.  In  the  first  movement  it 
occurs  at  the  end  of  the  first  section,  which  is 
then  repeated,  and  is  followed  by  the  working 
out,  or  Durchfiihrung.  In  the  symphonies  before 
Beethoven,  and  in  Beethoven's  own  earlier 
sonatas,  the  second  section  was  often  repeated 
as  well  as  the  first.  In  the  minuet,  or  scherzo, 
with  trio,  both  sections  of  each  are  repeated,  and 
then  after  the  trio  the  minuet  is  given  again 
without  the  repetitions. 

DOUBLE  BASS  (Ital.  Contrahasso  orViolone) 
is  the  largest  of  the  stringed  instruments  played 
with  a  bow.  Whether  it  was  invented  before  or 
after  the  violin  is  still  an  unsettled  question. 
In  its  forms  it  has  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  older  gamba  tribe,  viz.  the  flat  instead  of 
the  arched  back,  and  the  slanting  shoulder ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  the  four  corners, 
the  /-  holes,  and  in  every  respect  the  belly  of  the 
violin,  thus  appearing  to  be  a  combination  of  the 
gamba  and  the  violin,  and  therefore  probably  of 
a  date  posterior  to  both. 

The  double  bass  was  originally  mounted  with 
three  strings  only,  tuned  thus  (a).  At  the 
present  time,  however,  basses  with  four  strings, 
tuned  thus  (6),  are  used  by  all,  except  the  Italian 

Italian,    (a)  English.  (b) 


and  some  English  players,  who  still  prefer  the 
three  -  stringed  instrument  on  account  of  its 
greater  sonority.  For  orchestral  playing,  how- 
ever, the  fourth  string  has  become  an  absolute 
necessity,  since  modern  composers  very  frequently 
use  the  contra  E  and  F  in  obligato  passages.  In 
England,  up  to  a  very  recent  period,  a  phrase  like 
that  which  opens  Mendelssohn's  '  Meeresstille ' 
(c),  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  fourth  string 
and  the  consequent  impossibility  of  producing 
the  low  ^F,  had  to  be  altered  to  the  octave  {d). 
(0  (rf),  


«  .  J   I       — H     I     — ■  •       1  I 

This  and  other  similar  musical  barbarities  were 
committed,  until  at  the  Crystal  Palace  the  sensible 
plan  was  adopted  of  having  lialf  the  number  of 
the  basses  with  four,  and  the  other  half  with  three 
string?,  thus  avoiding  the  mutilation  of  phrases 
like  the  above,  without  sacrificing  the  greater 

1  In  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  where  the  basses  go  to  low  C,  they 
play  in  unison  with  the  Cellos. 


458  DOUBLE  BASS. 


DOUBLE  BASSOON. 


richness  of  tone  which  is  claimed  for  the  three - 
stringed  instrument. 

If  the  violin  is  the  leader  of  the  orchestra,  the 
double  bass  is  its  foundation.  To  it  is  given  the 
lowest  part,  on  which  both  harmony  and  melody 
rest.  The  English  term  'double  bass'  has  probably 
been  applied  to  the  instrument  because  it  often 
doubles  in  the  lower  octave  the  bass  of  the 
harmony,  given  to  the  bass  voice,  the  violoncello, 
the  bassoon,  or  some  other  instrument.  In  a 
similar  way  the  32-feet  stop  of  the  organ  is 
termed  double  diapason  because  it  doubles  a  16- 
feet  diapason  in  the  lower  octave. 

This  doubling  of  the  bass  part  was  for  a  long 
time,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  sole  function  of 
the  double  bass,  and  it  is  only  since  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century  that  we  meet,  in  the  scores 
of  Haydn,  and  more  frequently  in  those  of  Bee- 
thoven, with  independent  double-bass  passages. 
The  double  bass  from  its  very  nature — its  tone, 
when  heard  alone,  being  somewhat  rough,  and 
its  treatment,  owing  to  its  large  dimensions,  very 
difficult — is  essentially  an  orchestral  rather  than 
a  solo  instrument,  and  as  such  it  is  with  the 
violin  the  most  important  and  indispensable  one. 
The  solo  performances  of  Bottesini  and  a  few 
other  celebrated  double  -  bass  players,  are  ex- 
ceptions which  prove  the  rule  for  any  one  who 
has  heard  them.  In  fact  these  virtuosi  do  not 
play  on  full -sized  double  basses,  but  use  the 
basso  di  camera,  an  instrument  of  considerably 
smaller  dimensions. 

As  double  bass -players  Dragonetti,  Miiller, 
and  Bottesini,  have  the  greatest  reputation.  Most 
of  the  great  Italian  violin- makers,  from  Gaspar 
da  Salo  downwards,  have  made  double  basses 
of  various  sizes,  a  fair  number  of  which  are  still 
extant.  [P.  D.] 

DOUBLE  BASSOON  (It.  Contrafagotto  ;  Fr. 
Contrebasson  ;  Ger.  Controfagott,  Doppelfagott). 
The  contrafagotto  or  double  bassoon,  in  pitch  an 
octave  below  the  ordinary  bassoon,  is  not  by  any 
means  a  new  instrument ;  but  the  older  instru- 
ments were  of  feeble  rattling  tone,  rendered  un- 
wieldy by  unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain  the  Bb 
of  the  3  2 -foot  octave.  It  has  been  considerably 
improved  by  Herr  Haseneier  of  Coblenz,  and 
subsequently  by  the  writer,  who  has  introduced 
it  into  English  orchestras. 

The  double  bassoon  as  made  on  the  writer's 
design  by  Haseneier  consists  of  a  tube  16  feet 
4  inches  long,  truly  conical  in  its  bore,  enlarging 
from  I  inch  diameter  at  the  reed  to  4  inches  at 
the  bell.  It  is  curved  four  times  on  itself  for 
convenience  of  manipulation,  so  that  the  length 
of  the  instrument  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
ordinary  bassoon.  Its  extreme  compass  is  three 
octaves,  from  CCC  upwards  to  middle  C — see  ex- 
ample (a).  Its  ordinary  range,  however,  should 
be  limited  to  the  tenor  G,  the  notes  above  this 
being  rather  difficult  to  produce. 

It  possesses  every  semitone  of  the  diatonic 
scale  throughout  its  compass,  and  is  therefore 
able  to  play  in  an}'  key  with  moderate  facility. 
The  scale  is  founded  on  the  octave  harmonic, 
and  continued  by  means  of  the  twelfth.  From 


CCC  to  FF  (b),  only  a  single  sound  is  obtained  by 
each  key.  Between  the  latter  note  and  its  double 
octave  (c),  the  same  fingering  produces  two  sounds 
of  an  octave,  simply  by  change  of  embouchure 
and  greater  pressure  of  wind.  With  the  four- 
foot  Ffl  a  new  harmonic  sound  begins,  using  the 
fingering  of  the  eight-foot  Btj,  and  again  increasing 
the  wind-pressure.  Seven  semitones  thus  procured 
carry  the  tone  up  to  the  C  above  (d),  which  is  the 
fourth  C  inclusive  from  the  foundation  note.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  orchestral 
part  for  this  instrument,  like  that  of  the  double 
l)ass,  is  always  written  an  octave  higher  than 
the  real  sound,  to  avoid  ledger  lines. 


(a) 


(P) 


(c) 


(d) 


The  holes  from  which  the  sound  issues  are  of 
graduated  size,  increasing  downwards  with  the 
size  of  the  bore.  They 
are  placed  as  a  rule  in 
their  correct  positions,  so 
as  to  cut  off  the  proper 
portion  of  tube  coi-re- 
sponding  to  the  elevation 
of  the  note.  Mechanism 
is  adapted  to  them,  to 
bring  them  within  reach 
of  the  fingers.  To  enable 
the  player  to  distinguish 
what  are  called  'open' 
from  closed  holes,  a  dif- 
ferent shape  is  given  to 
the  terminations  of  the 
levers.  The  first  three 
fingers  of  each  hand, 
which  have  to  keep  closed 
the  six  open  notes  of  the 
ordinary  bassoon,  fall  into 
saddle -shaped  recesses 
worked  in  the  brass  of 
the  key ;  whereas  the 
two  little  fingers  and  the 
thumbs  touch  the  cush- 
ion-shaped surface  of  keys 
similar  to  those  used  on 
other  wind  instruments. 
It  is,  in  consequence,  very 
easy  for  any  person  ac- 
customed to  the  ordinary 
bassoon  to  adapt  his  play- 
ing to  this.  The  saddle- 
shape  of  the  key  also 
serves  to  support  the 
upper  joints  of  the  finger, 
and  to  throw  the  labour  of  closing  the  hole  more 
on  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  forearm  than  on 
the  weaker  fabric  of  the  hand  itself. 

Although  this  instrument  was  formerly  used 
in  military  bands,  and  was  played  at  the  first 
Handel  commemoration  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
it  had  gone  completely  out  of  use  until  the 
Handel  Festival  of  187 1.    It  is  however  abun- 


DOUBLE  BASSOON. 

dantly  written  for  by  the  great  masters.  Haydn 
gives  it  an  important  part  in  the  '  Creation,'  the 
Passion  music,  and  other  of  his  works.  Mozart 
'-ises  it  in  a  nonet  for  wind  instruments  (already 
mentioned  under  Claeinet),  as  also  does  Spohr 
in  a  similar  combination.  Beethoven  employs  it 
largely  in  his  greatest  works.  It  reinforces  the 
INIarch  in  the  tinale  of  the  C  minor  symphony, 
takes  a  leading  part  in  the  choral  symphony,  and 
in  the  Grand  Mass  in  D.  It  also  appears  in  the 
overture  to  '  King  Stephen,'  and  has  obbligato 
passages  in  the  grave-digging  scene  of  '  Fidelio' — 
apropos  to  which  see  a  characteristic  anecdote  in 
Thayer's  Beethoven,  ii.  288.  Mendelssohn  intro- 
duces it  in  his  overture  'The  Hebrides,'  in  his 
re -orchestration  of  Handel's  Dettingen  Te  Deum, 
in  the  Reformation  symphony,  and  elsewhere. 
In  all  cases  it  forms  a  grand  bass  to  the  reed 
band,  completing  the  16-foot  octave  with  the  six 
lowest  notes  wanting  on  three  -  stringed  double 
basses.  [W.H.S.] 

DOUBLE  CHANT,  a  chant  equal  in  length 
to  two  single  chants,  and  covering  two  verses ; 
peculiar  to  the  English  church,  and  not  intro- 
duced till  after  the  Restoration.  [Chant,  p.  338,] 

DOUBLE  CONCERTO,  a  concerto  for  two 
solo  instruments  and  orchestra,  as  Bach's  for 
two  Pianos,  Mozart's  for  Violin  and  Viola 
(Kochel,  364) ;  or  Mendelssohn's  (MS.)  fca- 
Piano  and  Violin. 

DOUBLE  COUNTERPOINT  is  the  accom- 
paniment of  a  subject  or  melody  by  another 
melody,  so  contrived  as  to  be  capable  of  use 
either  below  or  above  the  original  subject.  See 
examples  given  under  Couxtekpoint  (p.  408). 

DOUBLE  FLAT.  If  the  flat  lowers  a  note 
by  a  semitone,  the  double  flat  lowers  it  by  two. 
The  sign  for  the  double  sharp  is  abbreviated,  but 
that  for  the  double  flat  remains  simply  bb,  the 
corrective  to  which  is  either  t^b  or  b  at  pleasure. 
On  keyed  instruments  the  double  flat  of  a  note 
is  a  whole  tone  lower: — thus  Abb  =Gt],  Cbb  =Bb. 
The  French  term  is  double  bemol ;  the  German 
one  doppel-B.  The  German  nomenclature  for 
the  notes  is  Eses,  Asas,  Deaes,  etc. 

DOUBLE  FUGUE,  a  common  term  for  a 
fugue  on  two  subjects,  in  which  the  two  start 
together,  as  in  the  following,  by  Sebastian 
Bach:— 


or  in  D.  Scarlatti's  harpsichord  fugue  in  D 
minor:  or  Handel's  organ  fugue,  quoted  under 
COUNTERSUBJECT,  p.  409  b.  [G.] 


DOUBLES.  459 

DOUBLE  SHARP  raises  a  note  by  two  semi- 
tones, and  is  denoted  by  a  x  ,  probably  an  abbre- 
viation of  Iflf.  It  is  singular  that  the  sign  should 
be  a  less  complicated  one  than  that  for  the 
single  sharp.  On  instruments  of  fixed  intona- 
tion C  X  =  Dt],  E  X  =  Fjf ,  etc.  The  French  call 
it  double  diese,  and  the  Germans  doppel  Jcreuz. 
The  Germans  call  the  notes  eisis,  fisis,  gisis,  etc. 

DOUBLE  STOPPING  is  sounding  on  the 
violin  or  other  instrument  af  that  tribe  two  notes 
simultaneously.  Such  notes  are  termed  '  double 
stops.'  An  'open  note'  is  produced  by  merely 
striking  the  string  with  the  bow  without  touching 
it  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand— so  that  the 
string  vibrates  in  its  whole  length.  A  '  stopped 
note '  is  a  note  produced  by  putting  a  finger  of 
the  left  hand  on  the  string,  so  that  the  vibration 
of  the  string  is  'stopped'  at  a  certain  point. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  term  'double-stopping' 
ought  only  to  be  applied  to  the  simultaneous 
sounding  of  two  '  stopped'  notes  ;  it  is,  however, 
indiscriminately  used  for  any  double  sounds, 
whether  produced  with  or  without  the  aid  of  the 
open  strings.  The  playing  of  double  stops  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  technique  of  the 
vioHn.  [B.I>.] 

DOUBLE  TONGUEING,  a  method  of  articu- 
lation applicable  to  the  flute,  the  cornet  k  pistons, 
and  some  other  brass  instruments.  The  oboe, 
bassoon,  and  clarinet,  are  susceptible  only  of 
single  tongueing,  which  signifies  the  starting  of 
the  reed- vibrations  by  a  sharp  touch  from  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  similar  to  the  percussion  action  in 
harmoniums.  It  requires  long  practice  to  give 
the  necessary  rapidity  to  the  tongue  muscles 
co-operating  for  this  end.  Single  tongueing  is 
phonetically  represented  by  a  succession  of  the 
lingual  letter  T,  as  in  the  word  'rat-tat-tat.' 
Double  tongueing  aims  at  alternating  the  linguo- 
dental  explosive  T  with  another  explosive  conso- 
nant produced  differently,  such  as  the  linguo- 
palatals  D  or  K,  thus  relieving  the  muscles  by 
alternate  instead  of  repeated  action.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  mouthpiece  into  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  itself  prevents  such  an  alternation  ia 
the  three  instruments  above  named,  but  it  is 
possible  in  the  flute  and  comet.  Any  inter- 
mediate vowel  sound  may  be  employed.  The 
words  commonly  recommended  for  double-tongue- 
ing  are  '  tucker '  or  '  ticker.'  Triple  tongueing 
is  also  possible ;  and  even  four  blows  of  the 
tongue  against  the  teeth  and  palate  have  been 
achieved  and  termed  quadruple  tongueing.  In- 
deed the  system  may  be  farther  extended  by 
employing  words  such  as  '  Tikatakataka',  in 
which  dental  and  palatal  explosives  are  judi- 
ciously alternated. 

The  obstruction  to  the  wind-current  is  not  so 
complete  in  double  as  in  single  tongueing,  nor  is 
the  mechanical  starting  of  the  reed  present  in  the 
latter.  But  it  is  notwithstanding  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  good  staccato  effect.  [W.  H.  S.] 

DOUBLES  (Fr.).  The  old  name  for  'Varia- 
tions,' especially  in  harpsichord  music.  The 
doubles  consisted  of  mere  embellishments  of  the 


460 


DOUBLES. 


DRAESEKE. 


original  melody,  and  were  never  accompanied 
by  any  change  in  the  harmonies.  Examples  are 
numerous  in  the  works  of  the  old^r  masters. 
Handel's  variations  on  the  so-called  'Harmo- 
nious Blacksmith '  are  called  *  Doubles '  in  the 
old  editions.  In  Couperin's  'Pieces  de  Clavecin,' 
Book  I,  No.  2,  may  be  seen  a  dance  *Les  Ca- 
naries '  followed  by  a  variation  entitled  *  Double 
des  Canaries,'  and  two  instances  will  also  be 
found  in  Bach's  English  Suites,  the  first  of  which 
contains  a  *  Courante  avec  deux  Doubles '  and 
the  sixth  a  sarabande  with  a  double.  The  term 
is  now  entirely  obsolete.  (2)  In  combination  the 
word  'double'  is  used  to  indicate  the  octave  be- 
low; thus  the  'double-bass'  plays  an  octave 
below  thb  ordinary  bass,  or  violoncello ;  a 
'double'  stop  on  the  organ  is  a  stop  of  the 
pitch  known  as  i6-feet  pitch  (see  Organ),  an 
octave  below  the  '  unison '  stops.  (3)  The  notes 
in  the  bass  octave  from 


It  to  • 

are  often  spoken  of  by  organ-builders  as  double 
G,  double  F,  etc.  (4)  The  word  is  applied  to 
singers  who  under-study  a  part  in  a  vocal  work, 
so  as  to  replace  the  regular  performer  in  case 
of  need.  [E.  P.] 

DOUBLES.  The  name  given  by  change 
ringers  to  changes  on  five  bells,  from  the  fact 
that  two  pairs  of  bells  change  places  in  each 
successive  change.  [C.A.W.T.] 

DOWLAND,  John,  Mus.  Bac,  was  born  in 
Westminster  in  1562.  In  1584  he  visited  France 
and  Germany,  and,  after  remaining  some  months 
in  the  latter  country,  crossed  the  Alps  into  Italy. 
Having  returned  to  England  he,  in  1588,  took 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  and 
was  subsequently  admitted  to  the  same  degree  at 
Cambridge.  In  1592  he  was  one  of  the  musi- 
cians engaged  in  harmonising  the  Psalm  Tunes 
in  four  parts,  which  were  published  by  Thomas 
Este  in  that  year.  In  1597  he  published  'The 
First  Booke  of  Songes  or  Ayres  of  foure  parts 
with  Tableture  for  the  Lute.  So  made  that  all 
the  partes  together,  or  either  of  them  severally 
may  be  song  to  the  Lute,  Orpherian,  or  Viol  de 
gambo.'  This  work  became  so  popular  that  four 
subsequent  editions  appeared  in  1600,  1603, 
1608,  and  1613.  It  was  printed  in  score  for  the 
Musical  Antiquarian  Society,  in  1 844.  Dowland, 
soon  after  its  publication,  entered  the  service  of 
Christian  IV,  King  of  Denmark,  as  lutenist, 
and  whilst  resident  in  that  country  he  published 
(in  London),  in  1600,  'The  Second  Booke  of 
Songes  or  Ayres  of  2,  4,  and  5  parts,  with 
Tableture  for  the  Lute  or  Orpherion,  with  the 
Violl  de  Gamba  .  .  .  Also  an  Excel  ent  lesson 
for  the  Lute  and  Base  Viol,  called  Dowland's 
adew'  [for  Master  Oliuer  Cromwell].  In  1602, 
being  still  in  Denmark,  he  published  (also  in 
London)  'The  Third  and  last  Booke  of  Songes 
or  Ayres.  Newly  composed  to  sing  to  the  Lute, 
Orpharion,  or  Viols,  and  a  dialogue  for  a  base 


and  meane  Lute,  with  fine  voyces  to  sing  thereto.' 
In  1605  he  came  to  England,  and  published 
'Lachrymas,  or.  Seven  Teares,  figured  in  seaven 
passionate  Pavans,  etc.,  set  forth  for  the  Lute, 
Viols,  or  Violins,  in  five  parts.'  The  first  pavan 
of  these  seven  is  that  so  frequently  alluded  to  by 
contemporary  dramatists  as  '  Lachrymse.'  Dow- 
land afterwards  returned  to  Denmark,  which  he 
finally  quitted  in  1609  to  come  back  to  and 
remain  in  England.  In  1609  he  published  his 
translation  of  Andreas  Ornithoparcus's  treatise 
'  Micrologus.'  In  1610,  at  the  end  of  a  collection 
of  lute  lessons  edited  by  his  son,  Robert,  appeared 
some  Observations  on  Lute  playing  by  Dowland. 
In  161 2  Dowland  published  'A  Pilgrime's 
Solace,  wherein  is  contained  Musicall  Harmonie 
of  3,  4,  and  5  parts,  to  be  sung  and  plaid  with 
Lute  and  Viols.'  He  describes  himself  on  the 
title-page  as  'Lutenist  to  the  Lord  Walden.' 
In  1625  he  was  one  of  the  six  lutenists  in  the 
service  of  the  king.  Dowland  died  early  in 
1626.  His  skill  as  a  lutenist  is  celebrated  in 
one  of  the  sonnets  of  Shakspere's  'Passionate 
Pilgrim,'  printed  in  1599,  but  which  sonnet  had 
previously  been  printed  in  a  work  by  Richard 
Barnfield. 

'  If  music  and  sweet  poetry  agree. 
As  they  must  needs,  the  sister  and  the 
brother, 


Dowland  to  thee  is  dear,  whose  heavenly 
touch 

Upon  the  lute  doth  ravish  human  sense ; 
Spenser  to  me,'  etc.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DOWLAND,  Robert,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  also  a  lutenist.  In  1610  he  edited  'A 
Musicall  Banqvet.  Furnished  with  varietie 
of  Delicious  Ayres,  Collected  out  of  the  best 
Authors  in  English,  French,  Spanish  and 
Italian,  by  Robert  Dowland.'  The  authors 
referred  to  are  Daniel  Batchelar,  John  Dow- 
land, Robert  Hales,  Anthony  Holbome,  and 
Richard  Martin.  In  the  same  year  he  also 
edited  '  Varietie  of  Lessons :  viz.  Fantasies, 
Pavins,  Galliards,  Almaines,  Corantoes,  and 
Volts.  Selected  out  of  the  best  approved  Au- 
thors, as  well  beyond  the  Seas  as  of  our  owne 
Country.  By  Robert  Dowland.  Whereunto  is 
a.nnexed  certaine  Observations  belonging  to  Lute- 
playing  by  John  Baptisto  Besardo  of  Viconti : 
Also  a  short  Treatise  thereunto  appertayning 
by  John  Dowland,  Batchelor  of  Musicke.'  In 
April,  1626,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Robert 
Dowland  was  appointed  his  successor  as  one  of 
the  musicians  to  the  king.  The  time  of  his 
death  has  not  been  discovered,  but  he  was  living 
in  1 64 1,  when  his  name  occurs  as  one  of  the 
'Musicians  for  the  Waytes.'  [W.H.H.] 

DRAESEKE,  Felix,  a  gifted  and  highly  cul- 
tivated, though  somewhat  eccentric,  composer  and 
writer  upon  musical  subjects,  disciple  of  Liszt's  at 
Weimar,  and  one  of  that  small  but  formidable 
circle  of  young  musicians,who  are  known  as  '  die 
neudeutsche  Schule,'  and  amongst  whom  are 
such  names  as  Hans  von  Biilow,  Peter  Cornelius, 


DRAESEKE. 


DRAGONETTI. 


461 


Carl  Klindworth  and  Carl  Tausig,  was  born  in 
1835  at  Coburg.  On  leaving  Weimar,  Draseke 
settled  at  Dresden,  and  subsequently  at  Lau- 
sanne, as  teacher  of  the  pianoforte  and  harmony. 
In  1868  Von  Biilow  called  him  to  Munich  as  a 
master  of  the  new  Conservatoire,  but  he  re- 
turned to  Switzerland  soon  after  Von  Biilow's 
departure  from  Munich  early  in  1869,  and  is  at 
present  residing  at  Dresden,  Draseke  has  pub- 
lished a  number  of  pianoforte  pieces,  remarkable 
for  harmonic  and  rhythmic  subtleties ;  '  Fan- 
tasiestiicke  in  Walzerform,'  op.  3  ;  *  Deux  valses 
de  concert,'  op.  4  ;  a  fine  Sonata  in  E  major,  op. 
6  ;  several  pieces  for  piano  and  violoncello  ;  some 
vocal  compositions  and  a  symphony.  An  opera, 
for  which  he  himself  wrote  the  poem,  is  still  in 
manuscript.  Of  his  literary  labours,  the  elabor- 
ate analysis  of  Liszt's  Poemes  symphoniques  in 
Brendel's  '  Anregungen,'  and  the  recent  essay 
on  Peter  Cornelius,  in  '  Die  neue  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Musik,'  as  well  as  a  treatise  on  'Modulation,' 
are  valuable.  [E.  D.] 

DRAGHI,  Antonio,  capellmeister  to  the 
cou]ft  at  Vienna,  born  at  Ferrara  1635  (not  1642, 
as  generally  stated).  In  74  he  was  invited  to 
Vienna  as  Hoftheater  Intendant  to  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I,  and  chapel -master  to  the  Empress 
Leonore,  and  in  82  took  up  his  abode  there  for 
life.  He  was  a  gifted  dramatic  composer,  and 
most  prolific,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  list  of  his 
works  performed  at  the  court  during  38  years, 
amounting  to  no  less  than  87  operas,  87  feste 
teatrali  and  serenades,  and  32  oratorios.  (See 
Kochel's  life  of  Fux.)  Some  of  his  carnival  operas 
have  been  several  times  revived.  The  scores 
of  most  of  his  works  are  in  the  imperial  library, 
and  some  in  the  archives  of  the  '  Gesellschaft  der 
Musikfreunde.'  His  librettos,  some  of  them  il- 
lustrated, were  printed  in  the  imperial  press  by 
Cosmerow,  and  have  nearly  all  been  preserved. 
Occasionally  he  wrote  librettos,  which  were  set 
by  other  composers,  Ziani,  Bertali,  and  even  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  who  composed  the  complete 
opera  '  Apollo  deluso'  (1669),  and  airs  for  others. 
Various  mistakes  have  been  made  about  the  year 
of  his  death.  Walther's  Lexicon  speaks  of  him 
as  alive  in  1703,  and  Fetis,  followed  by  most 
modem  biographers,  says  he  went  back  to  Ferrara 
and  died  there  in  1 707 ;  but  all  doubts  are  set 
at  rest  by  the  register  of  deaths  in  Vienna,  from 
which  it  appears  he  died  there  Jan.  18,  1700, 
aged  65.  A  son  of  his.  Carlo,  was  court-scholar 
in  1688,  court-organist  in  1698,  and  died  May 
2,1711.  [C.F.P.] 

DRAGHI,  Giovanni  Baptista,  was  an  Italian 
musician  who  settled  in  London  in  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century,  and  who,  during  his  long 
residence  in  this  country,  so  completely  adopted 
the  English  style  of  composition  that  he  must 
be  regarded  as  in  effect  an  English  composer. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  a  brother  of 
Antonio  Draghi.  The  earliest  notice  of  him  is 
found  in  Pepys's  Diary,  under  date  of  Feb.  1 2, 
1667.  The  diarist  there  mentions  having  heard 
him  (at  Lord  Brouncker  s  house)  sing  through  an 


act  of  an  Italian  opera  which  he  had  written  and 
composed  at  the  instance  of  Thomas  Killigrew, 
who  had  an  intention  of  occasionally  introducing 
such  entertainments  at  his  theatre.  Pepys  ex- 
presses in  strong  terms  his  admiration  of  the 
composition.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether 
this  opera  was  ever  produced.  Draghi  however 
lived  to  witness  the  introduction  into  this  country 
of  the  Italian  opera  at  the  commencement  of  the 
following  century.  He  excelled  as  a  player  on 
the  harpsichord,  for  which  instrument  he  com- 
posed and  published  in  England  many  lessons. 
He  was  music-master  to  Queen  Anne,  and  prob- 
ably also  to  her  elder  sister.  Queen  Mary.  In 
1675  ^6  composed  the  act-tunes  and  some  other 
instrumental  music  for  Shad  well's  opera  'Psyche'; 
the  remainder,  including  the  whole  of  the  vocal 
part,  being  composed  by  Matthew  Lock.  On 
the  death  of  Lock  in  1677  Draghi  succeeded  him 
as  organist  to  Catherine  of  Braganza,  wife  of 
Charles  II.  In  1687,  for  the  celebration  of  St. 
Cecilia's  day,  he  composed  music  for  Dryden's 
fine  ode  commencing  '  From  Harmony,  from 
heavenly  Harmony.'  In  1706  he  contributed 
part  of  the  music  to  D'Urfey's  comic  opera, 
*  Wonders  in  the  Sun ;  or,  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Birds,'  produced  at  the  Queen's  Theatre  in  the 
Haymarket.  Many  songs  by  him  are  found  in 
the  collections  of  the  period.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DRAGONETTI,  Domenico,  one  of  the  great- 
est known  players  on  the  double-bass,  born  at 
Venice  1755.  As  a  boy  he  showed  remarkable 
talent  for  music,  teaching  himself  the  guitar  and 
violin,  which  however  he  soon  exchanged  for  his 
own  special  instrument.  On  this  he  quickly 
outstripped  his  master  Berini,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  orchestra  of  the  'Opera  buff  a'  at  13,  and 
a  year  later  to  the  'Opera  seria'  at  San  Bene- 
detto, and  to  all  performances  of  importance. 
In  his  1 8th  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  post  in 
the  choir  of  St.  Mark's,  hitherto  occupied  by  his 
master,  who  himself  persuaded  him  to  accept  it. 
He  had  now  attained  to  such  perfection  that 
nothing  was  too  hard  for  him ;  he  composed 
sonatas,  concertos  and  capriccios  for  his  instru- 
ment, and  frequently  played  upon  it  the  violon- 
cello part  in  string-quartets.  At  Vicenza  he 
played  in  the  opera  orchestra,  and  while  there 
was  fortunate  enough  to  discover  the  marvellous 
double-bass,  with  which  he  never  again  parted, 
although  often  tempted  by  large  offers  of  money. 
This  instrument  belonged  to  the  convent  of  S.  Pie- 
tro,andwasmadebyGasparo  di  Sal6,  master  of  the 
Amati.  He  tested  its  powers  on  the  monks  of  S. 
Giustina  at  Padua,  by  imitating  a  thunderstorm 
and  bringing  them  out  of  their  cells  in  the  dead  of 
the  night.  Meantime  his  fame  had  spread  beyond 
Italy,  and  he  was  offered  an  engagement  at  the  Im- 
perial Opera  in  St.  Petersburg,  upon  which  the  Pro- 
curators of  St.  Mark's  iimnediatelyraised  his  salary. 
Shortly  after,  however,  he  obtained  a  year's  leave 
of  absence,  having  been  persuaded  by  Banti  and 
Pacchierotti  to  accept  an  invitation  to  London, 
where  he  arrived  in  1 794,  and  was  immediately 
engaged  for  the  opera,  and  for  the  concerts  at  the 
King's  Theatre.    He  made  his  first  appearance 


462 


DRAGONETTI. 


DRECHSLER. 


on  the  20tli  of  Dec.,  and  gave  a  benefit-concert 
on  the  8th  of  3Iay,  1795,  when  he  was  assisted 
by  Banti,  Yiotti,  the  harpist  Le  Foumeur,  Har- 
rington, Monzani,  Holmes,  and  the  brothers  Le- 
ander,  Erench-horn  players.  The  force  and  ex- 
pression of  his  playing  and  his  power  of  reading 
at  sight  excited  universal  astonishment,  and  he 
was  at  once  invited  to  take  part  in  all  the  great 
provincial  performances.  Henceforth  he  became 
the  inseparable  companion  of  the  violoncellist 
Lindley;  for  52  years  they  played  at  the  same 
desk  at  the  opera,  the  Antient  Concerts,  the 
Philharmonic,  the  Provincial  Festivals,  etc.,  and 
their  execution  of  Corelli's  sonatas  in  particular 
was  an  unfailing  attraction.  Great  as  was  Drago- 
netti's  power  of  overcoming  difficulties,  it  was  his 
extraordinary  tone,  and  the  taste,  judgment,  and 
steadiness  of  his  performance,  that  characterised 
him,  and  made  ViiTn  so  indispensable  to  the  or- 
chestra. 

Soon  after  Dragonetti's  arrival  in  London  he 

met  Haydn,  with  whom  he  became  intimate. 
On  his  way  to  Italy  in  1798  Dragonetti  visited 
the  great  master  in  Vienna,  and  was  much 
delighted  with  the  score  of  the  *  Creation,'  just 
completed.  In  1808  and  9  he  was  again  in 
Vienna,  but  from  caprice  would  play  before  no 
one  but  the  family  of  Prince  Starhemberg,  in 
whose  palace  he  lived,  and  whose  wife  often 
accompanied  him  on  the  piano.  Here  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Beethoven,  and  also  that  of 
Sechter,  afterwards  court-organist,  a  sound  musi- 
cian, who  was  teaching  the  porter's  children,  and 
whom  Dragonetti  requested  to  put  a  pianoforte 
accompaniment  to  his  concertos.  To  him  he 
played  unasked,  though  he  locked  up  his  instru- 
ment because  the  Starhembergs  invited  some  of 
the  nobility  to  their  soirees.  His  silence  was 
perhaps  partly  caused  by  his  fear  of  Xapoleon, 
who  was  then  in  occupation  of  Vienna,  and  who 
wished  to  take  him  by  force  to  Paris.  With 
Sechter  he  corresponded  all  his  life,  and  remem- 
bered him  in  his  will.  In  August  1845,  when 
90,  he  headed  the  double-basses  (13  in  number) 
at  the  Beethoven  Festival  at  Bonn ;  and  Berlioz, 
in  his  '  Soirees  de  I'orchestre,'  writes  that  he 
had  seldom  heard  the  scherzo  in  the  C  minor 
Symphony  played  with  so  much  vigour  and  finish. 
Thus,  in  his  old  age.  he  rendered  homage  to  the 
great  master,  of  whose  fi-iendship  he  was  reminded 
on  his  death-bed.  Shortly  before  his  end,  when 
surrounded  by  Count  Pepoli,  Pigott,  Tolbecque, 
and  V.  Novello,  he  received  a  visit  from  Stumpff, 
the  well-known  harp  maker,  who,  as  Dragonetti 
held  out  his  great  hand  covered  with  callosities  and 
unnaturally  spread  from  constant  plapng,  said 
with  emotion,  '  This  is  the  hand  which  Beethoven 
our  great  friend,  whose  spirit  now  dwells  in  purer 
regions,  bade  me  press.'  He  died  in  his  own 
house  in  Leicester  Square,  April  16,  1846,  and 
was  buried  on  the  24th  in  the  Catholic  chapel  at 
Moorfields.  His  works  were  few.  It  is  not  ge- 
nerally known  that  he  wrote  for  the  voice,  but 
three  canzonets  with  Italian  words,  written  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  Vienna,  still  exist  in  a  collection 
of  'XXXIV  Canzonette  e  Romanzi,'  by  various 


composers,  and  dedicated  to  the  Archduke 
Eodolph,  Beethoven's  friend  and  pupil.  He 
was  a  great  collector  of  pictures,  engra^^ng8, 
musical  instruments,  and  music ;   and  left  to 

j  the  British  Museum  alone  182  volumes  of 
scores  of  classical  operas.  His  eccentricities  were 
many  and  curious.  He  was  an  inveterate  snuiF- 
taker,  and  had  a  perfect  gallery  of  snuff-boxes. 

I  Among  his  treasures  were  found  a  quantity  of 
curiously- dressed  dolls,  with  which  he  used  to 
play  like  a  child,  taking  a  selection  of  them  with 
him  to  the  musical  festivals,  especially  a  black 
one  which  he  called  his  wife.  His  dog  Carlo 
always  accompanied  him  in  the  orchestra.  The 
most  curious  thing  about  him  was  his  speech,  a 
mixture  of  his  native  Bergamese  dialect  with  bad 
French,  and  worse  English.  He  was  a  man  of 
kindly  temper  and  a  warm  friend,  though  in 
money  matters  very  close.  His  picture  as  '  11 
Patriarca  dei  Contrabass! '  was  published  by 

I  Thierry,  after  a  half  length  taken  in  crayons  by 
Salabert,  of  London.  His  precious  instrument, 
his  companion  for  nearly  sixty  years,  he  be- 

[  queathed  to  the  'Vestiy  of  the  Patriarchal 
Church  of  S.  Mark  at  Venice.'  [C.  F.  P.] 

DRECHSLER,  Josef,  a  remarkable  composer 
and  teacher,  bom  May  26,  1782,  at  Vlachovo 
Brezi  in  Bohemia ;  received  his  first  instruction 
from  his  father,  schoolmaster  in  his  native  place. 
After  various  alternations  of  place  and  pursuit, 
he  studied  music  and  law  at  Prague;  in  1807 
found  himself  at  Vienna,  but  it  was  not  till  1810 
that  he  obtained  employment  as  chorus-master  at 
the  Court  Theatre.  This  was  followed  in  181 2  by 
a  place  as  '  Capellmeister  adjunct,'  then  by  an 
organist's  post ;  in  1 8 1 5  he  opened  a  music  school, 
and  gradually  won  his  way  upwards,  till  in  2  2  he 
was  chief  Capellmeister  at  the  theatre  in  the  Leo- 
poldstadt.  On  Gansbacher's  death  in  44  he  be- 
came Capellmeister  at  S.  Stephen's,  a  post  which 
he  retained  till  his  death,  Feb.  27,  1852.  His  in- 
dustry during  this  chequered  life  was  truly  ex- 
traordinary. He  left  behind  him  books  of  in- 
struction for  the  Organ,  Harmony,  Thorough 
Bass,  and  the  art  of  Preluding,  with  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Pleyel's  Cla\der-school ;  16  Masses,  and  a 
Requiem ;  24  smaller  pieces  of  choral  music ; 
6  Operas ;  25  shorter  dramatic  pieces  (Sing- 
spiele)  and  pantomimes  ;  3  Cantatas,  and  a  host 
of  Airs,  Sonatas,  Fugues,  Quartets,  etc.  To  say 
that  none  of  these  have  survived  is  to  detract 
nothing  from  the  activity  and  devotion  of  J osef 
Drechsler.  [G.] 

DRECHSLER,  Kael,  a  great  violoncello 
player,  bom  May  27,  1800,  at  Kamenz,  in  Sax- 
ony. Entered  the  Court  band  at  Dessau,  in  1 820, 
and  in  24  put  himself  under  Dotzauer  at  Dres- 
den. In  26  he  received  a  permanent  appointment 
as  leader  of  the  band  at  Dessau.  Before  then  he 
had  visited  England,  and  played  with  much 
success.  He  shone  equally  in  quartets,  solos, 
and  the  orchestra,  with  a  full  tone,  good  in- 
tonation, and  excellent  taste.  Drechsler  was 
the  master  of  Cossmann,  Griitzmacher,  and  A. 
Lindner.  [G.] 


DREHER. 

DREHER.  A  name  given  in  Austria  and 
Bavaria  to  a  dance  very  similar  to  the  Landler. 
The  name,  which  is  descriptive  of  the  dance,  is 
derived  from  the  verb  drehen,  to  twirl.  Suites  of 
Drehers  are  said  to  be  in  existence,  but  dance, 
music,  and  name  are  now  alike  obsolete.  [E.P.] 

DREYSCHOCK,  Alexander,  born  Oct.  15, 
1 81 8,  at  Zack  in  Bohemia,  died  April  i,  1869, 
at  Venice  ;  a  pianist  of  great  executive  attain- 
ment, and  a  well -trained  musician  to  boot. 
J.  B.  Cramer,  who  in  his  old  days  heard  him  at 
Paris,  exclaimed  :  '  The  man  has  no  left  hand ! 
here  are  two  right  hands ! '  Dreyschock  was  the 
hero  of  octaves,  sixths,  and  thirds,  his  execution 
the  no7i  plus  ultra  of  mechanical  training.  He 
played  his  own  pieces  principally,  though  his 
repertoire  included  many  classical  works,  which 
latter  he  gave  with  faultless  precision,  but  in  a 
manner  cold  and  essentially  prosaic.  In  very 
early  youth,  already  a  brilliant  performer,  he 
became  the  pupil  of  Tomaschek  at  Prague. 
He  began  his  travels  in  1838,  and  continued 
them  with  little  interruption  for  twenty  years. 
Up  to  1848,  from  which  year  the  golden  time 
for  itinerant  virtuosi  began  to  decline,  Dreyschock 
gathered  applause,  reputation,  orders,  decora- 
tions, and  money  in  plenty,  from  one  end  of 
1  Europe  to  the  other.  In  1862  he  was  called  to 
;  the  professorship  of  the  pianoforte  at  the  Con- 
j  servatoire  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  chosen  director  of  the  Imperial 
1  school  for  theatrical  music,  and  appointed  court 
t  pianist ;  but  his  health  failed,  and  he  was  sent 
to  Italy  in  68,  where  in  69  he  died.  The  body 
was  buried  at  Prague  in  accordance  with  the 
desires  of  his  family.  Dreyschock' s  publications 
for  his  instrument  have  not  met  with  much 
success.  They  are  'salon  music'  of  a  correct 
but  cold  and  sterile  sort.  He  also  brought  forth 
a  sonata,  a  rondo  with  orchestra,  a  string- 
tiuartet  and  an  overture  for  orchestra,  all  still 
born,  spite  of  their  solid  and  respectable  musical 
parentage.  [E.  D.] 

DROGHIERINA.   See  Chimentt. 

DRONE.  A  name  given  to  the  three  lower 
pipes  of  the  bagpipe,  which  each  emit  only  a 
single  tone ;  usually  two  octaves  of  the  key-note 
D,  and  the  fifth  A.  They  are  distinguished  from 
the  Chaunter,  which  has  the  power  of  producing 
a  melodious  succession  of  notes.    [See  Bagpipe.] 

The  term  has  hence  been  transferred  to  con- 
tinuous bass  in  a  composition,  usually  of  a  pastoral 
kind,  as  in  the  *  Hirten-melodie'  in  Schubert's 
'  Rosamunde/ 


Clar. 

Horns  ,  ^ 

PP 

-g  g 

^    1  etc. 

the  '  Leyermann '  in  Schubert's  '  Winterreise,' 


DRUM.  463 

or  the  Danse  des  Juives  in  the  ballet  of  Gounod's 
'  Reine  de  Saba ' : — 

>  >■  > 


See  also  the  ♦  Hirtengesang*  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Finale  to  Beethoven's  Pastoral  Symphony,  and 
many  other  places.  [W.  H.  S.] 

DROUET,  Louis  FRAN9013  Philippe,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  flute-players,  born  at  Am- 
sterdam 1792.  At  seven  years  old  he  played  at 
the  Conservatoire  and  the  Opera-house,  Paris. 
From  1807-10  he  was  teacher  to  King  Louis  of 
Holland,  and  claims  to  have  put  'Partant  pour 
la  Syrie'  into  shape  for  Queen  Hortense.  His 
serious  study  of  the  flute  began  in  1807,  after  an 
extraordinary  success  which  he  achieved  at  a 
concert  of  Rode's  in  Amsterdam.  In  1 8 11  he  was 
appointed  solo  flute  to  Napoleon  I,  a  post  which 
he  retained  after  the  Restoration.  He  appeared 
in  London  at  the  Philharmonic  March  25,  181 6, 
and  this  was  probably  the  commencement  of  a 
lengthened  tour,  during  which  he  resided  for 
some  time  at  Naples  and  the  Hague.  He  played 
again  at  the  Philharmonic  May  17,  1830.  From 
1836  to  54  he  was  Court-Capellmeister  at  Coburg, 
after  which  he  visited  America.  Since  his  return 
thence  he  has  lived  at  Gotha  and  Frankfort. 
Drouet  was  eminently  a  flute  player,  not  remark- 
able  for  tone,  but  with  extraordinary  skill  in 
rapid  passages  and  in  double  tongueing.  He  left 
some  1 50  works  of  all  kinds,  admirably  written 
for  the  flute,  and  greatly  esteemed  by  players, 
but  of  little  account  as  music.    He  died  1873. 

DRUM.  Some  instrument  of  this  kind  has 
been  known  in  almost  every  age  and  country, 
except  perhaps  in  Europe,  where  it  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  at  a  comparatively  late 
period  from  the  East. 

A  drum  may  be  defined  to  be  a  skin  or  skins 
stretched  on  a  frame  or  vessel  of  wood,  metal,  or 
earthenware,  and  may  be  of  three  different 
kinds  : — 

1.  A  single  skin  on  a  frame  or  vessel  open  at 
bottom,  as  the  Tambourine,  Egyptian  Drum,  etc. 

2.  A  single  skin  on  a  closed  vessel,  as  the 
Kettledrum. 

3.  Two  skins,  one  at  each  end  of  a  cylinder, 
as  the  Side-drum,  etc. 

1 .  The  first  sort  is  represented  by  the  modern 
tambourine,  and  its  varieties  will  be  described 
under  that  head.  [Tambourine.] 

2.  The  second  kind  is  represented  by  the 
modem  Kettledrum — the  only  really  artistically 
musical  instrument  of  this  class.  It  consists  of 
a  metallic  kettle  or  sheU,  more  or  less  hemispheri- 
cal, and  a  head  of  vellum  which,  being  first 
wetted,  is  lapped  over  an  iron  ring  fitting  closely 
outside  the  kettle.  Screws  working  on  this  ring 
serve  to  tighten  or  slacken  the  head,  and  thus 


464 


DRUM. 


to  tune  the  instrument  to  any  note  within  its 
compass.     The  shell  is  generally  made  of  brass 


in  France  and  of  copper  in  England.  In  the 
cavalry  two  drums  are  used,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  horse's  neck.  Two  are  likewise  required  in 
orchestras.  The  larger  of  the  two  drums  should 
be  able  to  go  down  to  F,  and  the  smaller  to  the 
F  abov'e  (a),  giving  a  range  of  an  octave  to  the 
two.  Each  drum  should  have  a  compass  of  a 
fifth,  viz.  F  to  G  for  the  larger  (6),  and  Bb  to  F 
for  the  smaller  (c). 

In  the  key  of  F,  the  tonic  and  dominant  may 
be  obtained  in  two  ways  (d),  and  likewise  in  Bb 
(e),  but  in  all  other  keys  in  only  one  way. 
(a)         (b)      (c)  (d)  (e) 


Thus  in  Fj,  G,  Ab,  and  A,  the  dominant  must  be 
above  the  tonic. 


while  in  Blj,  C,  CS,  D,  Eb,  and  E,  the  dominant 
must  be  heloiv  the  tonic. 


DRUM. 

Symphony'  three  drums  are  required  all  at  once 
in  the  following  passage  : 


And  in  '  Robert  le  Diable '  (No.  1 7  of  the  score) 
Meyerbeer  uses  three  drums,  C,  G,  and  D. 

Another  innovation  is  due  to  Beethoven, 
namely,  striking  both  drums  at  once.  This  oc- 
curs in  his  9th  Symphony,  where,  in  the  slow 

 __J_ 

movement,  the  kettledrums  have 

Gounod  has  a  similar  chord  in  the  ballet  music 
of  '  La  Reine  de  Saba.'  But  Berlioz,  in  his 
'Requiem,'  besides  fifty  brass  instruments,  has 
eight  pairs  of  kettledrums,  played  by  ten  drmn- 
mers,  two  of  the  pairs  having  two  drummers 
each.     The  drum  parts  have  these  chords — 


Drums  are  generally  tuned  to  tonic  and  domi- 
nant ;  but  modern  composers  have  found  out  that 
they  may  advantageously  stand  in  a  difierent 
relation  to  each  other.  Thus  Beethoven,  in  his 
8th  and  9th  Symphonies,  has  them  occasionally 
in  octaves  (/),  and  Mendelssohn,  in  his  Rondo 
BriUante,  most  ingeniously  puts  them  in  D  and 
E  (g)  ',  thereby  making  them  available  in  the 
(/)  (.9) 


keys  of  B  minor  and  D  major,  as  notes  of  the 
common  chord,  and  of  the  dominant  seventh,  in 
both  keys.  By  this  contrivance  the  performer 
has  not  to  change  the  key  of  his  instruments  all 
through  the  rondo — an  operation  requiring  as 
we  shall  see,  considerable  time.  BerHoz  says 
that  it  took  seventy  years  to  discover  that  it 
was  possible  to  have  three  kettledrums  in  an 
orchestra.  But  Auber's  overture  to  '  Masaniello' 
cannot  be  played  properly  with  less,  as  it  requires 
the  notes  G,  1),  and  A ;  and  there  is  not  time  to 
change  the  G  drmn  into  A.  In  Spohr's  '  Historical 


most  of  the  notes  being  doubled. 

Besides  their  obvious  use  in  forte  passages,  the 
drums  are  capable  of  beautiful  piano  effects. 
Observe  a  passage  several  times  repeated  in 
Mozail's  overture  to  '  Die  Zauberflote,'  beginning 
at  the  41st  bar  from  the  end  :  also  the  mysterious 
effect  of  the  13th  bar  in  the  introduction  to 
Beethoven's  'Mount  of  Olives';  that  of  the  Ajj, 
against  a  tremolo  of  the  strings  in  the  first  move- 
ment of  Weber's  overture  to  'Der  Freischiitz,' 


Str  4 


and  of  a  single 


on  the 


Timp.  pp  I     I  2W 

return  of  the  subject  in  the  middle  movement. 

\A'hen  musicians  talk  of  'drums'  they  mean 
kettledrums,  in  contradistinction  to  the  side  drum 
or  bass  drum,  of  which  hereafter.  The  two  latter 
can  only  mark  the  rhythm,  not  being  musical 
notes ;  but  kettledrimois  give  musical  sounds  as 
definitely  as  the  double  bass,  and  can  only  be 
used  when  forming  part  of  the  harmony  played  by 
the  other  instruments.  Composers  have  usually 
treated  them  thus  ;  but  Beethoven  was  probably 
the  first  to  see  that  they  might  also  be  treated 
as  solo  instruments.  Thus  in  the  Andante  of 
his  Symphony  No.  I  the  drxmi  repeats  this  bar 

several  times  as  a  bass  to  a 

melody  in  the  violins  and  flutes.  In  Symphony 
No.  4  it  takes  its  turn  with  other  instruments 
in  playing  this  passage — 


In  the  wonderful  transition  from  the  scherzo  to 
the  finale  of  the  5  th  Symphony,  the  soft  pulsations 
of  the  drum  give  the  only  signs  of  life  in  the 
deep  prevailing  gloom.  Of  the  drums  in  octaves 
in  Beethoven's  8th  and  9th  Symphonies,  we  have 
already  spoken.  And  in  reviewing  his  Violin 
Concerto,  which  begins  with  four  beats  of  the 


DRUM. 


DRUM. 


465 


drum,  literally  solo,  an  EngUsh  critic  observes  [ 
that  '  until  Beethoven's  time  the  drum  had,  with 
rare  exceptions,  been  used  as  a  mere  means  of 
producing  noise — of  increasing  the  din  of  the 
fwtes ;  but  Beethoven,  with  that  feeling  of  aflFec- 
tion  which  he  had  for  the  humblest  member  of 
the  orchestra,  has  here  raised  it  to  the  rank  of 
a  solo  instrument.' 

The  late  Mr,  Hogarth  says  that  'to  play  it 
well  is  no  easy  matter.  A  single  stroke  of  the 
drum  may  determine  the  character  of  a  whole 
movement ;  and  the  slightest  embarrassment, 
hesitation,  or  misapprehension  of  the  requisite 
degree  of  force,  may  ruin  the  design  of  the 
composer.'  I 

liiere  are  many  sorts  of  sticks.  The  best  are 
of  whalebone  with  a  small  wooden  button  at  the 
end,  covered  with  a  thin  piece  of  very  fine  sponge. 
"With  these  every  effect,  loud  or  soft,  can  be 
produced.  A  small  knob,  not  exceeding  i|  inch  I 
in  diameter,  entirely  made  of  felt  on  a  flexible 
stick,  answers  very  well.  India-rubber  discs  are 
not  so  good.  Worst  of  all  are  large  clumsy  knobs  | 
of  cork,  covered  with  leather,  as  they  obscure  the 
clear  ring  of  the  kettledrum,  so  different  from 
the  tone  of  a  bass  drum. 

Very  large  drums,  going  below  F,  have  not  a 
good  musical  tone,  but  mere  thunder.  Thin 
transparent  skins  have  a  better  tone  than  the 
opaque  white  ones.  The  right  place  to  strike  a 
kettle-drum  is  at  about  one-fourth  of  its  diameter. 
A  roll  is  written  in  either  of  the  following  ways, 


tr 


and  is  performed  by  alternate  single  strokes  of 
the  sticks.  We  shall  see  presently  that  the  side- 
!  drum  roU  is  produced  in  quite  a  different  manner. 
[  Drum  parts  were  formerly  always  written,  like 
(  horn  and  trumpet  parts,  in  the  key  of  C,  with  an 
!  indication  at  the  beginning  as  to  how  they  were 
i  to  be  tuned,  as  'Timp.  in  Eb,  Bb,'  or  'Timp. 
[  in  G,  D,'  etc. ;  but  it  is  now  usual  to  write  the 
il   real  notes. 

I       To  tune  drums  of  the  ordinary  construction,  a 
I  key  has  to  be  applied  successively  to  each  of  the 
I   several  screws  that  serve  to  tighten  or  loosen  the 
I  head.    In  French  made  drums  there  is  a  fixed 
I  T-shaped  key-head  to  each  screw.  But  even  then 
I  it  takes  some  time  to  effect  a  change,  whence 
\  several  attempts  have  been  made  to  enable  the 
performer  to  tune  each  drum  by  a  single  motion 
instead  of  turning  seven  or  eight  screws.  In 
Potter's  system,  the  head  is  acted  on  by  several 
iron  bars  following  the  external  curvature  of  the 
;li'-ll,  and  converging  under  it ;  and  they  are  all 
'Irawn  simultaneously  by  a  screw  turned  by  the 
foot  of  the  performer,  or  by  turning  the  whole 
drum  bodily  round. 

Cornelius  Ward  took  out  a  patent  in  1837  for  the 
same  object.  The  head  is  drawn  by  an  endless 
cord  passing  over  pulleys  from  the  outside  to  the 
inside  of  the  drum,  where  it  goes  over  two  nuts, 
having  each  two  pulleys.    These  nuts  approach 


and  recede  from  each  other  by  means  of  a  hori- 
zontal screw,  nearly  as  long  as  the  diameter  of 
the  drum,  the  handle  of  which  comes  just  outside 
the  shell,  and  is  turned  by  the  performer  whenever 
he  requires  to  tune  the  drum.  A  spring  indicator 
shows  the  degree  of  tension  of  the  cord,  and  con- 
sequently the  note  which  the  drum  will  give,  so 
that  the  performer  may  tune  his  instrument  by 
the  eye  instead  of  the  ear.  Gautrot,  of  Paris,  has 
another  j)lan,  viz.  a  brass  hoop  fitting  closely  in- 
side the  shell,  and  pressing  against  the  head.  A 
handle,  working  a  rack  and  pinion  motion,  raises 
or  lowers  this  hoop,  and  so  tunes  the  drum  by 
altering  the  pressure  against  the  head.  Einbigler, 
of  Frankfort  on-the-Main,  makes  drums  with  a 
similar  internal  hoop,  but  worked  by  a  different 
mechanism ;  they  are  used  in  the  theatre  of  that 
town. 

There  will  always  be  some  objection  to  these 
schemes  from  the  fact  of  the  head  being  an  ani- 
mal membrane,  and  consequently  not  perfectly 
homogeneous,  but  requiring  a  little  more  or  less 
tension  in  some  part  of  its  circumference,  unless, 
as  in  Einbigler 's  drums,  there  are  small  screws 
with  fly-nuts  all  round  the  upper  hoop,  for  the 
purpose  of  correcting  any  local  inequality  of 
tension.  Writers  on  acoustics  seem  to  have 
been  disheartened  by  this  inequality  from  ex- 
tending their  experiments  on  the  vibration  of 
membranes.  Even  Chladni  does  not  pursue 
thef  subject  very  far.  We  must  therefore  be 
content  with  some  empirical  formula  for  deter- 
mining the  proportion  which  two  drums  should 
bear  to  each  other,  so  that  the  compass  of  the 
larger  should  be  a  fourth  above  that  of  the 
smaller.  We  have  already  said  that  the  lowest 
notes  of  the  two  drums  should  be  respectively 


.    Now  the  numbers  of  the  vibra- 


tions due  to  these  two  notes  are  in  the  pro- 
portion of  three  to  four.  Assuming  that  the 
surfaces,  or  the  squares  of  the  diameters,  of  the 
membranes  are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  they  give,  the  tension  being 
equal  (which  is  true  of  metal  plates  of  equal 
thickness),  and  calling  the  larger  diameter  D  and 
the  smaller  d,  we  should  have  this  proportion 
D"^  :  fZ'*  ;  :  4  :  3,  whence  D  :  <Z  :  :  2  :  V  3,  or  as 
2  :  1*732,  or  very  nearly  as  30  :  26.  Practically 
this  is  found  to  be  a  very  suitable  proportion, 
the  drums  at  the  French  Opera  being  29  and 
inches  diameter,  and  those  lately  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  28  and  2^\.  No  drum  should  exceed  29 
inches  or  thereabouts. 

•  Kettle-drums  in  German  are  called  PavJcen ;  in 
Italian,  timpani  ;  in  Spanish,  atahales  ;  in  French, 
timbales  :  the  two  latter  evidently  from  the  Arabic 
tahl  and  the  Persian  tamhal.  There  are  two 
very  complete  Methods  for  the  kettledrums,  viz. 
'Metodo  teorico  pratico  per  Timpani,'  by  P.  Pie- 
ranzovini,  published  at  Milan  by  Ricordi ;  and  a 
'  Methode  complete  et  raisonnee  de  Timbales,'  by 
Geo.  Kastner,  published  in  Paris  by  Brandus 
(late  Schlesinger). 

3.  The  third  kind  of  drum  consists  of  a  wooden 
Hh 


466 


DRUM. 


DRURY  LANE. 


or  brass  cylinder  with  a  skin  or  head  at  each  end. 
The  skins  are  lapped  round  a  small  hoop,  a  larger 
hoop  pressing  this  down.  The  two  large  hoops 
are  connected  by  an  endless  cord,  passing  zigzag 
from  hoop  to  hoop.  This  cord  is  tightened  by 
means  of  leather  braces  a,  h,  h.  It  is  slackest 
when  they  are  all  as  at  a,  and  tightest  when  as 
at  b,  b.   This  is  called  a  Side-drum,  and  is  struck 


The  above  are  examples  of  drum  calls  used 
in  the  British  army  ;  the  next  is  '  La  Retraite,' 
beaten  every  evening  in  French  garrison  towns. 


in  the  centre  of  the  upper  head  by  two  sticks  of 
hard  wood,  ending  in  a  small  elongated  knob. 
Across  the  lower  head  several  cords  of  catgut, 
called  snares,  are  stretched,  which  rattle  against 
it  at  every  stroke.  The  roll  (nick-named  '  daddy- 
mammy')  is  made  by  alternately  striking  two 
blows  with  the  left  hand  and  two  with  the  right, 
very  regularly  and  rapidly,  so  as  to  produce  one 
continuous  tremolo.  It  is  not  easy  to  do,  and 
mus:  be  learned  at  an  early  age. 

Some  side-drums  are  made  much  flatter,  and 
are  tightened  by  rods  and  screws  instead  of  cords. 

In  orchestras  the  side-drum  is  frequently  used 
(and  abused)  by  modern  composers.  But  in  the 
overtures  to  '  La  Gazza  Ladra'  and  '  Era  Diavolo,' 
the  subjects  of  both  being  of  a  semi-military 
nature,  the  effect  is  characteristic  and  good. 

Side-drums  are  used  in  the  army  for  keeping 
time  in  marching  and  for  various  calls,  both  in 
barracks  and  in  action.  In  action,  however, 
bugle-calls  are  now  usually  substituted : — 

The  Drummers'  Call. 


Cease  Firing. 


The  effect  of  this  is  very  good  when,  as  may 
be  heard  in  Paris,  it  is  beaten  by  twenty-eight 
drunmaers.  For  Berlioz  has  well  observed  that  a 
sound,  insignificant  when  heard  singly,  such  as 
the  clink  of  one  or  two  muskets  at  'shoulder 
arms'  or  the  thud  as  the  butt-end  comes  to  the 
ground  at  'ground  arms,'  becomes  brilliant  and 
attractive  if  performed  by  a  thousand  men 
simultaneously. 

The  Tenor-drum  is  similar  to  the  side-drum, 
only  larger,  and  has  no  snares.  It  serves  for 
rolls  in  military  bands  instead  of  kettle-drums. 

The  French  Tambourin  is  similar  to  the  last, 
but  very  narrow  and  long.  It  is  used  in  Provence 
for  dance-music.  The  performer  holds  it  in  the 
same  hand  as  his  flageolet  (which  has  only  three 
holes)  and  beats  it  with  a  stick  held  in  the  other 
hand.  Auber  has  used  the  tambourin  in  the 
overture  to  '  Le  Philtre.' 

The  Bass-drum  (Fr.  Grosse  Caisse,  Ital.  Gran 
Cassa  or  Gran  Tamburo)  has  also  two  heads,  and 
is  played  with  one  stick  ending  in  a  soft  round 
knob.  It  must  be  struck  in  the  centre  of  one  of 
the  heads.  It  used  to  be  called  the  long- drum,  and 
was  formerly  (in  England  at  least)  made  long  in 
proportion  to  its  diameter.  But  now  the  diameter 
is  increased  and  the  length  of  the  cylinder  lessened. 
The  heads  are  tightened  by  cords  and  braces  like 
the  side-drum  first  described,  or  by  rods  and  screws, 
or  on  Cornelius  Ward's  principle  as  described  for 
kettle  drums.  It  is  used  in  military  bands  and 
orchestras.  There  is  another  sort  of  bass-drum 
called  a  Gong-drum,  from  its  form,  which  is  similar 
to  a  gong  or  to  a  gigantic  tambourine.  It  is  very 
convenient  in  orchestras  where  space  is  scarce; 
but  it  is  inferior  to  the  ordinary  bass-drum  in 
quality  of  tone.  These  instruments  do  not  require 
tuning,  as  their  sound  is  sufficiently  indefinite  to 
suit  any  key  or  any  chord.    [See  Tam-tam.] 

Cymbals  generally  play  the  same  part  as  the 
bass- drum ;  though  occasionally,  as  in  the  first 
Allegro  of  the  overture  to  'Guillaume  Tell,' 
the  bass-drum  part  is  senza  piatti  (without  the 
cymbals).  [V.deP.] 

DRURY  LANE,  opened  in  1696  under  the 
name  of  the  Theatre  Royal  in  Drury  Lane; 
materially  altered  and  enlarged  in  1762  and 
1763;  pulled  down  in  the  summer  of  1791; 
the  new  theatre  opened  (for  plays)  April  21, 
1794;  burned  Feb.  24,  1809;  rebuilt  and  opened 
Oct.  10,  ^1812.  Among  the  eminent  composers 
who  have  been  connected  with  this  theatre  must, 
in  the  first  place,  be  mentioned  Dr.  Ame,  who, 

'  This  opening,  for  which  the  address  was  written  by  Lord  Byron, 
gave  occasion  to  the '  Bejected  Addresses '  of  James  and  Horace  Smitb. 


DRURY  LANE. 


DUCIS. 


467 


from  the  year  1738,  when  he  wrote  the  music  to 
Milton's  'Comus,'  until  shortly  before  his  death 
in  1778,  produced  a  large  number  of  operas  and 
operettas.  In  1806  one  of  Sir  Henry  Bishop's 
first  works,  a  pantomime-ballet  called  'Carac- 
tacus,'  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane.  But 
Bishop,  after  the  burning  of  the  theatre  in  1809, 
accepted  an  engagement  at  Co  vent  Garden,  where 
most  of  his  operas  and  musical  dramas  were  per- 
formed. Meanwhile  foreign  operas  as  arranged 
or  disarranged  for  the  English  stage  by  Mr.  Ro- 
phino  Lacy,  Mr.  Tom  Cooke,  and  others,  were 
from  time  to  time  performed  at  Drury  Lane  ; 
and  in  1833,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Alfred 
Bunn,  some  English  versions  of  Italian  operas 
were  produced  with  the  world-renowned  prima 
donna.  Marietta  Malibran,  in  the  principal  parts. 
Drury  Lane  was  the  last  theatre  at  which  she 
sang.  [Malibran.]  A  few  years  later  Mr.  Bunn 
made  a  praiseworthy  but  not  permanently  suc- 
cessful attempt  to  establish  English  opera  at  this 
theatre.  During  this  period  Balfe's  'Bohemian 
Girl,'  'Daughter  of  St.  Mark,'  'Enchantress,' 
'Bondman,'  etc. ;  Wallace's  'Maritana'  and  'Ma- 
tilda of  Hungary,'  Benedict's  '  Crusaders '  and 
'Brides  of  Venice,'  were  brought  out  at  Drury 
Lane,  for  which  theatre  they  had  all  been  spe- 
cially written.  When  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  was 
burnt  down  (Dec.  6,  1867),  Mr.  Mapleson  took 
Drury  Lane  for  a  series  of  summer  seasons.  In 
1869  the  performances  took  place  under  the 
management  of  Mr.  George  Wood  (of  the  firm 
of  Cramer,  Wood,  and  Co.),  who  among  other  new 
works  produced  Wagner's  'Flying  Dutchman' 
— the  fb-st  of  Herr  Wagner's  operas  performed 
in  England.  Until  1877  'Her  Majesty's  Opera,' 
as  the  establishment  transferred  from  Her  Ma- 
jesty's Theatre  was  called,  remained  at  Drury 
Lane,  In  1877,  however,  Mr.  Mapleson  re- 
tm-ned  to  the  Haymarket ;  and  his  company  now 
performs  at  the  theatre  rebuilt  on  the  site  of 
'Her  Majesty's.'  [H.S.E.] 

DUBOURG,  Geoege,  a  grandson  of  Matthew 
Dubourg,  born  1 799,  is  author  of  a  history  of  the 
violin  and  the  most  celebrated  performers  on  it, 
originally  published  in  1836,  and  which  in  1878 
reached  a  fifth  edition.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DUBOURG,  Matthew,  an  eminent  English 
violinist,  pupil  of  Geminiani,  born  in  London 
1703.  It  is  reported  that  he  first  appeared  as 
a  boy  at  one  of  the  concerts  of  Britton  the 
small-coal  man,  when  he  performed  a  solo  of 
Corelli  xAth  great  success,  standing  on  a  high 
stool.  In  1728  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Cousser  as  conductor  of  the  Viceroy's  band  at 
Dublin,  in  which  capacity  he  set  many  odes  for 
the  celebration  of  royal  birthdays.  During  his 
residence  there  he  led  the  band  at  the  perform- 
ances given  by  Handel  during  his  visit  to  Ireland 
in  1 741,  and  then  had  the  distinction  of  assisting 
at  the  first  performance  of  the  '  Messiah.'  Later 
I  he  returned  to  London,  and  in  1752  succeeded 
I  Festing  as  master  of  the  King's  band,  which  post 
he  retained  up  to  his  death  in  1767.  He  lies  in 
Paddington  churchyard,     Dubourg  appears  to 


have  been  a  brilliant  performer  and  fond  of 
showing  off  his  skill,  Burney  relates  that  on 
one  occasion  he  introduced  a  cadenza  of  extra- 
ordinary length  into  the  ritornelle  of  an  air. 
When  at  last  he  finished  up,  Handel,  who  was 
conducting,  exclaimed :  '  Welcome  home,  Mr. 
Dubourg.'  [P.  D.] 

DUCIS,  orHERTOGHS,  ^Benedictus,  a  Flem- 
ish musician  in  the  early  part  of  the  1 6th  century, 
organist  of  the  Lady  Chapel  in  the  cathedral  at 
Antwerp,  and  'Prince  de  laGilde'  in  the  brother- 
hood of  St,  Luke  in  that  city.  He  left  Antwerp 
in  1 515,  and  is  supposed  to  have  come  to  Eng- 
land, perhaps  to  the  court  of  Henry  VIII,  but  as 
his  name  does  not  appear  in  the  lists  of  court 
musicians  at  that  time,  and  no  manuscript  com- 
positions of  his  have  been  found  in  this  country,  it 
appears  that  his  residence  here  must  have  been 
very  short,  if  not  altogether  mythical.  His  elegy 
on  the  death  of  Josquin  (1531),  and  another  on 
the  death  of  Erasmus  (1536)  fix  two  more  dates 
in  his  life.  After  that  no  more  is  known  of  him. 
Some  German  historians  have  claimed  him  as  a 
countryman  on  the  strength  of  the  publication 
and  dedication  of  a  setting  of  the  Odes  of  Horace 
(published  at  Ulm  in  1539,  and  dedicated  to  the 
youths  of  that  city),  maintaining  that  this  proves 
his  residence  in  that  city,  but  the  dedication  was 
more  probably  the  work  of  the  publisher  than  of 
the  composer.  His  connection  with  Antwerp, 
mentioned  above,  was  discovered  not  many  years 
ago,  by  M.  Leon  de  Burbure,  and  certainly  out- 
weighs anything  said  in  favour  of  his  being  a 
German  ;  while  the  internal  evidence  of  his  com- 
positions, which  bear  the  decided  Flemish  cha- 
racter, and  very  closely  approach  the  style  of 
Josquin,  sets  the  matter  entirely  at  rest. 

We  have  the  following  compositions  of  his  : — 
(i)  A  4-part  'monody'  on  the  death  of  Josquin, 
in  the  7th  set  of  French  chansons  in  5  and  6  parts 
printed  by  Tylman  Susato  in  1545.  A  copy  of 
the  book  is  in  the  British  Museum.  The  com- 
position itself  is  printed  in  Burney's  History 
(ii,  513),  with  critical  remarks.  There  are  also 
several  songs  by  Ducis  in  former  volumes  of  the 
same  work.  (  2)  Another  elegy  in  5  parts,  *  Plangite 
Pierides,'  on  the  death  of  Erasmus,  and  an  8-part 
'Agnus  Dei,'  both  from  the  ' Selectissimse  nee 
non  familiarissimse  cantiones  ultra  centum'  (Augs- 
burg 1 540).  (3)  Songs  in  the  collection  of  German 
songs  made  by  Forster  and  printed  by  Petreius 
(Nuremberg  1 539-1 540).  (4)  A  motet,  'Peccan- 
tem  me  quotidie,'  from  the  'Cantiones  octo  .  .  . 
vocum'  printed  by  Uhlard  (Augsburg  1545). 
'No  wonder,'  says  Ambros,  speaking  of  this 
motet,  'that  historians  have  striven  to  prove  such 
a  composer  their  countryman.'  (5)  A  motet, 
'Dum  fabricator  mundi  supplicium,'  from  Rhau's 
'  Selectaj  Harmonise  .  .  .  de  Passione  Domini ' 
(Wittenberg  1538).  (6)  Two  5-part  motets, 
'Benedic  Domine,'  and  'Corde  et  animo,'  from 
Kriesstein's  'Cantiones  sex  et  quinque  vocum 
etc' (Augsburg  1545).  [J.R.S.-B,] 

>  Benedictus  Ducis.  who  is  often  called  by  his  first  name  alone,  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Benedictus  Appenzelders,  a  Swiss  musician 
who  lived  in  Belgium,  but  of  later  date  and  less  genius. 

H  h  2 


468  DUDDYNGTON. 


DULCIMER. 


DUDDYNGTON,  Anthony,  citizen  of  Lon- 
don, contracted  in  15IQ  to  build  an  organ  for  All- 
Hallows,  Barking,  for  the  sum  of  £50.  [V.  de  P.] 
DJJKT  (It.  Duetto;  Ft.  Duo):  A  composition 
for  two  voices  or  instruments,  either  with  or 
without  accompaniments.  Some  writers  use  the 
form  'Duet'  for  vocal,  and  'Duo'  for  instru- 
mental compositions ;  this  distinction,  however, 
is  by  no  means  universally  adopted.  Strictly 
speaking,  a  duet  differs  from  a  two-part  song  in 
the  fact  that  while  in  the  latter  the  second  voice 
is  mostly  a  mere  accompaniment  to  the  first, 
in  the  duet  both  parts  are  of  equal  importance. 
In  cases  where  it  is  accompanied,  the  accom- 
paniment should  always  be  subordinate  to  the 
principal  parts.  The  most  important  form  of 
the  duet  is  the  'Chamber  Duet,'  of  which  the 
old  German  and  Italian  masters  have  left  many 
excellent  examples  (see  especially  Handel's 
•Chamber  Duets').  These  duets  were  often  in 
several  movements,  sometimes  connected  by  reci- 
tatives, and  almost  invariably  in  the  polyphonic 
style.  The  dramatic  duet,  as  we  find  it  in  the 
modern  opera,  is  entirely  unrestricted  as  to  form, 
which  depends  upon  the  exigences  of  the  situa- 
tion. Among  the  finest  examples  of  operatic 
duets  may  be  named  those  in  the  first  act  of 
'GuiUaume  Tell,'  in  the  fourth  act  of  'Les 
Huguenots,'  and  in  the  second  act  of  'Masa- 
niello,'  in  the  more  modem  school ;  while  the 
duets  in  '  Fidelio '  and  in  the  operas  of  Mozart 
and  Weber  are  models  of  the  older  classical  forms 
of  the  movement.  Many  of  the  songs  in  Bach's 
cantatas  in  which  the  voice  and  the  obligate 
instrument  are  equally  prominent  are  really  duets 
in  character,  but  the  term  is  not  applied  to  the 
combination  of  a  voice  and  an  instrument.  The 
word  is  now  often  employed  for  a  pianoforte  piece 
d  quatre  mains,  of  which  Schubert's  'Grand  duo' 
(op.  140)  is  a  splendid  example.  [E.  P.] 

DUETTINO  (Ital.  dimin.).  A  duet  of  short 
extent  and  concise  form. 

DUGAZON,  Mme.  Eosalie,  daughter  of  an 
obscure  actor  named  Lef  evre,  bom  at  Berlin  1 755> 
died  in  Paris  Sept.  22,  1821.  She  and  her  sister 
began  their  career  as  ballet-dancers  at  the  Comedie 
Italienne,  and  Rosalie  made  her  first  appear- 
ance as  a  singer  at  the  same  theatre  in  1774. 
She  had  an  agreeable  voice,  much  feeling  and 
finesse,  and  played  to  perfection  '  soubrettes,' 
'  paysannes,'  and  *  coquettes.'  Her  most  remark- 
able creation  was  the  part  of  Nina  in  Dalayrac's 
opera  of  that  name.  After  an  absence  of  three 
years  during  the  Revolution,  she  reappeared  in 
1795,  and  played  with  unvarying  success  till 
1 806,  when  she  retired.  To  this  day  the  classes 
of  parts  in  which  she  excelled  are  known  as 
'jeunes  Dugazon'  and  'mbres  Dugazon.' — Her 
son  GusTAVE  (Paris  1 782-1826),  a  pianist  ^nd 
pupil  of  Berton's,  obtained  the  second  'Prix  de 
Rome'  at  the  Conservatoire  in  1806.  His  operas 
and  ballets,  with  the  exception  of  'Aline  *  (1823), 
did  not  succeed.  [G.  C] 

DULCIMER  (Fr.  Tympanon;  Ital.  Cembalo, 
Timpanon,  Salto'io  tedesco ;  Germ.  Hackhrett). 


The  prototype  of  the  pianoforte,  as  the  psaltery 
was  of  the  harpsichord.  These  instruments  were 
so  nearly  alike  that  one  description  might  serve 
for  both,  were  it  not  for  the  different  manner  of 
playing  them,  the  strings  of  the  dulcimer  being 
set  in  vibration  by  small  hammers  held  in  the 
hands,  while  in  the  psaltery  the  sounds  were 
produced  by  plectra  of  ivory,  metal,  or  quill,  or 
even  the  fingers  of  the  performer.  It  is  also  no 
less  desirable  to  separate  in  description  instru- 
ments so  nearly  resembling  each  other,  on  account 
of  their  ultimate  development  into  the  harpsi- 
chord and  pianoforte  by  the  addition  of  keys. 
[See  Harpsichord,  and  Pianoforte.] 

Dr.  Rimbault  (Pianoforte,  p.  23)  derives  dul- 
cimer from  '  dulce  melos.'  Perhaps  the  '  dulce,' 
— also  used  in  the  old  English  'dulsate'  and 
'  dulsacordis,'  unknown  instruments  unless  dulci- 
mers— arose  from  the  ability  the  player  had  to 
produce  sweet  sounds  with  the  softer  covered 
ends  of  the  hammers,  just  as  'piano'  in  piano- 
forte suggests  a  similar  attribute.  The  Italian 
'Salterio  tedesco'  implies  a  German  derivation 
for  this  hammer-psaltery.  [See  also  Cembalo.1 
The  roughness  of  description  used  by  mediaeval 
Italians  in  naming  one  form  of  psaltery  'stru- 
mento  di  porco,'  pig's  head,  was  adopted  by  the 
Germans  in  their  faithful  translation  '  Schweins- 
kopf,'  and  in  naming  a  dulcimer  'Hackbrett' — a 
butcher's  board  for  chopping  sausage-meat. 

The  dulcimer  is  a  trapeze-shaped  instrument  of 
not  more  than  three  feet  in  greatest  width,  com- 
I  posed  of  a  wooden  framing  enclosing  a  wrest- 
1  plank  for  the  tuning-pins,  round  which  the  strings 
!  are  wound  at  one  end  ;  a  soundboard  ornamented 
I  with  two  or  more  sound-holes  and  carrying  two 
'  bridges  between  which  are  the  lengths  of  wire 
intended  to  vibrate ;  and  a  hitchpin  block  for  the 
,  attachment  of  the  other  ends  of  the  strings. 
Two,  three,  four,  and  sometimes  five  strings  of 
fine  brass  or  iron  wire  are  grouped  for  each  note, 
j  The  dulcimer,  laid  upon  a  table  or  frame  is 
I  struck  with  hammers,  the  heads  of  which  are 
j  clothed  on  either  side  with  hard  and  soft  leather 
I  to  produce  the  forte  and  piano  effects.  The  tone, 
I  harsh  in  the  loud  plajdng,  is  always  confused,  as 
there  is  no  damping  contrivance  to  stop  the 
:  continuance  of  the  sounds  when  not  required. 

This  effect  is  well  imitated  in  various  places  in 
!  Schubert's  *  Divertissement   Hongroise.'  The 
i  compass  of  two  or  three  octaves,  from  C  or  D  in 
!  the  bass  clef,  has  always  been  diatonic  in  Eng- 
'  land,  but  became  chromatic  in  Germany  before  the 
;  end  of  the  1 8  th  century.    As  in  most  mediaeval 
I  musical  instruments  ornamentation  was  freely  used 
!  on  the  soundboard,  and  on  the  outer  case  when 
'  one  existed.   The  dulcimer  and  psaltery  appear  to 
[  have  come  to  us  from  the  East,  it  may  be  through 
the  Crusades,  for  the  dulcimer  has  been  known 
for  ages  in  Persia  and  Arabia,  and  also  in  the 
Caucasus,  under  the  ©ame  of  '  santir.'    Its  Euro- 
pean use  is  now  IJmited  to  the  semi -oriental 
gypsy   bands   in  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 
I  The  Magyar  name  is  '  cinibelom.'   Mr.  Carl  Engel 
I  ('Descriptive  Catalogue,'  1874)  points  out  the 
I  remarkable  resemblance  between   an  Italian 


I 


DULCIMER. 


DUODEAMA. 


dulcimer  in  South  Kensington  Museum  of  the 
1 7th  century  and  a  modem  Georgian  santir ;  and 
refers  to  the  use  by  the  translators  of  the  English 
Bible  of  the  word  'dulcimer'  as  well  as  of  the 
names  of  other  instruments  common  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan epoch,  to  represent  Hebrew  musical 
instruments  about  which  we  have  no  sure  know- 
ledge. Pantaleon  Hebenstrei^  of  Eisleben,  a  dis- 
tinguished violin  -  player,  became  about  1697  a 
virtuoso  upon  the  dulcimer,  which  he  quadrupled 
in  dimensions  and  had  constructed  as  a  double 
hackbrett  with  two  soundboards,  each  with  its 
scale  of  strings— on  the  one  side  overspun  catgut, 
on  the  other,  wire.    There  were  185  strings  in 


all,  costing  100  thalers  a  year  to  keep  in  order. 
With  this  powerful  chromatic  instrument,  de- 
manding herculean  force  to  play,  Hebenstreit 
travelled  to  Paris  in  1705,  where  Louis  XIV 
baptised  it  with  his  name,  Pantaleon.  Kiihnau 
(in  Mattheson's  '  Critica  Musica,'  Dec.  8,  1717) 
praises  the  instrument  and  its  prerogative  over 
harpsichords  and  clavichords  in  the  properties 
it  possessed  of  piano  and  forte.  It  was  this, 
according  to  Schroter  s  account,  that  led  him  to 
ponder  over  a  keyed  instrimient  to  do  the  like, 
and  to  his  notion  of  a  pianoforte.  [See  Cem- 
balo, Hakpsichoed,  Pianofokte,  Psaltery, 

SCHROETER.]  [A.J.  H.l 


DULCKEX,  Madame  Louise,  a  great  piano- 
forte-player, younger  sister  of  Ferdinand  David, 
born  at  Hamburg,  March  20,  181 1.  She  was  the 
pupil  of  Grund,  and  made  her  appearance  in  public 
at  Hamburg  as  early  as  her  loth  year.  In  1823 
she  played  at  Berlin,  and  in  25  with  her  brother 
at  Leipzig,  always  with  the  greatest  success.  In 
1828  she  married,  and  left  Germany  for  London, 
where  she  resided  for  the  rest  of  her  life.  Her 
first  public  appearance  here  was  at  one  of  Mr. 
Ella's  soirdes  in  1829.  At  the  Philharmonic  she 
played  a  concerto  of  Herz's  on  March  I,  1830, 
and  thenceforward  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
features  in  the  music  of  London.  She  was  an 
executive  pianist  of  the  first  order,  with  remark- 
able brilliancy  of  finger.  Her  intelligence  and 
general  capability  were  very  great.  She  spoke 
four  languages,  and  was  au  fait  in  the  literature 
of  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  England.  In 
teaching  she  was  extraordinarily  successful,  and 
for  her  time  no  teacher  could  boast  so  large  a 
number  of  pupils,  at  the  head  of  whom  was 
Queen  Victoria.  In  fact  she  overtasked  her 
strength,  and  died  after  a  short  and  severe  illness 
April  12,  1850.  [G.] 

DUNI,  Egidio  Romoaldo,  the  founder  of  opera 
comique  in  France  ;  born  at  Matera,  Naples,  Feb. 
9,  1709;  brought  up  from  his  loth  year  under 
Durante  at  the  Conservatorio  dei  poveri  di  Gesu 
Cristo  at  Naples.  His  life  was  a  varied  one.  At 
Rome  he  competed  with  Pergolesi,  and  his  opera 
of  '  Nerone '  was  successful,  while  Pergolesi's 
'  Olimpiade '  was  damned.  This  shows  how  early 
and  how  strong  was  Duni's  gift  of  melody ;  for 
'  Olimpiade '  is  Pergolesi's  capo  d/opera.  A  poli- 
tical mission  to  Vienna  gave  him  the  chance  of 
producing  his  music  there.  Returning  to  Naples 
he  wrote  '  Artaserse  *  for  San  Carlo,  with  great 
applause.    He  then  visited  Venice,  Paris,  and 


London.  In  London  his  health  failed,  and  he 
was  driven  to  Holland  to  consult  the  great  Boer- 
haave.  Boerhaave  cured  him,  but  in  returning 
to  Naples  he  was  attacked  by  brigands,  and  the 
fright  undid  all  that  the  physician  had  done,  and 
made  him  a  permanent  invalid.  In  1755  he  was 
called  to  Parma,  as  music-master  to  the  Duke's 
daughter.  The  court  was  French,  and  here  at 
last  Duni  found  his  place  in  life.  His  first  at- 
tempt was  on  Favart's  '  Ninette  a  la  Cour,'  and 
it  was  thoroughly  successful.  France  was  evi- 
dently his  field.  To  Paris  in  1757  he  went,  and 
made  his  dehut  in  '  Le  Peintre  amoureux ' ;  and 
there  he  remained  till  his  death,  which  took  place 
June  II,  1775,  after  he  had  delighted  the  public 
with  18  ^pieces,  full  of  gaiety  and  tune.  Those 
in  fact  are  his  characteristics.  His  orchestration 
is  poor,  he  is  often  weak  in  dramatic  expression, 
but  he  is  always  charming  and  always  melodious. 
His  pen  was  taken  up  by  Monsigny,  and  the 
Op^ra  Comique  was  established.  [G.] 
DUO  DRAMA.  A  kind  of  melodrama,  of 
which  Mozart  speaks  with  enthusiasm  and  at 
some  length  in  letters  to  his  father  from  Mann- 
heim and  Kaisersheim  in  the  end  of  1778.  The 
name  would  indicate  a  piece  for  two  performers  ; 
and  those  which  he  heard — Benda's  'Medea' 
and  'Ariadne  auf  Naxos' — and  that  which  he 
contemplated  writing  himself  — '  Semirarais ' — 
appear  to  have  been  pieces  in  which  spoken 
dialogue  was  accompanied  by  the  orchestra,  as  in 
Mendelssohn's  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream'  and 
other  pieces,  and  those  called  '  Melodram.'  '  Not 
a  note  is  sung,'  says  he,  'only  spoken;  in  fact 
it  is  a  recitative  with  instruments,  only  the  actor 
speaks  instead  of  singing'  (Letter  120).  There 
is  no  trace  of  '  Semiramis'  having  been  composed, 
but  Mozart  acted  on  the  idea  in  'Zaide'  (1780), 

1  See  the  list  in  Fdtis. 


470 


DUODRAMA. 


DURAND. 


which  contains  two  long  monologues  treated 
en  melodrame..  [G.J 

DUPARC.    See  FRANCfisiNA. 

DUPORT.    Two  eminent  cellists,  brothers. 

1.  Jean  Pierre — 'Duport  Tain^' — born  at 
Paris,  Nov.  27,  1741.  Considered  the  best 
pupil  of  Berthaut.  Soon  achieved  a  great  repu- 
tation in  Paris,  but  after  10  years  of  success 
started  on  a  lengthened  tour  through  England 
and  Spain,  and  finally  in  1773,  on  the  invitation 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  settled  at  Berlin  as  first 
cello  in  the  king's  band,  and  after  Frederick's 
death  director  of  Court  concerts.  After  the 
battle  of  Jena,  his  post  was  abolished,  but  he 
continued  to  live  at  Berlin  till  his  death  in 
1 8 1 8 .   His  publications  are  few  and  unimportant. 

2,  He  was  eclipsed  by  his  brother,  Jean  Louis, 
also  born  at  Paris,  Oct.  4,  1 749.  His  fame,  like 
his  brother's,  came  early,  but  it  was  the  arrival 
of  Viotti  in  Paris  (1782)  that  inspired  him  to 
imitate  the  breadth  and  brilliancy  of  style  of 
that  great  violinist,  and  thus  to  become  the 
extraordinary  player  he  was.  About  this  time 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Crosdill,  and 
at  his  invitation  visited  London  for  six  months. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  he  joined 
his  brother  in  Berlin,  and  entered  the  king's 
band.  At  that  time  he  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  first  cello  players  of  the  day, 
and  was  much  visited  and  sought  after.  He 
had  not  the  force  and  execution  of  Romberg, 
but  in  tone  and  style  was  unrivalled.  It  was 
either  with  him  or  his  brother — probably  with 
him — that  Beethoven  played  his  two  sonatas  for 
piano  and  cello  (op.  5)  at  the  Prussian  Court  in 
1796.  Duport  returned  to  Paris  in  1806  ruined 
by  the  war.  Though  his  playing  was  as  fine 
as  it  had  ever  been,  he  had  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  employment.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  ex-King  of  Spain  at  Marseilles,  but  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1812.  At  length  fortune 
smiled  on  him,  he  was  admitted  into  the  private 
band  of  Marie  Louise,  then  into  that  of  the 
Emperor,  and  at  length  as  professor  into  the 
Conservatoire.  In  the  evening  of  his  life  he 
composed  a  great  deal,  but  the  work  by  which 
he  will  survive  is  his  '  Essai  sur  le  doigter  du 
violoncelle  et  la  conduite  de  I'archet,  avec  une 
suite  d'exercises.'  A  sentence  from  this  work 
exhibits  the  modesty  of  a  great  artist.  '  Tout 
le  monde  connoit  le  coup  d'archet  martel^  ou 
staccato ;  c'est  une  afl^■aire  de  tacte  et  d'addresse. 
II  y  a  des  personnes  qui  le  saisissent  tout  de 
suite,  d'autres  ne  parviennent  jamais  k  le  faire 
parfaitement.  Je  suis  du  nombre'  (p.  171).  His 
cello  became  the  property  of  Franchomme,  who 
purchased  it  for  the  enormous  sum  of  25,000 
francs  (£1,000).    He  died  at  Paris  181 9.  [G.] 

DUPREZ,  Gilbert,  the  13th  of  the  22  children 
of  a  Paris  perfumer,  was  bom  Dec.  6,  1806. 
Having  completed  his  studies  under  Choron  at 
the  Conservatoire,  he  made  his  debut  (Dec.  1825) 
as  tenor  at  the  Odt^on,  where  Castil  Blaze  was 
producing  his  translations  of  the  favourite  operas 
of  Rossini  and  Weber.    His  success  was  not 


great,  and  when  the  theatre  closed  in  1828  he 
went  to  Italy.  At  first  he  attracted  little 
attention ;  but  having  altered  his  style  and 
adopted  the  'voix  sombree'  he  became  speedily 
popular,  and  by  his  creation  of  the  part  of  Edgardo 
in  '  Lucia  di  Lammermoor'  (Naples,  1835)  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  French  dramatic 
singers  of  his  time.  He  was  engaged  for  the 
Grand  Op^ra  in  Paris,  and  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance (April  17,  1837)  in  'Guillaume  Tell,' 
when  his  novel  and  striking  reading  of  his  part 
contributed  greatly  to  the  revival  of  the  opera. 
During  the  1 2  years  he  remained  at  this  theatre 
he  created  the  principal  tenor  part  in  '  Guido  et 
Ginevra,'  '  Ben venuto  Cellini,'  *Le  Lac  des  f^es,' 

*  Les  Martyrs,'  '  La  Favorite,'  '  La  Reine  de 
Chypre,"  Charles  VII,'  'Dom  S^bastien,'  'Otello,' 
'Lucie,'  and  'Jerusalem'  (a  translation  of  *I 
Lombardi'),  as  well  as  playing  the  parts  created 
by  Nourrit  in  *La  Muette,'  'Robert,' '  La  Juive,' 

*  Les  Huguenots,'  and  '  Stradella.'  His  physical 
appearance  was  against  him,  and  he  had  a 
propensity  to  over  gesticulation  ;  but  in  spite  of 
these  defects  he  made  his  way  as  a  tragedian, 
and  was  frantically  applauded  for  his  excellent 
declamation  and  the  smoothness  of  his  '  canto 
spianato.'  His  two  most  serious  faults,  the  abuse 
of  the  notes  '  sombr^es,'  so  prematurely  wearing 
to  the  voice,  and  a  habit  of  dragging  the  time, 
which  is  as  fatal  to  the  interests  of  the  composer 
as  it  is  to  all  artistic  interpretation,  have  materially 
affected  French  singing  to  the  present  day.  Du- 
prez  was  professor  of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire 
from  1842  to  1850,  and  in  1853  founded  an 
'  Ecole  spdciale  de  chant,'  which  still  exists,  and 
has  turned  out  many  dramatic  singers.  He  has 
composed  romances,  chamber  music,  two  masses, 
and  eight  operas,  of  which  the  best  are  '  Joanita ' 
1848;  *La  lettre  au  bon  Dieu'  (1851)  ;  and 
'Jeanne  d'Arc'  (1857)  though  none  of  the  eight 
have  any  originality.  He  has  also  published 
'L'Art  du  chant'  (1845)  and  *  La  Melodie' 
(1873),  two  Methods  which  deserve  to  be  better 
known.  [G.  C] 

DXJPUIS,  Thomas  Sanders,  Mus.  Doc,  was 
born  in  England  of  French  parents  in  1733.  He 
received  his  early  musical  education  as  a  chorister 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Bernard  Gates,  and 
subsequently  became  a  pupil  of  John  Travers, 
then  one  of  the  organists  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
On  the  death  of  Dr.  Boyce,  in  79,  Dupuis  was 
appointed  his  successor  as  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  On  June  26,  1790,  he  accumulated  the 
degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Music  at 
Oxford.  He  died  in  96.  He  published  during 
his  lifetime  several  sonatas  and  concertos  for  the 
pianoforte,  some  organ  pieces,  chants,  anthems, 
and  glees.  In  the  year  after  his  death  a  selection 
from  his  cathedral  music  was  published  under  the 
editorship  of  John  Spencer,  one  of  his  pupils,  to 
which  his  portrait  is  prefixed.  Dupuis  was  one 
of  the  best  organists  of  his  time.         [W.  H.H.] 

DURAND,  alias  DURANOWSKY,  Augustb 
Frederic,  violin-player,  bom  at  Warsaw  about 
1 770.  After  having  received  his  first  instruction 


DURAXD. 


D^RASTA^'TI. 


471 


on  the  violin  from  his  father,  a  musician  at  the  | 
court  of  the  king  of  Poland,  he  was  sent  in  17S7  j 
to  Paris  by  a  nobleman.    Here  he  studied  under  j 
Viotti,  but  appears  not  so  much  to  have  adopted  ; 
the  style  of  his  master,  as  to  have  followed  the  | 
bent  of  his  own  talent  for  the  execution  of  ' 
technical  tours  de  force.    In  1794  and  95  he 
travelled  in  Grermany  and  Italy,  meeting  every- 
where with  great  success.    Suddenly  however, 
discarding  the  violin,  he  entered  the  French 
army,  and  became  adjutant  to  one  of  the  generals. 
Owing  to  some  misconduct  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Milan,  and  had  to  quit  the  ser\-ice.    He  then 
returned  to  the  violin,  and  till  1S14  led  an 
unsettled  life  in  Germany,  continually  changing 
his  abode.    He  finally  settled  at  Strassburg  as  I 
leader  of  the  band,  and  was  living  there  in  1834.  I 
The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known,  j 
According  to  Fetis,  Paganini  confessed  that  j 
his  peculiar  style  and  many  of  his  most  brilliant  ' 
and  popular  effects  were  to  a  considerable  degree  > 
derived  from  Durand,  whom  he  had  heard  when  1 
young.    There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Durand's  \ 
technical  skill  was  extraordinary  and  his  treat-  I 
ment  of  the  violin  fuU  of  originality.     The  j 
full  development  of  his  talent  appears  however 
to  have  been  impeded  by  his  irregidar  habits  \ 
of  life.    It  is  amongst  other  things  related 
that  he  often  had  no  violin  of  his  own,  and  1 
would  play  in  public  on  any  instnmient  he 
could  get  hold  of,  however  bad.    His  composi- 
tions— concertos,  airs  varies,  and  a  number  of 
smaller  pieces  for  the  violin — show  him  to  have 
been  but  an  indifferent  musician,  [P.  D.] 

DURAXTE,  Francesco,   bom  at  Fratta-  ' 
maggiore,  Xaples.  March  is,  1684,  a  year  before 
Handel  and  Bach.    As  a  boy  he  entered  the 
'  Conservatorio  dei  poveri  di  Gesu  Cristo,'  passed 
to  that  of  S.  Onofrio  under  A.  Scarlatti,  then 
perhaps  (though  this  is  doubtful)  to  Rome  for 
five  years'  study  under  Pitoni  and  Pasquini.  In 
1718  became  head  of  S.  Onofiio,  and  in  1742 
relinquished  that  post  to  succeed  Porpora  at  the 
Conservatorio  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto  at  Naples, 
in  which  position  he  died  Aug.  13,  1755. 
rante  was  a  man  of  singularly  reserved  and 
imcouth  manners,  yet  he  was  three  times  married, 
and  his  pupils  were  not  only  numerous  and 
very  distinguished,  but  appear  to  have  been 
much  attached  to  him.    His  salary  at  S.  Maria 
was  but  10  ducats  a  month — not  £  20  per  annum — 
but  out  of  it  he  contrived  to  add  a  chapel  to  the 
diurch  of  St.  Antonio  in  his  native  town,  with 
a  statue  of  the  archangel  Gabriel,  bearing  his 
own  name.    He  himself  composed  only  for  the 
church,  but  his  scholars,  Traetta,  Vinci,  J omelli, 
Piccinni,  Sacchini,  Guglielmi,  and  Paisiello,  were 
all  great  opera  writers,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
occupied  the  stage  of  Europe  during  the  last  half 
of  the  1 8th  century  to  the  exclusion  of  every  one 
It  Gluck  and  Mozart.     The  library  of  the 
inser^-atoire  at  Paris  contains  a  large  collection 
of  his  works.    The  list,  as  given  by  F^tis,  com- 
prises 13  masses  and  credos  ;  16  psalms  ;  hymns, 
motets,  litanies,  etc.,  to  the  number  of  28.  These 
are  written  for  various  numbers  of  voices  from 


3  to  9,  occasionally  with  orchestra,  but  usually 
without.  The  Vienna  library  has  in  addition  his 
Lamentations  of  J eremiah,  a  so-caUed  '  Pastoral- 
Mass  '  and  other  compir'sitions. 

His  works  have  not  been  much  published. 
The  collections  of  Schlesinger,  RocUitz,  and 
Commer,  contain  a  few  pieces — amongst  them 
a  Misericordias  Domini  for  S  voices,  of  which 
Hauptmann  (Briefe  an  Hauser,  ii.  112)  speaks 
in  high  terms ;  and  our  own  FitzwilKam  music 
has  a  Trio  and  a  Chorus — but  the  bulk  of  them  are 
stiU  in  MS.  Durante  and  Leo  are  often  spoken 
of  as  founders  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  understand  this  when  they  were  pre- 
ceded there  by  A.  Scarlatti  and  Porpora.  [G.] 

DURASTAXTI,  Mabghebtta,  a  prima  donna 
at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  during 
Handel's  management.  She  was  bom  about 
1695,  and,  like  Senesino,  was  engaged  from  the 
Dresden  Theatre.  She  was  a  married  woman 
when  she  came  here,  and  the  following  quotation 
from  the  '  Evening  Post '  of  March  7,  1 7  2 1 , 
shows  that  she  soon  acquired  favour  at  court : — 
'  Last  Thursday,  his  Majesty  was  pleased  to 
stand  godfather,  and  the  Princess  and  Lady 
Bruce  godmothers  to  a  daughter  of  ^L-s.  Dura- 
stanti,  chief  singer  in  the  Opera-house.  The 
Marquis  Visconti  for  the  King,  and  the  Lady 
Litchfield  for  the  Princess.'    This  was  so  imusuaJ 

favour,  that  it  seems  likely  that  either  she  or 
her  husband  was  of  a  noble  family.  She  had 
already  appeared  in  1720  in  company  with  Sene- 
sino. Her  popularity  continued:  in  1721  she 
played  the  principal  female  parts  in  '  Muzio 
Scevola' ;  in  '  Arsace' ;  and  in  '  Odio  e  I'amore,' 
probably  a  pasticcio.  On  Jan.  12,  1723,  the 
'Otho,'  or  'Ottone,'  of  Handel  was  produced, 
and  Durastanti  played  Gismonda,  but  a  formid- 
able rival  had  appeared  in  Cuzzoni,  who  sang 
the  principal  part  of  Theophane.  Durastanti, 
however,  continued  to  sing  through  this  and  the 
next  season,  in  spite  of  Cuzzoni,  and  performed 
in  '  Flavio,'  'Coriolano,'  'Erminia,'  and  'Faraace.' 
In  24  she  played  Sesto  in  'Giulio  Cesare,'  and 
appeared  also  in  'Calfumia'  and  'Vespasiano.' 
She  took  her  leave  of  the  public  at  her  farewell 
performance  in  '  Calfurnia,'  in  a  song  written 
by  Pope  for  her — some  say  at  the  desire  of  her 
patron  the  Earl  of  Peterborough —  which  ended 
with  this  couplet, 

'  But  let  old  charmers  yield  to  new  ; 
Happy  soU,  adieu,  adieu  ! ' 

If  she  imderstood  the  meaning  of  the  words,  her 
modesty  was  astonishing,  and  sets  a  brilliant 
example  to  all  singers.  Durastanti  returned  to 
London  in  1733,  ^  company  with  Carestini, 
Scalzi,  and  the  two  sisters  Negri,  to  help  Handel 
to  withstand  the  opposition  of  Cuzzoni  and  Fari- 
neUi  at  the  other  house.  Against  old  Porpora, 
their  composer  in  ordinary,  Handel  was  strong 
enough  to  put  on  a  bold  front ;  not  so  his  singers 
against  the  company  commanded  by  Porpora. 
On  Jan.  26,1734,  Handel  produced  his  'Ariadne,' 
on  March  1 1 '  Paraasso  in  Festa,'  and  subsequently 
a  revival  of  *Ottone' ;  in  all  which  Durastanti 


472 


DURASTANTI. 


DUSCHEK. 


took  her  part.  She  never  appeared  again  in 
England,  nor  is  she  mentioned  as  having  appeared 
subsequently  on  any  other  stage.  She  seems  to 
have  been  an  estimable  and  faithful  artist,  and 
her  popularity  in  liOndon  only  yielded,  as  it 
might  ■well  do,  to  the  exceptional  powers  of 
Cuzzoni.  [J.  M.] 

DUKCHFUHKUNG  — leading  through,  or 
taking  through.  Burchfuhrung-satz  is  the  Ger- 
man term  for  that  portion  of  the  first  movement 
of  a  sonata  or  symphony — or  other  movement  in 
similar  form — which  occurs  between  the  double- 
bar  and  the  reprise  of  the  first  subject ;  and  in 
which  the  materials  of  the  previous  portion — 
with  or  without  episodes,  or  other  fresh  matter — 
are  led  through  such  changes  and  varieties  of 
treatment  and  contrivance  as  the  genius  and 
knowledge  of  the  composer  may  dictate.  In 
England  this  portion  is  often  called  the  'free 
fantasia' — surely  an  unfortunate  name,  as  'fan- 
tasia' suggests  rather  an  entire  movement  than 
a  part  of  one.  Perhaps  development '  or  '  work- 
ing out'  would  be  a  better  term.  [Form.] 

D'UEFEY,  Thomas,  the  son  of  a  French 
Huguenot  father,  who  fled  from  Eochelle  before 
the  siege  in  1628  and  settled  at  Exeter,  was 
born  (as  is  supposed,  of  an  English  mother)  in 
Exeter  about  1649.  He  was  educated  for  the 
law,  but  abandoned  that  profession  for  poetry 
and  the  drama.  Between  1676  and  his  death 
he  produced  upwards  of  thirty  plays,  which 
were  at  fii-st  very  popular,  but  were  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  afterwards  banished  from  the  stage 
on  account  of  their  licentiousness  and  indecency. 
The  songs  in  a  few  of  them  still  survive,  being 
preserved  through  having  had  the  good  fortune 
to  be  allied  to  the  music  of  Henry  Purcell. 
These  are  in  'A  Fool's  Preferment,'  16S8; 
♦Bussy  d'Ambois,'  1691  ;  'The  Richmond  Heir- 
ess,' 1693  ;  and  the  tlu-ee  parts  of  '  Don  Quixote,' 
1694-96,  His  comic  opera,  'Wonders  in  the 
Sun,'  1706,  was  set  by  Giovanni  Baptista  Draghi. 
Much  of  his  fame  was  owing  to  his  songs  and 
to  the  lively  manner  in  which  he  himself  sang 
them,  which  procured  him  the  favour  of  Charles 
II,  William  III,  and  Queen  Anne.  In  this  he 
resembled  Tom  Moore,  and  like  him  he  was  par- 
ticularly apt  at  adapting  his  verses  to  existing 
music.  He  published,  between  1683  and  1685, 
three  collections  of  songs  written  by  himself,  and 
set  to  music  by  the  best  composers  of  the  period. 
About  1 706  he  collected  and  published,  in  four 
small  volumes,  a  large  number  of  songs  by 
himself  and  others,  many  of  them  with  the  tunes 
prefixed,  under  the  title  of  '  Wit  and  Mirth  ;  or. 
Pills  to  purge  Melancholy.'  This  he  republished 
with  variations  and  the  addition  of  two  more 
volumes  in  1719-20.  D'Ur fey  wrote  several  of 
the  birth-day  and  New  Year's  odes  which  were 
set  to  music  by  Purcell  and  Blow,  and  supplied 
the  former  with  the  words  for  his  fine  ode  known 
as  'The  Yorkshire  Feast  Song.'  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  was  reduced  to  great  distress, 
from  which  he  was  relieved  by  the  profits  of 
a  performance  of  his  own  comedy  '  The  Fond 
Husband;  or,  The  Plotting  Sisters/  which  the 


managers  of  the  theatre  generously  gave  for  his 
benefit  on  June  1 5,  1 71 3.  D'Urfey  died  Feb.  26, 
1723,  and  was  buried  at  St.  James's,  Piccadilly, 
where,  against  the  outer  south  wall  of  the  tower 
of  the  church,  may  be  seen  a  tablet  with  the 
simple  inscription,  'Tom  D'Urfey,  Dyed  Feb'' 
y«  26th,  1723.'  [W.H.H.] 
DUSCHEK  (Dussek),  Franz,  valued  piano- 
forte teacher,  performer,  and  composer,  bom 
Dec.  8,  1736,  at  Chotiborz  in  Bohemia.  Count 
von  Spork  had  him  educated  in  the  Jesuit's 
seminary  at  Koniggratz,  but  after  a  fall  which 
crippled  him  for  life  he  gave  up  other  studies 
and  devoted  himself  to  music.  His  patron  sent 
him  first  to  Prague  and  then  to  Vienna,  where, 
under  Wagenseil's  instruction,  he  became  an 
excellent  pianist.  On  his  return  to  Prague,  he 
soon  had  numerous  pupils,  and  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  on  the  taste  of  his  time. 
Eeichardt,  in  his  'Briefe'  (i.  116),  speaks  of  him 
as  one  of  the  best  pianists  of  that  time  (1773), 
'who,  besides  his  excellent  reading  of  Bach, 
possesses  a  peculiarly  pleasing  and  brilliant  style 
of  his  own.'  Among  his  best  pupils  may  be 
numbered  L.  Kozeluch,  Maschek,  Wittassek,  von 
Nostiz,  and  his  own  wife  Josephine.  He  was 
also  esteemed  as  a  composer  of  symphonies, 
quartets,  trios,  pianoforte  concertos,  sonatas, 
Lieder,  etc.,  of  which  only  a  small  part  were 
published.  In  his  compositions  is  reflected  the 
gentleness  of  character  which  made  him  uni- 
versally beloved.  He  was  a  kind-hearted  man, 
and  all  artists,  whether  his  own  countrymen  or 
foreigners,  were  sure  of  a  kind  reception  at  his 
house.  His  friendship  with  Mozart  is  well 
known,  and  it  was  in  his  villa  and  garden  near 
Prague  that  the  great  composer  put  the  finishing 
touches  to  the  score  of  '  Don  Giovanni.'  In  this 
very  villa  Bertramka,  at  Koschirz  near  Prague, 
the  present  proprietor  erected  a  bust  of  Mozart, 
which  was  solemnly  unveiled  on  June  3,  1876. 
For  further  particulars  of  both  husband  and  wife 
see  Jahn's  'Mozart';  'Jahrbuch  der  Tonkunst 
von  Wien  und  Prag,'  1 796  ;  Cramer's  '  Magazin 
fur  Musik' ;  and  Mozart's  Letters,  edited  by 
Nohl. 

His  wife  J osephine,  a  celebrated  singer,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Hambacher,  was  bom  at 
Prague  1756,  and  died  there  at  an  advanced  age. 
Her  husband  taught  her  music,  and  she  became 
a  good  pianist  and  composer,  but  above  all  a 
fine  singer.  Her  voice  was  full  and  round,  and 
according  to  Eeichardt  she  sang  with  great  ex- 
pression, especially  in  recitative.  She  executed 
the  most  difficult  bravura  passages  with  ease, 
had  a  good  portamento,  and  united  grace  and 
expression  with  force  and  fire.  Mozart's  father, 
however,  was  of  a  different  opinion,  as  appears 
from  a  letter  to  his  daughter  (April  1786),  whilst 
Schiller  and  Korner  have  recorded  their  un- 
favourable impression  of  her — the  latter  specially 
denying  that  she  had  expression  (Schiller, '  Brief- 
wechsel  mit  Korner,'  1.  pp.  280,  294).  Mo- 
zart, from  his  first  acquaintance  with  her  in 
Salzburg  in  1777,  looked  upon  her  as  a  true  and 
sympathising  friend,  and  wrote  for  her  (Nov.  3, 


DUSCHEK. 


DUSSEK. 


473 


1787)  at  Prague  the  concert-aria  'Bella  mia 
fiamma '  (Kcichel,  No.  528).  She  sang  at  Vienna, 
Berlin,  Weimar,  Leipsic,  and  Dresden,  where  the 
Elector  had  her  portrait  painted  life-size  (1787). 
On  her  first  visit  with  her  husband  to  Vienna 
(March  and  April  1786),  they-  gave  no  public 
performance,  but  were  often  invited  to  the 
houses  of  the  aristocracy,  especially  to  Prince 
Paar's,  where  Josephine  sang  with  great  success. 
They  witnessed  the  downfall  of  the  intrigues 
against  the  first  representation  of  Mozart's  Figaro 
in  Vienna,  and  it  was  their  partisanship  and 
enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  work  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  its  brilliant  reception  in 
Prague  on  Oct.  14,  and  that  of  'Don  Giovanni' 
on  Oct.  29,  1787.  Beethoven  was  at  Prague 
early  in  96,  and  wrote  his  '  Ah  perfido  ! '  there  ; 
and  as  it  was  first  sung  by  Madame  Duschek  on 
Nov.  21  of  that  year,  we  may  infer  that  he  com- 
posed it  for  her.  On  her  second  visit  to  Vienna, 
Madame  Duschek  gave  a  concert  at  the  Jahn'sche 
8aal  (March  29, 1798),  at  which  she  herself  sang 
an  aria  by  Danzi  and  a  rondo  by  ]Mozart,  accom- 
panied by  Mozart's  questionable  friend  Stadler, 
with  como  di  bassetto  obligato.  Schuppanzigh 
played  a  violin  concerto,  and  Beethoven  a  piano- 
forte sonata  with  accompaniment.  Fetis's  state- 
ment that  she  came  to  London  in  1 800  and  died 
there,  arises  from  a  confusion  with  the  wife  of 
Dussek  the  pianist.  [C.  F.  P.] 

DUSSEK,  JoHANN  LuDwiG,  or  Ladislaw, 
one  of  the  most  renowned  pianists  and  composers 
for  the  pianoforte  of  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th 
and  beginning  of  the  19th  centuries,  was  born 
at  Czaslau  in  Bohemia,  Feb.  9,  1761.  His 
father,  John  Joseph  Dussek,  a  musician  of 
considerable  repute  in  his  day,  was  organist 
and  leading  professor  in  that  town,  where  he 
married  the  daughter  of  J udge  J  ohann  Stebeta, 
by  whom  he  had  three  children,  the  eldest  being 
Johann  Ludwig.  Although  the  brother,  Franz 
Benedikt,  and  the  sister,  Veronika  Rosalia,  were 
more  or  less  distinguished,  the  subject  of  this 
brief  memoir  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  whose 
memory  and  works  have  come  down  to  us.  Ac- 
cording to  Dlabacz,  there  were  various  modes  of 
spelling  our  composer's  patron^nne.  It  will  be 
enough,  however,  to  cite  three,  Dussik,  Duschek, 
Dussek,  the  last  of  which  has  long  been  recog- 
nised, and  is  unlikely  henceforth  to  be  disturbed 
in  its  prerogative,  notwithstanding  that  the  father 
of  our  English  Dussek  signed  '  Johann  Joseph 
Dussik.'  \Vhen  the  son  established  himself  in 
London,  he  altered  the  penultimate  letter  from  i 
to  €,  and  pronounced  his  name  '  Duschek,'  for 
which  we  have  the  authority  of  Pio  Cianchettini, 
whose  sire  wedded  Veronica  Rosalia,  already  men- 
tioned. Franz  Duschek,  not  the  least  noted  mem- 
ber of  the  group  of  artists  bearing  the  cognomen 
in  one  or  another  form,  was  the  intimate  friend 
of  Mozart.    [See  Duschek.] 

According  to  Dlabacz,  on  the  whole  a  far 
better  authority  than  either  the  reticent  Gerber, 
or  F^tis,  who,  like  Bayle,  took  anything  he  could 
find,  no  matter  from  what  source,  J  ohann  Lud- 
wig Dussek  began  to  study  the  pianoforte  in  his 


fifth  year,  and  the  organ  in  his  ninth,  and  in  the 
capacity  of  organist  soon  gave  valuable  assistance 
to  his  father.  From  Czaslau  he  went  to  Iglau, 
where  he  was  engaged  as  treble  singer  in  the 
Minorite  church,  pursuing  his  musical  studies 
with  Father  Ladislaw  Spinar,  and  familiarising 
himself  with  the  '  humanities '  at  the  College  of 
Jesuits,  subsequently  for  two  years  continuing 
the  same  course  of  instruction  at  Kuttenberg, 
where  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Jesuit 
church.  Thence  he  removed  to  Prague,  where, 
if  we  may  credit  the  naturally  partial  testimony 
of  his  father,  he  went  through  a  course  of '  philo- 
sophy,' and  took  the  degree  of  *  Master.'  Here 
Dussek  cherished  an  earnest  desire  to  join  the 
Cistercian  ^  friars  ;  but,  happily,  his  youth  was 
an  obstacle  to  his  admission  as  member  of  that 
respectable  fraternity.  In  his  straits  he  met 
with  a  patron  —  Count  Manner,  an  artillery 
officer  in  the  Austrian  service,  who  took  him  to 
Mechlin  (Malines),  where  he  remained  for  some 
time  as  organist  at  the  church  of  St.  Rombaut, 
and  teacher  of  the  pianoforte.  Tired  of  Mechlin, 
he  left  for  Berg-op-Zoom,  again  accepting  the 
post  of  organist  at  one  of  the  principal  churches. 
Such  a  dreary  spot,  however,  was  not  likely  to 
suit  one  of  Dussek's  temperament,  and  he  speedily 
went  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  may  be  said  to 
have  laid  the  fotmdation  of  his  after  brilliant 
reputation  as  pianist  and  composer.  It  is  worth 
remark  that  Dussek's  last  engagement  as  church 
organist  was  at  Berg-op-Zoom  ;  and  at  the  same 
time — which  more  than  one  German  critic  (Pro- 
fessor Marx  among  others)  has  observed — that  his 
early  acquaintance  with  the  organ  had  much  to  do 
with  the  peculiar  style  of  not  a  few  of  the  slow 
movements  to  be  met  with  in  his  finest  sonatas 
— among  which  may  especially  be  cited  the  adagio 
of  the  'Invocation'  (op.  77),  his  last  great  com- 
position for  the  pianoforte.  Dussek's  brilliant 
success  at  Amsterdam  soon  obtained  for  him  an 
invitation  to  the  Hague,  where  he  passed  nearly 
a  twelvemonth,  giving  lessons  on  the  pianoforte 
to  the  children  of  the  Stadtholder.  Here  he  also 
devoted  much  time  to  composition,  producing 
3  concertos,  and  12  sonatas  for  pianoforte,  with 
accompaniments  of  stringed  instruments,  about 
which  Cramer's  'Magazin  der  Musik'  (Hamburg) 
speaks  in  very  favourable  terms.  From  the 
Hague,  Dussek,  now  twenty-two  years  of  age, 
mindless  of  the  praise  that  had  been  awarded  to 
his  early  compositions,  proceeded  to  Hamburg,  ob- 
taining further  instruction  from  Emmanuel  Bach, 
second  son  of  the  immortal  John  Sebastian.  The 
advice  and  encouragement  of  this  eminent  master 
would  seem  to  have  exercised  a  salutary  influence 
on  our  young  musician.  A  year  later,  never- 
theless, we  find  him  at  Berlin,  astonishing  the 
dilettanti  of  the  Prussian  capital  with  his  piano- 
forte-playing, and  also  with  his  performances  on 
an  instrument  called  the  '  Harmonica,'  the  quali- 
ties of  which,  in  agreement  with  one  Hessel,  the 
8oi  disant  inventor,  he  travelled  through  various 
parts  of  Germany  to  exhibit,  exciting  the  admi- 
ration of  Gerber  (at  Hesse-Cassel,  1785)  both  for 

1  Fancy !  the  afterwards  boon  companion  of  Pr;nce  Lcuis  Ferdinand  I 


474 


DUSSEK. 


DUSSEK. 


the  instrument  and  tlie  performer.  From  Berlin 
it  was  the  Intention  of  Dussek  to  go  to  St. 
Petersburg ;  but  here  there  is  no  credible  ac- 
count of  his  doings,  except  that  he  is  believed 
to  have  accepted  an  advantageous  oflfer  from  a 
certain  Polish  prince,  ^Radziwill,  at  whose  es- 
tate in  Lithuania  he  remained  more  than  a  year, 
unheard  of.  We  next  meet  with  him  at  Paris 
(towards  the  end  of  1786)  playing  before,  and 
enchanting  with  his  play,  the  lovely  and  unfor- 
tunate Marie  Antoinette,  whose  seductive  oflFers, 
however,  could  not  dissuade  Dussek  from  carry- 
ing out  a  long-considered  project  of  visiting  his 
brother,  Franz  Benedikt,  in  Italy.  At  Milan 
he  earned  new  laurels  as  a  performer,  both  on 
the  pianoforte  and  harmonica ;  but  the  volatile 
Italians  showed  a  preference  for  the  inferior  in- 
strimaent,  which  was  by  no  means  flattering  to 
the  gifted  Bohemian.  Retviming  to  Paris  in 
1788,  the  threatening  circumstances  of  the  time 
caused  him  to  quit  the  French  capital  almost 
immediately.  His  next  residence  was  London, 
where  he  remained  for  a  longer  period  (nearly 
twelve  years)  than  at  any  other  city  he  had 
temporarily  chosen  as  a  residence.  In  London 
his  genius  was  rapidly  appreciated  ;  he  became 
a  fashionable  teacher,  the  centre  of  a  circle  of 
eminent  musicians,  and  looked  up  to  by  them 
all.  One  of  the  greatest  compliments  ever  paid 
to  Dussek,  who  could  boast  of  so  many,  was  con- 
tained in  a  letter  addressed  from  London  to  the 
elder  Dussek  (Dussik)  at  Czaslau,  by  the  cele- 
brated Joseph  Haydn,  then  composing  his  im- 
perishable symphonies  for  Salomon. 

*  Most  worthy  friend, — I  thank  you  from  my 
heart  that,  in  your  last  letter  to  your  dear  son, 
you  have  also  remembered  me.  I  therefore 
double  my  compliments  in  return,  and  consider 
myself  fortunate  in  being  able  to  assure  you, 
that  you  have  one  of  the  most  upright,  moral, 
and,  in  music,  most  eminent  of  men,  for  a  son. 
I  love  him  just  as  you  do,  for  he  fully  deserves 
it.  Give  him,  then,  daily,  a  father's  blessing, 
and  thus  will  he  be  ever  fortunate,  which  I 
heartily  wish  him  to  be,  for  his  remarkable 
talents.  I  am,  with  all  respect,  your  most  sin- 
cere friend,    Joseph  Haydn. 

'London,  Feb.  26,  1792.' 

This  from  a  man  like  Haydn  meant  something 
out  of  the  common  way.  In  1792  Dussek  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Domenico  Corri.  'This 
lady,'  says  Gerber,  'was  principal  singer  at  the 
London  professional  concerts,  he  [Dussek]  being 
concerto-player  to  the  same,  and  playing  in  a 
style  of  incredible  perfection,*  [See  Dussek, 
Sophia.]  The  marriage  brought  about  a  joint 
speculation  between  Dussek  and  Corri,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  music  shop,  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  Dussek's  habitual  negligence  and 
utter  unacquaintance  with  business  habits,  ended 
in  failure,  the  upshot  being  that,  in  1800,  in 
order  to  elude  his  uncompromising  creditors,  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  the  country  surreptitiously, 
and  once  more  seek  shelter  in  his  favourite 

•  Not  Chopin's  early  patroA,  but  probably  his  father. 


Hamburg.  The  story  of  the  Northern  Princess 
who,  at  this  juncture,  became  enamoured  of  our 
pianist,  carrying  him  off  to  a  retreat  near  the 
Denmark  frontier,  where  they  lived  together  in 
seclusion  for  nearly  two  years,  may  be  discarded 
as  a  myth.  At-  all  events  we  find  in  a  corre- 
spondence to  the  'Leipziger  Musik-Zeitung'  ac- 
counts of  various  concerts  given  by  Dussek  at 
Hamburg,  in  1800  and  1801,  with  references 
to  Steibelt,  Hiinmel,  Woelfi,  and  our  own  great 
singer,  John  Braham,  who,  with  Madame  Storace, 
sang  at  Ottensen,  on  the  Elbe,  in  a  concert  at 
which  Giarnowichi  was  violinist,  and  Dussek 
pianist.  In  1802,  after  appearing  at  the  Concert 
Hall  in  Prague,  where  he  played  his  concerto 
in  G  minor,  Dussek,  accompanied  by  his  sister, 
Madame  Cianchettini,  paid  a  visit  at  Czaslau  to 
his  father,  whom  he  had  not  seen  for  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century,  and,  after  passing  some 
months  under  the  paternal  domicile,  resumed  his 
professional  wanderings,  until  in  1803,  at  Mag- 
deburg, he  became  acquainted  with  Prince  Louis 
Ferdinand  of  Prussia,  with  whom  he  lived  for 
three  years  on  terms  of  affectionate  intimacy,  to 
whom  he  gave  advice  both  in  pianoforte  playing 
and  composition,  and  whose  premature  death,  on 
the  field  of  Saalfeld,  was  the  origin  of  the  '  El^gie 
Harmonique'  (op.  61),  not  only  one  of  the  finest 
works  of  Dussek,  but  one  of  the  most  pathetic 
and  beautiful  in  the  repertory  of  the  piano. 
This  was  another  turning-point  in  the  somewhat 
tortuous  life  of  our  composer,  and,  for  better  or 
for  worse,  materially  influenced  his  character. 
Much  that  is  interesting  with  regard  to  the  in- 
tercourse between  Dussek  and  the  Prince  may 
be  read  in  the  'Leipziger  Musik-Zeitung'  (1807) ; 
in  Ludwig  Rellstab's  'Reminiscences  of  Berlin 
Music,'  in  the  'Berlin  Musik-Zeitung'  (1850); 
and,  most  characteristic  of  all,  in  Spohx's  '  Selbst- 
Biographie.' 

In  a  review  of  the  Elegy  the  *  Leipzig  Musik- 
Zeitung'  (i  807, p.  741 )  says,  among  other  things : — 

'  During  the  last  few  years  of  his  (the  Prince's)  life, 
■when  he  turned  again  to  music  with  all  the  ardour  of 
enthusiasm  ....  Dussek  arrived  at  Berlin.  The  Prince 
had  studied  music  in  his  youth,  and  never  wholly  neg- 
lected it,  but  his  soul  was  now  for  the  first  time  open  to 
its  hidden  worth,  to  its  higher  and  more  spiritual  value. 
He  had  need  of  a  man  who  could  aid  him  to  express  fully 
and  correctly  what  he  wished  to  convey  through  music£U 
tones,  who  could  enter  into  the  spirit  of  what  he  created, 
afford  him  intellectual  nourishment  in  productions  suited 
to  his  taste  and  feelings,  and  lastly,  away  from  their 
common  art-study,  prove  an  amiable  and  congenial  com- 
panion. This  he  found  in  Dussek,  who  to  the  Prince  was 
all  in  all,  just  as  the  Prince,  in  return,  was  to  Dussek.' 

Rellstab,  in  his  *  Reminiscences, '  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  pianoforte  'virtuosos' 
who  flourished  at  that  period  in  Berlin,  accord- 
ing the  highest  place  among  them  to  Himmel, 
Prince  Louis  Ferdinand,  and  Dussek,  placing 
Dussek,  however,  in  the  first  rank  : — 

'  The  favourite  player  at  Berlin,  and  decidedly  first  in 
purity,  elegance,  and  delicacy  of  style,  was  Himmel,  a  man 
formed  by  nature  to  be  the  central  point  in  musical  salona 
. . .  ;  but  far  greater,  and  emphatically  so,  was  Dussek, 

both  as  "  virtuoso  "  and  comiwser  whose  eminent 

technical  resources  afforded  a  much  wider  basis  for  varied 
development,  and  who,  having  accomplished  a  vast  deal 
more  for  the  elevation  of  tlie  pianoforte  than  most  of  hia 
contemporaries,  occupied  a  position  in  the  musical  art  of 
Berlin,  which  is  vividly  felt  even  now  L1S50],  and  obtained 


DUSSEK. 


DUSSEK. 


475 


a  corresponding  European  fame,  justly  claims  a  place  in 
the  history  of  the  most  universal  of  instruments,  to  which 
Himmel,  despite  his  exceptional  ability  and  well-earned 
local  eminence,  had  no  legitimate  pretensions.' 

A  lively  picture  of  how  the  three  boon  com- 
panions clubbed  together  follows  the  above  : — 

•Louis  Ferdiiiand  played  a  great  deal  with  Dussek 
several  compositions  for  two  pianofortes,  and  others  for 
four  hauds  on  one  pianoforte,  deriN-ing  their  origin  from 
the  relations  between  the  distinguishSi  "virtuoso"  and 
his  gifted  patron.  Himmel  was  often  their  companion, 
and  he  and  Dussek  were  the  Prince's  favourite  associates 
at  the  wine  cup.  "VNTiat  influence  Dussek  may  have 
exerted  upon  the  character  of  the  Prince  at  these  con- 
vivialities it  is  hard  to  say;  but  Himmel  possessed  that 
lively,  joyous,  good-natured,  amiable  view  of  life  which 
as  a  "rule  is  most  welcome  when  intellectual  brothers  in 
art  make  the  full  glasses  ring.  Thus  the  Prince,  Himmel, 
iiid  Dussek,  formed  a  musical  triad,  each  exciting,  en- 
livening, and  fortifjing  the  others,  Dussek,  in  his  artistic 
capacity,  taking  the  foremost  place.' 

Spohr  (Selbstbiog.  i.  85),  describing  a  soiree 
at  the  Prince's,  in  the  course  of  a  visit  to  Berlin 
early  in  1S05,  remarks  : — 

'Here  I  also  met  an  old  Hamburg  acquaintance,  the 
celebrated  pianoforte  virtuoso  and  comi)Oser  Dussek,  now 
the  Prince's  teacher  and  residing  with  him.  The  music 
began  with  a  pianoforte  1  quartet,  which  was  played  by 
Dussek  in  real  artistic  perfection.' 

In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  when  Prince 
Louis  Ferdinand  was  at  Magdeburg,  superin- 
tending the  military  manoeuvres,  Spohr  received, 
through  Dussek,  an  invitation  to  be  a  guest  and 
take  part  in  the  projected  musical  entertainments. 
His  description  of  the  early  morning  rehearsals 
is  highly  diverting — the  end  being  raciest  of  all 
(Selbstb.  i.  94).  When  the  Prince  was  about  to 
leave,  Spohr  was  dismissed  with  hearty  thanks, 
'Dussek  informing  the  young  violinist  that  'Son 
lAltesse  Royale'  had  intended  to  make  him  a 
present,  but  his  finances  were  at  so  low  an  ebb 
that  he  was  compelled  to  defer  it  to  some  fu- 
ture occasion.  *  Such  occasiou,  however,'  observes 
Spohr,  '  never  arrived,  the  Prince  next  year 
meeting  his  fate  at  the  battle  of  Saalfeld.'  [See 
Louis  Ferdinand,  Prince.] 

The  death  of  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  threw 
Dussek  once  more  upon  his  own  unaided  resources. 
It  says  no  little  for  him  that  befoie  thinking 
ftbout  future  prospects  he  should  have  devoted 
time  to  composing  the  '  Harmonic  Elegy '  already 
mentioned,  a  fitting  tribute  to  the  memory  of 
that  royal  friend  whose  close  relations  with  him 
Fully  justifietl  his  giving  expression  to  sentiments 
)f  deepest  regret  through  the  medium  of  the 
at  they  both  so  dearly  loved.  Nor  could  any- 
Mng  be  more  touching  and  appropriate  than 
he  few  words  which  Dussek  inscribed  on  the 
itle-page  of  his  sonata,  'L'auteur,  qui  a  eu  le 
xmheur  de  jouir  du  commerce  tr^s  intime  de 
3.A.R.,  ne  Ta  quitte  qu'au  moment  oh  il  a  vers^ 
wn  precieux  sang  pour  sa  patrie.'  At  the  same 
ame  the  fact  of  the  inscription  being  couched  in 
ihe  language  of  the  enemy  to  whom  the  Prince 
)wed  his  death,  appears  a  little  strange. 

About  the  Prince  von  Ysenburg  (or  Isenbiu-g), 
nto  whose  ser\ace,  after  the  death  of  his  illustrious 
)atron,  Dussek  entered,  as  court  and  chamber 
musician,  little  is  on  record.    A  paragraph  in 

•  Spohr,  in  his  usually  unsatisfying  manner,  does  not  say  which 
ioartet.  or  by  whom  composed.  Probably  Dussek's  own-in  E  flat. 


the  'Leipzig  Musik-Zeitung,'  however  (Sept.  2, 
1807),  states  that  'Herr  Dussek  ha^nng  resigned 
his  situation  with  the  Prince  von  Isenburg,  has 
entered  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Benevento 
(Talleyrand),  and  will  remain  henceforth  in 
Paris.'  More  than  two  years  later  (Jan.  3, 1 810) 
the  same  periodical  publishes  a  letter  from  Paris 
in  which  we  read  :  '  Herr  Dussek  is  in  the 
service  of  M.  Talleyrand,  Prince  of  Benevento. 
He  appears  to  be  treated  in  a  very  distinguished 
manner,  and  enjoys  a  respectable  salary.'  With 
this  renowned  diplomatist  and  highly  accomplished 
gentleman  Dussek  resided  till  the  last.  His  lei- 
sure was  entirely  at  his  ovra  disposal.  He  wotild 
vouchsafe  occasional  instructions  to  favoured 
amateurs,  such  as  Mile.  Charlotte  (Talleyrand's 
adopted  daughter),  the  Ducliesse  de  Courland, 
Mile.  Betsy  Ouvrard  (to  whom  the  grand  sonata 
called  *L' Invocation'  is  dedicated),  etc.;  also 
now  and  then  give  a  concert,  at  which  he  pro- 
duced his  latest  works,  the  rest  of  his  time  being 
exclusively  devoted  to  composition.  The  late 
M.  Fetis,  who  remembered  well  Dussek's  per- 
formances at  the  Odeon  (1808),  writes  : — 

'The  extraordinary  sensation  he  produced  is  not  for- 
gotten. Until  then  the  pianoforte  had  only  been  heard 
to  disadvantage  as  a  concert-instrument,!  but  under  the 
hands  of  Dussek  it  eclipsed  all  that  surrounded  it.  The 
broatl  and  noble  style  of  this  artist,  his  method  of  sinking 
on  an  instrument  which  possessed  no  sustained  sounds, 
the  neatness,  dehcacy.  and  brilliancy  of  his  play,  in  short, 
propured  him  a  triujnph  of  which  there  had  been  no 
previous  example.' 

With  the  Prince  of  Benevento,  his  latest 
patron,  Dussek  continued  to  reside  until  his  last 
illness  compelled  him  to  seek  another  retreat,  at 
St.  Germain  en  Laye,  where  (not  in  Paris,  as 
Ft^tis  and  others  have  stated)  he  died  on  March 
20,  181 2.  A  letter  from  Paris,  dated  March  21, 
181 2,  and  printed  in  the  'Leipzig  Muzik-Zeitung' 
(xiv.  258),  thus  refers  to  the  event : — 

'  I  have  just  heard  news  which  must  grieve  every  friend 
of  music  ....  Your  worthy  and  celebrated  countryman, 
J.  L.  Dussek,  is  no  more!  Yesterday  morning,  at  six 
o'clock,  in  the  full  vigour  of  manhood  [in  his  52nd  year], 
he  closed  a  career  which,  despite  the  ever-increasing 
culture,  development,  and  strength  of  his  great  talents, 
and  his  astonishing  industry,  had  not  yet  reached  its 
ctilminating  x)oint.  He  had  been  unwell  for  some  months, 
but  was  confined  to  bed  only  two  days.  His  disease  was 
gout,  which  suddenly  attacked  his  brain,  and  in  an  hour 
or  two  carried  him  off  ...  It  was  a  blessing  to  his  energetic 
spirit,  his  warmly  sensitive  and  affectionate  nature,  that 
he  could  breathe  his  last  in  the  arms  of  a  faithful  mend 
and  cotintrj-man  like  your  noble  Neukomm.' 

In  a  very  interesting  series  of  papers  about 
the  Dusseks  generally,  which  Mr.  Alexander 
W^.  Thayer,  to  whom  the  lovers  of  Beethoven 
are  so  deeply  indebted  for  his  indefatigable 
researches  into  the  actual  life  of  that  great 
composer,  published  simultaneously  (1861)  in 
Dwight's  '  Journal  of  Music '  (Boston,  U.S.)  and 
the  '  Musical  W^orld'  (London),  we  find  quoted 
a  general  estimate,  of  which  a  mere  condensed 
abstract  may  suflBce  to  convey  some  notion  of 
what  Dussek's  contemporaries  thought  of  him  : — 
'  Dussek,  the  man  of  genius,  the  richly  endowed  and 
solidly  trained  artist,  was  kno\sTi,  honoured,  and  loved  by 
the  entire  musical  world  .  .  .  He  has  done  nearly  as  much 
as  Haydn,  and  probably  not  less  than  Mozart,  to  make 
German  music  known  and  respected  in  other  2  lauds. 

I  Fetis  must  surely  mean  in  Paris  ? 

'  This,  it  must  be  borue  in  miud,  was  written  in  1812. 


476 


DUSSEK. 


DUSSEK. 


His  earlier  residence  in  London,  and  his  later  in  Paris, 
have  in  this  respect  exercised  great  influence.  As  a 
"  virtuoso  "  he  is  unanimously  placed  in  the  very  foremost 
rank.  In  rapidity  and  sureness  of  execution,  in  a  mastery 
of  the  greatest  difficulties,  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  pianist 
who  surpassed  him;  in  neatness  and  precision  possibly 
one  (John  Cramer  of  London) ;  in  soul,  expression,  and 
delicacy,  certainly  none.  As  a  man  he  was  good  and 
noble,  just,  impartial,  and  kindly,  a  real  friend,  sym- 
pathising with  aU  that  was  true  and  beautiful  in  those  he 
knew  ....  His  failings,  inseparable  from  an  imagination 
80  powerful  and  a  sensitiveness  so  extreme,  may  readily 

be  forgiven  Moreover,  through  native  strength  of 

mind  and  frequent  intimate  relations  with  the  most 
distinguished  persons,  he  had  gained  a  vast  amount  of 
general  information,  thoroughly  polished  manners,  and 
such  tact,  combined  with  knowledge  of  the  world,  as  fitted 
him  for  the  highest  circles  of  society ;  while  his  joyous 
disposition  liberal  sentiments,  and  freedom  from  prejudice 
of  any  kind,  endeared  him  especially  to  musicians.' 

This  also  came  from  Paris,  and  was  printed  in 
the  same  Leipzig  periodical. 

With  regard  to  Dussek's  style  of  playing, 
about  which  we  of  course  can  only  gather  a 
notion  from  the  works  he  has  left,  many  con- 
temporaneous opinions  could  be  cited,  but  perhaps 
not  one  more  suggestive  than  that  which  J.  W, 
Tomaschek,  himself  a  pianist  and  composer  of 
eminence,  gives  in  his  'Autobiography  and 
Reminiscences ' — 

'In  the  year  1804,  my  countryman,  Dussek,  came  to 
Prague,  and  I  very  soon  became  acquainted  with  him. 
He  gave  a  concert  to  a  very  large  audience,  at  which  he 
introduced  his  own  Military  Concerto.  After  the  few 
opening  bars  of  his  first  solo,  the  public  uttered  one 
general  Ah !  There  was,  in  fact,  something  magical 
about  the  way  in  which  Dussek  with  all  his  charming 
grace  of  manner,  through  his  wonderful  touch,  extorted 
n-om  the  instrument  delicious  and  at  the  same  time 
emphatic  tones.  His  fingers  were  like  a  company  of  ten 
singers,  endowed  with  equal  executive  powers,  and  able 
to  produce  with  the  utmost  perfection  whatever  their 
director  could  require.  I  never  saw  the  Prague  public 
so  enclianted  as  they  were  on  this  occasion  by  Dussek's 
splendid  playing.  His  une  declamatory  style,  especially 
in  cantahile  phrases,  stands  as  the  ideal  for  every  artistic 
performance— something  which  no  other  pianist  since  has 
reached  . . ,  Dussek  was  the  first  who  placed  his  instrument 
sideways  upon  the  platform,  in  which  our  pianoforte 
heroes  now  all  follow  him,  though  they  may  have  no  very 
interf-sting  profile  to  exhibit.' 

That  more  than  any  contemporary  special 
writer  for  the  pianoforte,  Dussek,  through  his 
strong  and  attractive  individuality,  impressed  the 
age  in  which  he  lived,  is  unquestionable.  Here, 
be  it  understood,  no  reference  is  intended  to 
many-sided  geniuses  like  Mozart  and  Beethoven, 
but  simply  to  those  who,  making  the  pianoforte 
their  particular  study,  have  effected  so  much 
towards  the  influence,  so  materially  aided  the 
progress,  and  played  so  important  a  part  in  the 
history  of  the  most  universal  of  instruments — 
the  musician's  orchestra  when  in  the  solitude .  of 
his  chamber.  In  the  front  rank  of  these  de- 
servedly stands  Dussek.  It  has  be6n  urged  that 
to  Clementi,  Dussek's  predecessor  and  survivor, 
who  has  held  the  title  of '  Father  of  the  Piano- 
forte,' just  as  Haydn  holds  that  of  'Father  of 
the  Symphony,'  belongs  the  legitimate  right  of 
stamping  with  his  name  the  epoch  during  which 
he  flourished.  To  this  it  may  be  answered  that, 
granting  Clementi  to  have  been  a  musician  of 
more  solid  acquirement  than  Dussek,  as  the 
'Gradus  ad  ^Parnassum'  is  enough  to  prove,  he 
was  inferior  in  invention  and  ideality,  to  say 
nothing  about  fascination  of  style.  Unhappily 

i  The  top  of  which  Deli  hic  hill  Clementi  never  reached. 


for  himself  and  his  art,  Dussek,  whose  unques- 
tionable genius  should  have  raised  him  to  the 
highest  eminence,  was  of  a  somewhat  lax  and 
careless  temperament.  His  facility  was  so  great 
that  he  could  dispense  with  more  than  half  the 
application  requisite  to  form  a  thoroughly  skilled 
musician ;  while  Clementi,  a  model  student  and 
systematic  economiser  of  time,  though  less  boun- 
tifully gifted  than  his  renowned  contemporary, 
possessed  habits  of  industry  which  served  him  in 
excellent  stead. 

In  a  conversation  with  the  writer  of  this  article, 
Mendelssohn  once  said,  '  Dussek  was  a  prodigal.* 
The  meaning  of  this  epigrammatic  criticism  ia 
not  far  to  seek.  Dussek,  who  failed  for  want 
of  striving  to  make  the  most  of  the  endowments 
of  nature,  might  have  become  a  musician  of  the 
highest  acquirements  had  the  case  been  otherwise.  • 
He  squandered  away  melody  as  a  spendthrift . 
would  squander  away  money,  not  pausing  for  an 
instant  to  consider  its  value  if  put  out  to  interest. 
It  is  sad  to  reflect  upon  the  number  of  genuine 
melodies  that,  coming  so  readily  from  his  pen,  , 
were  left,  as  Sancho  Panza  would  say,  '  bare  as 
they  were  born,'  though  almost  every  one  of 
them  might  have  been  developed  into  something 
beautiful  and  lasting.  When,  however,  he  applied 
himself  to  his  task  with  earnest  devotion,  as 
happened  not  unfrequently  from  the  earliest  to  the 
latest  period  of  his  career,  Dussek  was  welcomed 
like  the  Prodigal  Son.  A  legitimate  child  of  Art, 
his  mission  was  that  of  a  true  disciple — for  which 
capacity  he  was  eminently  fitted,  as  the  many 
compositions  he  has  left  sufiice  to  prove. 

Dussek  came  into  the  world  five  years  later  than 
Mozart,  and  nine  years  earlier  than  Beethoven, 
quitting  it  while  the  greatest  of  poet-musicians 
was  at  the  zenith  of  his  glory,  just  at  the  time 
when  the  fifth  and  last  pianoforte  concerto,  the 
incomparable  '  E  flat'  (written  a  year  previously), 
was  first  introduced  to  the  public.  Between  1 761 
and  1 81 2,  the  interval  which  spanned  the  existence 
of  Dussek,  a  galaxy  of  famous  pianists  shone 
with  varied  lustre.  To  take  them  in  chronological 
order,  there  were  Clementi,  Mozart,  Himmel, 
Steibelt,  ^  Woelfl,  Beethoven,  Cramer,  Tomaschek, 
Hummel,  Weber,  J.  Field  ('Kussian  Field,'  as 
he  was  called),  and  last,  not  least,  Moscheles, 
who,  though  scarcely  twenty  years  of  age  when 
Dussek  died,  had  already  made  for  himself  a 
name.  To  these  might  be  added  Meyerbeer, 
who,  as  a  youth,  before  he  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  the  composition  of  operas,  was 
a  rival  even  to  Hummel  in  his  ^prime,  and  our 
own  ^G.  F.  Pinto  (the  Sterndale  Bennett  of  his 
day),  who  died  at  the  early  age  of  21.  Among 
these  it  is  no  small  thing  to  say  that  Dussek 
shone  conspicuous.  He  never  enjoyed  the  op- 
portunity of  encountering  Mozart,  as  Clementi 
did,  nor  the  equally  important  one  of  measuring 
his  powers  with  those  of  Beethoven,  as  fell  to 
Steibelt  and  Woelfl — to  the  absolute  satisfaction  of 
neither ;  but  before  the  rest  he  was,  as  Schumann 


1  Who  died  two  years  later  than  Dussek. 

2  But  none  of  whose  compositions  for  the  Pianoforte  have  unfor- 
tunately, been  published,  though  many  exist  In  MS. 

*  About  whom  John  Cramer  used  to  speak  with  enthusiasm. 


i 


DUSSEK. 


DYKES. 


477 


savs  of  Schubert,  '  a  man' — who  had  cause  to  fear 
no  rival. 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  Opus-numbers 
of  Dussek's  works,  owing  to  the  diflferent  sys- 
tems adopted  by  French,  English,  and  German 
publishers.  The  following  is  an  imperfect  attempt 
at  a  complete  list : — 

Op.  1.  3  Concertos  for  P.  F.  and  Op.  35.  3  Sonatas.  P.F.  Bb.  G.  0 
Qu&net. 


2.  3  Trios.  P.  F.  and  Strings. 

C.  Bt>.  E  min. 

3.  Concerto  Xo.  1,  P.  F.  and 

Orch.  T-tf. 

4.  3  SoD&tas,  P.  F.  and  Tiolin. 

F,  E  p.  F  min. 

4.  3  Do.  P.  F.  and  Violin  or 

Flute.  G,  D.  C. 

5.  3  Do.  P.  F.  and  Tiolin.  G, 

Bo.  Ah  a  P.  F.  5olo>. 

6.  6AirsVari^  P.F.  E,F.A. 

D  min.,  G  mia^  G  min. 

7.  3  Sonatas,  P.  F.  and  nute. 

C.  G,  E&. 

8.  3  Do.  P.  F.  and  Violin-  C. 

F.  A  .la  Chasse>. 

9.  SJJo.P.F.  Bb.C.D. 
iaSDo.P.F.  A,  C  min..  K. 
Il- 
ia 3  Sonatas,  P.F.  and  Violin. 

F.  Bb.C. 

13.  3  Do.  P.  F.  and  Violin.  Bb. 

D.  Gmin. 

IX  Kondo  miUtaire,  P.F. 

14.  3  Ik..  P.F.  and  Violin.  G. 

G.  F. 

14.  Concerto  Xo.  2.  P.  F.  and 

Orch.  F.  J 

15.  D^>.Xo.3.  Eb.  I 

15.  1-2  Lemons  pro^ressiFes,  P.  F.  | 

2Bks. 

16.  3  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and  Violin. ; 

C.  F,  G.  1 

17.  3  Do.  do.  C.  F.  G.  ! 
17.  Concerto  Xo.  4.  P.  F.  and  , 

Orchestra.  F. 
IS.  3  Do.  P.  F.  and  VioBn.  Bb, 

A  min.  (5olo\  E  b. 
19.  6  Do.  P.  F.  and  Flute.  D. 

C.  F.  A.C.  Eb. 
90l  6  Sonatinas.  P.  F.  and  Flute 

or  Violin.  G.  C.  F  (solo). 

A,  E.Eb  (solo). 
2L  Trio.  P.  F.,  Flute,  and  Cello. 

C. 

21.  3  Trios.  P.  F.  and  Strings. 
C.A.F. 

22L  Concerto.  Xo.  5,  P.  F.  and  i 
Orch.  Bb.  I 

23.  The  sufferings  of  the  Queen ' 
of  France,  P.F.  C.  i 

23.  Sonasv  P.  F.    Bb  ded.  to  ' 

MrvChinnerr^:  and  3  airs  i 
Tari&.  G.  A,  A, 

24.  Same  Sonata  in  tbeSncfiA 

ed. 

24.  3  Trioa,  P.  F.  and  Strii^SL 

F.Bb.D. 
3St  3  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and  Violin 
or  Flute.  F.  D  (P.  F.  solol, 
6. 

at  Concerto.  Xo.  6,  P.  F.  and 

Orch.  Eb. 
7T.  Concerto  Xo.  2.  P.  F.  and 

Orch.  F.  1  see  op.  14.) 

25.  6  Easy  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and 

Violin.    C,  F,  Bb.  D.  G 

min_  Er. 
2?  or  X'.  Concert.-.. .  Xo.  7,  P.  F. 

for  Harp)  and  Ordj.  C. 
29.  S  Sonatas.  Flute  or  V.  and 

CtDo.  F.Bb.D. 
90.  4  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and  V.  ad 

lib.  C.F.Bb.G. 

31.  3  Trio*.  P.  F.  and  Strides. 

Bb.  D.  C :  and  3  Preludes^ 
P.  F. 

32.  Grand  Sonata, PJ'„4  bands. 

C, 

S3.  '  n  rirotato.* 

34.  2  Trios.  P.  F.  and  Striin. 

Eb.Bb. 
34.  3  Sonatas  for  Harp.  V.,  and 

Cello. 

34.  Serenade.  Orch.  in  9  pts.  Sb 


36.  Grand  Sonata,  P.  F.  and 

Violin.  C. 

37.  Trio  ^Son.  faroriteX  P.  F. 

andString^i.  Eb. 
3S.  Sonatas,  2  Pianos.  E  b. 

39.  3  Sonatas,  P.  F.  G,  C,  B  b. 

40.  Concerto.  Xo.  8  (militaire), 

P.F.  and  Orch.  Bb. 
4L  Quintet,  P.F.  and  Strings. 

42. 

43.  Sonata,  P.F.  A. 

44.  Do.  E  b  (The  FareweH,  dedi- 

cated to  Clementi  i. 

45.  3  Do.     Bp.  G.D. 

46.  6  easy  Do..  P.  F.  and  VioUn. 

C.  F,  Bb.  C, D,  G. 

47.  2  Do.  P.  F.   D.  G. 

4S.  Grand  Sonata,  P.  F.,4  bands. 
C. 

«9  or  ax  Concerto,  Xo.  9,  P.  F. 

and  Orch.  G  min. 
a.  3  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and  Violin 

or  Flute.  G.  D,  E(?a. 

SL 

53.  Grand  Quartet,  P.  F.  and 
Strings.  Kb. 

54, 

55  or  50.  Fantasia  and  Fugue. 

P.F.  F min. (dedicated to 

J.  B.  Cramer>. 
56.  Quartet.  P.  F.  and  Strings. 

Eb. 

57. 


eoi  3  »riDg  Quartets.  6.  Bb. 
Kb. 

6L  n^ie  haimonique  snr  la 
mort  du  P.  L.  F.  de  Pmsse. 
F  J  min. 

62.  La  Consolation,  P.  F.  B  b. 

63.  Concerto,  Xo.  10,  2  P.  F.'s 

and  Orch.  Bb. 
61.  Fugues  4  la  Camera,  P.  F.. 

4  hands.  D,  G  min.,  F. 
65.  Trio.  P.  F.,  Flute,  and 

CeUo.  F. 
6S.  Concerto.  Xo.n,  P.F.  aid 

Orch.  F. 

67.  3  Sonates  prog  passives,  P  J.. 

4  hands.  C.  F.  Bb. 

68.  Xottumo.  P.  F.,  Violin,  and 

Horn.  E  b. 

69.  3  Sonatas.  P.  F.  and  VloBn. 

Bb.  G.D(soloX 
7a  Concerto.  Xa  12,  P.  F.  and 

Orch.  Eb. 
•no.  Sonata,  P.F.  Ab.  (Le  Be- 

lour  APaiis.) 
7L  Plus  Ultra,  Sonata.  P.  F. 

Ab  ^dedicated  to  Xon  plus 

uhraV 

7L  Airs  ccnnus  Vari^  P.  F. 

Bb.  F.  C.  G.  C,  2Bks. 
72.  Grand  Sonata.  P.F.,  4  hands. 

Eb. 

3.  Stnata.  P.  F,  4  hands.  F. 

74.  Do,    do,     do.  Btx. 

75.  Do.,    do.  Eb. 
7t;.  FantaisicP.F.  F. 

77.  Sonata.  P.  F.  (Xo.Sl>.  T 
min.  (LlnrocatioiL) 
Works  without  Oposmomber. 
Feudal  times,  favoarite  Orer- 
ttire. 

Overture  to  Ptzamx 

Grand  Orertme,  P.     4  haadL 

Instructions  on  tbe  Art  of 

plarii^tfaeP.F. 
S  Trios.  P.F.  and  SMnes.  Eb. 

Bb. 

Le  combat  imtbL*  Sonata  for 
P.  F_  V,  and  CteDo.  with  Gr. 
Tambour  ad  lib.  D. 


2  Duos  &caes,  2  Pianos.  C,  F. 
Sonata  facile,  P.  F. ,  4  hands,  C. 

3  Grand  Sonatas,  P.  P.,  4  hands, 
3  Fugues   and    Sonata,    P.  F., 

4  hands. 

8  Bondos.  | 
Sonata,  P.  F.  F.  (La  Cbasse.) 
6  Sona tines  for  Harp. 
Bondo  ou  •  L'adieu,'  P.  F.  B  b.  I 

Do..  Air  Busse.  C. 

Do.,  A  la  Tedesca.   B  b. 

Do„  L'Amusoire.  F. 


Variations  on  '  Hope  told  a  fla::er  • 
ing  tale." 
Do.  on  a  faTourite  German  air. 
Do.  on  Blaise  et  Babet. 
Do.  on  Fal  lal  la. 
Do.  on  God  sare  the  King. 
Do.  Peiits  air  oonnus,  '(Eurre 
VI.' 

Do.  Three  Parisian  airs. 
6  Xew  Waiues,  for  P.  F.  and  Vio- 

lin  or  Flute. 
2  English  airs  and  2  WalUes. 
Do.,  on  Countess  of  Sutherland's  3  Preludes.  Bk.  1,  P.  F. 

reeL  F.  6  Canons,  for  3  and  4  voices, 

Dc  Militaire.  Bb.  Song  on  3  notes  (Bb,  C,  D)  for 

Do.,  Mignon.  C.  Voice  and  P.F. 

Do.,  on  the  favourite  Hornpipe.  6  Songs  for  Voice  and  P.  F. 
Do.,  on  Lord  Howe's  Hornpipe.    '  The  Captive  of  Spilburg,'  a  musi- 


Do.,  on  '  My  lodging  is  on. 
Do.,  on  '  The  Plough  boy.' 
Do.,  on  the  Boyal  Quickstep. 
Dc  on  ■  To  to  Carabo.' 
Do.,  on  Viotti's  Polaoca.  I 
Do.,  L'El^cante. 
Dc  La  Matinee.  j 
Variations  on  *  Anna,'  do.  C.  j 
Do.  on  'n  Pastore  Alpigiano,' 


cal  drama,  produced  at  Drury 
Lane,  Xov.  17918, 
Tbe  naval  battle  and  total  defeat 
of  the  Dutch  Fleet  by  Admiral 
DuEC&n,  Oct.  11.1797.  P.  F.  solo. 
A  complete  .  , .  delineation  of  the 
ceremonT  from  St.  James's  to 

St.  Paul's  Dec  19.  I'^VT. 

P.F.  D. 


do.  C.  The  Paris  correspondent  of  the 

Do.  on  'Partant  pour  la  Syrie.*      A.M.  Z.  ISU.  Xov.  6)  mentions 

do.  Eb.  I     *  Grand  Mass  sent  to  Prince 

Do.  on  3  Scotch  airs  I     Esterhazy.  [J.W.D.] 

DUSSEK,  Sophia,  daughter  of  Domenico 
Corri,  bom  in  Eilinburgh  in  1775.  Instructed 
by  her  father,  she  at  a  very  early  age  performed 
in  public  on  the  pianoforte.  In  1 7SS  the  family 
removed  to  London,  when  Miss  Corri  appeared 
with  great  success  as  a  singer.  In  1792  she 
married  J.  L.  Dussek,  imder  whose  instruction 
she  became  as  able  a  pianist  and  harpist  as  she 
was  a  singer.  She  continued  to  sing  in  public, 
at  her  husband's  concerts  and  elsewhere.  After 
his  death,  in  iSio,  she  contracted  in  1S12  a 
second  marriage  with  John  Alvis  Moralt.  She 
comp)Osed  and  published  many  pieces  for  the 
pianoforte  and  harp.  Her  daughter,  Olivia, 
was  bom  in  London  in  1799,  and  under  the 
instmction  of  her  mother  became  an  excellent 
performer  on  the  pianoforte  and  harp.  She  com- 
posed some  songs  and  several  pieces  for  both 
instruments.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DTTX  (leade^^,  an  early  term  for  the  first  sub- 
ject in  a  fugue — that  which  leads ;  the  answer 
being  the  comes  or  companion.  The  dux  is  in 
Grerman  called  Fiihrer. 

DYKES,  Eev,  John  Bacchus,  Mus.  Doc., 
was  bom  in  Hull,  where  his  grandfather  was 
incumbent  of  St  John's  Church,  in  March  1S23. 
He  received  his  first  musical  tuition  from  Skelton, 
organist  of  St.  John  s.  In  Oct.oberiS43  he  went 
to  St.  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  very 
soon  obtained  a  scholarship.  He  graduated  as 
B.A.  in  1S47,  same  year,  having 

taken  Holy  Orders,  obtained  the  curacy  of  Mal- 
ton,  Yorkshire.  During  his  stay  in  Cambridge 
he  pursued  his  musical  studies  under  Professor 
Walmisley,  and  became  conductor  of  the  Uni- 
versity Musical  Society.  In  July  1S49  he  was 
appointed  Minor  Canon  and  Precentor  of  Durham 
Cathedral.  In  the  next  year  he  proceeded  M.A. 
In  1S61  the  University  of  Durham  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music,  and  in  1S62 
he  was  presented  by  the  Dean  and  Chapter  to 
the  vicarage  of  St.  Oswald,  Durham,  on  which  he 
resigned  the  precentorship.  He  died  January 
22,  1876.    Dr.  Dykes  composed  many  services 


478 


DYKES. 


EAGER. 


and  anthems,  and  a  large  niimber  of  hymn  tunes, 
many  of  which  have  met  with  very  general 
acceptance.  Among  these  may  be  noted  '  Nearer 
my  God  to  Thee,'  'The  day  is  past  and  over,' 
and  *Jesu,  lover  of  my  soul.'  He  was  joint 
editor  of  ' Hymns,  Ancient  and  Modem.'  Beyond 
his  musical  repute  he  was  much  esteemed  as  a 
theologian.  [W.  H.  H.] 

DYXE,  John,  a  distinguished  alto  singer  and 
glee  composer.  One  of  his  glees,  '  Fill  the  bowl,' 
obtained  a  prize  from  the  Catch  Club  in  1768. 
In  72  he  was  appointed  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  in  79  a  lay  vicar  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  singers  at 
the  commemoration  of  Handel  in  1784.  A  pistol- 
shot,  by  his  own  hand,  terminated  his  existence 
Oct.  30,  1788.  [W.H.H.] 

DWIGHT' S  JOURNAL  OF  MUSIC,  Boston, 
U.  S.  A.,  4to.  fortnightly,  was  founded  in  1852 
by  John  S.  Dwight,  whose  name  it  bears,  and 
is  still  edited  by  him.  Mr.  Dwight  was  one  of 
the  since  somewhat  famous  little  community  at 
Brook  Farm  who  did  much  in  many  ways  to 
advance  the  interests  of  literature  and  philan- 
thropy. Hawthorne,  for  a  time,  was  one  of 
them,  and  the  names  of  others  have  since  become 
famous.  Mr.  Dwight,  though  not  an  educated 
musician,  was  musical  editor  of  the  'Harbinger,' 
a  periodical  published  at  Brook  Farm,  and  a 
frequent  contributor  of  musical  critiques  to  the 
daily  papers  of  Boston,  where  he  did  good  service 
in  directing  attention  to  what  was  noblest  and 
best  in  music. 

For  six  years  he  was  editor,  publisher,  and 
proprietor  of  the  Journal,  the  publication  of 
which  was  then  assumed  by  Oliver  Ditson  &  Co. 
During  the  war  it  was  changed  from  a  weekly 


to  a  fortnightly  paper.  Its  object  was  to  advocate 
music  and  musical  culture  in  the  highest  sense, 
and  to  give  honest  and  impartial  criticisms, 
a  purpose  to  which  it  has  been  always  steadily 
devoted.  As  its  title  indicates,  it  is  '  D wight's 
Journal,'  expressing  the  convictions  of  its  editor 
without  fear  or  favour  ;  and  this  course  has  gained 
for  it  the  respect  of  many  who  differ  widely  from, 
the  opinions  which  it  advocates.  Mr.  Dwight 
has  been  sole  editor  up  to  this  day,  although  the 
volumes  contain  valuable  contributions  from  other 
pens.  Among  the  most  noticeable  are  those  from 
A.  W.  Thayer,  the  biographer  of  Beethoven,  who 
has  written  for  it  many  valuable  biographical 
and  historical  articles,  as  well  as  musical  tales. 
Especially  noteworthy  are  his  articles  on  some 
of  the  contemporaries  of  Beethoven— Salieri, 
Gyrowetz,  Gelinek,  Hummel,  and  others.  Prof. 
Ritter  and  his  wife  (now  of  the  Vassar  Female 
College),  W.  S.  B.  Mathews  of  Chicago,  and 
C.  C.  Perkins  of  Boston,  have  also  contributed 
frequent  and  valuable  articles  to  its  columns.  Its 
republications  of  the  best  articles  in  European 
musical  journals,  and  translations  from  valuable 
works,  with  its  excellent  foreign  correspondence 
and  well  selected  pages  of  classical  music,  make 
these  volumes  a  valuable  book  of  reference  during 
the  whole  period  of  its  existence,  during  which 
over  100  musical  papers  have  arisen — and  in 
great  part  disappeared — in  the  United  States. 
Whatever  is  good  and  noble  and  earnest  in  art 
has  never  failed  to  find  in  '  Dwight's  Journal 
of  Music'  an  enthusiastic  advocate  and  staunch 
defender.  And  hence,  while  other  journals  have 
disappeared  with  the  fashions  of  the  day,  it  still 
pursues  its  course,  in  form  and  spirit  the  same 
that  it  was  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  [H.W.] 


E. 


EThe  third  note  of  the  scale  of  C.  In 
French  and  in  solfaing,  Mi.  The  first 
•  string,  or  chanterelle,  of  the  violin,  and 
the  4th  of  the  double  bass,  are  tuned  to  E  in 
their  respective  octaves.  The  scale  of  E  major 
has  4  sharps  in  the  signature ;  that  of  E  minor 
I  sharp  ;  and  CjJ  and  G  are  their  relatives,  minor 
and  major.  E  is  the  key  note  of  the  *  Phrygian' 
mode  in  Gregorian  music,  and  C  (not  B)  its 
Dominant  there. 

E  is  not  a  frequent  key  in  orchestral  com- 
positions—  probably  from  difficulties  connected 
with  the  Clarinets,  Horns,  and  Trumpets.  At 
any  rate  neither  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven, 
Mendelssohn,  Spohr,  Schubert,  or  Schumann,  have 
written  a  symphony  in  E  major.  The  overtures 
to  Fidelio  and  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Deux 
Joumees  and  Tannhauser,  are  exceptions  among 
overtures.  In  chamber  music  it  is  more  often 
employed.  Mozart  has  a  fine  pianoforte  trio 
in  it;  Beethoven  uses  it  in  2  sonatas  (op.  14, 
No.  I  ;  109).    Bach's  fugue  in  E  (Bk.  2)  is 


perhaps  the  most  widely  known  of  all  the  im- 
mortal 48. 

E  flat  (Fr.  mi  hemol ;  Germ.  Es)  on  the  other 
hand  has  a  splendid  progeny,  of  which  we  need 
only  mention  the  Eroica  Symphony,  the  Septet, 
the  5th  Pianoforte  Concerto,  2  solo  sonatas,  op. 
31,  No.  3,  and  *Les  Adieux,'  2  string  quartets, 
a  pianoforte  trio,  and  the  *  Liederkreis,'  among 
Beethoven's  works  alone ;  the  St.  Ann's  fugue  by 
Bach,  with  the  noble  Prelude  which  may  or  may 
not  belong  to  it ;  Mozart's  well-known  Symphony; 
2  of  Haydn's  '  Salomon  Set,'  etc.,  etc.  [G.] 

EAGER,  JoHX,  bom  1782  at  Norwich,  where 
his  father  was  a  musical  instrument  maker  and 
organ  builder.  Having  learned  from  his  father 
the  rudiments  of  music,  he  was  at  twelve  years 
old  taken  under  the  care  of  the  Duke  of  Dorset, 
an  amateur  violinist,  who  carried  him  to  his 
seat  at  Knole,  where  free  access  to  the  library 
enabled  him  to  repair  the  defects  of  his  early 
education.  His  patron  dying  he  established 
himself  at  Yarmouth  as  a  violinist  and  teacher 


EAGER. 


EBERLIN. 


479 


of  music.  On  the  appearance  of  Logier's  system 
of  instruction  Eager  became  one  of  its  wannest 
advocates.  He  was  appointed  organist  to  the 
corp<jration  of  Yarmouth.  He  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  teaching.  He  is  said  to 
have  possessed  a  knowledge  of,  and  to  have 
taught,  nearly  every  instrument  then  in  use. 
His  compositions  consist  of  a  pianoforte  sonata 
and  a  collection  of  songs.  [W.  H.  H] 

EASTCOTT,  Rev.  Richard,  a  resident  in 
Exeter,  was  author  of  'Sketches  of  the  Origin, 
Progress  and  Effects  of  jVlusic,  with  an  Account 
of  the  Ancient  Bards  and  Minstrels,'  a  well- 
executed  compilation  published  at  Bath  in  I793> 
and  which  was  so  favourably  received  as  to  call 
forth  a  second  edition  in  the  same  year.  He 
also  published  some  pianoforte  sonatas.  He  died 
towards  the  end  of  1828,  being  then  chaplain 
of  Livery  Dale,  Devonshire.  He  was  the  early 
patron  of  John  Davy.  [W.  H.  H.] 

EBDOX,  Thomas,  bom  at  Durham  in  1738. 
It  is  i)reBumed  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
name  and  date  'T.  Ebdon,  1755,'  still  remaining, 
carved  on  the  oak  screen  which  divides  the 
choir  of  Durham  cathedral  from  one  of  the 
aisles,  that  he  received  his  early  musical  edu- 
I  cation  in  that  church  as  a  chorister,  and  pro- 
bably, after  the  breaking  of  his  voice,  as  an 
articled  pupil  of  the  organist.  In  1 763  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  Durham  Cathedral,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  death,  48  years  afterwards, 
on  Sept  23,  181 1.  Ebdon's  published  compo- 
sitions comprise  two  harpsichord  sonatas  (about 
1 780),  a  collection  of  glees ;  and  two  volumes 
of  cathedral  music,  the  first  of  which  appeared 
in  1790,  and  the  second  in  1810.  Besides  these 
he  left  many  anthems  etc.,  in  MS.,  the  last  of 
them  bearing  date  June  181 1.  [W.  H.  H.] 

I  EBERARDI,  Teresa,  a  singer  of  mezzo-carat- 
\  tere  parts  in  London,  1761.  Among  other  roles 
i  she  sang  that  of  Lena  in  Galuppi's  opera  '  II 
;  Filosofo  di  Campagna,'  adapted  for  the  King's 
1  Theatre  by  Cocchi.  [J.M.] 

!  EBERL,  Anton,  distinguished  pianist  and 
composer,  bom  June  13,  1766,  at  Vienna.  He 

'  was  intended  by  his  father,  a  well-to-do  govern- 
ment employ^,  for  the  law,  but  his  love  for 

'  music  broke  through  all  obstacles,  and  started 
him  as  a  pianist.  His  theoretical  studies  were 
slight,  but  his  first  opera,  *La  Marchande  de 
Modes'  (Leopoldstadt  1787),  is  said  to  have 
pleased  Gluck  so  much,  that  he  advised  the 
young  composer  to  devote  himself  seriously  to 
music.  His  friendship  with  Mozait  was  also  of 
great  service  to  him.  His  melodrama  '  Pyramus 
and  Thisbe'  was  produced  at  the  court  theatre 
in  1 794,  on  his  return  from  his  first  professional 
tour  ;  but  he  soon  undertook  another  in  Germany, 
in  company  with  Mozart's  widow  and  Lange  the 
singer.  In  1 796  he  was  appointed  Capellmeister 
at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  for  5  years 
greatly  esteemed.  On  his  return  to  Vienna  he 
produced  at  the  court  theatre  (May  1801)  a 
romantic  opera  'Die  Konigin  der  schwarzen 
Inseln,'  which  was  however  only  a  partial  suc- 


cess.   In  1803  he  went  again  to  Russia,  and  in 
1806  travelled  to  all  the  principal  towns  of 
Germany,  where  the  brilliancy  and  fire  of  his 
playing  were  universally  acknowledged.    He  re- 
tumed  to  Vienna  and  died  suddenly  March  ii, 
1807.    His  compositions  were  long  favourites. 
The  following  are  among  the  most  remarkable  : — 
'Grand  Sonata,'  op.  27,  dedicated  to  Cherubini ; 
'Gr.  Sonata  caract^ristique '  in  F  minor,  op.  12, 
dedicated  to  Haydn  (Peters)  ;  '  Variations  sur 
un  th^me  Russe,'  for  Cello  obbl,,  op.  1 7  ;  3  Piano- 
forte Trios,  op.  8,  dedicated  to  Grand- Duke  Pawlo- 
witsch ;  Trio  for  Pianoforte,  Clarinet,  and  Cello, 
op.  36  (Kiihnel);  Pianoforte  Quartet  in  C  major, 
op.  18,  dedicated  to  Maria  Theresa ;  ditto  in  G 
minor,  op.  25  (Vienna);  Clavier  Quintet,  op.  78 
(Vienna) ;  Pianoforte  Concertos  in  C  major,  op. 
32,  and  Eb  major,  op.  40  (Kiihnel);  and  3 
String  Quartets,  op.  13,  dedicated  to  Emperor 
Alexander  I  (Vienna,  Mollo).     He  also  pub- 
lished many  smaller  pianoforte  pieces  for  2  and 
4  hands,  and  6  Lieder,  op.  4  (Hamburg)  ;  a  Can- 
tata with  orchestral  accompaniment,  '  La  gloria 
d'lmen^o,'  op.  11,  also  arranged  for  pianoforte; 
and  a  Symphony  in  D  minor  (Breitkopf  & 
Hartel).    He  left  in  MS.  symphonies,  sere- 
nades, concertos  for  i  and  2  pianofortes,  several 
pieces  of  chamber-music,  and  unpublished  operas, 
besides  the  three  already  mentioned.    Though  he 
has  now  entirely  vanished  from  the  concert-room, 
Eberl  must  in  his  day  have  been  a  very  con- 
siderable person.    It  is  well  known  that  several 
of  his  pianoforte  works  were  long  published,  and 
popular,  as  Mozart's, — viz.  the  fine  Sonata  in  C 
minor  (finally  published  with  his  own  name  as 
op.  1  by  Artaria) ;  Variations  on  the  theme  '  Zu 
Steffen  sprach;  Variations  on  *  Freundin  sanfter 
Herzenstriebe  ;'  and  on  '  Andantino  von  Ditters- 
dorf '  (see  Kochel's  Mozart,  anh.  287,  8).  His 
Symphony  in  Eb  would  actually  appear  to  have 
been  played  in  the  same  programme  with  Bee- 
thoven's 'Eroica'  (A.  M.  Zeitung,  vii.  321);  and 
the  two  are  contrasted  by  the  reviewer  to  the 
distinct  disadvantage  of  the  latter !       [C.  F.  P.] 
EBERLIN,  Joe  ANN  Ernst,  court -organist 
and  '  Truchsess '  (or  carver)  to  the  Prince- Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  and  an  eminent  German 
composer  of  sacred  music.    His  name,  place  and 
date  of  birth  and  death  are  here  for  the  first  time 
correctly  given  from  official  records.    His  ori- 
ginal name  was  Eberle,  which  was  turned,  ac- 
cording to  a  custom  then  common  with  women, 
into  Eberlin,  and  as  such  he  retained  it.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  land-sLeward  to  Baron  von 
Stain,  and  was  born  March  27,  1702  (not  17 16) 
at  Jettingeu  (not  Jettenbach),  a  market-village 
near  Giinzburg,  in  the  Upper-Danube  district  of 
Bavaria.    He  died  at  Salzburg,  June  21,  1762 
(not  1776).     He  was  court-organist  to  Arch- 
bishop Franz  Anton,  Graf  von  Harrach,  as  early 
as  the  time  of  his  marriage,  which  took  place 
in  1727  at  Seekirchen  on  the  Wallersee,  near 
Salzburg.    Of  his  early  life  or  musical  education 
nothing  is  known,  and  the  number  even  of  his 
many  valuable  contrapuntal  works  can  only  be 
imperfectly  ascertained.   Among  the  best  known 


480 


EBERLIN. 


EBERWEIN. 


are  *IX  Toccate  e  fughe  per  I'organo'  (Letter,  | 
Aug-sburg  1747),  dedicated  to  Archbishop  Jacob 
Ernst.    They  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
are  also  printed  in  Commer's  '  Musica  sacra,' 
vol.  i.    Nageli's  edition  contains  only  the  nine 
fugues.  The  last  fugue,  in  E  minor,  was  published  , 
(in  Eb  minor)  as  Bach's  in  Griepenkerl's  edition  , 
of  Bach's  works  (Book  ix,  No.  13^  an  error  ! 
which  has  since  been  corrected.    HaflEQer  pub-  I 
lished  sonatas  in  G  and  A,  and  Schott  2  motets,  I 
'Qui  confidunt'  and  'Sicut  mater  consolatur,'  for  ; 
3  voices,  with  clavier  accompaniment.    To  Leo-  | 
pold  Mozart's  collection  for  the  Homwerk  at 
Hohen-Salzburg,  '  Der  Morgen  und  der  Abend' 
(Letter  1759),  Eberlin  also  contributed  5  pieces. 
Fetis,  in  his  '  Biographie  universelle,'  gives  a  list 
of  his  church  compositions  in  MS.  in  the  libraries  , 
of  Berlin  and  Vienna,  and  of  the  Latin  dramas  he 
composed  for  the  pupils  of  the  Benedictine  mon- 
astery at  Salzburg  (1745-60),  of  which,  however,  1 
the  words  only  are  extant.    Proske's  library  con- 
tains the  autographs  of  13  oratorios,  including 
the  '  Componimento  sacro,'  perfonned  with  great 
success  at  Salzburg  in  1747.    The  Gesellschaft 
der  Musikfreunde  at  Vienna  possesses  a  copy  of 
a  mass  and  a  fugue  for  two  choirs  with  double 
orchestra.    Eberlin' s  strict  writing  was  so  much 
prized  by  Mozart,  that  about  1777  he  copied  13 
of  his  pieces  (mostly  church-music  in  4  parts) 
together  with  some  by  M.  Haydn,  into  a  MS. 
book  which  he  kept  for  his  own  instruction,  and 
which  still  exists.    He  afterwards  (1782)  how- 
ever wrote  to  his  sister  that  Eberlin's  fugues 
could  not  be  ranked  with  those  of  Bach  and 
Handel — '  All  honour  to  his  4- part  pieces  ;  but 
his  clavier  fugues  are  merely  extended  Versetti.'  ' 
Marpurg  was  the  first  to  proclaim  his  merit 
('Kritische  Beitrage,'  Berlin  1757,  vol.iii.  Stiick 
3,  p.  183),  and  says  that  he  wrote  as  much  and 
as  rapidly  as  Scarlatti  and  Telemann.    [C.F.P.]  > 

EBERS,  Gael  Feiedeich,  son  of  a  teacher  of  ; 
English  at  Cassel,  bom  March  20,  1770,  a  man 
evidently  of  great  ability,  but  as  evidently  of 
little  morale,  taking  any  post  that  offered,  and 
keeping  none ;  doing  any  work  that  turned  up 
to  keep  body  and  soul  together,  and  at  length 
dying  in  great  poverty  at  Berlin,  Sept.  9,  1836.  ; 
Some  of  his  arrangements  have  survived,  but  his 
compositions — half-a-dozen  operas,  symphonies,  j 
overtures,  dance  music,  wind-instrument  ditto,  , 
and,  in  short,  pieces  of  every  size  and  form — 
have  all  disappeared,  with  the  exception  of  a  \ 
little  drinking  song,  'Wir  sind  die  Konige  der  , 
Welt,'  which  has  hit  the  true  popular  vein. 

One  occurrence,  in  which  he  succeeded  in  an-  I 
no}-ing  a  better  man  than  himself,  is  worth  per-  ! 
petuating  as  a  specimen  of  the  man.    In  the  ' 
nimiber  of  the  AUgemeine  Musikalische  Zeitung 
for  II  Dec.  181 6  appears  a  notice  from  C.M.  von 
Weber  to  the  follo\ving  effect :  — '  Herr  Hof- 
meister  of  Leipzig  has  published  a  quintet  of 
mine  (op.  34)  for  clarinet  and  strings,  arranged 
as  a  solo  sonata  for  piano,  with  the  following 
misleading  title,  "  Sonata  for  the  P.  F.,  arranged  | 
by  C.  F.  Ebers  from  a  Quintuor  for  Clarinet  by  ; 
C.  M.  de  Weber,  op.  34."  I  requested  Herr  Hof-  . 


meister  to  withdraw  the  publication  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  inaccurate  and  unfair,  and 
most  damaging  to  the  original  work  ;  but  he 
has  vouchsafed  me  only  a  curt  statement  that 
if  the  arranger  is  to  blame  I  may  criticise  him  as 
severely  as  I  like,  but  that  to  him  as  publisher 
it  is  a  matter  of  no  moment.  I  have  therefore 
no  other  course  than  to  protest  with  all  my 
might  against  the  arrangement,  abstaining  from 
all  comment,  except  to  mention  that  without 
counting  engravers'  blunders,  my  melodies  have 
been  unnecessarily  altered  41  times,  that  in 
3  places  one  bar  has  been  omitted,  in  another 
place  4  bars,  in  another  8,  and  in  another  11. — 
C.  M.  von  Weber,  Berlin,  Nov.  22,  181 6.'  This 
drew  forth  a  reply  from  Ebers  addressed  to  *  the 
lovers  of  music,'  and  appearing  in  the  next  Xo.  of 
the  '  Zeitung ' : — '  Herr  Schlesinger  of  Berlin  has 
published  as  op.  34  of  C.  M.  von  Weber  a  Quintet 
for  Clarinet  and  Strings — where  five  people  play 
together  I  believe  it  is  called  a  quintet — which 
is  so  absolutely  incorrectly  engraved  that  no 
clarinet  player  not  previously  acquainted  with 
the  work  can  possibly  detect  and  avoid  the 
mistakes  in  certain  places — such  as  bar  60  of 
the  second  part  of  the  first  allegro.  I  took  the 
trouble  to  put  the  thing  into  score,  and  found 
the  melodies  pretty  and  not  bad  for  the  piano ; 
and,  as  every  man  is  free  to  arrange  as  he  likes, 
I  turned  it  into  a  solo  sonata,  which  I  can  con- 
scientiously recommend  to  the  lovers  of  music 
without  any  further  remarks.  As  clarinet  pas- 
sages however  are  not  always  suitable  for  the 
piano,  I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  alter  and  omit 
where  I  found  mere  repetitions  without  effect. 
This  has  been  done  with  intelligence,  and  it  is 
absurd  to  talk  of  disfigurement.  Mozart  and 
Haydn  were  great  men,  who  sought  their  effects 
by  other  means  than  noise  and  display,  oddity 
or  absurdity;  they  gladly  welcomed  arrangements 
of  their  works,  as  Beethoven  himself  does  every 
day.  But  should  it  still  annoy  Herr  Weber  to 
see  his  child  in  a  new  dress,  and  should  he  there- 
fore withdraw  his  paternity  from  it,  I  shall  then 
have  to  ask  the  public  to  acknowledge  me  as  its 
foster  father.  But  the  public  has  a  right  to 
insist  that  Herr  Schlesinger  shall  free  his  pub- 
lications from  mistakes,  for  as  long  as  one  work 
remains  uncorrected  he  is  open  to  the  remark 
of  ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam. — Leipzig,  6  Dec. 
1816.'  [G] 

EBEES,  Jony,  bom  in  England  of  German 
parents  about  1 78 5,  originally  a  bookseller :  under- 
took the  management  of  the  opera  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1 821,  with  Ayrton  as  musical  director. 
He  engaged  Gaicia,  Galli,  Mme.  Camporesi, 
Pasta,  and  other  celebrated'  singers,  besides  Ros- 
sini (1824),  but  the  expenses  were  so  enormous, 
that  in  seven  years  he  was  completely  ruined. 
He  published  'Seven  Years  at  the  King's 
Theatre'  (London,  H.  Ainsworth,  1828),  an 
interesting  record  of  Italian  opera  at  that  time 
in  London.  [M.CC] 

EBERWEIN,  Traugott  Maximiliax,  violin- 
ist and  composer,  of  great  note  in  his  day,  though 
now  quite  forgotten,  bom  at  Weimar  1775.  At 


EBERWEIN. 


ECCLESIASTICON.  481 


seven  he  played  in  the  court  band  of  Weimar. 
In  1797  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Prince  of 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  but  it  was  not  till  181 7 
that  he  became  his  chapel-master.  In  the  inter- 
val he  travelled  much,  making  the  acquaintance 
of  Adam  Hiller  and  Zelter  at  Berlin,  and  of 
Beethoven  and  Salieri  at  Vienna.  He  was  a 
man  of  some  influence  and  position,  and  one  of 
the  original  founders  of  the  musical  festivals  in 
Germany.  Goethe  frequently  mentions  him  in 
his  correspondence.  He  died  at  Rudolstadt,, 
Dec.  2,  1 83 1.  His  works,  more  numerous  than 
original,  include  1 1  operas ;  3  cantatas ;  a  mass 
in  Ab,  his  best  work;  a  symphonie-concertainte 
for  oboe,  horn,  and  bassoon ;  concertos,  quartets, 
etc.  [M.C.C.] 

ECCAED,  Johannes,  bom  at  Mtihlhausen  in 
Thuringia  in  1553,  was  probably  at  first  a 
scholar  of  Joachim  Burgk,  and  afterwards  of 
Orlando  di  Lasso  at  Munich,  with  whom  he 
went  to  Paris  in  1571.  He  was  for  some  time 
in  the  employ  of  the  Fuggers  at  Augsburg ;  in 
1583  was  made  vice-capellmeister,  and  in  1599 
full  capellmeister,  at  Konigsberg  to  the  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg.  In  1608  he  obtained  the  same 
post  under  the  Kurfiirst  at  Berlin,  in  which  post 
he  died  in  161 1.  He  composed  20  '  Cantiones 
sacrae,'  etc.  (Miihlhausen,  1574);  *  Crepundia 
sacra'  (Miihlhausen,  1577  and  96;  2nd  ed. 
Erfurt,  16S0) ;  24  Deutsche  Lieder  (Miihlhausen, 
1578) ;  Newe  Deutsche  Lieder  (Konigsberg, 
1589) ;  *Der  erste  Theil  5-Stimmiger  geistlicher 
Lieder'  (4 vols., Konigsberg,  1597);  and'Preuss- 
ische  Festlieder,  5,  6,  7,  8  Stimmen'  (Ibid.  1598). 
Eccard  wrote  both  Hymns  and  Chorals,  some  of 
which  are  still  in  use  (Doring's  'Choralkunde,' 
p.  47).  There  is  a  portrait  of  him,  with  a  Latin 
inscription  by  G.  Frohlich.  A  short  motet  by 
Eccard,  on  the  Chorale  'O  Lamm  Gottes,'  for 
5  voices,  and  an  '0  Freude'  for  2  Choirs,  are 
included  in  the  Berlin  Domchor  Collection, 
*Musica  Sacra.'  The  whole  of  the  'Geistliche 
Lieder '  and  of  the  '  Preussische  Festlieder ' 
(with  Stobaus'  additions)  have  been  recently 
republished  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  [M.C.C.] 

ECCLES,  Solomon,  born  in  the  first  half  of 
the  17th  century,  whose  ancestors  for  three 
generations  had  been  musicians,  was  from  about 
1642  a  teacher  of  the  virginals  and  viols,  a 
pursuit  from  which  he  for  some  years  derived 
a  considerable  income,  but  embracing  the  tenets 
of  quakerism,  he  abandoned  his  profession,  broke 
all  his  instruments,  and  burned  them,  together 
with  his  music  books  (the  value  of  the  whole 
being  more  than  £24),  on  Tower  Hill,  and 
adopted  the  trade  of  a  tailor.  In  1667  he  pub- 
lished a  curious  tract  entitled  'A  Musick-Lector, 
ov,  The  Art  of  Musick  .  .  .  discoursed  of,  by 
way  of  dialogue  between  three  men  of  several 
judgments  ;  the  one  a  Musician  ....  zealous  for 
the  Cliurch  of  England,  who  calls  Musick  the 
gift  of  God :  the  other  a  Baptist  who  did  affirm 
it  to  be  a  decent  and  harmless  practice  :  the 
other  a  Quaker  (so  called)  being  formerly  of  that 
art  doth  give  his  judgment  and  sentence  against 


it,  but  yet  approves  of  the  Musick  that  pleaseth 
God' — from  which  the  foregoing  particulars  are 
gathered.  He  subsequently  resumed  his  pro- 
fession and  contributed  several  groimd  basses 
with  divisions  thereon  to  *  The  Division  Violin.' 
The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

His  eldest  son,  John,  was  bom  in  London 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He 
learned  music  from  his  father,  and  about  1685 
became  engaged  as  a  composer  for  the  theatre, 
in  which  occupation  he  continued  for  upwards 
of  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Of  the  pieces  to  which 
he  contributed,  the  most  important  (musically 
considered)  were  '  Don  Quixote '  (with  Purcell), 
1694;  'Europe's  Revels  for  the  Peace,'  1697; 
*  The  Sham  Doctor,'  1697 ;  *Rinaldo  and  Armida,' 
1699;  and  'Semele,'  1707.  The  composition  of 
the  music  in  '  Macbeth,'  generally  attributed  to 
Matthew  Lock,  has  sometimes  been  ascribed  to 
Eccles.  In  1698,  upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Nicholas 
Staggins,  Eccles  was  appointed  Master  of  the 
King's  Band  of  Music,  in  fulfilment  of  the  duties 
of  which  office  he  composed  nimierous  birth-day 
and  new-year's  odes.  In  1700  he  gained  the 
second  of  the  four  prizes  given  for  the  best  com- 
positions of  Congreve's  masque,  'The  Judgment 
of  Paris ' ;  the  first  being  awarded  to  John  Weldon, 
and  the  third  and  fourth  to  Daniel  Purcell  and 
Godfrey  Finger.  The  score  of  Eccles'  music  for 
this  piece  was  printed.  In  1701  he  set  the  ode 
written  by  Congreve  for  the  celebration  of  St. 
Cecilia's  day  in  that  year.  About  1710  he 
published  a  collection  of  nearly  one  hundred  of 
his  songs,  comprising  many  of  those  which  he 
had  written  for  no  fewer  than  forty-six  dramatic 
pieces.  The  freshness  and  flow  of  Eccles'  melo- 
dies rendered  his  songs  universal  favourites.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  gave  up  all  pro- 
fessional pursuits,  except  the  annual  production 
of  the  birth-day  and  new-year's  odes,  and  re- 
tired to  Kingston-upon-Thames  for  the  diversion 
of  angling,  to  which  he  was  much  attached.  He 
died  in  January  T735. 

Henry,  second  son  of  Solomon,  was  a  violinist 
of  considerable  ability,  who  conceiving  himself 
neglected  in  England,  betook  himself  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  French 
King's  band.  In  1720  he  published  at  Paris,  in 
two  books,  Twelve  Solos  for  the  Violin  written 
in  the  style  of  Corelli, 

Thomas,  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of  Solo- 
mon, studied  the  violin  under  his  brother  Henry, 
and  became  an  excellent  performer.  Being  idle 
and  dissipated,  he  gained  a  scanty  and  precarious 
subsistence  by  wandering  from  tavern  to  tavern 
in  the  city  and  playing  to  such  of  the  company 
as  desired  to  hear  him.  [W.  H.  H.] 

ECCLESIASTICON.  A  collection  of  classical 
church  music  in  score,  published  by  Diabelli  &  Co. 
(now  Schreiber)  of  Vienna.  Its  contents  are  as 
follows : — 

No.  1-20.  Graduales    by  Michael  Xo. 25-34.  Offertorium   and  Gra- 


Hayd 

„  21.  Horzalka.  Missa  Solennis. 

Op.  27. 
„  22.  Stadler,  Salviim  fac. 
„  23.    Do.    Magna  et  mirabilia. 
„  24.  Mozart,  Begiua  coeli. 


duales  by  Cherubinl. 
,  35.  Stadler,  Delectare. 
,  36.    Do.     Si  Deus. 

37.  J.  S.Bach, Chorus, Da pacem. 

38.  Winter,  Doniinus  Israel. 

,  39.  Sechter.  Mass,  Graduale.eto. 

li 


482 


ECCLESIASTICON. 


ECKERT. 


No.40.  Albrechtsberger,  Ofiferto- 
rium. 

„  41-62.  Graduales,  Michael  Haydn. 

„  63.  Czerny,  6  Graduales. 

„  64.  Keissiger,  Grand  Mass  in  Eb. 

„  6.1.  Mozart,  Tremendum. 

„  66.  Sechter,  Salve  Eegina  and 

Ave  Maria. 
„  67.  Worzischek,  Offertorium. 


No. 69.  Geiger,  Mass. 
„  69-71.  Assmayr,  Offertoriums. 
„  72.  Mozart,  Offertorium  in  F, 
„  73.  Seegner,  Mass  in  F. 
„  74.  Sechter,  Missa  Solennis  in  C. 
„  75.  Mozart,  Ssncti  et  Justi. 
„  76.  Seegner,  Grand  Mass  in  Eb. 
„  77.     Do.      Mass  in  D. 
„  78.  Beraneck,  Offertorium. 


ECHO,  The  organs  built  immediately  after 
the  Restoration  generally  contained  what  was 
then  a  novelty  in  England,  called  the  Echo. 
This  consisted  of  a  repetition  of  the  treble  portion 
of  a  few  of  the  leading  stops  of  the  organ,  voiced 
softly,  shut  up  in  a  wooden  box,  placed  in  some 
remote  part  of  the  organ  case — usually  behind 
the  desk-board — and  played  upon  by  a  separate 
half  row  of  keys.  The  'echo  effect'  enjoyed 
great  popularity  for  many  years,  and  exercised 
an  influence  on  much  of  the  cotemporary  music 
both  for  voices  and  instruments.  Purcell  in  some 
of  his  anthems  exhibited  a  predilection  for  the 
loud  and  soft  contrast ;  while  most  of  the  pieces 
written  for  keyed  instruments  abounded  with 
recognitions  of  it  up  to  the  time  of  Handel,  whose 
Concertos,  Suites,  etc.,  gave  fresh  impetus  to  the 
popular  taste.   [Cornet.]  [E.J.H.] 

ECHOS  DU  TEMPS  PASS^:.  One  of  those 
popular  collections  of  which  the  French  have  so 
many.  It  embraces  Airs,  Brunettes,  Chansons 
k  boire,  Chansons  h,  danser,  Noels,  Rondeaux, 
Gavottes,  Musettes,  Minuets,  from  the  12th  to 
the  1 8th  centuries,  by  Adam  de  la  Hale,  Lasso, 
Marot,  Arcadelt,  Ronsard,  Charles  IX,  Louis 
XIII,  Lulli,  Rameau,  Couperin,  Rebel,  etc., 
edited  and  accompanied  by  J.  B.  Wekerlin,  in 

3  vols.  8vo,  (Flaxland,  Paris). 

ECK,  JoHANN  Fktedrich,  an  eminent  violin- 
player,  born  1766  at  Mannheim,  where  his  father 
was  a  member  of  the  band.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Danner,  and  soon  rose  to  be  one  of  the  best 
violin-players  in  Germany,  Reichardt  of  Berlin 
speaks  of  him  as  having  all  the  qualities  of  a 
really  great  player — large  tone,  perfect  intonation, 
taste  and  feeling,  and  adds  that,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Salomon,  he  never  heard  a  better 
violinist.  From  1778  to  88  Eck  was  a  member 
of  the  band  at  Munich,  and  afterwards  conducted 
the  opera  of  that  town.  In  1801  however, 
having  married  a  lady  of  rank  and  wealth,  he 
quitted  Germany  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
Paris,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nancy.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown.    Eck  published 

4  Concertos  for  the  violin,  and  a  Concertante  for 
2  Violins. 

His  most  distinguished  pupil  was  his  brother 
Franz,  also  an  eminent  violin-player,  born 
at  Mannheim  1774,  He  entered  the  band 
at  Munich  while  very  young;  but,  driven  from 
that  city  by  a  love-affair,  he  travelled  in  1802 
through  Germany,  and  gained  a  great  reputation 
as  violinist.  The  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  at 
that  time  looking  out  for  a  master  on  the  violin 
for  Spohr,  then  18,  in  whose  rising  talent  he 
took  a  lively  interest.  He  invited  Eck  to 
Brunswick  and  confided  to  him  the  technical 
education  of  the  future  great  musician.  They  at 
once  set  out  on  a  tour  to  Russia,  Spohr  getting 


instruction  at  the  places  where  the  journey  was 
broken,  but  otherwise  profiting  chiefly  by  hearing 
his  master.  In  his  autobiography  he  speaks  very 
highly  of  Eck  as  a  violin-player.  He  describes 
his  style  as  powerful  without  harshness,  exhibit- 
ing a  great  variety  of  subtle  and  tasteful  nuances, 
irreproachable  in  his  execution  of  difl&cult 
passages,  and  altogether  possessing  a  great  and 
peculiar  charm  in  performance.  On  the  other 
hand,  Eck  was  evidently  an  indifferent  musician, 
unable  to  enter  into  the  compositions  of  the  great 
masters,  and  showing  great  incapacity  in  his 
own  attempts  at  composition.  That  he  was  not 
ashamed  to  pass  off  unpublished  compositions  of 
his  brother  and  other  composers  under  his  own 
name  confirms  the  low  estimate  of  his  general 
character  to  be  gathered  from  Spohr's  narrative. 
On  arriving  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1803  he  met 
with  great  success,  and  was  appointed  Solo- 
Violinist  to  the  Court,  but  becoming  involved 
in  a  scandalous  affair,  he  fell  into  disgrace  and 
was  transported  by  the  police  over  the  Russian 
frontier.  His  health  broke  down  and  he  became 
insane.  After  living  for  some  time  near  Nancy 
he  appears  to  have  died  in  a  lunatic  asylum  at 
Bamberg  in  1809  or  10.  Eck's  importance  in 
musical  history  rests  mainly  on  the  fact  of  his 
having  been  the  master  of  Spohr,  and  thus 
having  handed  over  to  that  great  artist  the 
traditions  and  principles  of  the  celebrated  Mann- 
heim school  of  violin-playing.  [P.D.] 
ECKERT,  Carl  Anton  Florian,  violinist, 
pianist,  composer,  and  conductor,  bom  at  Potsdam 
Dec.  7,  1820.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age 
he  was  brought  up  in  barracks  by  his  father's 
comrades,  but  owed  his  education  to  Hofrath 
Forster  of  Berlin.  His  early  ability  was  remark- 
able, not  only  as  a  player,  but  as  a  composer. 
By  the  age  of  10  he  had  completed  an  opera, 
by  13  an  oratorio,  and  by  20  another,  and  both 
these  were  performed,  and  are  warmly  praised  in 
the  A.  M.  Z.  of  the  time.  He  studied  under  various 
musicians,  and  in  1839  had  the  good  fortune  to 
become  a  pupil  of  Mendelssohn's  at  Leipzig.  With 
characteristic  sympathy  for  talent  Mendelssohn 
gave  him  great  encouragement,  attached  himself 
warmly  to  him,  spoke  of  him  as  'a  sound,  practical 
musician,'  and  corresponded  with  him.^  His 
oratorio  'Judith'  was  performed  by  the  'Sing- 
Akademie'  in  Berlin  in  1841,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  King  of  Prussia  sent  him  to  Italy 
for  two  years.  On  his  return  he  composed  an 
opera,  'Wilhelm  von  Oranien,'  which  was  suc- 
cessfully performed  in  B  rlin  (1846)  and  at  the 
Hague  (1848).  In  51  he  became  accompanyist 
to  the  Italian  theatre  in  Paris,  then  accompanied 
Sontag  on  her  tour  in  the  United  States,  retmm- 
ing  to  Paris  in  52  as  conductor  of  the  Italian 
Opera.  In  54  he  was  called  to  Vienna  to  take 
the  direction  of  the  Court  Opera,  a  post  which 
he  filled  with  great  ability  and  distinction.  But 
none  of  these  things  could  satisfy  him,  and  in 
61  he  went  to  Stuttgart  as  Capellmeister  in 
Kiicken's  place.    This  too  he  threw  up  in  67; 

»  See  an  excellent  letter  (Jan.  26, 1R42)  full  of  kind  feeling  and  the 
most  judicious  advice  and  encouragement. 


ECKERT. 

but  in  68  he  was  suddenly  appointed  to  the  head 
directorship  at  Berlin  in  place  of  Dorn,  who  was 
pensioned  to  make  way  for  him.  This  post  he 
still  retains.  Eckert  is  one  of  the  first  conductors 
of  the  day,  but  as  a  composer  he  is  hardly  destined 
to  live.  He  has  composed  three  operas,  much 
church  music,  a  symphony,  a  trio,  and  many 
pieces  of  smaller  dimensions ;  but  none  has 
made  anything  that  can  be  called  an  impression, 
unless  it  be  a  few  songs  and  a  fine  violoncello 
concerto.  There  must  be  something  vacillating 
and  wanting  in  earnestness  in  the  nature  of  the 
man,  to  have  so  sadly  disappointed  the  fair  hopes 
entertained  of  him  by  Mendelssohn  in  the  outset 
of  his  career.  [M.C.C.] 
ECOSSAISE.  A  dance,  as  its  name  implies, 
of  Scotch  origin.  It  was  at  first  accompanied  by 
the  bagpijjes,  and  in  its  original  form  was  in  3-2 
or  2-4  time.  The  modern  Ecossaise,  however,  is  a 
species  of  contredanse  in  quick  2-4  time,  consist- 
ing of  two  four-bar  or  eight-bar  sections,  with 
repeats.  Franz  Schubert  has  written  a  number 
of  Ecossaises  for  the  piano,  w^hich  will  be  found 
in  his  ops.  iS,  33,  49,  and  67.  The  following 
example  of  the  fii'st  part  of  an  Ecossaise  dates 
from  the  commencement  of  the  last  century. 


[E.P.] 

EDINBURGH  PROFESSORSHIP  OF 
MUSIC.  Founded  by  General  John  Reid,  who 
died  in  1807,  leaving  funds  in  the  hands  of 
trustees  for  various  purposes,  amongst  others 
for  endowing  a  chair  of  music  in  the  University, 
and  founding  a  concert  to  be  given  annually  on 
Ms  birthday,  Feb.  13,  in  which  a  march  and 
minuet  of  his  composition  should  be  included 
*to  show  the  taste  for  music  about  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  and  to  keep  his  name  in 
remembrance.*  The  Professoi'ship  was  founded 
in  Dec.  1839,  and  Mr.  John  Thomson  was  the 
first  professor.  He  was  succeeded  in  1841  by 
Sir  H.  R.  Bishop ;  in  1 844  by  Henry  Hugo 
Pierson  ;  in  1845  by  ^John  Donaldson;  and  in 
1 865  by  Herbert  (now  Sir  Herbert)  S.  Oakeley. 
The  portion  of  the  Reid  bequest  set  apart  for 
musical  purposes  is  £28,500,  the  annual  I'e venue 
from  which  is  divided  as  follows: — professor, 
£420;  assistant,  £200;  class  expenses,  £100; 
expenses  of  the  Concert,  £300.  A  sum  of  £3,000 
was  bequeathed  in  1871  by  Signer  Theophile 
Bucher  to  be  applied  to  bursaries  or  scholar- 
ships ;  but  this  will  not  come  into  operation  till 
the  death  of  an  annuitant.  The  class  fee  for  the 
session  is  3  guineas.  The  duties  of  the  professor 
consist  in  lectures  and  organ  performances  on  an 
organ  built  by  Hill  of  London  at  the  instance  of 
Professor  Donaldson,  and  placed  in  the  Class 

»  There  was  a  severe  contest  for  the  Chair  on  this  occasion ;  and 
Stermlale  Bennett  was  among  the  candidates.  Besides  the  organ 
mentioned  in  the  text  Professor  Donaldson  furnished  the  lecture-room 
with  some  excellent  acoustical  apparatus. 


EHLERT.  483 

Rooms  at  Park  Place,  which  were  constructed 
at  a  cost  of  £10,000,  including  the  organ.  The 
Concert  takes  place  at  the  Music  Hall.  [G.] 

EDWARDS,  RiCHAKD,  a  native  of  Somerset- 
shire, born  in  1523.  He  was  educated  under 
George  Etheridge,  'one  of  the  most  excellent 
vocal  and  instrumental  musicians  in  England' — 
of  whom  however  nothing  more  is  known.  On 
May  II,  1540,  he  was  admitted  a  scholar  of 
Corpus  Cliristi  College,  Oxford.  In  1547,  on 
the  foundation  of  Clu'ist  Church  College,  he 
became  a  student  there,  and  in  the  same  year 
graduated  as  M.  A.  Antony  Wood  says  he  was 
also  a  member  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1563  he 
was  appointed  Master  of  the  Children  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  in  succession  to  Richard  Bower.  Edwards 
was  the  compiler  of  and  chief  contributor  to  the 
collection  of  poems  called  '  The  Paradise  of  Dainty 
Devices,'  which  was  not  however  published 
until  1576,  ten  years  after  his  death.  He  was 
the  author  of  two  dramatic  pieces,  viz.  '  Damon 
and  Pythias,'  and  *  Palamon  and  Arcite ' ;  the 
first  was  acted  at  Court,  and  the  second  before 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  Hall  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  Sept.  3,  1566.  This  performance  so 
pleased  Elizabeth  that  she  sent  for  the  author 
and  'gave  him  promise  of  reward.'  Unless 
however  this  promise  was  very  promptly  ful- 
filled it  must  have  been  profitless  to  Edwards, 
as  he  died  on  October  31  following.  But  few 
examples  of  his  skill  in  composition  remain. 
The  beautiful  part-song,  '  In  going  to  my  naked 
bed,'  has  been  conjecturally  assigned  to  him  by 
Sir  John  Hawkins,  and,  as  it  is  certain  that  he 
wrote  the  verses,  it  is  highly  probable  that  he 
also  composed  the  music,  but  there  is  no  proof 
of  it.  His  charming  little  poem  'The  Soul's 
Knell,'  said  to  have  been  written  on  his  death 
bed,  is  still  admired.  [W.  H.  H.] 

EGAN,  Eugene  Nicholas,  an  Irishman, 
built  an  organ  for  Lisbon  Cathedral  about  1740. 
He  was  scarcely  foiu*  feet  high ;  but  by  dint  of 
skill  obtained  the  preference  over  seven  rival 
competitors.  [V.  de  P.] 

EGMONT.  Beethoven's  music  to  Goethe's 
tragedy  of  Egmont — an  Overture,  2  Soprano 
songs,  4  Enti-'actes,  Clara's  death,  a  melodram, 
and  a  Finale,  10  numbers  in  all — ^is  op.  84,  and 
was  -RT-itten  in  1809  and  10,  the  overture  ap- 
parently last  of  all.  The  conclusion  of  the 
overture  is  identical  with  the  finale  to  the 
whole.  The  pieces  which,  according  to  his 
custom,  Beethoven  was  elaborating  at  the  same 
time,  are  the  Quartet  in  F  minor  (op.  95),  the 
Goethe  songs,  and  the  Bb  Trio  (op.  97).  It  was 
first  performed  on  May  24,  18 10,  probably  in 
private.  To  enable  the  music  to  be  performed 
clear  of  the  play,  verses  have  been  written  with 
the  view  of  connecting  the  movements,  in  Ger- 
many by  Mosengeil  and  Bernays,  and  in  England 
by  Mr.  Bartholomew.  [G.] 

EHLERT,  LuDWiG,  bom  at  Konigsberg  1825, 
pianist  and  composer,  but  chiefly  knoN\Ti  as  a 
cultivated  critic  and  litterateur.  His  'Briefe 
iiber  Musik'  (Berlin,  1859)  contain  notices  of 
Ii2 


484 


EHLERT. 


EITNER. 


Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Wagner, 
Weber,  Schubert,  Chopin,  Berlioz,  and  Meyer- 
beer, which,  without  being  technical,  are  often 
happily  characteristic.  These  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  F.  R.  Ritter  (Boston,  U.  S., 
1870).  Still  more  valuable  is  his  last  publication, 
*  Aus  den  Tonwelt'  (1877),  containing  his  latest 
contributions  to  the  'Deutsche  Rundschau,'  etc. 
His  compositions  are  ambitious,  and  embrace 
overtures  to  'Hafiz'  and  'The  Winter's  Tale,'  a 
'  Spring  symphony' — performed  with  success  at 
Berlin  and  Leipzig — a  Sonate  romantique.  Lieder, 
etc.  [M.C.C.] 
EIN'  FESTE  BURG.  Luther's  version  of 
Psalm  xlvi.  The  hymn  was  probably  written  at 
Coburg  1530;  the  tune  seems  to  have  appeared 
first  in  'Psalm en  und  geistliche  Lieder,'  Strass- 
burg,  Wolfgang  Kophl,  probably  1538.  The 
form  of  the  tune  now  in  use  is  that  given  by 
Sebastian  Bach  in  various  cantatas,  especially  in 
that  for  the  'Festo  Reformationis '  (Bachgesell- 
schaft,  xviii.  No.  80),  and  differs  somewhat  from 
Luther's  original.  The  words  have  also  been 
modernised.  We  give  both  words  and  melody  in 
their  first  shape  from  von  Winterfeld's  *  Luther's 
deutsche  geistliche  Lieder.' 

Ein  fes  -  te  burg  ist  uns  -  er  Gott, 
Er     hilflft  uns  frey    aus     all    -   er  not, 


Ein     gu  -   te    wehr     und  waf     -    -  fen. 

die      uzjs      itzt  hat       be    -    -    trof    -    -  fen. 


der  alt  bo  -    se  feind,  mit  ernst  ers  itzt  meint, 


Gros  macht  und  viel   list,    sein  graus  -  am    riistung    ist ; 


Auff  erd      ist    nicht   seins  gleich  -  -  -  en. 

The  tune  has  been  used  as  the  foundation  of 
various  pieces  of  music,  such  as  Bach's  cantata 
just  referred  to;  the  Finale  of  Mendelssohn's 
*  Reformation  Symphony';  a  Fest-ouverture  by 
O.  ISTicolai;  an  overture  by  Raff;  and  Wagner's 
'  Kaisermarsch.'  It  is  also  largely  employed  by 
Meyerbeer  in  the  Huguenots.  [G.] 
EISTEDDFOD  (Welsh,  'a  sitting  of  learned 
men').  ^  These  musical  and  literary  festivals  and 
competitions  originated  in  the  triennial  assembly 
of  the  Welsh  bards  usually  held  at  Aberffiraw, 
the  royal  seat  of  the  Princes  of  North  Wales 
and  Anglesey,  at  Dynevor  in  South  Wales,  and 
at  Mathravael,  Merionethshire,  for  the  regulation 
of  poetry  and  music,  for  the  conferring  of  de- 
grees, and  electing  to  the  chair  of  the  Eistedd- 
fod. The  antiquity  of  this  ceremony  is  very 
high,  mention  being  made  of  an  Eisteddfod  in 
the  7th  century  at  which  King  Cadwaladr  pre- 
sided. Those  bards  only  who  acquired  the  degree 
of  'Pencerdd'  (chief  minstrel)  were  authorised 
to  teach,  and  the  presiding  bard  was  called 


Bardd  Cadeiriawg — the  bard  of  the  chair — be- 
cause after  election  he  was  installed  in  a  magni- 
ficent chair,  and  was  decorated  with  a  silver  01 
gold  chain,  which  he  wore  on  his  breast  as  a 
badge  of  office.  His  emoluments  from  fees  were 
considerable.  Persons  desiring  to  take  degrees 
in  music  were  presented  to  the  Eisteddfod  b;y 
a  Pencerdd,  who  vouched  for  their  fitness,  the 
candidates  being  required  to  pass  through  a 
noviciate  of  three  years,  and  to  study  for  furthei 
several  periods  of  three  years  before  advancemeni 
to  each  of  the  three  higher  degrees.  It  is  no\\ 
difficult  to  define  the  status  of  the  titles  conferred 
but  they  cannot  be  considered  more  than  historical 
names  or  complimentary  distinctions,  often  be- 
stowed by  the  Eisteddfodau  upon  persons  who  had 
but  little  knowledge  of  music.  After  being  dis- 
continued for  some  time  the  Eisteddfodau  appeal 
to  have  been  revived  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  IV, 
Henry  VII,  Henry  VIII,  and  Elizabeth.  Ir 
1450  what  has  been  called  'The  great  Eistedd- 
fod of  Carmarthen,'  was  held  in  that  town,  wit! 
the  king's  sanction ;  and  another  meeting  was 
held  in  South  Wales  in  Henry  VII's  reign,  oi 
which  no  records  are  preserved.  In  1523,  a1 
Caerwys,  Flintshire,  an  Eisteddfod  was  held,  a1 
which  many  eminent  men  were  present ;  and  or 
May  26,  1567,  there  was  another  at  the  samt 
place,  under  a  comanission  granted  by  Queer 
Elizabeth.  Still  more  memorable  was  the 
congress  at  Bewpyr  Castle  in  1681,  under  the 
auspices  of  Sir  Richard  Bassett.  In  1771  the 
Gwyneddigion,  a  society  established  in  Londoc 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  Welsh  language,  pro- 
moted several  of  these  meetings  in  North  Wales ; 
and  in  1819  the  Cambrian  Society  held  a  great 
Eisteddfod  at  Carmarthen,  at  which  the  Bishop 
of  St.  David's  presided.  Mr.  John  Parry,  who 
was  a  chief  promoter  of  this  society,  and  its 
registrar,  edited  the  Welsh  melodies  for  it,  and 
in  recognition  of  his  efforts  a  concert  was  given 
to  him  at  Freemasons'  Hall  on  May  24,  1826,  at 
which  Miss  Stephens,  Braham,  Mori,  Lindley, 
and  others  assisted,  followed  by  a  dinner,  at 
which  Lord  Clive  presided.  In  later  years  the 
revival  of  these  meetings  was  promoted  by  Sir 
Benjamin  HaU  (afterwards  Lord  Llano ver) ;  and 
at  one  of  them,  held  in  1828  at  Denbigh,  the 
Duke  of  Sussex  was  present,  and  Sir  Edward 
Mostyn  president.  The  Eisteddfodau  are  now 
annually  held  at  several  places  in  the  Principality, 
the  leading  Welsh  musicians,  including  Mme. 
Edith  Wynne  and  Mr.  Brinley  Richards,  taking 
part  in  the  concerts,  which  usually  follow  the 
competitions  for  the  prizes.  There  is  no  special 
day  for  holding  the  Eisteddfod,  but  according 
to  an  ancient  regulation  the  meeting  is  not 
considered  *  legal '  unless  it  be  proclaimed  a 
twelvemonth  and  a  day.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
Eisteddfodau  are  no  longer  'national,'  except 
that  they  are  held  in  Wales,  and  retain  some 
of  the  quaint  formalities  which  marked  the 
ancient  meetings.  [CM.] 
EITNER,  Robert,  bom  at  Breslau,  Oct.  23, 
l832,now  living  in  Berlin;  founder  in  186S  of  the 
'  Gesellschait  fiir  Musikforschung/  and  contri- 


EITNEE. 


ELFORD. 


485 


butor  to  the  valuable  historical  periodical  *Mo- 
natshefte  fur  Musikgeschichte,'  He  edited  a 
'  Yerzeichniss  neuer  Ausgaben  alter  Musikwerke 
...  bis  zum  Jahre  1800'  (Berlin  1871),  which 
though  singularly  defective  as  regards  the  Eng- 
lish ^School,  is  a  useful  catalogue.  More  re- 
cently he  edited,  in  conjunction  with  Haberl, 
Langerberg,  and  C.  F.  Pohl,  a  valuable  'Biblio- 
graphie  der  Musik-Sammel-werke  des  16  und 
17  Jahrhunderts '  (Berlin  1877).  His  papers 
on  Peter  Sweelinck  (Berlin  1870)  and  Arnold 
Schlick  are  of  importance.  [F.  G.] 

ELECTRIC  ACTION.  Under  the  head  Key- 
movement  a  description  is  given  of  the  usual 
forms  in  which  communication  is  established 
between  the  claviers  of  an  organ  and  the  sound- 
board pallets  which  admit  wind  for  the  service 
of  the  pipes. 

There  are  some  situations,  however,  in  which 
it  is  difficult  or  even  impossible  to  establish  a 
satisfactory  connection  by  means  of  the  ordinary 
mechanism ;  or  if  possible  is  scarcely  desirable 
on  account  of  drawbacks  which  may  easily  be 
foreseen.  Apart  from  the  tendency  to  derange- 
ment inevitable  in  the  numerous  parts  of  an 
extended  movement  of  the  kind  under  con- 
sideration, the  trackers  when  so  very  long  are 
apt  to  expand  with  the  damp  and  shrink  with 
the  drought ;  and  if  in  tracker- work,  traversing 
a  distance  of  30  feet  or  more,  the  total  alteration 
amounts  to  no  more  than  one  eighth  of  an  inch, 
that  is  quite  sufficient  to  cause  a  thorough  dis- 
arrangement. The  normal  depth  for  the  touch 
of  an  organ  is  three  eighths  of  an  inch.  If 
reduced  by  one  eighth — to  a  quarter  of  an  inch — 
the  pallets  are  opened  imperfectly,  the  wind  ad- 
mitted is  insufficient,  and  the  organ  sounds  out 
of  tune  :  if  increased  by  that  much — to  half  an 
inch — some  of  the  pallets  are  drawn  slightly  open, 
and  hummings  or  '  cypherings '  are  the  result, 
j  Some  other  means  of  communication,  which 
should  if  possible  be  less  under  the  influence 
of  atmospheric  variation,  and  therefore  better 
adapted  to  withstand  the  frequent  sudden  changes 
of  our  climate,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  thus 
became  a  great  desideratum,  and  two  were 
devised — first  the  '  electric  action,'  and  then  the 
!     '  pneumatic  tubular  transmission  system.' 

The  earliest  patent  for  anything  like  electric 
I     action  was  taken  out  by  the  late  Dr.  Gauntlett 
I     in  1 85 1,  who  proposed  erecting  in  the  Great 
1     Exhibition  of  that  year  facsimiles  of  the  eight 
most  celebrated  organs  in  Europe,  and  playing 
them  all  together  or  separately  from  the  centre 
of  the  building  by  electric  agency  ;  but  the 
I     suggestion  was  not  favourably  received.   In  1863 
I     Mr.  Goundry  patented   an  elaborate  electric 
system;  and  in  68  Mr.  Barker  protected  his 
'electro-pneumatic  system'  for  opening  pallets, 
drawing  stops,  etc.  ;  since  then  Messrs.  Bryceson* 

>  Be  omits  all  mention  of  the  collections  of  Barnard  (1641),  Boyce 
0778),  and  Arnold  (1700).  as  well  as  Jlorley's  Triumi)hs  of  Oriana  (1601). 
'  '-i  The  house  of  Brjceson— now  Messrs.  Bryceson  Brothers  &  Morten- 
was  founded  in  1796  by  Henry  Bryceson.  AmoTigst  their  Instruments 
may  be  mentioned  those  at  the  Great  Concert  Hall.  Brighton ;  the 
I'ro-Cathedral,  Kensington ;  St.  Michael's,  Cornhill ;  St.  Peter  and 
St  Paul,  Cork;  and  that  for  Mr.  Holmes,  Primrose  HiU  Boad. 


have  simplified  the  system  by  devising  a  new 
form  of  pallet  which  offers  no  resistance  in 
opening,  and  thus  does  away  with  the  necessity 
for  the  pneumatic  bellows.  The  action  may  be 
thus  briefly  described.  Each  key  is  furnished 
with  a  rocking  lever  provided  with  a  copper 
point,  which  latter,  on  being  depressed,  is  plunged 
into  a  mercury  cell,  and  so  establishes  the  electric 
current.  The  other  end  of  the  wire  is  furnished 
with  an  electro-magnet,  acting  directly  on  the 
pallet.  The  insulated  wires  of  the  several  keys 
can  be  gathered  up  into  a  cable  not  more  than 
an  inch  in  diameter  and  carried  in  any  desired 
direction,  and  to  any  distance,  without  there  being 
any  appreciable  interval  between  the  touch  upon 
the  keys  and  the  response  at  the  pipes.  [E.  J.H.] 

ELEGY  (eXeyos).  In  its  original  sense  a 
poem,  always  of  a  sad  and  touching  character, 
and  generally  commemorative  of  some  lamented 
decease  (e.g.  Gray's  Elegy)  ;  subsequently  such 
a  poem  with  music ;  and  still  more  recently  a 
piece  of  music  inspired  by  the  same  feeling  and 
suggested  by  a  like  occasion,  but  without  poem, 
or  any  words  whatever.  The  elegy  has  taken 
many  musical  forms ;  that  of  the  vocal  solo, 
duet,  trio,  quartet,  etc.,  with  or  without  ac- 
companiment ;  of  the  instrumental  solo  for  the 
violin,  pianoforte,  or  other  instrument,  and  of 
the  concerted  piece  for  stringed  or  other  instru- 
ments. One  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of 
the  first  class  extant  is  Beethoven's  quartet  in 
memory  of  the  deceased  wife  of  his  friend  Baron 
Pasqualati  ('Elegischer  Gesang,'  op.  Ii8).  In 
the  score  of  Handel's  'Saul'  the  lament  of  the 
Israelites  over  the  king  and  Jonathan  is  entitled 
*  Elegy.'  Of  the  second  we  have  Dussek's 
'  Elegie  harmonique '  on  the  death  of  Prince 
Louis  Ferdinand  of  Prussia,  for  piano  solo. 
Better  known  than  either  of  these  to  the  modern 
concert-goer  is  Ernst's  'Elegie'  for  violin  solo 
with  piano  accompaniment.  Of  the  third  class 
a  better  instance  can  hardly  be  cited  than  Mr. 
Arthur  Sullivan's  overture  *  In  Memoriam,' 
which  is  in  truth  an  elegy  on  the  composer's 
father.  [J.H.] 

ELFORD,  Richard,  was  educated  as  a  chor- 
ister in  Lincoln  Cathedral.  His  voice  changing 
to  a  fine  counter-tenor  he  became  a  member  of 
the  choir  of  Durham  Cathedral.  About  the 
commencement  of  the  i8th  century  he  came  to 
London,  and  was  engaged  as  a  singer  at  the 
theatre.  On  August  2,  1702,  he  was  sworn-in 
as  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  a  place  being 
created  expressly  for  him.  He  also  obtained 
the  appointments  of  vicar-choral  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  and  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
After  a  few  years  he  withdrew  from  the  stage, 
on  which  he  had  never  been  successful,  owing  to 
his  ungainly  figure  and  awkward  action.  Wel- 
don,  in  the  preface  to  the  first  book  of  his 
'Divine  Harmony'  (six  solo  anthems  composed 
expressly  for  Elford),  and  Dr.  Croft,  in  the  pre- 
face to  his  '  Musica  Sacra,'  speak  in  high  terms 
of  Elford's  voice  and  singing.  He  died  Oct. 
29, 1 7 14.  [W.H.H.] 


486 


ELIJAH. 


ELSXER. 


ELIJAH  (EUas  in  German) — 'an  oratorio  on 
words  from  the  Old  Testament'  (op.  70) — was 
Mendelssohn's  2nd  oratorio.  The  idea  appears 
to  have  occurred  to  him  when  reading  the  pas- 
sage '  and  the  Lord  passed  by '  (i  Kings  xix.  11). 
*  Would  not  that  be  splendid  for  an  oratorio  ? ' 
said  he  to  Hiller.  This,  if  the  case,  must  have 
been  before  Nov.  2,  1838,  when,  from  his  letter  to 
Schubring,  he  had  evidently  gone  far  into  the 
subject.  The  score  has  no  dates.  On  Aug.  5, 
1846,  the  orchestral  parts  were  rehearsed  by 
Mendelssohn  at  Leipzig;  Aug.  10  he  had  a  vocal 
rehearsal  at  Moscheles'  house,  London  ;  then  two 
fuU  ones  at  Hanover  Square ;  Aug.  24  a  full  re- 
hearsal at  Birmingham  ;  and  on  Wednesday  the 
26th  it  was  first  performed.  Various  alterations 
and  additions  were  made  afterwards,  including 
the  trio  'Lift  thine  eyes'  and  the  last  chorus. 
He  was  helped  by  Schubring  in  the  selection  of 
the  words.  The  English  words  by  Mr.  Bar- 
tholomew were  sent  to  him  as  he  worked,  and 
were  the  subject  of  a  long  correspondence. 

The  first  performance  in  Germany  was  at  Ham- 
burg in  October  1847,  conducted  by  Krebs. 

ELISA,  OU  LE  VOYAGE  AU  MOXT  BER- 
NARD. Opera  in  two  acts;  words  by  Saint- 
Cyr,  music  by  Cherubini ;  produced  at  the  Theatre 
Feydeau,  Dec.  13,  1794. 

ELISI,  FiLiPPO,  a  tenor  singer  in  Italian  opera 
in  London,  1765.  Among  other  parts,  he  sang 
that  of  Eimiene  in  the  pasticcio  of  the  same  name 
at  the  King's  Theatre  that  season.  [J.M.] 

ELTSIR  D'AMORE,  L',  opera  buffa  in  2 
acts ;  libretto  by  Romani,  music  by  Donizetti. 
Produced  at  IMalan  in  1829  (?) ;  at  Lyceum, 
London,  Dec.  10,  1836.  Also,  as  The  Love 
Spell,  at  Drury  Lane,  Jxme  24,  1839. 

ELLA,  John,  violinist,  son  of  Richard  Ella 
of  Thirsk,  was  born  Dec.  19,  1802.  At  the  age 
of  19  he  qiutted  the  profession  of  the  law  for 
music.  In  1822  he  became  a  member  of  the 
orchestra  of  the  King's  Theatre,  and  sub- 
sequently of  the  orchestras  of  the  Concerts 
of  Antient  Music,  Philharmonic,  etc.,  retiring 
finally  in  1848.  In  1819  he  received  lessons 
in  violin-playing  from  M.  Femy,  in  1826  he  was 
a  pupil  of  Attwood  in  harmony,  and  finally 
completed  his  education  in  counterpoint,  in- 
strumentation, and  composition,  imder  Fetis  at 
Paris,  1845.  In  1845  he  established,  under  the 
name  of  '  The  ^Musical  Union,'  a  series  of 
morning  concerts  of  instrumental  chamber  music 
at  which  the  best  classical  works  have  been 
rendered  by  the  best  artists  native  and  foreign. 
He  has  directed  the  Musical  Union  uninterrup- 
tedly for  thirty-three  years.  In  1850  he  estab- 
lished a  similar  series  of  concerts  under  the 
name  of  '  Mu.sical  Winter  Evenings,'  which  were 
given  annually,  under  his  direction,  until  1859, 
after  which  they  were  discontinued.  At  both 
these  concerts  he  introduced,  and  has  continued, 
the  *  analytical  programmes '  (wholly  written 
by  himself),  which  have  since  been  frequently 
adopted  elsewhere.    He  has  contributed  many 


'  notices  of  music  and  musicians  to  the  Morning 
Post,    Musical   World,    and   Athenaeum.  In 
1855  he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  music  at 
'  the  London  Institution,  where  he  has  delivered 
several  lectures,  some  of  which  have  been  pub- 
,  lished.    He  also  published  a  Personal  Memoir 
of  Meyerbeer,  with  an  analysis  of  Les  Huguenots, 
and  under  the  title  of  '  Musical  Sketches  abroad 
and  at  home,'  a  volume  of  interesting  musical 
I  chit-chat,  &c,    [Musical  Union.]  [W.H.H.] 
1     ELLERTON,  John  Lodge,  an  amateur  com- 
I  poser,  bom  in  Clieshire,  Jan.  11,  1807,  was  a 
descendant  from  an  ancient  Irish  family.    In  his 
childhood  he  showed  a  remarkable  fondness  for 
music,  and  notwithstanding  his  father's  strong 
discouragement,  soon  attained  by  his  own  efforts 
to  as  much  knowledge  as  enabled  him  to  play 
i  the  piano.     Being  sent  to  Oxford  (where  he 
'  graduated  as  M.A.  in  1828),  he  lost  no  oppor- 
■  tunity  of  pursuing  music ;  devoting  his  attention 
I  chiefly  to  composition.    While  at   Oxford  he 
composed  an  English  operetta  and  an  Italian 
j  opera.     On  quitting  the  university  he  went  to 
I  Rome,  studied  counterpoint  for  two  years  under 
a  chapelmaster  named  Terriani,  and  composed 
several  operas.     EUerton  essayed  nearly  every 
species  of  composition.    His  works  comprise  6 
anthems ;  6  masses ;  1 7  motets  ;  'Paradise  Lost,' 
oratorio;    'Issipile,'   'Berenice    in  Armenia,' 
'Annibale  in  Capua,'  'II  Sacrifizio  di  Epito,' 
'  Andromacca,'  '  II  Carnovale  di  Venezia,'  and 
'H  Marito  a  Vista,'  Italian  operas;  Carlo  Rosa, 
German  opera ;  '  Lucinda,' '  Dominica,'  and  'The 
Bridal  of  Triermain,'  English  operas;  61  glees; 
83  vocal  duets;  5  symphonies ;  4  concert  overtures ; 
3  quintets,  44  quartets  and  5  trios  for  stringed 
instruments  ;  and  8  trios  and  1 3  sonatas  for 
various  combinations  of  instruments.     In  1835 


and 


the  Catch  Club  awarded  him  prizes  for 


glees.    He  died  Jan.  3,  1873.  [W.H.H.] 
ELLIOT,  Thomas,  organ-builder,  one  of  the 
early  members  of  the  firm  of  HiLL  &  Son. 

ELSNER,  Joseph,  composer,  bom  Jime  i, 
1 769,  at  Grodgrau,  in  Silesia,  son  of  a  carpenter 
who  made  harpsichords,  harps,  and  other  musical 
instruments.  Being  intended  for  the  profession 
of  medicine,  he  had  no  regular  instruction  in 
music  beyond  a  few  lessons  in  harmony  from 
Fcirster,  director  of  the  theatre  at  Breslau,  but 
early  began  to  compose.  A  visit  to  Vienna 
enabled  him  greatly  to  improve  himself  by  study- 
ing classical  scores,  and  by  intercourse  with  the 
best  musicians  of  his  time.  In  179^  ^^,8 
appointed  first  violin  in  the  theatre  at  Brtinn, 
and  in  the  following  year  Capellmeister  at  Lem- 
berg,  where  he  wrote  5  operas,  4  symphonies, 
quartets,  sonatas,  etc.  In  1 799  he  was  appointed 
conductor  of  the  theatre  at  Warsaw,  and  here  he 
established  himself  for  life,  composing  22  operas 
in  the  Polish  language  within  the  space  of  20 
years.  During  a  visit  to  Paris  some  of  his 
compositions  were  performed  at  the  Tuileries. 
With  the  assistance  of  Countess  Zamoiska  he 
started  in  181 5  a  society  at  Warsaw  for  the 
encouragement  of  music,  which  resulted  in  the 


ELSNER. 


ELY  CATHEDRAL.  487 


Conservatoire,  of  which  he  became  the  first 
director  and  professor  of  composition.  This 
institution  did  good  service  before  it  was  closed 
by  the  political  troubles  of  i8.:^o.  In  1834  it 
was  revived,  with  Soliva  as  director.  Eisner 
continued  to  compose,  chiefly  sacred  music,  till 
1844,  when  he  wrote  his  'Stabat  Mater,'  his 
right  hand  being  paralysed.  He  died  in  1854. 
He  is  an  interesting  example  of  a  successful 
composer  who  learnt  composition  by  composing. 
His  works  are  legion  —  Operas,  ballets,  melo- 
dramas, cantatas,  church  music,  symphonies,  and 
instrumental  pieces  of  all  sizes  and  kinds.  His 
operas,  immensely  popular  in  Poland,  are  light, 
and  in  the  now  old-fashioned  style  of  Paer  and 
Mayer.  His  part-writing  is  easy  and  natural, 
but  without  originality  or  variety,  while  his 
fugues  are  poor,  and  his  church-music  in  general 
too  dramatic.  He  wrote  two  treatises  on  the 
fitness  of  the  Polish  language  for  music.  [M.C.C.] 

ELSSLER.    [See  Haydn,  p.  712  a,  note.] 

ELVEY,  Sir  George  Job,  Knight,  Mus. 
Doc.  was  bom  at  Canterbury,  March  27,  1816. 
He  commenced  his  musical   education  as  a 
chorister  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  under  High- 
more  Skeats,  the  organist.    After  quitting  the 
choir  he  pursued  his  studies  under  his  elder 
brother,  Stephen.    In  1834  he  gained  the  Gres- 
ham  prize  medal  for  his  anthem,  '  Bow  down 
Thine  ear.'   In  1835  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Skeats  as  organist  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Wind- 
sor.  In  1838  he  graduated  as  Bachelor  of  Music 
at  Oxford,  his  exercise  being  a  short  oratorio, 
'The  Resurrection  and  Ascension,'  which  was 
afterwards  produced  in  London  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  on  Dec.  2,  1840,  and  has  also 
been  given  at  Boston,  U.  S.  A.,  and  at  Glasgow. 
In  1 840  he  proceeded  Doctor  of  Music,  his  exercise 
being  an  anthem,  '  The  ways  of  Zion  do  mourn.' 
He  composed  an  anthem  for  voices  and  orchestra 
*  The  Lord  is  King '  for  the  Gloucester  Musical 
Festival  of  1853,  and  a  similar  one,  'Sing,  0 
heavens,'  for  the  Worcester  Festival  of  1857. 
I    Elvey's  compositions  are  chiefly  for  the  church  ; 
j    many  of  his  anthems  are  published.    He  com- 
I    posed  a  Festival  March  for  the  wedding  of  the 
I    Princess  Louise  in  1 8  7 1 ,  which  was  afterwards  per- 
I    formed  in  public.    In  the  same  year  he  received 
I    the  honour  of  knighthood.     His  tune  for  the 
I    harvest  hymn,  '  Come,  ye  thankful  people,'  is 
generally  admired.  [W.  H.  H.] 

I  ELVEY,  Stephen,  Mus.  Doc,  the  elder 
'  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Canterbury, 
June  27,  1805.  He  was  entered  as  a  chorister  of 
the  cathedral  under  Skeats,  whose  pupil  he 
continued  after  the  breaking  of  his  voice.  On 
the  death  of  Alfred  Bennett  in  1830,  Elvey  was 
appointed  his  successor  as  organist  of  New 
College,  Oxford.  In  the  following  year  he  took 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  his 
exercise  being  the  hymn  from  Thomson's  'Sea- 
sons,' 'These  as  they  change.'  In  1838  he  pro- 
ceeded Doctor  of  Music,  his  exercise  being  an 
anthem,  '  Great  is  the  Lord  I '    He  was  Choragus 


of  the  University  from  1840  till  his  death, 
Oct.  6,  i860.  Stephen  Elvey's  compositions  are 
not  numerous  ;  they  consist  chiefly  of  chants  and 
services.  His  Evening  Service,  composed  in  con- 
tinuation of  Dr,  Croft's  Morning  Service  in  A, 
and  his  'Psalter  and  Canticles  pointed'  (Oxford, 
Parker),  are  well  known.  Some  years  before 
his  death  he  had  to  submit  to  the  amputa- 
tion of  a  leg,  through  a  gun  accident  whilst 
shooting.  [W.H.H.] 

EL  WART,  Antoine  Aimable  Elie,  learned 
musician,  composer,  and  author,  of  Polish  origin, 
born  in  Paris  Nov.  18,  1808.  He  was  originally 
a  chorister  in  the  church  of  St,  Eustache,  but  at 
13  his  father  apprenticed  him  to  a  packing-case 
maker,  froin  whom  he  ran  away  and  supported 
himself  by  playing  in  the  orchestra  of  a  small 
theatre  on  the  Boulevards.  He  became  a  pupil 
of  the  Conservatoire,  learning  composition  under 
Fetis.  In  1828,  when  in  Lesueur's  class,  he 
founded  'concerts  d' Emulation'  among  the  pupils, 
which  continued  for  six  years,  and  proved  most 
useful  to  the  students  in  composition  as  well  as 
to  the  soloists.  In  1831  he  obtained  the  second 
prize  for  composition,  and  in  1834  the  'Grand 
Prix  de  Rome.'  While  at  Rome  he  composed, 
amongst  other  things,  an  'Omaggio  alia  memoria 
di  Bellini,'  performed  at  the  Teatro  Valle  in 
1835.  In  1836  he  resumed  his  post  of  assistant 
professor  to  Reicha  at  the  Conservatoire.  He 
conducted  the  concerts  in  the  Rue  Vivienne, 
and  those  of  the  Societe  de  Ste.  Cecile.  Elwart 
was  for  long  professor  of  harmony  at  the  Con- 
servatoire ;  after  the  war  of  1870  he  retired  into 
private  life,  and  died  Oct.  14,  77.  Among  his 
compositions  may  be  specified — the  oratorios 
'Noe'  (Paris  1845)  and  'La  Naissance  d'Eve' 
(1846) ;  an  opera  'Les  Catalans'  (Rouen) ;  and 
choruses  and  instrumental  music  for  the  Alcestis 
of  Euripides,  performed  at  the  Odeon ;  besides 
other  operas  not  produced,  S3nnphonies,  overtures, 
string  quintets,  quartets,  and  trios,  masses,  and 
other  church  music.  He  has  written  a  life  of 
Duprez  (Paris,  1838);  a  '  Petit  Manuel  d'harmo- 
nie'  (Paris,  1839),  translated  into  Spanish,  and 
in  use  at  the  Mach-id  Conservatoire ;  '  Le  Chanteur 
accompagnateur'  (Paris  1844);  'Traite  du  con- 
trepoint  et  de  la  fugue'  (Paris),  and  other 
theoretical  works.  He  completed  the  '  Etudes 
eldnientaires  de  musique'  of  Burnett  and  Damour 
(Paris  1845),  contributed  articles  on  musical 
subjects  to  the  '  Encyclopedie  du  dix-neuvifeme 
siecle'  and  to  the  'Revue  et  Gazette  musicale 
de  Paris.'  His  '  Histoire  de  la  Societe  des  Con- 
certs'  and  'Histoire  des  Concerts  populaires'  are 
two  compendiums  of  useful  and  interesting  matter. 
Though  independent  and  eccentric,  Elwart  was 
both  esteemed  and  liked.  [M.C.C.] 

ELY  CATHEDRAL.  The  music  library  of 
this  church  contains  a  very  valuable  and  interest- 
ing collection  of  MSS.,  principally  of  English 
church  music,  due  chiefly  to  the  pious  care  and 
industry  of  J ames  Hawkins,  its  organist  for  47 
years  from  1682.  It  consists  of  36  volumes — 21 
of  anthems,  services,  and  chants,  in  score,  1 1  of 


488  ELY  CATHEDRAL. 


ENGLISH  OPERA. 


voice  parts,  and  4  of  organ  parts.  The  number 
of  compositions  is  over  580,  and  includes  some  of 
large  dimensions,  as  Handel's  Utrecht  Te  Deum 
and  Jubilate  for  voices  and  orchestra.  Croft's 
ditto,  ditto.  A  catalogue  of  these  works  was 
prepared  by  the  Rev.  TV.  E.  Dickson,  Precentor 
of  the  cathedral,  and  published  for  the  Dean  and 
Chapter  by  Deighton,  Bell,  &  Co.,  1861. 

EMBOUCHURE.  The  part  of  a  musical  in- 
strument applied  to  the  mouth  ;  and  hence  used 
to  denote  the  disposition  of  the  lips,  tongue,  and 
other  organs  necessary  for  producing  a  musical 
tone. 

To  the  embouchure  are  due,  not  only  the  correct 
quality  of  the  sound  produced,  but  also  certain 
slight  variations  in  pitch,  which  enable  the 
player  to  preserve  accurate  intonation.  In  many 
instruments,  such  especially  as  the  French  horn 
and  the  Bassoon,  almost  everything  depends 
upon  the  embouchure.  [W.H.S.] 

EMPEROR  CONCERTO,  THE,  a  title,  Uke 
•Jupiter  S\Tnphony'  and  'Moonlight  Sonata,' 
gratuitously  bestowed  on  Beethoven's  P.  F.  Con- 
certo in  E?  (op.  75).  Such  titles  are  unneces- 
Eary,  and  the  only  excuse  for  them  is  that  they 
enable  non-professional  persons  to  refer  to  musical 
works  without  using  musical  nomenclature. 

EMPEROR'S   HYMX,  THE.     A  hymn 

written  in  1 796  by  Lorenz  Leopold  Hanschka 
during  the  patriotic  excitement  caused  by  the 
movements  of  the  French  revolutionary  army, 
Bet  to  music  for  4  voices  by  Haydn,  and  first 
sung  on  Feb.  12,  1797,  at  the  Emperor's  birthday. 
He  afterwards  employed  it  as  the  theme  for  4 
variations  in  his  well-known  quartet  (op.  76, 
Ko.  3).  (See  A.  Schmid,  'J.  Haydn  tmd  X. 
ZingareUi,'  Venice  1847.) 

ENCORE— the  French  for  '  again' — the  cry 
in  English  theatres  and  concert -rooms  when  a 
piece  is  desired  to  be  repeated.  It  has  taken 
the  place  of  the  'altra  volta'  of  last  century. 
The  French  and  Germans  use  the  Italian  term 

*  Bis,'  and  the  French  have  even  a  verb,  '  bisser,' 

•  Le  public  anglais  est  grand  redemandeur,  et 
exprime  son  vceu  par  un  mot  frangais,  comme 
nous  par  un  mot  latin'  (A.  Adam,  Souvenirs, 
xxvii.). 

ENFANT  PRODIGUE,  L',  opera  in  5  acts; 
words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber ;  produced  at 
the  Academic  Dec.  6.  1850;  in  Italian,  as  'II 
Prodigo,'  at  her  Majesty's  June  12,  1851. 

ENGEDL    See  Mount  of  Olives. 

ENGLAND,  Geoege,  and  George  pike  (his 
son),  organ-builders.  The  former  flourished  be- 
tween 1740  and  1788,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  Richard  Bridge;  the  latter  between  1788  and 
1814.  The  elder  England  buUt  many  noble 
organs.  Of  Bridge  little  is  known  ;  he  is  believed 
to  have  been  trained  by  Harris  the  younger,  and 
to  have  lived  in  Hand  Court,  Holbom.  in  1748. 
His  best  organ  was  at  Christ  Church,  Spitalfields, 
1730.  [V.deP.] 


ENGLISH  HORN.  The  tenor  oboe  in  F, 
intermediate  between  the  ordinary  oboe  and  the 
bassoon.  It  seems  in  great  measure  to  have 
superseded  an  older  instrument,  the  Como  di  cac- 
cia,  which  occurs  in  the  scores  of  Bach,  and  which 
was  curved  back  on  itself  like  a  bassoon,  or  at 
an  obtuse  angle.  [See  Cob  Anglais.]  [W.H.S.] 
ENGLISH  OPERA.  An  English  opera  may 
be  defined  as  a  regular  drama,  the  most  important 
parts  of  which  are  set  to  music  and  sung,  the 
subordinate  parts  being  spoken  as  ordinary 
dialogue,  as  in  German  and  French  operas.  It 
differs  fi-om  a  musical  play  in  the  fact  that  in 
most  cases  the  musical  pieces  may  be  omitted 
from  the  play  -nithout  interrupting  the  progress 
of  the  aotion,  whilst  in  an  opera  they  form  inte- 
gral and  essential  portions  of  it.  The  exceptions 
from  this  rule  will  be  noticed  presently. 

The  earliest  instances  of  the  alliance  of  music 
with  the  English  drama  are  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  mysteries,  or  miracle-plays,  anciently  per- 
formed at  Coventry,  Chester,  and  other  places. 
As  the  drama  became  developed,  the  association 
of  music  with  it  became  closer  and  more  frequent. 
In  several  of  Shakspere's  comedies  the  songs, 
etc,  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  piece,  and 
cannot  be  omitted.  Witness  particularly  'The 
Tempest,'  'As  You  Like  It,'  'Twelfth  Night,'  and 
'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.'  In  the  masques 
performed  at  court,  temp,  James  I  and  Charles  I, 
a  nearer  approach  was  made  to  the  opera — poetry, 
music,  scenery,  machinery,  and  characteristic 
dresses  and  decorations  being  combined  in  them. 
Alfonso  Ferrabosco  junior,  Laniere,  Coperario, 
Robert  Johnson,  Campion,  Simon  Ives,  and  Wil- 
liam and  Henry  Lawes,  were  the  principal  com- 
posers employed.  The  first  approaches  towards 
the  revival  of  dramatic  entertainments,  which 
had  been  suspended  by  the  closing  of  the  theatres 
during  the  Civil  War,  were  made  during  the 
i  interregnmn  through  the  medium  of  musical  pieces. 
I  On  March  26,  1653,  Shirley's  masque,  'Cupid 
1  and  Death,'  with  music  by  Matthew  Lock,  was 
performed  before  the  Portuguese  ambassador. 
Three  years  later  Sir  William  Davenant  gave, 
in  a  semi-public  manner,  '  The  First  Day's 
Entertainment  at  Rutland  House  by  Declamations 
and  Musick,'  with  music  b}'-  Colman,  Cook,  H. 
Lawes,  and  Hudson.  In  the  prologue  it  is  desig- 
nated an  opera,  though  not  one  in  any  respect. 
In  the  following  year  Davenant  produced  'The 
i  Siege  of  Rhodes,'  the  dialogue  of  which  was 
given  in  recitative,  which  Davenant  describes  as 
'unpractised  here,  though  of  great  reputation 
amongst  other  nations,'  This  piece,  to  which 
a  second  part  was  subsequently  added,  maintained 
!  its  position  for  some  years,  but  the  music  has 
i  not,  so  far  as  is  known,  been  preserved,  '  The 
I  Siege  of  Rhodes'  was  followed  by  the  production 
I  by  Davenant  in  1658  of  'The  Cruelty  of  the 
Spaniards  in  Peru,  expressed  by  instrumental 
and  vocal  music,  and  the  art  of  perspective  in 
scenes,'  a  performance  said  to  have  been  not  only 
connived  at,  but  secretly  encouraged  by  Cromwell, 
who  was  then  supposed  to  be  meditating  some 
designs  against  the  Spaniards.    During  the  four 


ENGLISH  OPERA. 


ENGLISH  OPERA.  489 


or  five  years  which  followed  the  re-openingof  the 
public  theatres  in  1660,  little,  beyond  occasional 
repetitions  of  '  The  Siege  of  Rhodes,'  appears  to 
have  been  done  to  forward  operatic  performances 
on  the  English  stage.  The  Plague  in  1665  and 
the  Great  Fire  of  London  in  66  caused  a  tempo- 
rary suspension  of  all  theatrical  performances, 
but  a  step  onwards  was  made  in  67  by  the 
production  of  an  adaptation  by  Davenant  and 
Dryden  of  Shakspere's  *  Tempest '  with  large  ad- 
ditions to  the  lyric  portions.  The  vocal  music 
of  this  version  was  supplied  by  Pelham  Humphrey 
and  John  Banister,  and  the  instrumental  by 
Matthew  Lock.  Soon  after  the  opening  of  the 
theatre  in  Dorset  Gardens  (1671),  the  proprietors 
resorted  to  opera  as  the  principal  attraction.  In 
1673  they  brought  out  Shadwell's  'Psyche,'  of 
which  the  author  said  *  the  great  desire  was  to 
entertain  the  town  with  variety  of  musick, 
curious  dancing,  splendid  scenes  and  machines.' 
Matthew  Lock  composed  the  vocal,  and  Gio- 
vanni Baptista  Draghi  the  instrumental  music 
for  '  Psyche/  the  dances  being  arranged  by 
St.  Andr^,  and  the  scenery  painted  by  Stephen- 
son. In  1675  was  'performed  at  Mr.  Josias 
Priest's  Boarding  School  at  Chelsey  by  young 
Gentlewomen '  the  youthful  Henry  Purcell's  first 
opera  'Dido  and  JEneas,'  the  dialogue  in  reci- 
tative. 

In  1677  Charles  Davenant's  'Circe'  was  pro- 
duced, with  the  music  of  John  Banister.  The 
Frenchman  Grabut's  setting  of  Dry  den's  'Albion 
and  Albanius'  appeared  in  1685  and  failed.  A 
few  years  later  the  form  of  English  opera  had 
become  definitively  settled,  and  in  1690  Purcell 
reset  '  The  Tempest,'  revised  for  that  purpose  by 
Dryden,  and  composed  the  music  for  '  Dioclesian' 
— an  adaptation  by  Betterton  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'Prophetess,'  'with  alterations  and 
additions  after  the  manner  of  an  opera,'  and  for 
Dryden's  '  King  Arthur.'  Two  years  later  he  set 
Dryden's  alteration  of  Sir  R.  Howard's  '  Indian 
Queen,'  and  'The  Fairy  Queen,'  an  adaptation  of 
Shakspere's  '  Midsunamer  Night's  Dream.'  Pur- 
ceU's  contemporaries  and  immediate  successors 
adhered  to  the  form  adopted  by  him,  from  which 
no  deviation  took  place  (with  the  exception  of 
Clayton's  setting  of  Addison's  'Rosamond'  in 
1707,  Boyce's  'Chaplet'  1749,  and  'Shepherd's 
Lottery,'  1751,  and  Ame's  'Thomas  and  Sally,' 
1760,  in  all  which,  and  possibly  in  a  few  minor 
pieces,  the  dialogue  was  set  as  recitative)  until 
1762,  when  Ame  produced  his  *  Artaxerxes,'  set 
after  the  Italian  manner,  with  the  dialogue 
wholly  in  recitative.  This  departure  from  the 
established  form  produced  however  no  immediate 
imitators,  and  Arne's  contemporaries  and  suc- 
cessors, Dibdin,  Arnold,  Jackson,  Linley,  Hook, 
Shield,  Storace,  Attwood,  Braham,  Bishop,  Bar- 
nett,  Rooke,  etc.,  adhered  for  nearly  a  century  to 
the  established  model,  which,  as  already  re- 
marked, was  also  that  of  German  opera  and  of 
French  Op^ra  Comique. 

Efforts  have  been  made  at  different  times  and 
with  very  chequered  results  to  establish  theatres 
especially  devoted  to  the  production  of  English 


opera.  In  1809  Samuel  James  Arnold,  son  of 
Dr.  Arnold,  obtained  a  licence  for  opening  the 
Lyceum  Theatre  (which  he  named  the  English 
Opera  House)  for  their  performance,  and  for 
several  years  afterwards  produced,  besides  the 
standard  operas,  new  works  by  Braham,  Horn, 
M.  P.  King,  Davy,  and  other  native  composers. 
The  great  success  of  Weber's  '  Der  Freischiitz,' 
produced  in  English  in  1824,  induced  Arnold  to 
change  his  plan,  and  for  some  years  afterwards 
he  brought  forward  principally  English  versions 
of  German  operas,  until  the  success  in  1834  '^^ 
Bamett's  '  Mountain  Sylph '  led  him  to  revert  to 
his  original  design,  and  to  produce  works  by  Loder, 
Thomson,  and  Macfarren.  From  about  1835  to 
1 8  50  successive  managers  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  production  of 
English  opera,  and  many  new  works  by  Bamett, 
Balfe,  Wallace,  Macfarren,  Benedict,  and  others, 
were  brought  out  there.  In  1856  Miss  Louisa 
Pyne  and  Mr.  W.  Harrison  embarked  in  an 
undertaking  for  the  performance  of  English 
operas ;  and  under  their  management,  which 
lasted  about  seven  years,  several  new  operas  by 
Balfe,  Benedict,  Wallace,  and  others,  were  pro- 
duced. An  '  English  Opera  Company,  Limited,' 
was  formed  in  1865,  and  gave  performances  at 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  but  proved  unsuccessful. 
Macfarren's  'Helvellyn'  was  its  sole  English 
production.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  this  and 
some  other  of  the  later  English  operas  the 
dialogue  is  set  as  recitative,  and  the  general 
form  of  the  works  is  that  of  the  modem  grand 
opera.  A  class  of  short  musical  pieces,  mostly 
on  subjects  of  a  comic  and  even  farcical  cha- 
racter, has  sprung  into  existence  of  late  years, 
of  which  Sullivan's  'Cox  and  Box,'  'Trial  by 
Jury,'  and  '  Sorcerer,'  and  Clay's  '  Court  and 
Cottage'  may  be  cited  as  specimens. 

There  remains  to  be  noticed  a  class  of  English 
operas,  the  songs  of  which  are  not  set  to  music 
composed  expressly  for  them,  but  are  written  to 
existing  tunes,  principally  those  of  old  ballads 
and  popular  songs,  whence  the  works  derived  the 
name  of  Ballad  Operas.  The  famous  '  Beggar's 
Opera'  was  the  first  of  these,  and  to  its  won- 
derful popularity  its  successors  owed  their  ex- 
istence. [Beggar's  Opera.]  The  dialogue  of 
these  pieces  is  wholly  spoken.  The  following 
is  believed  to  be  a  complete  list  of  them  : — 
1728.  The  Quakers  Opera;  The  Devil  to  Pay; 
Penelope;  Love  in  a  Riddle. — 1729.  The  Village 
Opera;  Momus  tum'd  Fabulist;  Flora,  or,  Hob 
in  the  Well ;  Damon  and  Phillida  (an  alteration 
of  Love  in  a  Riddle) ;  The  Beggar's  Wedding , 
The  Wedding;  Polly. — 1730.  The  Fashionable 
Lady,  or.  Harlequin's  Opera;  The  Chamber- 
maid ;  The  Lover's  Opera  :  The  Female  Parson ; 
Robin  Hood.  — 1731.  Silvia,  or,  the  Country 
Burial ;  The  Jovial  Crew ;  Orestes ;  The  Gen- 
erous Freemason  ;  The  Highland  Fair  (Scotch 
Tunes);  The  Lottery. — 1732.  The  Devil  of  a 
Duke ;  The  Humours  of  the  Court ;  The  Mock 
Doctor;  Sequal  to  Flora. — 1733.  Achilles;  The 
Boarding  School ;  The  Cobler's  Oftera ;  The 
Livery  Rake  and  Country  Lass.  — 1734.  The 


490  ENGLISH  OPERA. 


ERARD. 


Whim.— 1735.  The  Plot;  Trick  for  Trick;  The 
Merry  Cobler. — 1736.  The  Lover  his  own  Rival. — 
1737.  The  CoflFee  House. — 1739.  The  Tanner  of 
York ;  The  Hospital  for  Fools ;  Britons,  strike 
home, — 1750.  The  Intriguing  Chambermaid. — 
1758.  Galligantus.  [W.H.H.] 

ENTFtiHRUNG  AUS  DEM  SERAIL, 
DIE,  a  comic  operetta  (Singspiel)  in  3  acts,  by- 
Mozart  ;  words  altered  by  Stephanie  from  Bretz- 
ner's  *  Belmont  und  Constanze,'  Begun  July  30, 
I781 ;  produced  July  12,  82,  at  Vienna.  Its 
French  and  Italian  titles  are,  L'Enlevement  au 
S^rail'  and  'II  Seraglio.'  It  was  produced  in 
English  '  with  additional  airs  by  Mr.  Kramer ' 
as  'The  Seraglio,'  at  Covent  Garden,  Nov.  24, 
1827.    [Andee,  66  a.] 

ENTREE,  (i)  A  name  formerly  given  to  a 
small  piece  of  music  in  slow  4-4  time,  with  the 
rhythm  of  a  march,  and  usually  containing  two 
pai-ts,  each  repeated.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  fact  of  its  being  largely  used  in  theatrical 
and  ballet  music  to  accompany  the  entry  of 
processions,  etc.  An  example  of  this  kind  of 
Entree  may  be  found  in  J.  S.  Bach's  '  Suite  in  A 
for  piano  and  violin.'  (2)  The  word  Entree  (or 
its  Italian  equivalent  Intrada)  is  also  used  as 
synonymous  with  'introduction,'  and  is  appKed 
to  the  opening  piece  (after  the  overture)  of  an 
opera  or  ballet.  [E.  P.] 

EPINE,  Francesca  Maegherita  de  l',  in 
spite  of  her  French-sounding  surname,  appears 
to  have  been  an  Italian  singer.  From  Italy  she 
came  to  England  with  a  German  musician  named 
Greber,  and  was  often,  therefore,  called  '  Greber's 
Peg '  by  the  wits  of  the  day.  An  advertisement 
in  the 'London  Gazette'  (No.  2834),  1692,  an- 
nounces that  the  '  Italian  lady  (that  is  lately 
come  over  that  is  so  famous  for  her  singing) 
though  it  has  been  reported  that  she  wiU  sing  no 
more  in  the  consort  at  York-buildings  ;  yet  this 
is  to  give  notice,  that  next  Tuesday,  January 
loth,  she  will  sing  there,  and  so  continue  during 
the  season.'  A  fortnight  later,  this  'lady'  is 
more  familiarly  called  the  'Italian  woman'  in 
the  notice  given  in  the  Gazette,  that  she  would 
not  only  sing  at  York-buildings  every  Tuesday, 
but  on  Thursday  in  Freeman's-yard,  Comhill. 
She  was  the  first  Italian  who  sang  in  England. 
In  the  theatrical  advertisement  for  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  June  1,  1703,  it  is  said  that  'Signora 
Francesca  Margarita  de  I'Epine  will  sing,  being 
positively  the  last  time  of  her  singing  on  the 
stage  during  her  stay  in  England.'  She  con- 
tinued, notwithstanding  this,  to  sing  during  the 
whole  of  that  month  ;  nor  did  she  ever  quit 
England,  but  remained  here  till  the  time  of  her 
death,  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

On  Jan.  29,  1704,  Margherita  sang,  for  the 
first  time,  at  Drury  Lane.  On  her  second  ap- 
pearance there  was  a  disturbance  in  the  theatre, 
while  she  was  singing,  the  instigation  of  which 
was  attributed  to  her  rival,  Mrs.  Tofts,  whose  ser- 
vant was,  indeed,  one  of  the  principal  agents  in  it. 
Mrs.  Tofts,  however,  indignantly  denied  this  in 
a  letter  to  Rich,  printed  in  the  '  Daily  Courant' 


Feb.  8, 1 704.  In  1 705  'Arsinoe'  was  produced,  as 
announced  in  the  '  Daily  Courant,'  '  a  new  opera, 
after  the  Italian  manner,  all  sung,  being  set  by 
Master  Clayton,  with  dances  and  singing  before 
and  after  the  opera,  by  Signora  F.  Margarita 
del'  Epine.'  This  singing  was  probably  in  Italian. 
She  sang  in  Greber's  '  Temple  of  Love,'  the 
year  after  ;  and  in  1 707  in  '  Thom3rris,'  the  music 
taken  from  Scarlatti  and  Buononcini,  the  recita- 
tives and  accompaniments  being  added  by  Mr. 
(afterwards  Dr.)  Pepusch.  She  sang  also  in  'Ca- 
milla,' performing  her  part  in  Italian,  while  the 
English  singers  sang  their  own  language.  These 
roles  she  repeated  in  1 708,  and  in  1 709  added 
that  of  Marius  in  Scarlatti's  'Pyrrhus  and  De- 
metrius,' arranged  for  the  English  stage  by 
Swiny  and  Haym.  In  1710  she  sang  in  'Alma- 
hide,'  that  opera,  the  first  ever  performed  wholly 
in  Italian  on  our  stage,  the  names  of  neither 
poet  nor  composer  of  which  are  known  ;  and 
again  in  '  Hydaspes.'  In  addition  to  these,  she 
took  part  in  '  Antiochus '  and  '  Ambleto,'  and  in 
Handel's  'Pastor  Fido '  and  'Rinaldo'  in  171 2; 
and  in  the  pasticcio  'Emelinda'  and  Handel's 
'Teseo'  in  17 13.  She  continued  to  sing  until 
1 718,  when  she  married  Dr.  Pepusch,  and  re- 
tired from  the  stage.  She  is  said  to  have 
brought  him  a  fortune  of  £  1 0,000.  *  Her  execu- 
tion was  of  a  very  different  order'  from  that  of  the 
English  singers  of  that  time,  '  and  involved  real 
difficulties.  Indeed,  her  musical  merit  must 
have  been  very  considerable  to  have  kept  her  so 
long  in  favour  on  the  English  stage,  where,  till 
employed  at  the  opera,  she  sang  either  in  musi- 
cal entertainments,  or  between  the  acts,  almost 
every  night.  Besides  being  out-landuh,  she  was 
so  swarthy  and  ill-favoured,  that  her  husband 
used  to  call  her  Hecate,  a  name  to  which  she 
answered  with  as  much  good  humour  as  if  he 
had  called  her  Helen'  (Bumey).  It  was,  perhaps, 
owing  to  this  ugliness,  that  no  portrait  of  her 
was  ever  made.  She  was  a  woman  of  perfectly 
good  character  ;  but  Dean  Swift,  who  was  no 
respecter  of  persons,  particularly  musical,  in  his 
'Journal  to  Stella,'  Aug.  6,  1711,  being  at  Wind- 
sor says,  '  We  have  a  music-meeting  in  our  town 
to-night.  I  went  to  the  rehearsal  of  it,  and  there 
was  Margarita,  and  her  sister  [G.  Maria  Gallia], 
and  another  drab,  and  a  parcel  of  fiddlers ;  I  was 
weary  and  would  not  go  to  the  meeting,  which  I 
am  sorry  for,  because  I  heard  it  was  a  great 
assembly.'  She  appears  to  have  been  an  ex- 
cellent musician,  not  only  as  a  singer,  but  also- 
as  an  extraordinary  performer  on  the  harpsi- 
chord, and  marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  music 
in  England.  [J.  M.] 

ERARD,  is  the  name  of  the  singer  who  per- 
formed the  principal  bass  part  in  'Alexander's 
Feast '  on  its  first  production  at  Covent  Garden, 
Feb.  19,  1736.  He  was  probably  a  Frenchman; 
but  nothing  more  is  known  of  him  than  the 
above  fact.  [J.  M.] 

ERARD.  The  name  borne  by  this  firm  of 
harp  and  pianoforte  makers  has  been  known 
almost  as  long  in  England  as  in  France,  its 


ERARD. 


ERBACH. 


491 


workshops  having  been  established  in  London 
near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  not  long  after 
those  in  Paris.  The  reputation  of  Erard's  house 
is  as  much  due  to  successful  improvements  in 
the  harp  as  in  the  pianoforte,  those  of  the  harp 
being  of  like  importance  to  the  perfecting  of  the 
violin  accomplished  by  the  famous  Cremona 
makers. 

Sebastien  Erard  was  born  at  Strassburg  in 
1752,  and  was  early  put  to  his  father  s  handicraft 
of  cabinet-maker.  His  father  dying  when  he 
was  sixteen  he  went  to  Paris  and  placed  himself 
with  a  harpsichord -maker.  He  had  soon  the 
opportunity  to  display  his  practical  ingenuity  by 
the  construction  of  a  mechanical  harpsichord, 
which  was  described  by  the  Abbe  Roussier  in 
1776.  The  Duchess  of  Yilleroi  took  notice  of 
him,  and  allotted  to  him  a  workshop  in  her  own 
chateau,  where,  in  1777,  he  made  the  first  piano- 
I  forte  constructed  in  France.  According  to  Fetis 
i  this  was  a  square  with  two  unisons  and  five 
octaves,  similar  to  the  English  and  German 
instruments  that  had  been  imported.  He  now 
established  himself,  with  his  brother  Jean  Bap- 
tiste,  in  the  Rue  de  Bourbon.  Their  success 
exciting  the  jealousy  of  the  Parisian  musical 
instrument  -  makers  known  as  Luthiers,  and 
belonging  to  the  Fan-makers'  Guild,  they  used 
the  power  they  possessed  to  seize  Erard's  work- 
shops ;  Louis  XVI,  however,  came  to  the  aid  of 
the  brothers,  and  conferred  upon  Sebastien  (a.d, 
1785)  a  brevet  permitting  him  to  make  -forte- 
pianos'  independent  of  the  guild,  but  obliging 
him  to  employ  workmen  who  had  satisfied 
its  regulations.  (Rimbault,  'The  Pianoforte,' 
i860,  p.  124.) 

The  French  Revolution  compelled  Sebastien 
Erard  to  leave  Paris,  and  we  find  him  in  London 
in  1 794  taking  out  a  patent  for  improvements  in 
harps  and  pianofortes.  He  returned  to  Paris, 
after  the  Terror,  in  1 796,  in  which  year  he  made 
his  first  grand  piano,  using  the  English  action, 
which,  Fetis  informs  us,  he  continued  with  until 
1808,  In  1S09  he  patented  a  repetition  grand 
piano  action,  the  first,  and  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  the  harp,  nearly  completing  that 
ingenious  double  action  which  was  beg^un  about 
1786  and  was  perfected  in  iSio,  A  feature  in 
the  1809  patent  was  the  inverted  bridge  or  up- 
'  ward  bearing  at  the  wrestplank  bridge  of  the 
piano,  since  universally  adopted.  Advanced  age 
made  Sebastien  leave  to  his  nephew  Pierre 
Erard  (bom  1796)  the  introduction  of  his  per- 
fected repetition  action,  the  patent  for  which 
was  taken  out  in  London  in  18  21.  Sebastien 
died  in  i8.:^i.  In  1S35  the  patent  was  extended 
to  Pierre  Erard  for  seven  3-ears  on  the  plea  of 
its  great  value  and  of  the  losses  sustained  in 
working  it.  The  invention  in  1838  of  the  Har- 
.  monic  Bar  is  claimed  for  him  (Dr.  Oscar  Paul, 
'Geschichte  des  Claviers,'  Leipzig,  1868).  [See 

.  PlAXOFOBTE.] 

I  Pierre  Erard  died  at  the  Chateau  de  la 
Muette.  Passy,  near  Paris,  in  1855.  His  widow, 
Mme.  Erard,  succeeded  him,  and  has  maintained 
the  high  reputation  of  the  house.  [A.  J.  H.] 


'  ERBA,  Don  Dioxigi,  a  much  esteemed  com- 
poser of  Milan  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
LikeMarcello  andAstorga  he  was  of  noble  birth, 

\  and  appears  never  to  have  filled  any  ofl&ce.  The 
title  of  Don  given  him  by  Quadrio,  and  that  of 
'R<i'  mentioned  below,  show  that  he  was  in 
holy  orders.  In  1694  he  took  part  with  Valtel- 
lina  in  the  composition  of  the  opera  of  Arion, 
and  in  1695  with  Besozzi  and  Battestini  in 
that  of  Artemio.  But  Erba's  interest  to  us 
lies  in  the  fact  that  he  is  not  improbably  the 
composer  of  a  Mag-nificat  for  2  choirs,  from  which 
Handel  borrowed  more  or  less  closely  for  several 
pieces  in  the  second  part  of  Israel  in  Egypt.  A 
complete  copy  of  this  work,  entitled  '  Magnificat, 
Del  R*^  Sgr,  Erba,'  is  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society,  and  a  partial  one  (ending  in 
the  middle  of  a  sheet),  in  Handel's  writing,  with- 
out title  or  date,  in  Buckingham  Palace.  Opinions 
are  di\'ided  as  to  whether  it  is  an  original  com- 
position of  Handel's  Italian  time  (1707-10),  or  of 
Erba.  In  favour  of  the  former  are  Mr.  Schoelcher 
and  Professor  Macfarren  (Preface  to  Israel  in 
Egypt  for  the  S.  H.  S.).  It  is  obvious  that  but 
for  the  existence  of  the  MS.  by  Handel  the  ques- 
tion would  never  have  been  raised.  The  whole 
evidence  is  examined  at  great  length  and  pains  by 
Dr.  Chrj'sander  (Handel,  i.  168-178),  whose  con- 
clusion is  strongly  in  favour  of  its  being  Erba's. 
H<j  shows  that  the  date  of  Handel's  MS.  is  prob- 
ably 1 735-40  (Israel  was  1 738) ;  that  it  has  marks 
of  being  a  copy  and  not  an  original  composition  ; 
that  the  paper  is  not  Italian,  but  the  same  with 
that  used  for  his  English  works ;  and  that  the 
style  of  the  music  difi'ers  materially  from  Handel's 
style  whether  early  or  late.  In  addition  it  might 
be  urged  that  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  in 
a  copy  of  a  work  of  Handel's  his  powerful  name 
would  be  displaced  on  the  title  in  favour  of  the 
insignificant  one  of  Erba. 

The  pieces  in  which  the  Magnificat  is  em- 
ployed are,  according  to  !Mr.  Macfarren,  as 
follows : — 

The  Lord  is  my  strength. 

He  is  my  God. 

The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war. 

The  depths  have  covered  them. 

Thy  right  hand,  0  Lord. 

Thou  sentest  forth  thy  wrath. 

And  with  the  blast. 

The  earth  swallowed  them. 

Thou  in  Thy  mercy.  j-q 

ERBACH,  Christian,  bom  about  1560  at 
Algesheim  in  the  Palatinate.  About  1600  he 
became  organist  to  the  Fuggers  at  Augsburg, 
and  in  1628  was  appointed  'Ra^hshen-'  of  the 
same  city.  His  '  Modi  sacri  seu  cantus  musici 
vocibus  4,  5,  6,  7,  8  et  pluribus,  ad  omne  genus 
instrumenti  musici  accomodatis '  was  published 
in  his  lifetime  at  Augsburg.  Bodenschatz's 
*  Florilegium  Portense '  and  Schad's  '  Promptu- 
arium  musices'  (Strasburg)  contain  motets  of  his 
in  4,  6,  and  8  parts.  MS.  compositions  of  his  are 
in  the  cathedral  library  at  Augsburg  and  in  the 
Royal  library  at  Berlin.  [F.  G,] 


492 


EEK. 


EENST. 


E"RK,  LuDWiG  Christian,  born  Jan.  6,  1S07. 
at  Wetzlar,  where  his  father  was  cathedral 
organist ;  has  rendered  very  important  services 
to  German  popular  music.  He  studied  music 
under  his  father  and  Andr^  of  Offenbach,  re- 
ceiving his  general  education  from  Spiess,  a 
well-known  teacher  at  Frankfort.  Here  he  re- 
mained for  some  years  enjoying  the  society  of 
the  best  Darmstadt  musicians.  In  1826  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  teachers'  seminary 
at  Moers  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  and  it  was  here 
that  his  connection  with  popular  music  began. 
He  started  musical  festivals  at  Remscheidt, 
Euhrort,  Duisburg,  and  other  small  towns, 
which  largely  contributed  to  the  taste  for  sacred 
and  secular  part-music.  In  1836  he  was  ap- 
pointed musical  professor  of  the  royal  seminary 
at  Berlin,  and  in  the  following  year  conductor  of 
the  newly -formed  cathedral  choir,  which  post, 
for  want  of  proper  support,  he  relinquished  in 
1840  in  favour  of  Neithardt.  In  1843  he 
founded  a  Mannergesangverein,  which  still  exists 
in  Berlin,  for  the  express  purpose  of  singing 
Volkslieder.  He  himself  states  that,  apart 
from  the  members  of  this  choral  society,  he  has 
given  musical  education  to  no  less  than  400 
Prussian  schoolmasters.  While  still  at  Moers  he 
published  some  collections  of  Lieder  harmonised 
by  himself,  and  these  now  amount  to  forty,  large 
and  small — comprising  chorals  and  other  sacred 
and  liturgical  music — of  which  a  list  is  given 
by  Mendel.  Among  them  the  most  important 
is  his  '  Deutscher  Liederhort,*  of  which  vol.  i. 
contains  modern  'Volkslieder,'  and  vol.  ii.,  now 
in  the  press,  those  of  the  I3th-i8th  centuries. 
Jacob  Grimm  says  of  vol.  i.,  'Of  all  collections 
of  our  German  Volkslieder  this  is  the  fullest  and 
most  trustworthy.'  Erk  still  continues  his  use- 
ful and  indefatigable  researches  on  this  subject. 
In  1857  he  was  appointed  director  of  music.  In 
the  beginning  of  1877  he  resigned  his  post  in 
the  seminary  at  Berlin,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Dienel.  [E.G.] 

ERNANI.  Italian  opera  in  4  acts,  by  Verdi, 
founded  on  the  Hernani  of  Victor  Hugo ;  pro- 
duced at  Venice  in  March  1844.  On  its  produc- 
tion at  the  Theatre -Italien,  Paris — Jan.  6, 1846 — 
the  libretto  was  altered  in  obedience  to  the  wish 
of  Victor  Hugo.  The  personages  were  changed 
from  Spaniards  to  Italians,  and  the  name  of  the 
piece  was  altered  to  '  II  Proscritto.'  In  England 
Ernani  was  first  played  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
March  8,  1845. 

ERNST,  Heinkich  Wilhelm,  celebrated 
violin -player,  was  bom  at  Briinn  in  Moravia  in 
1 8 14.  As  a  pupil  of  the  Vienna  Conservatorium 
he  had  Bohm  for  his  master  on  the  violin,  and 
studied  counterpoint  and  composition  under 
Seyfried.  He  afterwards  received  instruction 
from  Mayseder,  and  soon  achieved  great  pro- 
ficiency on  his  instrument.  When  sixteen  he 
made  his  first  tour  and  played  with  much  success 
at  Munich,  Stuttgart  and  Frankfort.  At  that 
time  Paganini  was  travelling  in  Germany,  and 
Ernst,  greatly  fascinated  by  this  extraordinary 
artist,  followed  him  from  town  to  town  in  order 


to  become  familiar  with  the  peculiarities  of  his 
style  and  technique.  Towards  the  end  of  32  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  lived  there  for  six  years, 
studying  and  repeatedly  playing  in  public.  Be- 
tween 1838  and  44  he  travelled  over  a  great  part 
of  Europe,  meeting  everywhere  with  enormous 
success.  On  his  appearing  in  Leipzig  Schumann 
greeted  him  with  one  of  those  genial  criticisms 
which  are  so  characteristic  of  him  ('Gesammelte 
Schriften,'  Jan.  14, 1840.)  On  April  15, 1844  he 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Philharmonic, 
after  which  he  regularly  came  to  London  for  the 
season  and  soon  settled  there  entirely.  After  some 
years  however  his  health  began  to  fail,  and  he  had 
to  give  up  playing  in  public.  He  died  at  Nice 
October  8, 1865,  after  a  painful  and  protracted  ill- 
ness. Ernst's  plapng  was  distinguished  by  great 
boldness  in  the  execution  of  technical  diflaculties 
of  the  most  hazardous  character.  At  the  same 
time  his  cantilfene  was  full  of  deep  feeling,  and 
his  tone  had  a  peculiar  charm.  The  warm 
impulsive  nature  of  the  man  was  reflected  in  his 
fiery  passionate  style.  But  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  he  was  a  mere  virtuoso.  Ernst  was  a 
thorough  musician,  and  although  critics  have 
found  fault  with  his  reading  of  classical  music, 
on  the  other  hand  very  competent  judges  have 
pronounced  him  to  have  been  an  excellent 
quartet-player. 

As  a  composer  he  started  with  salon-pieces 
and  brilliant  fantasias,  which  have  not  much 
intrinsic  merit,  but  are  extremely  effective  and 
well  written  for  the  instrument,  and  mostly  very 
difficult.  The  'Eldgie,'  which  has  had  a  long 
run  of  popularity,  is  perhaps  the  best  specimen 
of  the  first,  the  fantasias  on  airs  from  Rossini's 
Otello,  and  on  Hungarian  airs,  of  the  second 
kind.  The  Concerto  in  F  sharp  minor  (op.  23) 
deserves  special  notice.  It  is  a  composition  of 
no  mean  order,  equally  distinguished  by  the 
nobility  of  its  ideas  and  its  skilful  treatment 
of  the  orchestra.  That  it  is  seldom  heard  is 
due  to  its  enormous  technical  difficulties,  which 
even  Ernst  himself  did  not  always  succeed  in 
mastering.  This  work  may  well  justify  the 
assumption  that  Ernst,  had  he  lived,  might 
have  made  some  valuable  additions  to  the 
literature  of  the  violin.  The  best-known  among 
his  compositions  for  the  violin  are :  Deux 
nocturnes,  op.  I  ;  El^gie,  op.  10 ;  Fantasia  on 
airs  from  Rossini's  OteUo,  op.  ii ;  Concertino 
in  D,  op.  12  ;  Polonaise  de  Concert,  op.  17; 
Variations  on  Dutch  airs,  op.  18 ;  Introduc- 
tion, caprice,  and  finale,  on  airs  from  II  Pirata, 
op.  19;  Rondo  Papageno,  op.  30;  Fantasia  on 
Le  Proph^te,  op.  24;  Hungarian  airs,  op.  22; 
Concerto  path^tique  in  FJJI  minor,  op.  23.  In 
conjunction  with  S.  Heller  he  wrote  a  number 
of  very  pretty  duets  for  piano  and  violin,  which 
were  published  under  the  title  of '  Pensdes  fugi- 
tives.' He  also  published  an  imitation  of  Paga- 
nini's  once  famous  '  Carnaval  de  Venise.'  He 
wrote  two  string  quartets,  in  Bb  and  A.  The 
latter  of  these  was  his  last  work,  and  was  played 
under  Joachim's  lead  at  the  Monday  Popular 
Concerts,  June  6,  64.  [P.  D.] 


EROICA. 


ERTIMANN. 


493 


EROICA.  The  Sinfonia  Eroica  is  the  third 
of  Beethoven's  S}Tnphonies,  the  greatest  piece  of 
Programme  music  yet  composed.  The  title  is  his 
own — 'Sinfonia  eroica  composta  per  festeggiare 
il  sowenire  di  un  grand'  uomo  dedicata  a  Sua 
Altezza  Serenissima  il  Principe  di  Lobkowitz 
da  Luigi  van  Beethoven.  Op.  55.  No.  III. 
Partizione.  Bonna  e  Colonia  presso  N.  Simrock.' 
(X.  B.  the  Italian :  the  titles  of  Symphonies  i 
and  2  are  in  French.)  But  its  original  title  was 
simply  '  Bonaparte.  Louis  van  Beethoven.'  The 
subject  was  suggested  to  him — perhaps  as  early 
as  1798,  two  years  before  the  known  completion 
of  the  1st  Symphony — by  Bemadotte,  the  French 
ambassador  at  Vienna ;  but  there  is  no  trace  of 
his  having  set  seriously  to  work  at  it  till  the 
summer  of  1803.  On  his  return  to  town  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year  he  played  the  Finale  to 
^Nlahler  and  Breuning  (Thayer,  ii.  236).  Early 
in  1 804  the  work  was  finished,  and  the  MS.  lay 
on  Beethoven's  table  with  the  title-page  as  just 
given,  waiting  for  transmission  to  the  First 
Consul  at  Paris.  But  the  news  of  Napoleon's 
assumption  of  the  title  of  Emperor  reached  Bee- 
thoven; his  faith  in  his  hero  was  at  once  de- 
stroyed, and  he  tore  off  the  title  in  a  rage.  The 
cover  of  the  MS.  now  in  the  Library  of  the 
'  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde'  at  Vienna — a 
curious  medley  of  ink  and  pencil — stands  as  given 
on  page  183  of  this  work,  and  thus  appears  to 
have  been  an  intermediate  form  between  the 
original  and  the  present  title.  But  this  point 
has  not  yet  been  investigated. 

If  we  might  venture  to  assume  that  Beethoven 
weighed  his  words  as  carefully  as  he  did  his 
notes,  we  might  infer  from  the  word  'sowenire' 
in  the  final  title  that  to  him  Napoleon,  by  be- 
coming Emperor,  had  ceased  to  be  a  '  hero '  or  a 
'  great  man'  as  much  as  if  he  were  actually  dead. 

The  work  is  in  4  movements: — (i)  Allegro 
con  brio,  Eb.  (2)  Marcia  funebre.  Adagio  assai, 
C  minor.  (3)  Scherzo  and  Trio.  Allegro  vivace, 
Eb.  (4)  Finale.  Allegro  molto ;  interrupted  by 
a  Poco  Andante,  and  ending  in  a  Presto.  Eb. 

Under  Bastien  the  curious  coincidence  between 
the  subject  of  the  i.st  movement  and  that  of  an 
early  overture  of  Mozart's  has  been  pointed  out. 
This  movement  may  be  a  portrait  of  Bonaparte  ; 
it  is  certainly  one  of  Beethoven  himself.  The 
Coda  forms  an  epoch  in  composition. 

The  subject  of  the  Scherzo  is  said  by  Marx 
(L.  V.  B.  Leben  &  Schaffen  i.  273)  to  be  a  Volks- 
1     lied,  beginning  as  follows: — 


But  this  requires  confirmation.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  Beethoven  used  the  Austrian 
Volkslieder  as  themes  oftener  than  is  ordinarily 
suspected  ;  but  this  one  at  least  has  not  yet  been 
identified  with  certainty. 

The  Finale  is  a  set  of  variations,  the  theme  of 
which,  whether  a  Volkslied  or  not,  was  a  singular 
favourite  with  Beethoven.  He  has  used  it  4 
times,  in  the  following  order  : — (i)  in  the  finale 


of  Prometheus  (1800) ;  (2)  in  a  Contretanz  (1802); 
(3)  as  theme  of  a  set  of  variations  and  a  fugue, 
for  Piano  solo  (op.  35,  1802);  and  (4)  in  the 
Symphony.  The  intention  of  this  Finale  has 
been  often  challenged,  and  will  probably  never 
be  definitely  ascertained  ;  but  the  Poco  andante, 
which  interrupts  the  Allegro  molto,  and  to  which 
all  the  latter  might  well  be  a  mere  introduction, 
is  at  once  solemn  enough  and  celestial  enough  to 
stand  for  the  apotheosis  of  a  hero  even  as  great 
as  the  one  portrayed  in  the  first  movement. 

The  Symphony  was  purchased  by  Prince  Lob- 
kowitz. There  is  an  interesting  story  of  its  having 
been  played  three  times  in  one  evening  by  the 
Prince's  band,  to  satisfy  the  enthusiasm  of  Prince 
Louis  Ferdinand  of  Prussia,  passing  through 
Vienna  in  strict  incognito;  but  the  first  known  per- 
formance (semi -private)  was  in  Dec.  1 804,  when  it 
was  preceded  by  the  previous  2  Symphonies  and 
the  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  C  minor.  The  first 
public  performance  was  at  the  Theatre  '  an  der 
Wien'  on  Sunday  evening,  April  7,  1805,  at  a 
concert  of  Clement's,  where  it  was  announced  as 
in  D5,  and  was  conducted  by  Beethoven.  Czemy 
remembered  that  at  this  performance  some  one 
in  the  gallery  called  out  '  I'd  give  a  kreutzer,  if 
it  were  over.'  In  England  it  was  played  by  the 
Philharmonic  Society  at  the  2nd  concert  of  the 
2nd  year — Feb.  28,  18 14 — and  is  announced  as 
'containing  the  Funeral  March.'  In  France  it 
was  the  opening  work  of  the  first  concert  of  the 
Soci^te  des  Concerts  (Conservatoire),  March  9, 
1828.  It  was  published  by  Simrock  of  Bonn,  the 
publisher  of  the  first  4  Symphonies,  Oct.  29, 
1806. 

The  unusual  length  of  the  Eroica  is  admitted 
by  Beethoven  himself  in  a  memorandum  prefixed 
to  the  original  edition,  in  which  he  requests  that 
it  may  be  placed  nearer  the  beginning  than  the 
end  of  the  Programme — say  after  an  Overture, 
an  Air,  and  a  Concerto — so  that  it  may  produce 
its  proper  and  intended  effect  on  the  audience 
before  they  become  wearied.  He  has  also  given 
a  notice  as  to  the  3rd  horn  part,  a  very  unusual 
condescension  on  his  part.  [G.] 

ERTMANN,  the  Baroness.  This  lady,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Dorothea  Cacilia  Graumann,  of 
Offenbach  near  Frankfort,  will  go  down  to  posterity 
as  an  intimate  friend  of  Beethoven's,  and  one  of 
the  most  competent  interpreters  of  his  pianoforte 
music  during  his  lifetime.  She  passed  many 
years  in  Vienna.  We  hear  of  her  there  from 
Reichardt^  in  Feb.  1809,  when  her  husband  was 
major  of  the  '  Hoch-und-deutschmeister'  infantry 
regiment.  Reichardt  met  her  at  her  sister's,  Mme. 
Franke's,  and  at  Zmeskall's,  and  heard  her  play 
the  Fantasia  in  Cj  minor  (op.  27,  no.  2)  and  a 
Quartet  (perhaps  an  arrangement  of  the  Quintet, 
op.  16) ;  and  his  description  implies  that  she  had 
both  great  power  and  great  delicacy  of  expres- 
sion, and  a  beautiful  singing  tone.  On  the 
second  occasion  Clementi  was  present,  and  was 
so  far  surprised  out  of  his  usual  taciturnity  as  to 
exclaim  more  than  once  *  Elle  joue  en  grand 

1  Nohl,  "BeethoTen  nach  den  Schilderungen  seiner  Zeitgenossen." 
1877.  p.  56. 


494 


ERTMANN. 


ESLAVA. 


maitre.'  The  Trio  in  D  (op.  70)  and  tlie  Sonata 
in  E  (op,  90)  were  also  pieces  of  hers ;  and  her 
plajdng  of  the  Largo  in  the  former  and  the  2nd 
movement  in  the  latter  are  spoken  of  by  Schind- 
ler  as  marvels  of  expression  in  different  directions 
(i.  241).  In  1820  she  was  still  in  Vienna,  and 
we  have  another  report  of  her  from  W.  E.  Miiller, 
of  Bremen,^  who  met  her  at  the  house  of  Gay- 
miiller,  with  four  other  ladies,  all  good  players, 
but  whom,  in  his  opinion,  she  far  surpassed,  not 
so  much  in  execution  as  in  her  rendering  of  the 
intention  and  character  of  the  music,  and  in 
fancy  and  expression.  Between  these  two  dates 
she  had  had  lessons  from  Beethoven,  and  had 
become  very  intimate  with  him.  He  visited  the 
Ertmanns  in  the  evenings,  and  she  would  play  to 
him,  while  he  made  himself  thoroughly  at  home.^ 
*  Meine  liebe  werthe  Dorothea  Cacilia '  is  the 
beginning  of  the  only  letter  from  him  to  her  yet 
published,  in  which  he  conveys  to  her  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  noble  and  imaginative  Sonata  in  A, 
op.  101,  which  bears  her  name.  During  the 
Ertmanns'  stay  in  Vienna  she  lost  a  child.  Bee- 
thoven at  first  discontinued  his  visits,  but  at 
length  asked  her  to  call  on  him,  and  saying  '  we 
will  talk  in  music,'  played  to  her  for  more  than 
an  hour,  '  in  which  he  said  everything ;  and  at 
length  even  gave  me  comfort.'  ^ 

It  was  the  happy  lot  of  Mme.  von  Ertmann, 
after  having  been  thus  intimate  with  one  great 
composer,  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  another. 
Rather  more  than  four  years  after  Beethoven's 
death  the  regiment  moved  from  Vienna  to 
Milan,  and  General  Ertmann  became  command- 
ant ;  and  there,  in  July  1831,  she  received  a 
visit  from  Mendelssohn,  then  on  his  return  from 
Rome.  The  account  may  be  read  in  Mendels- 
sohn's own  delightful  language  in  his  'Reise- 
briefe.'  *  She  played  him  the  Cjf  minor  Fantasia 
and  the  Sonata  in  D  minor  (op.  31,  no.  2),  and 
his  verdict  is  quite  in  accordance  with  those  we 
have  already  heard.  '  She  plays  the  Beethoven 
things  very  beautifully,  although  it  is  so  long 
since  she  studied  them  :  true,  she  often  forces 
the  expression  a  little,  now  retarding,  and  then 
again  hurrying ;  but  certain  pieces  she  plays 
splendidly,  and  I  think  I  have  learnt  something 
from  her.' 

In  1844  Mme.  Ertmann  was  again  living  in 
Vienna,  where  Moscheles  met  her,  and  induced 
her  to  play  him  the  Cj  minor  Fantasia  (ii.  123). 
She  died  there  in  1848,  about  70  years  old.  [G.] 

ESCUDIER,  Marie,  born  June  29,  181 9, 
and  Leon;  born  Sept.  17, 182 1,  at  Castelnaudary, 
two  brothers  famous  as  littemtears  on  music. 
They  were  the  founders  of  '  La  France  musicale' 
(1838),  a  weekly  musical  periodical,  and  joint 
authors  of  '  fitudes  biographiques  sur  les  chanteurs 
contemporains '  (Paris,  Tessier,  1 840)  ;  ♦  Rossini 
ea  vie  et  ses  ceuvres'  (Paris  1854) ;  and  '  Vie 
.  .  .  .  des  cantatrices  celebres,'  etc.  (Paris  1856), 
which  contains  a  life  of  Paganini.  Their 
' Dictionnaire  de  musique'  (5th  ed.,  1872)  is  a 
compact  but  very  unequal  work,  many  articles  in 

•  Molil,  ■  hcetlioveu  nacli  deii  ccliilJeiuugeu  .seiner  ZeilKeiiosseii," 
1877,  p.  138. 

2  Mendelssohn's  Letters,  July  14  1831.       >  Ibid.       «  Ibid. 


which  are  admirable,  while  others  can  be  of  no 
interest  to  any  one.  [M.C.C.] 

ESLAVA,  Miguel  Hilarion,  distinguished 
Spanish  musician,  born  Oct.  21,  1807,  near  Pam- 
peluna,  where  he  was  cathedral  chorister.  In 
1824  he  was  appointed  violinist  in  the  cathedral 
at  Pampeluna,  and  in  1828  chapel-master  of  that 
at  Ossuna,  Here  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and 
took  priest's  orders  when  chapel -master  at  the 
metropolitan  church  of  Seville  (1832),  In  1 841 
he  produced  at  Cadiz  his  first  opera, '  11  Solitario,' 
speedily  followed  by  '  La  Tregua  di  Ptolemaide' 
and  '  Pedro  el  Cruel,'  which  were  successfully 
performed  in  several  Spanish  towns.  In  1844  he 
was  appointed  chapel-master  to  Queen  Isabella, 
He  has  composed  over  140  pieces  of  church 
music,  including  masses,  motets,  psalms,  etc. 
The  work  by  which  he  will  live  is  his  '  Lira 
sacro-hispaiia '  (Madrid,  Salazar,  1869,  10  vols.), 
a  collection  of  Spanish  church  music  of  the  1 6th- 
19th  centuries,  with  biographical  sketches  of  the 
composers.  Some  of  his  organ  music  appears  in 
another  collection,  his  '  Museo  organico  espanol' 
(Madrid).  His  '  Metodo  de  Solfeo'  (1846)  has 
been  adopted  throughout  Spain.  His  'Escuela 
de  armonia  y  composicion,'  in  3  parts,  harmony, 
composition,  and  melody,  the  fruits  of  many 
years'  labour,  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1 861  (2nd 
ed.).  He  also  edited  the  '  Gaceta  musical  de 
Madrid,'  a  periodical  of  considerable  interest. 
Eslava  died  July  23,  1878. 

The  following  are  the  contents  of  the  *  Lira 
sacro-hispafia '  : — 


VOL.  I  aeth  cent.). 
Ramos,  Ave  Kegina,   &  4  voces. 

Do.  Magnificat.  4. 
AnoQ.  Domine  Jesu.  4. 
Fevin,  A.  Sanctus.  4. 

Do.  Benedictus.  3. 

Do.  Agnus.  4. 

Do.    Do.  5. 

Do.  Ascendens  Christus.  6. 
Penalosa,  F.  Saiicta  Mater.  4. 

Do.  Trlbularer  si  nescirem.  4, 

Do.  In  passione  positus.  4, 

Do.  Memorare,  piissima.  4. 

Do.  Versa  est  in  luctum.  4. 

Do.  Precor  te.  Domine.  4. 
Eibera,  B.  Magnificat.  4. 

Do.  Virgo  prudentissima.  5, 

Do.  Rex  autem  David.  5. 
Torrentes,  A.  De,  Magnificat.  4. 

Do.  Hortus  conclusus.  4. 

Do.  Inter  vestibulum.  4. 

Do.  Exaudiat  Dommus.  4. 
Morales,  Ch.  Emendemus.  5. 

Do.  0  vos  omnes.  4. 

Do.  Verbum  iniquum.  5. 

Do.  O  crux  ave.  5. 

Do.  Lamentabatur  Jacob.  5. 

Do.  Kyrie  ;  Christe ;  Gloria.  4. 
Escobedo,  B.  Immutemur.  4. 

Do.  Exurge.  4. 

Do.  Erra\i  sicut  ovis.  4. 
Fernandez,  P.  Dispersit,  dedit.  4. 

Do.  Heu  mihi  Domine.  4. 
Bernal,  A.  Ave  sanctissimum. 
Robledo,  M.  Domine  Jesu.  4. 

Do.  Eegem  cui  omnia.  4. 

Do.  Magna  opera.  4  &  5. 

Do.  Sumens  illud  ave.  4. 
VOL.  I,  Pt.  2  (leth  cent."). 
Victoria,  J.  L.  de.  Mass, '  Ave  maris 
Stella.'  4  solo. 

Do.  Vere  languores. 

Do.  0  Domine. 

Do.  Jesu  dulcis  memorla. 

Do.  0  quam  gloriosum. 

Do.  Laudate. 

Do.  Requiem  mass,  'el  canto 
llano.' 


Guerrero,  F.  Fassio  sec.  Matthasum. 
2,4,5,6. 

Do.  Do.  sec.  Joannem.  4  &  5. 

Do.  Ave  Virgo.  5. 

Do.  Trahe  me  post.  5. 

Do.  Mass,  '  Simile  est  regnum.'  4. 
Xavarro,  J.  M.  Lauda  Jerusalem.  4. 

Do.  In  exitu  Israel.  4. 
•  Do.  Magnificat  Imi  toni.  4, 

Do.      Do.      2ditoni.  4. 

Do.      Do.       8vi  toni.  4. 
Castello,  D.  del,  Quis  enim  cog- 
novit. 5. 

Do.  O  altitude.  5. 
Las  Infantas,  F.  de.  Victimae  Pas- 

chali.  6. 
Camargo,  M.  G.  Defensor  almae 

Hispanae.  5. 
Ortiz,  D.  Pereat  dies.  9. 
Periauez,  P.  Maria  virgo.  5. 

VOL.  II  a7th  cent.). 
Comes,  J.  B.  Hodie  nobis.  12. 
Lobo,  A.  Versa  est.  6. 

Do.  Credo  quod  Redemptor.  4. 

Do.  Vivo  ego.  4. 

Do.  Ave  Maria.  8. 
Heredia,  A.  de.  Magnificat  (super  8 

tonos).  4. 
Tafalla,  P.  Qui  Lazarum.  5  &  8. 
Romero,  M.  Libera  me.  8. 
Veana,  M.  Villaneico  Asturiano.  8. 
Vivenco,  S.  O  Domine.  5. 
Vargas,  U.  de,  Slagnificat.  8. 
Baban,  G.  Voce  mea.  8. 
Juarez,  A.  Vulnerasti  cor  meum. 

Do.  Dum  sacrum  pignua. 
Caseda,  D.  Mass.  8. 

VOL.  II,  Pt.  2  (17th  cent.). 
Pontac,  D.  Mass, '  In  exitu  Israel.'  4. 
Patiuo,  C.  Mass,  'In  devotione.'  8. 
fralazar,  G.  Hei  mihi.  4  (soli). 

Do.  O  Rex  gloriae.  8,  col  organo. 

Do.  Qu£e  est  ista.    6  Do. 

Do,  Vidl  speciosara.  6  Do. 

Do.  f^aiicta  Maria.  5  Do. 

Do.  Nativitastua.  6  Do. 

Do.  Jlater  Dei.       5  Do. 


ESLAVA. 


ESTE. 


495 


Ortells,  Lamentatio.  12. 
Montemayor.F.  de,  Requiem  mass. 

Duron,  S.  0  vos  omnes.  4. 

VOL.  m  (18th  cent.). 
Bravo,  J.  de  T.  M.  Parce  mihi.  8. 
Dudoso,  Dan,  dan,  don,  don.  5. 
Kabasia,  P.  Audite,  universi.  12. 
Vails,  F.  Tola  pulchra.  5. 
Cabrera,  F.  V.  Kyrie  and  Gloria.  ?. 
Koldan,  J.  P.  Sepulto  Domine.  4. 
Sanjuan,  X.  Spiritus  nieus.  8. 
Paez,  J.  Jesu  Redemptor.  4. 
Muelas,  D.  0  vos  omnes.  8. 

Do.  Ductus  est  Jesus.  4. 

Do.  Dicebat  Jesus.  4. 

Do.  Erunt  sigua.  4. 

Do.  Cum  audisset  Joannes.  4. 

Do.  Vox  clamantis.  3. 
C&seda,  J.  de,  Kyrie  and  Gloria.  4. 
Literes,A.  Vos  saeculorum  judices.  4. 

Do.  Sunt  quos  fatue.  4. 
Jxilih,  B.  Dilexi  quoniam.  4. 
Fueutes,  P.  Beatus  vir.  10. 
Soler,  F.  A.  Introito  and  ofifertoria 

de  difuntos.  8. 
Anon.  Ecce  sacerdos.  5. 

VOL.  m.  Pt.  2  asth  cent.). 
Nebra,  J.  de.  Requiem  mass.  8 
(strings). 

Ripa,  A.  Mass.     8  (strings  and 
trumpets). 
Do.  Stabat  Mater  (6  verses).  8 
(organ). 

Lidon,  J.  Ave  maris  Stella.  4  and  8. 

VOL.  IV  aoth  cent.). 
Garcia.  F.  J.  Lamentation.  8  (orch.). 

Do.  Do.  7  (orch.). 
Aranaz,  P.  Ad  te  levavi.  4  (solos). 
Do.  Laudate.    6  (vioL  tuid  trum- 
pets). 

Doyague,  M.  Miserere.  4  (wind). 
Secaiiilla,  F.  Defensor  almae  His- 
panae.  5. 
Do.  Pauge  lingua.  7. 


Prieto,  J.   Salve  regina.  4  (str., 

trump.,  organ). 
Cuellar,  R.  LauUa  Sion.  5. 
Montesinos,  A.  Sancta  et  immacu- 

lata  Virsinitas.  8. 
Pons,  J.  Letrida, '  0  Madre.'  8. 
Cabo.  F.  J.  Memento  Domine.  7. 

VOL.  IV.  Pt.  2  (19th  cent.). 
Eslava,  H.  Te  Deum.  4. 
Do.  O  sacrum  convivium.  4. 
Do.  Bone  Pastor.  4. 
Do.  O  salutaris  hostia.  8. 
Do.  Requiem  mass.  8  (orch.). 
Do.  Parce  mihi.  8. 
Do.  Tedet  animam.  8. 
Do.  Libera  me.  8. 

VOL.  V  (19th  cent.). 
Ledesma,  N.    Stabat  mater  (12 

verses).  3. 
Andrevi,  Fr.  Nunc  dimittis.  4. 

Do.  Salve  Regina.  6  (orch.). 
Ledesma,  31.  E.  Principes  persecuti. 

4  (orch.). 
Bros,  J.  Benedictus.  4  (orch.). 

VOL.  V,  Pt.  2  a9th  cent.). 
Perez  y  Alvarez,  J.  Salve  Regina.  8. 

Do.  O  Salutaris.  Bar.  solo. 
Xuqalde,  C.  J.  Bone  pastor.  Bass 
solo. 

Do.  O  salutaris.  3. 
Meton,  V.  O  qu.miam  suavis.  4. 

Do.  Ecce  panis.  5. 

Do  0  salutaris.  5. 
Olleta,  D.  Salve  Regina.  5. 
Garcia,  M.  Ave  maris  stella.  4. 
PrWanos,  H.  0  quam  suavis.  4. 
Caballero,  M.  F.  Ave  maris  stella.  4. 
Calonora,  R.  O.  Lauda  Sion.  1. 

Do.  Vere  languores.  4. 


APPESTDIS. 
Secanilla,  F.  Hymn,  Scripta  sunt. 

8.  3,  8,  4,  8. 
Doyagiie,  M.  Magnificat.  8. 
Duron,  S.  Fragmema. 

lm.  C.  C] 

ESSER,  Heixrich,  bom  at  Mannheim  i8i8, 
appointed  concert-niei.ster  1838,  and  then  musical 
director  in  the  court-theatre  at  Mannheim  ;  was 
for  some  years  conductor  of  the  '  Liedertafel '  at 
Mayence,  and  in  1S47  succeeded  0.  Nicolai  as 
Capellmeister  of  the  Imperial  Opera,  Vienna, 
where  he  was  honoured  as  an  artist  and  beloved 
as  a  man.  In  November  1S69,  shortly  after 
becoming  art-member  of  the  board  of  direction 
of  the  Opera,  he  was  compelled  by  ill-health  to 
resign,  and  retired  on  a  considerable  pension 
to  Salzburg,  where  he  died  June  3,  1872.  The 
Emperor  honoured  his  memory  by  granting 
an  annuity  to  his  widow  and  two  young  chil- 
dren. Esser's  character  was  elevated,  refined, 
and  singularly  free  from  pretension,  and  his 
compositions  bear  the  same  stamp,  especially 
his  melodious  and  thoughtful  4-part  songs  for 
men's  voices.  As  a  conductor  he  was  admirable 
— conscientious,  indefatigable,  and  in  thorough 
s^-mpathy  with  his  orchestra,  by  whom  he  was 
adored.  Wagner  showed  his  appreciation  by 
entrusting  him  with  the  arrangement  of  his 
*  Meistersinger '  for  the  piano.  Esser  was  the 
first  to  discern  the  merit  of  Hans  Richter,  whom, 
while  a  member  of  his  band,  he  recommended  to 
Wagner  as  a  copyist  and  arranger,  and  who 
ultimately  justified  the  choice  by  succeeding 
Esser  at  the  Opera  in  May  1 8  75. 

As  a  composer  Esser  was  industrious  and  suc- 
cessful. His  works  contain  scarcely  a  common- 
place thought,  and  much  earnest  feeling,  well 
and  naturally  expressed.  The  stage  was  not  his 
forte,  and  though  three  of  his  operas  were  pro- 


duced— 'Silas'  (Mannheim,  1839),  *  Eiquiqui ' 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  43^  and  'Die  beiden  Prinzen' 
(Munich,  44) — they  have  not  kept  the  boards. 
His  compositions  for  the  voice  are  numerous 
and  beautiful — some  40  books  of  Lieder,  2  of 
duets,  4  of  choruses  for  men's  voices,  and  2  for 
mixed  ditto,  etc.  —  and  these  are  still  great 
favourites.  His  symphonies  (Op.  44,  79)  and 
Suites  (Op.  70,  75),  and  orchestral  arrangements 
of  Bach's  organ  works  (Passacaglia,  Toccata  in 
F),  performed  by  the  Philharmonic  Society  in 
Vienna,  are  published  by  Schott,  and  a  string- 
quartet  (Op.  5)  by  Simrock.  [C.F.P.] 

ESTE,  EAST,  or  EASTE  (as  he  variously 
speUed  his  name),  Michael,  Mus.  Bac,  is  conjec- 
tured to  have  been  a  son  of  Thomas  Este,  the 
noted  music  printer.  He  first  appeared  in  print  as 
a  composer,  in  'The  Triumphesof  Oriana,'  1601, 
to  which  he  contributed  the  madrigal,  '  Hence, 
stars,  too  dim  of  light.'  In  1 604  he  published  a 
set  of  Madrigals,  which  was  followed  in  1606  by 
a  second  set,  the  preface  to  which  is  dated  'From 
Ely  House  in  Holborne,'  whence  it  may  be  in- 
feiTcd  that  he  was  then  a  retainer  of  Lady 
Hatton,  the  widow  of  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 
In  1 610  he  published  a  third  set  of  Madrigals. 
Between  that  date  and  161 8,  when  he  published 
a  set  of  Madrigals,  Anthems  &c.,  and  a  set  of 
three-part  songs,  he  had  obtained  his  bachelor's 
degi'ee  and  become  Master  of  the  Choristers  of 
Lichfield  Cathedral.  In  1624  he  published  a 
set  of  Anthems,  from  the  dedication  of  which  to 
'  John  Williams,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and  Keeper 
of  the  Great  Seal,'  we  learn  that  that  prelate  some 
time  before,  on  hearing  one  of  Este's  motets,  had 
voluntarily  settled  an  annuity  on  its  composer, 
personally  a  stranger  to  him.  Este's  last  publi- 
cation was  a  set  of  Duos  and  Fancies  for  Viols, 
which  appeared  in  1638,  and  was  many  years 
afterwards  re-issued  by  John  Pla}-ford  with  a 
new  undated  title-page.  One  of  the  3-part  mad- 
rigals in  Este's  second  set,  '  How  merrily  we  live,' 
retained  its  popularity  down  to  our  days.  [  W.H.H.] 

ESTE,  EST,  or  EAST  (as  the  name  was 
variously  spelled),  Thomas,  was  (having  regard 
to  the  number  of  works  printed  by  him)  one  of  the 
most  important  of  our  early  music  typographers 
and  publishers.  He  was  probably  born  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  latter  half  of  the  1 6th  century. 
The  first  work  printed  by  him  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  was  B}Td's  '  Psalmes,  Sonets  and 
Songs  of  sadnes  and  pietie,'  which  appeared  in 
1 58 8,  he  then  'dwelling  by  Paules  Wharf,'  and 
describing  himself  as  '  the  Assigne  of  W.  Byrd ' ; 
i.  e.  assignee  of  the  patent  granted  to  the  latter 
for  the  sole  printing  of  music  and  ruled  music 
paper.  In  the  following  year  Este  removed  to 
Aldersgate  Street,  where  he  published  at  the  sign 
of  the  Black  Horse.  In  1592  he  edited  'The 
Wliole  Book  of  Psalms,  with  their  wonted  tunes, 
in  four  parts.'  The  composers  employed  by  him 
to  harmonise  the  tunes  were  some  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  the  day,  being  ten  in  number, 
viz :  Richard  Alison,  E.  Blancks,  Michael  Ca- 
vendish, William  Cobbold,  John  Dowland,  John 


496 


ESTE. 


Etudes. 


Fanner,  Giles  Famaby,  Edmund  Hooper,  Edmund 
Jolmson  and  George  Kirbye.  Two  other  editions 
of  the  work  appeared  in  1594  and  1604.  This 
collection  was  the  first  in  which  some  of  the  tunes 
were  called  by  distinctive  names — 'Glassenburie,' 
*  Kentish,'  and  '  Cheshire.'  Esbe  was  a  member 
of  the  Company  of  Stationers,  to  which  in  1604 
he  gave  a  piece  of  plate  of  31  oz.  weight  to  be 
excused  from  serving  some  ofiice  of  the  Company. 
In  the  early  part  of  1609  he  described  himself  on 
the  title-pages  of  his  productions  as  '  Thomas  Este 
alias  Snodham,'  and  before  the  end  of  the  year 
and  ever  after  used  the  latter  name  only.  In 
1600  he  described  himself  as  'The  Assigne  of 
Thomas  Morley,'  and  in  1609  as  'The  Assigne  of 
William  Barley,'  having  acquired  the  interest  in 
the  patent  granted  to  Morley  in  1 598  and  by  him 
assigned,  or  perhaps  only  licensed,  to  Barley.  The 
latest  work  known  to  have  been  printed  by  Este 
appeared  in  1624,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  died 
shortly  afterwards.  His  widow,  Lucretia  Este, 
died  in  1 63 1,  having  bequeathed  £20  to  purchase 
a  piece  of  plate  to  be  presented  to  the  Stationers' 
Company.  The  most  important  works  printed 
and  published  by  Este  were — 

Adson's  Courtly  Masquing  Ayres, 
1621 ;  Attey's  Ayres,  1622  ;  Bate- 
son's  Madrigals,  1604  and  1618  ; 
Byrd's  Psalmes,  Sonets  and  Songs, 
1588,  Songes  of  sundry  natures, 
1.589,  Cantiones  Sacrae,  1589  and 
1591,  Gradualia,  1607  and  1610,  and 
Psalmes,  Songs  and  Sonnets,  1611 ; 
Campion's  Ayres.  1610  and  1612; 
Croce's  Musica  Sacra,  Newly  Kng- 
lished,  1608 ;  Danyel's  Songs,  1606 ; 
Dowland's  Second  P)Ook  of  Ayres, 
1600;  Michael  Este's  1st,  3rd,  4th, 
5th,  and  6th  Sets  of  Madrigals, 
Anthems,  etc.,  1604-1624;  Ferra- 
bosco's  Ayres,  1G09 ;  Orlando  Gib- 
bons's  Madrigals,  1612 ;  Jones's  First 
Book  of  Ayres, IGOl;  Kirbye'sMad 
rigals,  1.507 ;  Maynard's  XII  Won 
ders  of  the  World,  1611 ;  Morley's 

The  Whole  Book  of  Psalms  was  published  in  score 
by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society  in  1844,  edited 
with  a  Preface,  by  Dr.  Rimbault.       [W.  H.  H.] 

ESTE,  in  N.  E.  Italy,  between  Padua  and  Eo- 
vigo.  Two  musical  academies — '  Degli  Eccitati' 
and  'Degli  Atestini' — were  established  in  Este 
ill  1575'  The  family  of  the  Este,  always  liberal 
patrons  of  the  fine  arts,  encouraged  especially  the 
revival  of  music.  Francesco  Patrizzi,  a  professor 
in  the  latter  of  these  two  academies  (born  1530 — 
died  1590),  in  dedicating  one  of  his  works  to  Ln 
crezia  d'Este,  daughter  of  Ercole  II,  the  reigning 
Duke,  ascribes  the  revival  of  music  in  Italy  to 
the  House  of  Este,  because  Guido  d'Arezzo  was  a 
native  of  Pomposa  in  their  dominions,  and  because 
Buch  famous  musicians  as  Fogliano,  Glusquino 
(Josquin),  Adriano,  and  Cipriano,  first  found  fa- 
vour and  support  from  the  dukes  of  Este.  [C.M.P.] 

ESTHER.  Handel's  first  English  oratorio; 
words  by  S.  Humphreys,  founded  on  Racine's 
Esther.  Written  for  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  who 
paid  Handel  £1000  for  it,  and  first  performed  at 
Cannons  Aug.  29,  1720.  Performed  again,  in 
action,  under  Bernard  Gates — in  private  Feb.  23, 
1732,  and  in  public  at  the  King's  Theatre,  Hay- 
market,  May  2,  32,  with  'additions'  not  specified. 
It  was  occasionally  performed  up  to  1757  (when 


Canzonets,  1593,  Madrigals,  1594, 
Ballets,  1595,  Canzonets,  1595,  Mad- 
rigals, 1598,  Triumphes  of  Oriana, 
1601,  and  Consort  Lessons,  1611 ; 
John  Mundy's  Songs  and  Psalms, 
1594 ;  Martin  Pierson's  Private 
Musicke,  1620;  Pilkington's  Ayres, 
1605,  and  Madrigals  (2nd  set),  1024; 
Robinson's  Schoole  of  Musicke, 
1603;  Eossetor's  Lessons  for  Con- 
sort, 1609  ;  Robert  Tailour's  Sacred 
Hymnes,  1615;  Thomas  Tomkins's 
Songs,  1622;  Vautor's  Madrigals, 
1619;  Ward's  Madrigals,  1613; 
Watson's  Madrigals,  1.590 ;  Weelkes' 
Madrigals,  1597,  1598,  and  1600; 
Wilbye's  Madrigals,  1598  and  1609; 
Tonge's  Musica  Transalpina,  1588 
and  1597;  and  TouU's  Canzonets, 


'My  heart  is  inditing'  and  'Zadok  the  Priest' 
were  interpolated  into  the  performance),  and  then 
lay  on  the  shelf  till  Nov.  6,  1875,  when  it  was 
revived  at  the  Alexandra  Palace.  The  overture 
was  for  long  played  annually  at  the  'Festival 
of  the  Sons  of  the  Clergy'  at  St.  Paul's. 

ESTWICK,  Rev.  Sampson,  B.D.,  born  1657, 
was  one  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
under  Captain  Henry  Cooke.  Upon  quitting  the 
chapel  on  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  went  to 
Oxford,  took  holy  orders  and  became  one  of  the 
chaplains  of  Christ  Church.  In  1692  he  was 
appointed  a  minor  canon  of  St.  Paul's.  On  Nov. 
27,  1696,  he  preached  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
'upon  occasion  of  the  Anniversary  Meeting  of  the 
Lovers  of  Musick  on  St.Csecilia's  day,'  a  sermon 
upon  'The  Usefulness  of  Church  Musick,'  which 
was  printed  in  the  following  year.  In  1 70 1  he  was 
appointed  vicar  of  St.  Helen's,  Bishopsgate,  which 
he  resigned  in  1 712  for  the  rectory  of  St.  Michael, 
Queenhithe.  Est  wick  composed  several  odes  for 
performance  at  the  Acts  at  Oxford,  and  other 
pieces  still  in  MS.  He  died  Feb.  1 739.  [W.  H.H.] 

ETOILE  DU  NORD,  L',  opera  in  3  acts,  prin- 
cipal characters  Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine ; 
words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Meyerbeer,  comprising 
many  numbers  from  his  '  Feldlager  in  Schlesien.' 
Produced  at  the  Opera  Comique  Feb.  16,  1854; 
and  in  England,  as  La  Stella  del  Nord,  at  Co  vent 
Garden,  July  19,  1855. 

ilTUDES,  studies,  exercises,  sonatas,  caprices, 
lessons.  The  large  number  of  works  extant  under 
these  heads  for  pianoforte,  violin,  violoncello,  and 
in  sundry  instances  for  other  orchestral  instru- 
ments, are  in  a  large  measure  mere  supplements 
to  the  respective  instruction-books.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  kinds — pieces  contrived  with 
a  view  to  aid  the  student  in  mastering  special 
mechanical  difficulties  pertaining  to  the  technical 
treatment  of  his  instrument,  like  the  excellent 
pianoforte  £tudes  of  Clementi  and  Cramer ;  and 
pieces  wherein,  over  and  above  such  an  executive 
purpose,  which  is  never  lost  sight  of,  some 
characteristic  musical  sentiment,  poetical  scene, 
or  dramatic  situation  susceptible  of  musical  in- 
terpretation or  comment  is  depicted,  as  in  certain 
of  Moscheles'  'Characteristische  Studien,'  or  the 
Etudes  of  Chopin,  Liszt,  or  Alkan. 

The  distinction  between  these  two  classes  of 
etudes  closely  resembles  the  difference  recognised 
by  painters  between  a  tentative  sketch  for  a 
figure,  a  group,  or  a  landscape,  which  aims  at 
rendering  some  poetical  idea  whilst  attending 
particularly  to  the  mechanical  difficulties  accru- 
ing from  the  task  in  hand,  and  a  mere  drawing 
after  casts  or  from  life  with  a  view  to  practice 
and  the  attainment  of  manipulative  facility. 

An  etude  proper,  be  it  only  a  mechanical  ex- 
ercise or  a  characteristic  piece,  is  dintinguished 
from  all  other  musical  forms  by  the  fact  that  it  Ib 
invariably  evolved  from  a  single  phrase  or  motif, 
be  it  of  a  harmonic  or  melodious  character,  upon 
which  the  changes  are  rung.  Thus  many  of  Bach's 
Preludes  in  the  '  wohltemperirte  Clavier,'  and  the 
like,  could  be  called  etudes  without  a  misnomer. 


ETUDES. 


EURYANTHE. 


497 


The  most  valuable  Etudes  for  the  pianoforte 
are  the  following  : — 

I.   Classical  School. 

BACH.  I  CRAMEB. 

deax  et  A  trois  100  Etudes. 

I  MOSCHELES. 
Preludes     Studien,  op.  70.  Characterist- 


InvenHons 

parties. 

CLEMENTL 
Gradus  ad  Pamassum. 

et  exercises  dans  tous  les  tons. 

Toccata  in  B  b.  I 


ische  Stadien,  op.  95. 


II.   Modern  School. 


CHOPIN. 
12  grandes  Etudes.  Op.  10. 
12  Etudes.  Op.  25, 
Trois  Etudes. 
24  Preludes. 
Prelude  in  C$  minor. 

HEKSELT. 
12  Etudes  de  concert.  Op.  2. 
12  Etudes  de  salon.  Op.  5. 

THALBEBG. 

12  Etudes. 

LISZT. 

Grandes  Etudes  de  Paganini,  trans- 
crites,  etc 


Etudes  d'execution  transcendante. 
Ab-Irato,  Etude  de  perfectionne- 
ment. 

Trois  gran-jes  Etudes  de  concert. 
Zwei    Etuden  —  Waldesrauschen; 
Gnomentanz. 

C.  V.  ALKAN. 

12  Etudes. 
12  Grandes  Etudes. 
Etude  pour  la  main  gauche. 
„      „    „     „  droite. 
„      H    les  deux  mains. 
KUBINSTEIN. 

R  Etudes. 
Zwei  Etuden. 

Besides  these  there  exists  an  enormous  number 
of  Etudes  with  comparatively  little  educational 
and  less  artistic  value,  which  are  for  the  most  part 
written  to  the  order  of  publishers,  from  whose 
shops  they  find  their  way  to  the  schoolrooms  and 
salons  of  amateurs ;  such  are  those  by  Czemy, 
Steibelt,  Hummel,  Kessler,  Bertini,  Mayer, 
Dohler,  Schulhof,  Eavina,  etc.  [E.D.] 

Of  Etudes  for  the  ViOLix,  the  following  four 
works  are  considered  as  indispensable  for  the 
formation  of  a  good  technique  and  correct  style, 
by  the  masters  of  all  schools  of  violin-playing  : — 

E.  Kreutzer,  40  Etudes  or  Caprices. 

Fiorillo,  Etude  de  Violon,  formant  36  caprices. 

P.  Rode,  Vingt-quatre  Caprices. 

N.  Paganini,  24  Caprices,  op,  i. 
to  which  may  be  added  Gavinies'  '  Yingtquatre 
matinees.' 

Of  more  modem  Etudes,  those  of  Dont,  Ferd. 
David,  Alard,  and  Wieniawsky,  are  amongst  the 
most  valuable.  The  violin  -  schools  of  Spohr, 
Ries,  and  others,  also  contain  a  great  many  use- 
ful Etudes.  Some  movements  from  Bach's  Solo 
Sonatas,  such  as  the  well-known  Prelude  in  E 
major,  fall  under  the  same  category.  [R-D.] 
EULENSTEIX,  Charles,  was  bom  in  1802 
Heilbronn,  in  Wurtemberg.  His  father  was  a 
respectable  tradesman ;  but  nothing  could  deter 
the  son  from  following  his  strong  predilection 
for  music.  After  enduring  all  sorts  of  privations 
and  ill-success,  he  appeared  in  London  in  1827, 
and  produced  extremely  beautiful  effects  by  per- 
forming on  sixteen  Jew's-harps,  having  for  many 
years  cultivated  this  instrument  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  [Jew's-harp.]  The  patronage 
of  the  Duke  of  Gordon  induced  him  to  return  in 
182S ;  but  he  soon  found  that  the  iron  Jew's-harp 
had  so  injured  his  teeth  that  he  could  not  play 
without  pain,  and  he  therefore  applied  himself 
more  and  more  to  the  guitar.  At  length  a 
dentist  contrived  a  glutinous  covering  for  the 
teeth,  which  enabled  him  to  play  his  Jew's-harp 
again.  He  was  very  successful  in  Scotland,  and 
thence  went  to  Bath,  to  establish  himself  as 
teacher  of  the  guitar,  concertina,  and  the  German 


language.  After  remaining  there  a  considerable 
time  he  returned  to  Germany,  and  is  now  (1878) 
living  at  Giinzburg,  near  Ulin.  [V.deP.] 

EUPH0NIU:M.  a  name  given  to  the  bass 
instrument  of  the  Saxhorn  family,  usually  tuned 
in  Bb  or  C.  It  only  differs  from  the  barytone 
Saxhorn  in  the  larger  diameter  of  its  bore,  which 
thus  produces  a  louder  and  somewhat  deeper 
quality  of  tone.  It  is  usually  furnished  with 
four  valves,  sometimes  even  with  five,  the  first 
three  worked  by  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand, 
and  severally  depressing  the  pitch  by  a  semitone, 
a  tone,  and  a  minor  third ;  the  fourth  by  the 
left  hand  applied  to  a  different  part  of  the 
instrument,  and  lowering  the  pitch  by  two  tones 
and  a  semitone. 

From  the  gradual  disuse  of  the  Serpent  and 
Ophicleide,  the  Euphonium  is  becoming  the  chief 
representative  of  the  eight-foot  octave  among 
the  brass  instruments ;  with  the  exception  of 
the  few  notes  attainable  on  the  French  horn  in 
that  register.  In  quality  it  is  however  less 
sympathetic  than  its  forerunners,  and  less  able  to 
blend  with  the  stringed  instruments.  It  there- 
fore serves  chiefly  as  a  solo  instmment,  in 
which  capacity  it  affords  considerable  support 
to  the  brass  or  military  band.  It  possesses  the 
usual  harmonic  series  of  open  notes.  Its  com- 
pass is  to  a  considerable  degree  dependent  on 
the  lip  of  the  individual  player.  The  funda- 
mental note  is  obviously  C  or  Bb  according  to 
the  pitch  of  the  instrument,  and  the  gap  between 
this  and  the  next  harmonic  above  is  more  or  less 
bridged  over  according  to  the  number  of  the 
valves.  The  valves  also  admit  of  being  used, 
together  or  separately,  as  integral  parts  of  the 
tube,  thus  lowering  the  fundamental  tone  ob- 
tained, even  to  the  extent  of  an  octave. 

The  upper  limit  may  be  generally  described  as 
three  octaves  above  the  fun-  -*- 
damental  before  named,  al-  ir 
though  accomplished  players  ■  - 

obtain  sounds  very  much  more  —  j  \z 
acute.  It  is  usually  written  br  '•' 
for  in  the  bass  clef,  and  in  orchestral  usage  the 
real  notes  are  given.  If  the  instrument  be  in  C, 
which  it  commonly  is,  no  change  is  necessary ;  if 
however  it  be  a  Bb  instrument,  the  whole  scale 
has  to  be  really  and  systematically  raised  through 
the  inten.^al  of  a  tone.  [See  Transposing.] 
Some  French  writers,  however,  transpose  the  part 
exactly  as  is  done  for  the  clarinets  and  comet. 

The  Euphonium  being  a  modem  invention,  is 
not  written  for  by  the  older  composers.  It  is 
however  freely  employed  in  more  recent  in- 
strumentation. [W.  H.  S.] 

EURYAXTHE.  The  6th  of  Weber's  7  operas. 
Text  by  Helmine  von  Chezy.  Overture  completed 
Oct.  19,  1823;  produced  Oct.  25,  23,  at  the 
Kamthnerthor  theatre,  Vienna ;  in  London,  at 
Co  vent  Garden,  June  29,  33  ;  at  Paris,  Grand 
Op^ra,  April  6,  1831,  with  interpolations  from 
Oberon ;  at  Theatre  L)a'ique,  with  new  libretto, 
Sept.  I,  57.  The  opera  is  damaged  by  its  li- 
bretto, and  is  too  little  known.  [G.] 

Kk 


498 


EVANS. 


EXTEMPORE  PLAYING. 


EVANS,  Charles  Smart,  bom  1778,  was  a 
chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Ayrton. 
On  arriving  at  manhood  he  became  the  possessor 
of  an  unusually  fine  alto  voice.  On  June  14, 
1808,  he  was  admitted  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal.  He  was  the  composer  of  some 
anthems  (two  of  them  printed),  and  of  many 
excellent  glees  and  other  pieces  of  vocal  har- 
mony, most  of  which  have  been  published.  In 
181 1  the  Glee  Club  awarded  him  a  prize  for 
his  Cheerful  Glee,  *  Beauties,  have  you  seen  a 
toy,'  and  in  the  following  year  a  second  for  his 
'Fill  all  the  glasses.'  In  181 7  he  carried  off 
the  prize  offered  by  the  Catch  Club  for  the  best 
setting  of  William  Linley  s  Ode  to  the  Memory 
of  Samuel  Webbe,  the  eminent  glee  composer. 
In  1 82 1  he  obtained  another  prize  for  his  glee, 
*  Great  Bacchus.'  He  also  produced  several 
motets  for  the  use  of  the  choir  of  the  Portuguese 
Ambassador's  chapel  in  South  Street,  Grosvenor 
Square  (of  which  he  was  a  member),  some  of 
which  are  printed  in  Vincent  Novello's  Collection 
of  Motets.  Evans  died  Jan.  4,  1849.  [W.H.H.] 

EVERS,  Carl,  pianist  and  composer,  bom  at 
Hamburg  April  8,  1 8 1 9,  made  his  first  appearance 
when  1 2,  and  shortly  after  went  on  long  profes- 
sional tours.  Returning  to  Hamburg  in  1837  he 
studied  composition  under  Carl  Krebs.  On  a 
visit  to  Leipsic  in  1838  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Mendelssohn,  whose  influence  affected  him 
greatly,  and  started  him  in  instrumental  com- 
positions on  an  extended  scale.  In  the  following 
year  he  went  to  Paris,  and  was  kindly  received 
by  Chopin  and  Auber,  where  he  remained  for 
some  time  working  hard.  In  1841  he  was  ap- 
pointed chapel-master  at  Gratz,  where  he  started 
a  music  business,  taught,  and  otherwise  exercised 
his  profession.  Since  1872  he  has  resided  in 
Vienna.  His  compositions  comprise  4  piano- 
forte sonatas,  of  which  those  in  B  minor,  Bb,  and 
D  minor  were  much  esteemed;  'Chansons  d' amour' 
for  Piano;  fugues;  fantasias;  solo  and  part-songs, 
etc.,  etc.  Haslinger  of  Vienna  and  Schott  of 
Mayence  are  his  publishers.  His  sister  Katinka, 
born  1822,  was  favourably  known  as  an  opera- 
singer  in  Germany  and  Italy.  [M.  C.  C] 

EXIMENO,  Antonio,  Spanish  Jesuit,  bom 
1732  at  Balbastro  in  Arragon.  Having  studied 
mathematics  and  music  at  Salamanca  he  became 
professor  of  both  sciences  at  Segovia.  On  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  he  settled  in 
Rome,  and  died  there  in  1 798.  His  work  '  Dell' 
origine  deUa  musica,  coUa  storia  del  suo  pro- 
gresso,  decadenza,  e  rinovazione'  contains  the 
germ  of  the  theories  afterwards  elaborated  by 
Wagner,  and  at  the  time  raised  a  host  of  pole- 
mical writings,  to  which  even  Padre  Martini 
contributed  his  share.  He  proposed  to  abolish 
the  strict  laws  of  counterpoint  and  harmony,  and 
apply  the  rules  of  prosody  to  musical  composi- 
tion. He  was  the  first  scientific  exponent  of 
the  doctrine  that  the  aim  of  music  is  to  express 
emotion,  and  thus  exercised  considerable  influ- 
ence on  musical  aesthetics.  His  contemporaries 
stigmatised  his  book  as  an  'extraordinary  romance, 
in  which  he  seeks  to  destroy  music  without  being 


able  to  reconstruct  it ' — a  verdict  which  curiously 
anticipates  that  often  passed  upon  Wagner  in 
our  own  day.  [F.  G.] 

EXTEMPORE  PLAYING.  The  art  of 
playing  without  ^premeditation,  the  conception 
of  the  music  and  its  rendering  being  simultaneous. 
The  power  of  playing  extempore  evinces  a  very 
high  degree  of  musical  cultivation,  as  well  as 
the  possession  of  great  natural  gifts.  Not  only 
must  the  faculty  of  musical  invention  be  present, 
but  there  must  also  be  a  perfect  mastery  over  all 
mechanical  difficulties,  that  the  fingers  may  be 
able  to  render  instantaneously  what  the  mind 
conceives,  as  well  as  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  rules  of  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  musical 
form,  that  the  result  may  be  symmetrical  and 
complete. 

This  being  the  case  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  greatest  extempore  players  have  usually  been 
at  the  same  time  the  greatest  composers,  and  we 
find  in  fact  that  all  the  great  masters,  including 
Bach,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  have  shown  much 
fondness  for  this  form  of  art,  and  have  even 
exercised  it  in  public.  Mozart  improvised  in 
public  at  the  age  of  14,  as  is  shown  by  the 
programme  of  a  concert  given  as  an  exhibition 
of  his  powers  by  the  Philharmonic  Society  of 
Mantua  on  Jan.  16,  1770,  which  included  an 
extempore  sonata  and  fugue  for  the  harpsichord, 
and  a  song  with  harpsichord  accompaniment,  to 
be  sung  to  words  given  by  the  audience. 

These  extemporaneous  performances  were  some- 
times entirely  original,  but  more  frequently  con- 
sisted of  the  development  (often  in  the  form 
of  a  fugue)  of  a  theme  given  by  the  listeners, 
and  they  not  unfrequently  took  the  form  of  a 
competition  between  two  players,  each  giving 
the  other  subjects  on  which  to  extemporise. 
Thus  when  Louis  Marchand,  banished  from 
France,  came  to  reside  in  Dresden  in  I7i7>  and 
was  about  to  receive  the  appointment  of  organist 
to  the  King  of  Poland,  Volumier,  the  court 
conductor,  fearing  Marchand  as  a  rival,  invited 
Bach  to  appear  at  a  court  concert  in  competition 
with  him.  Accordingly,  after  Marchand  had 
played  with  gi-eat  applause  a  French  air  with 
variations.  Bach  took  his  place,  and  extemporised 
a  number  of  new  variations  on  the  same  theme, 
in  such  a  manner  as  incontestably  to  prove  his 
superiority. 

Sometimes  two  players  would  extemporise  to- 
gether, either  on  one  or  two  pianofortes.  This 
appears  to  have  been  done  by  Mozart  and  Clementi 
at  Vienna  in  1781,  and  also  by  Beethoven  and 
Wolffl,  who  used  to  meet  in  1798  at  the  house  of 
Freiherr  von  Wetzlar,  and,  seated  at  two  piano- 
fortes, give  each  other  themes  upon  which  to 
extemporise,  and,  according  to  Seyfried  (Thayer, 
ii.  27),  'created  many  a  capriccio  for  four  hands, 
which,  if  it  could  have  been  written  down  at  the 
moment  of  its  birth,  would  doubtless  have  ob- 
tained a  long  existence.' 

It  is  probable  that  in  most  of  these  competitions 
the  competitors  were  but  ill-matched,  at  least 

1  The  German  term  is  curious  — aw*  dem  Stegrei/e—' from  the 
stirrup.' 


EXTEMPORE  PLAYING. 


EXTRAVAGANZA.  499 


when  one  of  them  happened  to  be  a  Bach  or 
Beethoven  ;  and  the  wonder  is  that  men  were 
found  willing  to  measure  their  strength  against 
such  giants.     Occasionally  their  presumption 
was  rebuked,  as  when  Himmel  extemporised 
before  Beethoven  in  1796,  and  Beethoven  having 
listened  for  a  considerable  time,  turned  to  Himmel 
and  asked  'Will  it  be  long  before  you  begin?' 
Beethoven  himself  excelled  all  others  in  ex- 
tempore, and  according  to  the  accounts  of  his 
contemporaries  his  playing  was  far  finer  when 
improvising  than  when  playing  a  regular  com- 
position, even  if  written  by  himself.    Czerny  has 
leit  a  most  interesting  account  of  Beethoven's 
extempore  playing,  which  is  quoted  by  Thayer 
(ii.  347),  and  is  worth  reproducing  here,  since 
it  helps  us  to  realise  to  some  extent  the  effect 
of  his  improvising.     Czerny  says  — '  Beetho- 
ven's improvisation,  which  created  the  greatest 
sensation  during  the  first  few  years  after  his 
arrival  at  Vienna,  was  of  various  kinds,  whether 
he  extemporised  upon  an  original  or  a  given 
theme,    i .  In  the  form  of  the  first  movement  or 
I   the  final  rondo  of  a  sonata,  the  first  part  being 
j   regularly  formed  and  including  a  second  subject 
1   in  a  related  key,  etc.,  while  the  second  part  gave 
freer  scope  to  the  inspiration  of  the  moment, 
;  though  with  every  possible  application  and  em- 
1  ployment  of  the  principal  themes.     In  allegro 
movements  the  whole  would  be  enlivened  by 
bravura  passages,  for  the  most  part  more  difficult 
than  any  in  his  published  works.     2.  In  the 
form  of  variations,  somewhat  as  in  his  Choral 
Fantasia,  op.  80,  or  the  last  movement  of  the  9th 
Symphony,  both  of  which  are  accurate  images 
of  this  kind  of  improvisation.    3.  In  mixed  form, 
after  the  fashion  of  a  potpourri,  one  melody 
following  another,  as  in  the  Fantasia  op.  77. 
I   Sometimes  two  or  three  insignificant  notes  would 
serve  as  the  material  from  which  to  improvise 
I   a  complete  composition,  just  as  the  Finale  of  the 
j   Sonata  in  D,  op,  10,  No.  3,  is  formed  from  its 
I   three  opening  notes.'  ^    Such  a  theme,  on  which 
L  he  had  'gbttlich  phantasirt'  at  Count  Browne's 
I  house,  has  been  preserved  (Nohl's  'Beethoven's 
Leben,'  iii.  644) : — 


Another  given  him  by  Vogler  was  the  scale  of 
C  major,  3  bars,  alia  breve  Thayer,  ii.  236). 

Since  Beethoven  many  great  musicians  have 
extemporised  in  public — Mendelssohn,  Hummel, 
Moscheles,  and,  on  the  organ,  our  own  Wesley, 
have  all  been  celebrated  for  their  improvisations ; 
but  the  practice  of  publicly  extemporising,  if  not 
extinct,  is  now  very  rare.  Mendelssohn  himself, 
notwithstanding  his  uniform  success,  disliked 
doing  it,  and  in  a  letter  to  his  father,  written  in 
Oct.  1831  (Reisebriefe,  p.  283),  even  declares  his 
determination  never  to  extemporise  in  public 
again;  while  Hummel  on  the  other  hand  says 

»  A  less  definite,  but  still  highly  Interesting,  account  of  his  improvi- 
sations is  given  by  Starke  in  Nohl's  'Beethoven  nach  den  Schilder- 
Bngen  seiner  Zeitgeuossen '  (1877). 


('Art  of  playing  the  Pianoforte')  that  he '  always 
felt  less  embarrassment  in  extemporising  before 
an  audience  of  2000  or  3000  persons  than  in  ex- 
ecuting any  written  composition  to  which  he  was 
slavishly  tied  down. '  Even  the  Cadence  of  a  con- 
certo, which  was  once  the  legitimate  opportunity 
for  the  player  to  exhibit  his  powers  of  improvisa- 
tion, is  now  usually  prepared  beforehand.  [F.T.] 

EXTEMPORISING  MACHINE.  An  in- 
vention for  printing  the  notes  of  an  extempo- 
raneous performance,  by  means  of  mechanism 
connected  with  the  keyboard  of  a  pianoforte  or 
organ.  The  idea  of  being  able  to  preserve  the 
improvisations  of  great  musicians  is  certainly 
an  attractive  one,  and  has  often  engaged  the 
attention  of  mechanicians,  but  without  any 
very  practical  result.  The  earliest  endeavour  in 
this  direction  appears  to  have  been  made  by  an 
English  clergyman  named  Creed,  who  wrote  a 
'Demonstration  of  the  Possibility  of  making  a 
machine  that  shall  write  Extempore  Voluntaries 
or  other  Pieces  of  Music  as  fast  as  any  master 
shall  be  able  to  play  them  upon  an  Organ,  Harp- 
sichord, etc'  This  was  communicated  by  J ohn 
Freke  to  the  Royal  Society,  after  Creed's  death, 
and  was  published  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1747,  vol.  xliv.  part  ii.  p.  445.  A 
similar  invention,  called  the  Melograph,  was 
conceived  by  Euler  the  mathematician,  and  was 
constructe  1  according  to  his  directions  by  Hohl- 
feld  of  Berlin,  about  1752.  It  consisted  of  two 
revolving  cylinders  with  a  band  of  paper  passing 
over  them,  on  which  the  notes  were  marked  by 
means  of  pencils  attached  to  the  action  of  a 
pianoforte,  their  duration  being  sho\vTi  by  the 
relative  length  of  the  lines  formed.  The  machine 
was  placed  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
at  Berlin,  but  was  subsequently  destroyed  in  a 
fire.  The  priority  of  invention  of  the  Melograph 
was  disputed  by  Unger,  of  Einbeck,  who,  in  a  long 
correspondence  with  Euler  (afterwards  published), 
states  that  the  idea  occurred  to  him  as  early  as 
1 745.  There  have  also  been  several  more  modem 
inventions  for  the  same  end,  notably  one  by  Pape 
of  Paris  in  1824,  which  attracted  much  notice  at 
the  time ;  but  the  difficulty  of  expressing  the 
varying  rhythms  of  an  elaborate  piece  of  music 
by  mechanical  means  has  hitherto  proved  insur- 
mountable. [F.T.] 

EXTRAVAGANZA.  Any  work  of  art  in 
which  accepted  forms  are  caricatured,  and  re- 
cognised laws  violated,  with  a  pxirpose.  A  musical 
extravaganza  must  be  the  work  of  a  musician 
familiar  with  the  forms  he  caricatures  and 
generally  amenable  to  the  laws  he  violates. 
Mozart's  *  Musikalischer  Spass'  (Kcichel,  No. 
522)  is  an  instance  on  a  small  scale.  The 
pantomime  overture  would  seem  to  be  the  most 
legitimate  field  for  the  exercise  or  gratification 
of  musical  extravagance.  In  this,  ludicrous 
effects  might  be  produced  by  assigning  passages 
to  instruments  inapt  though  not  altogether  in- 
competent to  their  execution ;  by  treating  fragments 
of  familiar  tunes  contrapuntally,  and  the  like. 
Perhaps  no  field  for  musical  invention  has  been 
less  worked  than  that  of  extravaganza.  Of  no 
K  k  2 


500  EXTEAVAGANZA. 


FABRI. 


class  of  music  does  there  exist  so  little  as  of  that 
which  is  ludicrous  in  itself,  and  not  dependent 
for  its  power  of  exciting  risibility  on  the  words 
connected  with  it,  or  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  heard.  Haydn's  Toy  symphonies  are 
in  a  certain  sense  extravaganzas.  His  '  Farewell 
Symphony, 'though  open  to  a  ludicrous  interpreta- 
tion, is,  as  Mendelssohn  truly  said  of  it,  a  *  mel- 
ancholy little  piece.'  Indeed,  as  orchestras  now 
are,  it  cannot  be  performed  as  intended.  Men- 
delssohn's own  Funeral  March  for  Pyramus  is 
an  exquisite  piece  of  humour.  [J.  H.] 

EYBLER,  Joseph  Edler  von,  Capellmeister 
to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  bom  at  Schwechat, 
near  Vienna,  Feb.  8, 1765.  His  father,  a  school- 
teacher and  choir-master,  taught  him  singing 
and  the  principal  instruments,  and  a  place  was 
procured  for  him  in  the  boys'  seminary  at  Vienna. 
While  there  he  took  lessons  (1777-79)  from 
Albrechtsberger.  On  the  dissolution  of  the 
seminary  in  1782,  Eybler  turned  his  attention 
to  the  law,  but  was  driven  by  the  sudden  im- 
poverishment of  his  parents  to  earn  his  bread  by 
music.  Haydn  now  proved  a  true  friend,  not  only 
encouraging  him  in  his  studies  but  recommending 
him  to  Artaria  the  publisher.  In  the  meantime 
some  of  his  symphonies  were  performed,  and 
both  Haydn  (1787)  and  Mozart  (1790)  testified 
to  his  ability  as  a  composer  and  his  fitness  for 
the  post  of  Capellmeister.  Eybler  nursed  Mozart 
during  his  last  illness,  and  after  his  death  it  was 
to  him  that  the  widow  at  once  committed  the 
task  of  completing  the  Requiem.  He  accepted 
the  charge  in  a  letter  dated  Dec.  21,  1791,  and 
began  the  work,  but  soon  gave  it  up.  He  was 
appointed  choir-master  to  a  church  in  the  suburbs 
in  1792,  and  in  1794  to  the  'Schotten'  monastery 
in  Vienna  itself.  About  this  time  his  first  work, 
3  String  Quartets  dedicated  in  Italian  to  Haydn, 
was  published  by  Traeg,  In  18 10  he  was  ap- 
pointed music-master  to  the  imperial  children,  in 
1804  vice -capellmeister,  and,  on  Salieri's  retire- 


ment in  1824,  chief  capellmeister.  In  1834  he 
was  ennobled  by  the  Emperor,  whose  meetings 
for  quartet  practice  he  had  regularly  attended. 
A  year  before  he  had  been  obliged  to  give  up 
the  exercise  of  his  profession  owing  to  a  paralytic 
stroke  while  conducting  Mozart's  Requiem.  He 
died  July  24,  1846. 

As  a  composer  Eybler  restricted  himself  en- 
tirely to  sacred  music,  Mozart  having  confirmed 
his  own  conviction  that  his  disposition  was  too 
simple  and  quiet  for  the  intrigues  and  conflicts 
of  the  stage.  For  the  '  Tonkiinstler  Societat,'  of 
which  he  was  many  years  president,  he  wrote 
the  cantata  '  Die  Hirten  bei  der  Krippe'  (1794^  ; 
and  for  the  Emperor  'Die  vier  letzten  Dinge,' 
an  oratorio  first  performed  at  court  (1810)  and 
afterwards  by  the  Tonkunstler- Societat.  His 
printed  works — chamber-music,  pieces  for  piano- 
forte and  other  instruments,  vocal  music,  and 
several  symphonies  —  were  favourites  in  their 
day,  but  his  church-music  is  of  greater  value. 
Here,  the  devotional  spirit  with  which  the  whole 
is  penetrated,  the  flow  of  the  voice-parts,  and 
the  appropriate  if  at  times  too  powerful  instru- 
mentation— all  remind  us  of  Michael  Haydn  at 
his  best.  His  best  work,  the  Requiem  in  G 
minor,  which  is  fine  as  a  whole  and  even  sublime 
in  parts,  has  been  brought  into  notice  by  Roch- 
litz  (AUg.  mus.  Zeitung  1826,  No.  19).  Has- 
linger  published  the  Requiem,  7  Masses,  2  Te 
Deums,  1 3  Offertoriums,  Graduales,  and  Vespers, 
the  greater  part  of  which  are  still  in  use. 
Ey bier's  quiet  life,  undisturbed  by  jealousy  or 
envy,  made  him  respected  by  high  and  low. 
For  many  years  he  held  an  honourable  post,  and 
saw  the  great  heroes  of  his  art,  Gluck,  Mozart, 
Haydn,  Beethoven,  and  Schubert,  carried  to  the 
grave.  —  In  England  Eybler  is  hardly  even  a 
name ;  and  it  is  probable  that  in  the  numerous  and 
extensive  collections  of  pieces  and  arrangements  of 
Hullah,  Novello,  Best,  Cooper,  etc.,  not  a  single 
composition  of  his  is  to  be  found.         [0,  F.  P. 


r. 


FThe  4th  note  of  the  natural  scale,  with 
Bb  for  its  signature.    In  French  and  in 
*    solfaing,  Fa.    D  is  its  relative  minor. 
The  F  clef  is  the  bass  clef,  the  sign  of  which 
is  a  corruption  of  that  letter. 

F  minor  has  a  signature  of  4  flats,  and  Ab  is 
its  relative  major. 

F  is  the  tonic  of  the  Aeolian  church  mode, 
with  C  for  its  dominant. 

F#  is  in  German  Fis,  in  French  Fa  diese. 
Beethoven  has  very  much  favoured  these  keys, 
having  left  2  Symphonies  (Pastoral  and  No.  8), 
3  String  Quartets  (the  1st  and  last,  and  Rasso- 
moffsky,  No.  i),  2  P.  F.  Sonatas,  etc.,  in  F  major. 
Overture  to  Egmont,  Sonata  appassionata.  Quar- 
tet, op.  95,  in  F  minor.  Haydn,  on  the  other 
hand,  very  seldom  composed  for  the  orchestra  in 
this  key,  major  or  minor. 


Fj  is  more  rarely  used  ;  but  we  may  mention 
Haydn's  Farewell  Symphony ;  a  P.  F.  Sonata 
(op.  78)  by  Beethoven,  for  which  he  had  a  pecu 
liar  aflfection ;  and  a  charming  Romance  of 
Schumann's  (op.  28). 

fy  for.,  or  forte,  is  the  well-known  sign  for 
loudness. 

The  holes  in  the  belly  of  the  violin  are  called 
the  /  holes  from  their  shape.  [G.] 

FABRI,  Aknibale  Pio,  Detto  Balino,  one 
of  the  most  excellent  tenors  of  the  1 8th  century, 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  1697.  Educated  musi-r 
cally  by  the  famous  Pistoccht,  he  became  the 
favourite  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VT,  and  other 
Princes  sought  to  engage  him  in  their  service. 
He  was  also  a  composer,  and  member  of  the 
Accademia  Filarmonica  of  Bologna ;  received 
into  that  society  in  1 719,  he  was  named  its  Prin- 


FABRI. 


FALSETTO. 


501 


cipe,  or  president,  in  1725,  29,  45,  47,  and  50. 
In  1729  he  came  to  England  and  sang,  with 
Bemacchi,  his  fellow-pupil  under  Pistocchi,  in 
Handel's  '  Toloraeo,'  taking  the  part  of  Araspe, 
formerly  sung  by  Boschi.    As  the  latter  was  a 
Bass,   the  part  was  probably  transposed  for 
Fabri  for  want  of  a  Bass  to  sing  it.     In  the 
same  year  he  performed  the  tenor  part  in  '  Lo- 
tario,'  as  also  in  'Partenope'  (1730),  and  in 
*Poro'  and  a  reprise  of  'Rinaldo'  (1731),  all  by 
the  same  master.     Having  been  appointed  to 
the  Royal  Chapel  at  Lisbon  a  few  years  later, 
he  died  there  Aug.  12,  1760.  [J.M.] 
FABRIZZI,  Orazia,  an  Italian  prima  donna, 
described  by  Lord  Mount-Edge  umbe  as  '  very  far 
from  a  bad  singer,  but  neither  young  nor  pretty, 
therefore  not  liked';  she  appeared  in  London 
about  1 796  and  sang  that  year  the  principal  roles 
in  Martini's  'Consiglio  Imprudente'  and  Cima- 
rosa's  'Traci  Amanti,'  as  also  in  Martini's  'Ar- 
bore  di  Diana.'  She  was  not  re-engaged.  [J.M.] 
FACKELTANZ,  or  Marche  aux  flambeaux, 
a  torchlight  procession — a  survival  from  the 
mediaeval  tournaments — which  takes  place  at 
some  of  the  German  Courts  on  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  members  of  the  royal  family.  The 
procession  has  to  march  round  the  court  or 
hall,  with  various  intricate  ceremonies  (Times, 
Feb.  19,  1878).    The  music — for  military  band — 
is  a  Polonaise  in  march-time  (3-4),  usually  a  loud 
first  and  last  part,  and  a  soft  trio.  Meyerbeer 
I  has  written  four — one  for  the  marriage  of  the 
1  Princess  Royal  (Jan.  25,  1858).    Spontini,  Flo- 
j  tow,  and  others,  have  also  written  them.  [G.] 
I      FAGOTTO.  The  Italian  name  for  the  Bassoon, 
!  obviously  arising  from  its  resemblance  to  a  faggot 
I  or  bundle  of  sticks.    The  Germans  have  adopted 
,  it  as  Fagott.    [See  Bassoon.]  [W.  H.  S.] 

^  FAIR  ROSAMOND.  A  grand  opera  in  4 
'  acts ;  words  by  C.  Z.  Bamett,  music  by  John 
I  Barnett ;  produced  at  Drury  Lane  Feb.  28,  1837. 

FA-LA.  A  piece  of  vocal  music  for  three 
'  or  more  voices,  originally  set  wholly  or  in  part 
to  these  two  sol-fa  syllables.  Fa -las  belong 
essentially  to  the  madrigalian  era,  most  of  the 
composers  of  which  have  left  specimens  of  them. 
They  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Gastoldi  di 
Caravaggio — if  the  utterance  of  musical  sounds  on 
unmeaning  syllables  can  be  called  an  invention 
Many  of  his  '  balletti,'  like  many  of  the  Ballets 
of  Morley — such  as  '  Now  is  the  month  of  May 
ing' — end  with  a  lengthened  Fa-la.  A  4-part 
song  known  as  '  The  Waitts,'  by  an  English 
composer  Jeremiah  Saville,  set  wholly  on  those 
i  syllables,  is  probably  the  most  popular  Fa-la  in 
existence.  [J.  H.] 

FALLING  A  BELL.  The  operation  of  grad- 
ually swinging  a  bell  from  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  p.  219,  to  that  in  Fig.  3,  p.  220.  [See 
Bells.]  [C.A.W.T.] 
,  FALSE  RELATION  is  the  occurrence  of 
'<  chromatic  contradiction  in  different  parts  or 
voices,  either  simultaneously,  as  at  (a),  or  in 
chords  which  are  so  near  together  that  the  effect 


of  one  has  not  passed  from  the  mind  before  the 
other  comes  to  contradict  it  with  a  new  accidental, 
at  (6). 

(a)  ^  iP) 


The  disagreeable  effect  is  produced  by  the  con- 
tradictory accidentals  belonging  to  different  keys, 
or  unequivocally  to  major  or  minor  of  the  same 
key ;  and  it  follows  that  when  the  contradiction 
is  between  notes  which  can  coexist  in  the  same 
key  the  effect  is  not  disagreeable.  Thus  chromatic 
passing  notes  and  appoggiaturas  do  not  affect 
the  key,  and  are  used  without  consideration  of 
their  apparent  contradictions.  Schumann  uses 
the  sharp  and  natural  of  the  same  note  in  the 
same  chord  in  his  'Andante  und  Variationen' 
for  two  pianofortes,  op.  46  (a),  and  Haydn  the 
same  in  his  Quartet  in  D,  op.  71  (6). 


etc. 


Again,  notes  which  are  variable  in  the  minor  key 
do  not  produce  any  objectionable  effect  by  their 
juxtaposition,  as  the  minor  7th  descending  and 
the  major  7th  ascending  or  stationary ;  thus 
^lendelssohn  in  the  Overture  to  '  Ruy  Bias '  has 
Bb  and  B  ij  in  alternate  chords. 


And  the  treatment  of  notes  which  are  inter- 
changeable in  chromatic  and  diatonic  chords  in 
the  same  key  is  equally  free,  as  between  a 
chromatic  note  of  the  chord  of  the  augmented 
sixth  and  a  succeeding  diatonic  discord. 


The  rule  is  further  modified  by  so  many  exceptions 
that  it  is  almost  doubtful  if  the  cases  in  which 
the  effect  is  objectionable  are  not  fewer  than 
those  m  which  it  is  not.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FALSETTO,  The  voices  of  both  men  and 
women  contain  two — or,  as  defined  in  the  'Me- 
thode  du  Chant  du  Conservatoire  de  Musique,' 
three — registers,  viz,  chest  voice  (voce  di  petto) ; 
head  voice  (v.  di  testa) ;  and  a  third  which,  as 
being  forced  or  non- natural,  is  called  by  Italians 
and  French  falsetto  or  fausset,  or  'false'  voice. 
The  limits  of  these  are  by  no  means  fixed.  In 
every  voice  identical  notes  can  be  produced  in 
more  ways  than  one,  and  thus  each  register  can 
be  extended  many  degrees  beyond  its  normal 


502 


FALSETTO. 


FANFARE. 


limits.  But  it  is  all  but  impossible  for  a  singer 
to  keep  both  first  and  third  registers  in  working 
order  at  the  same  time.  The  male  counter-tenor, 
or  alto  voice,  is  almost  entirely  falsetto,  and  is 
generally  accompanied  by  an  imperfect  pronun- 
ciation, the  vowels  usually  partaking  more  or 
less  of  the  quality  of  the  Italian  u  or  English  oo, 
on  which  the  falsetto  seems  to  be  most  easily 
producible. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  falsetto  in  musical 
Europe  is  in  reference  to  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
where  Spaniards  exceptionally  gifted  with  this 
voice  preceded  that  artificial  class  to  whom  since 
the  1 6th  century  alto  and  even  soprano  parts 
have  been  assigned.  [J.  H.] 

FALSTAFF.  A  comic  Italian  opera  in  2 
acts  ;  words  by  Maggioni,  music  by  Balfe.  Pro- 
duced at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  July  19,  1838. 

FANDANGO.  An  Andalusian  dance,  a 
variety  of  the  Sbguidilla,  accompanied  by  the 
guitar  and  castanets.  In  its  original  form  the 
fandango  was  in  6-8  time,  of  slow  tempo,  mostly 
in  the  minor,  with  a  trio  in  the  major;  some- 
times, however,  the  whole  was  in  a  major  key. 
Later  it  took  the  3-4  tempo,  and  the  characteristic 

Spanish  rhythm    J  J  J  J  J  .    In  this 

3 

shape  it  closely  resembles  the  seguidilla  and 
bolero.  One  Fandango  tune  is  given  by  Hawkins 
(Appendix,  No.  33).  Another  has  been  rendered 
famous  through  its  partial  adoption  by  both 
Gluck  and  Mozart — the  former  in  his  Ballet  of 
Don  Juan,  the  latter  in  Figaro  (end  of  Act  -3). 
It  is  given  in  its  Spanish  form  by  Dolirn  in  the 
Neue  Zeitschrift  f.  Musik  (xi.  163,  7)  as  foUows : — 
Andante. 


ad  lib. 


The  rhythm  of  the  castanets  was 

r  t  cir  >  1 1  r  a  £•  a  1 1 

Mozart's  version  is  known  and  accessible ; 
Gluck's  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix  to  Jahn's 
Mozart. 

There  is  a  curious  piece  of  history  said  to  be 
connected  with  this  dance.  Soon  after  its  first 
introduction,  in  the  17th  century,  it  was  con- 
demned by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  Spain 
as  a  'godless  dance.'  Just  as  the  Consistory 
were  about  to  prohibit  it,  one  of  the  judges 
remarked  that  it  was  not  fair  to  condemn  any  one 
unheard.  Two  celebrated  dancers  were  accord- 
ingly introduced  to  perform  the  fandango  before 
the  Consistory.  This  they  did  with  such  effect, 
that,  according  to  the  old  chronicler,  '  every  one 
joined  in,  and  the  hall  of  the  consistorium  was 
turned  into  a  dancing  saloon.'  No  more  was 
heard  of  the  condemnation  of  the  fandango. 

Similar  dances  to  the  fandango  are  the  Tirana, 
the  Polo,  and  the  Jota  Arragonesa.  [E.?.] 

FANFARE.  A  French  term  of  unknown 
origin — perhaps  Moorish,  perhaps  onomatopoeic — • 
denotes  in  strictness  a  short  passage  for  trumpets, 
such  as  is  performed  at  coronations  and  othejr 
state  ceremonies.  In  England  they  are  known 
as  '  Flourishes,'  and  are  played  by  the  Trumpeters 
of  Her  Majesty's  Household  Cavalry  to  the 
number  of  eight,  all  playing  in  unison  on 
Eb  trumpets  without  valves.  The  following, 
believed  to  date  from  the  reign  of  Charles  II, 
is  the  Flourish  regularly  used  at  the  opening 
of  Parliament,  and  was  also  performed  at  the 
announcement  of  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War, 
the  visit  of  the  Queen  and  Prince  of  Wales  to 
St.  Paul's  after  the  Prince's  recovery,  and  so  on  :— 


2.  So  picturesque  and  effective  a  feature  as  the 
Fanfare  has  not  been  neglected  by  Opera  com- 
posers.   No  one  who  has  heard  it  can  forget  the 


FANFARE. 


FARCE. 


503 


effect  of  the  two  flourishes  announcing  the  arrival 
of  the  Governor  in  Fidelio,  both  in  the  opera  and 
in  the  two  earlier  overtures.  True  to  the  fact, 
Beethoven  has  written  it  in  unison  (in  the  opera 
and  the  later  overture  in  Bb,  in  the  earlier 
overture  in  Eb,  with  triplets).  Other  composers, 
not  so  conscientious  as  he,  have  given  them  in 
harmony,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  horns 
and  trombones.  See  Olympic ;  Struensee,  Act  2  ; 
Hamlet,  Tabl.  2,  Sc.  i,  and  many  more.  A 
good  example  is  that  in  Tannhauser,  which 
forma  the  basis  of  the  march.  It  is  for  3  Trum- 
pets in  B: — 


A  fine  Fanfare  for  four  trumpets,  composed 
by  Mr.  Waterson,'  Bandmaster  of  the  ist  Life 
Guards,  is  played  as  a  dirge  at  the  funerals  of 
that  Regiment.  Weber  has  left  a  short  one — 
'kleiner  Tusch^ — for  20  trumpets  in  C  (J alms's 
Thematic  Cat.  No.  47  a).  [Tlsch.] 

3.  The  word  is  also  employed  in  a  general 
sense  for  any  short  prominent  passage  of  the 
brass,  such  as  that  of  the  Trumpets  and  Trom- 
bones (with  the  wood  wind  also)  near  the  end  of 
the  4th  movement  in  Schumann's  Eb  Symphony; 
or  of  the  whole  wind  band  in  the  opening  An- 
dante of  the  Reformation  Symphony. 

4.  A  Fanfare  diflFers  essentially  from  a  Call  or 
Signal.    [Signal.]  [G.] 

FANISKA.  Cherubini's  21st  opera;  in  3  acts; 
words  by  Sonnleithner  from  the  French.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Karnthnerthor  Theatre,  Vienna, 
Feb.  25,  1806. 

FANTASIA  is  a  term  of  very  respectable 
antiquity  as  applied  to  music,  for  it  seems  to  be 
sufficiently  established  by  both  Bumey  and 
Hawkins  in  their  Hi&tories  that  it  was  the  im- 
mediate predecessor  of  the  term  Sonata,  and 
shares  with  the  term  Ricercar  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  first  title  given  to  compositions 
expressly  for  instruments  alone.  It  seems  itself 
to  have  been  a  descendant  of  the  madrigal ;  for 
when  madrigals,  accompanied  as  they  commonly 
were  by  instruments  playing  the  same  parts  with 
the  voices,  had  to  a  certain  extent  run  their 
course  as  the  most  popular  form  of  chamber 
compositions,  the  possibility  of  the  irstruments 
playing  the  same  kind  of  music  without  the 
voices  was  not  far  to  seek.  Hawkins  remarks 
that  the  early  Fantasias  *  abounded  in  fugues 
and  little  responsive  passages  and  all  those  other 
elegances  observ^able  in  the  structure  and  con- 
trivance of  the  madrigal.'  They  were  written 
for  combinations  of  various  instruments,  such  as 
a  'Chest  of  Viols,'  and  even  for  five  'Comets' 
of  an  ancient  kind,  seemingly  something  like  a 
family  of  modern  serpents.    There  are  examples 

*  To  whom  I  am  iadebted  for  much  infonnatlon. 


of  this  kind  by  very  ancient  English  composers, 
and  some  also  for  the  '  Virginals '  by  Bird  and 
Gibbons  in  '  Parthenia.'  They  seem  to  have 
been  a  very  dry  species  of  composition,  and  Dr. 
Bumey  quotes  Simpson's  'Compendium'  to  the 
intent  that  in  the  year  1667  'this  style  of  music 
was  much  neglected  because  of  the  scarcity  of 
auditors  that  understand  it,  their  ears  being  more 
delighted  with  light  and  airy  music' 

In  the  works  of  Bach  there  are  a  great  number 
of  Fantasias  both  as  separate  works  and  as  the 
first  movement  to  a  Suite,  or  conjoined  with  a 
Fugue.  In  the  latter  capacity  are  two  of  the 
finest  Fantasias  in  existence,  namely  that  in 
A  minor  called  'Grosse  Fantasie  und  Fuga' 
(Dorffel,  158),  and  that  in  D  minor,  commonly 
known  as  the  '  Fantasia  cromatica.'  Among  his 
organ  works  also  there  are  some  splendid  speci- 
mens, such  as  Fantasia  et  Fuga  in  G  minor 
(Dorffel,  798),  and  a  Fantasia  of  considerable 
length  in  G  major,  constituting  a  complete  work 
in  itself  (Dorffel,  855).  Among  the  works  of 
his  sons  and  other  contemporaneous  German 
masters  are  also  many  specimens  of  Fantasias. 
Some  of  them  are  very  curious,  as  the  last  move- 
ment of  a  Sonata  in  F  minor  by  Philip  Emmanuel 
Bach,  published  in  Roitzsch's  '  Alte  Klavier 
Music,'  in  the  greater  part  of  which  the  division 
by  bars  is  entirely  dispensed  with  ;  and  the  same 
peculiarity  distinguishes  a  Fantasia  by  Johann 
Ernst  Bach  which  is  published  in  the  same 
collection.  Two  of  those  by  Friedemann  Bach 
(in  A  and  C)  have  been  revived  at  the  Monday 
Popular  Concerts.  Mozart  produced  some  fine 
examples  of  Fantasias,  Beethoven  apparently 
only  two  distinctly  so  called,  namely  Opus  77 
and  the  Choral  Fantasia ;  and  two  of  the  Sonatas 
(op.  27)  are  entitled  'quasi  una  Fantasia,'  which 
implies  some  irregularity  of  form.  In  more 
modem  times,  apart  from  Schimaann's  fine  ex- 
ample dedicated  to  Liszt  (op.  17),  the  name  has 
gone  somewhat  into  disrepute,  having  been  com- 
monly employed  to  label  vulgar  effusions  which 
consist  of  brilliant  passages  connected  with  popular 
airs  strung  together  into  a  piece  for  the  mere 
display  of  finger  cleverness.  But  in  these  days  of 
revivals  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  name 
should  not  be  given  to  more  honourably  conceived 
compositions,  and  yet  play  a  role  of  some  dignity 
in  modem  instrumental  music ;  and  the  very  fact 
that  there  are  no  rules  for  its  formal  construction 
would  seem  to  be  an  inducement  to  composers  of 
an  independent  turn  of  mind.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FANTASIESTUCK.  A  name  adopted  by 
Schumann  fi:om  Hoffmann  to  characterise  various 
fancy  pieces  for  pianoforte,  alone  and  with  other 
instruments  (P.  F.  solo,  op.  1 2,  iii ;  with  Clarinet, 
op.  73 ;  with  Violin  and  Cello,  op.  88).  They 
are  on  a  small  scale,  but  several  of  them  of  con- 
siderable beauty. 

FARCE  (Ital.  Farsia,  probably  from  the 
Latin  farcio  to  stuff — Plautus  has  centones 
farcire,  to  insert  falsehoods  or  tricks).  A  farsia 
was  a  canticle  in  the  vulgar  tongue  intermixed 
with  Latin,  originating  in  the  French  church 


504 


FAECE. 


FARINELLI. 


at  the  time  when  Latin  began  to  be  a  tongue 

*  not  understanded  of  the  people.'  The  farsia 
was  sung  in  many  churches  at  the  principal 
festivals,  almost  universally  at  Christmas.  It 
became  a  vehicle  for  satire  and  fun,  and  thus 
led  to  the  modern  Farsa  or  Farce,  an  opera  in 
one  act,  of  which  the  subject  is  extravagant  and 
the  action  ludicrous.  [J.H.] 

FARINELLI.  A  serio-comic  opera  in  2  acts ; 
words  by  C.  Z.  Barnett,  music  by  John  Barnett ; 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  Feb.  8,  1839,  Balfe 
acting  Farinelli,  and  being  forced  by  hoarseness 
to  leave  off  at  end  of  ist  act. 

FARINELLI,  a  violin-player  and  composer, 
was  either  a  brother  or  an  uncle  of  the  cele- 
brated singer  Farinelli  (Carlo  Broschi).  Date 
and  place  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 
After  living  for  some  time  in  France  we  find 
him  in  1680  at  Hanover,  side  by  side  with 
Handel,  as  leader  of  the  band.  He  appears  to 
have  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  as  a  performer, 
and  considerable  popularity  as  a  composer  of  in- 
strumental music  in  a  light  and  pleasing  style. 
He  excelled  especially  in  the  performance  of 
LuUi's  airs  and  his  own  so-caUed  '  Folia,'  which 
was  known  in  England  during  the  last  century  as 

*  Farinell's  ^  ground.'  [See  Folia.]  Farinelli  was 
knighted  by  the  King  of  Deimaark,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Hawkins,  was  appointed  by  George  I.  his 
resident  at  Venice.  [P-I^-] 

FARINELLI,  Carlo  Broschi,  detto,  was 
born  January  24,  1705,  at  Naples,  according  to 
his  own  statement  made  to  Dr.  Bumey,  who  saw 
him  at  Bologna  in  1770,  though  Padre  G.  Sacchi, 
his  biographer,  fixes  his  birthplace  at  Andria. 
Some  say  that  he  derived  his  sobriquet  from  the 
occupation  of  his  father,  who  was  either  a  miller 
or  a  seller  of  flour  (farina) ;  others  contend  that 
he  was  so  named  after  three  brothers  Famna, 
very  distinguished  amateurs  at  Naples,  and  his 
patrons.  It  is,  however,  quite  probable  that  he 
simply  took  the  name  of  his  uncle  Farinelli,  the 
composer.  Sacchi  declares  that  he  saw  in  Fari- 
nelli's  possession  the  letters  of  nobility  which  he 
was  required  to  produce  when  admitted,  by  the 
favour  of  the  King  of  Spain,  into  the  orders  of 
Calatrava  and  St.  lago.  It  seems  scarcely 
credible  that  noble  parents  should  have  destined 
their  son  for  the  musical  stage,  or  consented  to 
the  peculiar  preparation  necessary  to  make  him 
a  soprano ;  but  this,  as  usual,  is  explained  by 
the  story  of  an  accident  having  happened  to  the 
boy  while  riding,  which  rendered  necessary  the 
operation  by  which  he  retained  his  treble.  The 
voice,  thus  manufactured,  became  the  most 
beautiful  ever  heard.  He  soon  left  the  care  of 
his  father,  who  taught  him  the  rudiments,  to 
enter  the  school  of  Porpora,  of  whom  he  was  the 
first  and  most  distinguished  pupil.  In  spite  of 
his  now  explicit  statement  to  Dr.  Bumey,  it  is  not 
possible  that  Farinelli  could  have  made  his  d6hut 
at  Naples  in  1720,  at  the  age  of  15,  in  Metasta- 

»  D'Urfey  wrote  his  song  'Joy  to  great  Cassar*  in  honour  of  Charles 
11,  to  '  divisions '  OQ  this  bass ;  it  must,  therefore,  have  been  composed 
Defore  1685. 


sio's  'Angelica  e  Medoro' ;  for  the  latter  did  not 
leave  Rome  till  1721,  and  'Angelica  e  Medoro' 
was  not  written  before  1722.  (F^tis.)  In  that 
year  Farinelli,  already  famous  in  southern  Italy 
under  the  name  of  il  ragazzo  (the  boy),  accom- 
panied Porpora  to  Rome,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  there  in  *  Eomene,'  composed  by  his 
master  for  the  Teatro  Aliberti.  There  was  a 
German  trumpet-player  at  that  time  in  the 
capital,  who  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Ro- 
mans by  his  marvellous  powers.  For  this  artist 
Porpora  wrote  an  ohhligato  part  to  a  song,  in 
which  his  pupil  vied  with  the  instrument  in 
holding  and  swelling  a  note  of  extraordinary 
length,  purity,  and  volume.  Although  the  vir- 
tuoso performed  this  in  a  wonderful  manner, 
Farinelli  excelled  him  in  the  dmration,  brilliance, 
and  gradual  crescendo  and  diminuendo  of  the 
note,  whUe  he  carried  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
audience  to  the  highest  pitch  by  the  novelty  and 
spontaneity  of  the  shakes  and  difficult  variations 
which  he  introduced  into  the  air.  It  is  probable 
that  these  were  previously  arranged  by  Porpora, 
and  not  due  to  the  impromptu  inspiration  of  the 
singer.  Having  remained  under  the  instruction 
of  his  master  until  1724,  Farinelli  made  his  first 
journey  to  Vienna  in  that  year.  A  year  later 
he  sang  for  the  first  time  at  Venice  in  Albinoni's 
'Didone  abbandonata,'  the  libretto  by  Metasta- 
sio  ;  and  subsequently  returned  to  Naples,  where 
he  achieved  a  triumph  in  a  Dramatic  Serenade 
by  Hasse,  in  which  he  sang  with  the  celebrated 
cantatrice,  Tesi.  In  1726  he  appeared  in  Fr. 
Ciampi's  *  Ciro '  at  Milan ;  and  then  made  his 
second  visit  to  Rome,  where  he  was  anxiously 
expected.  In  1727  he  went  to  Bologna,  where 
he  was  to  meet  the  famous  Bernacchi,  the  '  King 
of  Singers,'  for  the  first  time.  Meeting  this 
rival  in  a  Grand  Duo,  Farinelli  poured  forth  all 
the  beauties  of  his  voice  and  style  v>rithout 
reserve,  and  executed  a  number  of  most  difiicult 
passages,  which  were  rewarded  with  tumviltuous 
applause.  Nothing  daunted,  Bernacchi  replied 
in  the  same  air,  repeating  every  trill,  roulade,  or 
cadenza,  which  had  been  sung  by  Farinelli.  The 
latter,  owning  his  defeat,  entreated  his  conqueror 
to  give  him  some  instruction,  which  Bernacchi, 
with  equal  generosity,  willingly  consented  to 
bestow  ;  and  thus  was  perfected  the  talent  of 
the  most  remarkable  singer,  perhaps,  who  has 
ever  lived. 

After  a  second  visit  to  Vienna  in  1728,  Fari- 
nelli went  several  times  to  Venice,  Rome,  Naples, 
Piacenza,  and  Parma,  meeting  and  vanquishing 
such  formidable  rivals  as  Gizzi,  Nicolini,  Faus- 
tina, and  Cuzzoni,  and  everywhere  loaded  with 
riches  and  honours.  In  1731  he  visited  Vienna 
for  the  third  time.  It  was  at  this  point  that  he 
modified  his  style,  from  one  of  mere  brilliance 
and  bravura,  which,  like  a  true  pupil  of  Porpora, 
he  had  hitherto  practised,  to  one  of  pathos  and 
simplicity.  This  change  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  by  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  *  You 
have,'  he  said,  'hitherto  excited  only  astonish- 
ment and  admiration,  but  you  have  never  touched 
the  heart;  it  would  be  easy  to  you  to  create 


FAEINELLI. 


FARINELLI. 


505 


emotion,  if  you  would  but  be  more  simple  and 
more  expressive ! '  Farinelli  adopted  this  ad- 
mirable counsel,  and  became  the  most  pathetic, 
as  he  was  still  the  most  brilliant,  of  singers. 

Returning  once  more  to  Italy,  he  revisited 
with  ever-increasing  renown  Venice,  Rome,  Fer- 
rara,  Lucca,  and  Turin.  In  1734  he  made  his 
first  journey  to  England.  Here  he  arrived  at 
the  moment  when  the  opposition  to  Handel,  sup- 
ported by  the  nobles,  had  established  a  rival 
Opera,  with  Porpora  for  composer,  and  Senesino, 
who  had  quarrelled  with  the  great  German,  for 
principal  singer.  The  enterprise,  however,  did 
not  succeed,  but  made  debts  to  the  amount  of 
£19,000.  At  this  juncture  Porpora  naturally 
thought  of  his  illustrious  pupil,  who  obeyed 
the  summons,  and  saved  the  house.  He  made 
his  first  appearance  at  the  Theatre,  Lincoln's 
Inn,  in  'Artaserse,'  the  music  of  which  was 
chiefly  by  Riccardo  Broschi,  his  own  brother,  and 
Hasse.  The  most  favourite  airs  were  '  Pallido 
il  sole,'  set  by  Hasse  and  sung  by  Senesino ; 
'  Per  questo  dolce  amplesso,'  by  the  same,  and 

*  Son  qual  nave,'  by  Broschi,  both  the  latter 
being  sung  by  Farinelli.  In  the  last,  composed 
specially  for  him,  the  first  note  (as  in  the  song 
in  *  Eomene ')  was  taken  with  such  delicacy, 
swelled  by  minute  degrees  to  such  an  amazing 
volume,  and  afterwards  diminished  in  the  same 
manner  to  a  mere  point,  that  it  was  applauded 
for  full  five  minutes.  After  this,  he  set  off  with 
such  brilliance  and  rapidity  of  execution  that 
it  was  difficult  for  the  violins  of  those  days  to 
accompany  him.     He  sang  also  in  'Onorio,' 

*  Polifemo,'  and  other  operas  by  Porpora ;  and 
excited  an  enthusiastic  admiration  among  the 
dilettanti  which  finally  culminated  in  the  famous 
ejaculation  of  a  lady  in  one  of  the  boxes  (per- 
petuated by  Hogarth  in  the  Rake's  Progress) — 

*  One  God  and  one  Farinelli ! '  In  his  first  per- 
formance at  Court,  he  was  accompanied  by  the 

I    Princess  Royal,  who  insisted  on  his  singing  two 
I    of  Handel's  songs  at  sight,  printed  in  a  different 
I    clef,  and  composed  in  a  different  style  from  any 
I    to  which  he  had  ever  been  accustomed.    He  also 
I    confirmed  the  truth  of  the  story,  that  Senesino 
1    and  himself,  meeting  for  the  first  time  on  the 
I    same  stage,  •  Senesino  had  the  part  of  a  furious 
tyrant  to  represent,  and  Farinelli  that  of  an 
unfortunate  hero  in  chains ;  but,  in  the  course 
of  the  first  song,  he  so  softened  the  obdurate 
I    heart  of  the  enraged  tyrant  that  Senesino,  for- 
'  j    getting  his  stage  character,  ran  to  Farinelli  and 
\  I    embraced  him  in  his  arms.'  The  Prince  of  Wales 
ij    gave  Farinelli  a  'fine  wrought -gold  snuff-box, 
richly  set  with  diamonds  and  rubies,  in  which 
was  enclosed  a  pair  of  diamond  knee  -  buckles, 
as  also  a  purse  of  one  hundred  guineas.'  This 
example  was  followed  by  most  of  the  courtiers, 
and  the  presents  were  duly  advertised  in  the 
Court  Journal.    His  salary  was  only  £1500,  yet 
during  the  three  years  1734,  5,  and  6,  which  he 
spent  in  London,  his  income  was  not  less  than 
£5000  per  annum.    On  his  return  to  Italy,  he 
built,  out  of  a  small  part  of  the  sums  acquired 
here,  '  a  very  superb  mansion,  in  which  he  dwelt, 


choosing  to  dignify  it  with  the  significant  ap- 
pellation of  the  English  Folly.' 

Towards  the  end  of  1736,  Farinelli  set  out  for 
Spain,  staying  a  few  months  in  France  by  the 
way ;  where,  in  spite  of  the  ignorance  and 
prejudice  against  foreign  singers  which  then 
distinguished  the  French,  he  achieved  a  great 
success.  Louis  XV  heard  him  in  the  Queen's 
apartments,  and  applauded  him  to  an  extent 
which  astonished  the  Court  (Riccoboni).  The 
King  gave  him  his  portrait  set  in  diamonds,  and 
500  louis  d'or.  Though  the  singer,  who  had 
made  engagements  in  London,  intended  only  a 
flying  visit  to  Spain,  his  fortune  kept  him  there 
nearly  25  years.  He  arrived  in  Madrid,  as  he 
had  done  in  London,  at  a  critical  moment. 
Philip  V,  a  prey  to  melancholy  depression,  neg- 
lected the  affairs  of  the  state,  and  refused  even 
to  preside  at  the  Council.  The  Queen,  hearing 
of  the  arrival  of  Farinelli,  determined  to  try  the 
effect  of  his  voice  upon  the  King.  She  arranged 
a  concert  in  the  next  room  to  that  which  the 
King  occupied,  and  invited  the  singer  to  perform 
there  a  few  tender  and  pathetic  airs.  The 
success  of  the  plan  was  instantaneous  and  com- 
plete ;  Philip  was  first  struck,  then  moved,  and 
finally  overcome  with  pleasure.  He  sent  for  the 
artist,  thanked  him  with  effusion,  and  bade  him 
name  his  reward.  Farinelli,  duly  prepared, 
answered  that  his  best  reward  would  be  to  see 
the  monarch  return  to  the  society  of  his  Court 
and  to  the  cares  of  the  state.  Philip  consented, 
allowed  himself  to  be  shaved  for  the  first  time 
for  many  weeks,  and  owed  his  cure  to  the  powers 
of  the  great  singer.  The  Queen,  aKve  to  this, 
succeeded  in  persuading  the  latter  to  remain  at 
a  salary  of  50,000  francs,  and  Farinelli  thus 
separated  himself  from  the  world  of  art  for  ever. 
He  related  to  Burney  that  during  10  years,  until 
the  death  of  Philip  V,  he  sang  four  songs  to  the 
King  every  night  without  change  of  any  kind. 
Two  of  these  were  the  '  Pallido  il  sole'  and  '  Per 
questo  dolce  amplesso'  of  Hasse;  and  the  third, 
a  minuet  on  which  he  improvised  variations. 
He  thus  repeated  about  3,600  times  the  same 
things,  and  never  anything  else  :  he  acquired, 
indeed,  enormous  power,  but  the  price  paid  for 
it  was  too  high.  It  is  not  true  that  Farinelli 
was  appointed  prime  minister  by  Philip ;  this 
post  he  never  had  :  but  under  Ferdinand  VI, 
the  successor  of  Philip,  he  enjoyed  the  position 
of  first  favourite,  superior  to  that  of  any  minister. 
This  king  was  subject  to  the  same  infirmity  as 
his  father,  and  was  similarly  cured  by  Farinelli, 
as  Saul  was  by  David.  His  reward  this  time 
was  the  cross  of  Calatrava  (1750),  one  of  the 
highest  orders  in  Spain.  From  this  moment  his 
power  was  imbounded,  and  exceeded  that  ever 
obtained  by  any  singer.  Seeing  the  effect  pro- 
duced on  the  King  by  music,  he  easily  persuaded 
him  to  establish  an  Italian  opera  at  Buen-retiro, 
to  which  he  invited  some  of  the  first  artists  of 
Italy.  He  himself  was  appointed  the  chief 
manager.  He  was  also  employed  frequently  in 
political  affairs,  was  consulted  constantly  by  the 
minister  La  Ensenada,  and  was  especially  con- 


508 


PARINELLI. 


FAEINELLI. 


sidered  as  the  agent  of  the  ministers  of  those 
European  Courts  which  were  opposed  to  the 
family  treaty  proposed  by  France.  (Bocous.) 
Tn  all  his  prosperity,  Farinelli  ever  showed  the 
greatest  prudence,  modesty,  and  moderation  :  he 
made  no  enemies,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  but 
conciliated  those  who  would  naturally  have 
envied  him  his  favour  with  the  King.  Hearing 
one  day  an  oflScer  in  the  anti-chamber  complain 
of  the  King's  neglect  of  his  30  years'  service, 
while  riches  were  heaped  on  '  a  miserable  actor,' 
Farinelli  begged  a  conmiission  for  the  grumbler, 
and  gave  it  to  him,  to  his  great  surprise,  observing 
mildly  that  he  was  wrong  to  tax  the  King  with 
ingratitude.  According  to  another  anecdote,  he 
once  requested  an  embassy  for  a  courtier,  when 
the  King  asked  him  if  he  was  not  aware  that 
this  grandee  was  a  particular  enemy  of  his : 
*  True,'  replied  Farinelli ;  '  but  this  is  how  I 
desire  to  take  my  revenge  upon  him.'  He  was 
as  generous  also  as  he  was  prudent.  A  story 
is  told  of  a  tailor  who  brought  him  a  handsome 
gala-costume,  and  refused  any  payment,  but 
humbly  begged  to  hear  one  song  from  the 
incomparable  artist.  After  trying  in  vain  to 
change  his  resolution,  Farinelli  good-humouredly 
complied,  and  sang  to  the  delighted  tailor,  not 
one,  but  several  songs.  Having  concluded,  he 
said :  '  I  too  am  rather  proud ;  and  that  is  the 
reason,  perhaps,  of  my  having  some  advantage 
over  other  singers.  I  have  yielded  to  you  ;  it  is 
but  just  that  you  should  yield  in  turn  to  me.' 
He  then  insisted  on  paying  the  man  nearly 
double  the  value  of  the  clothes. 

While  still  at  Madrid,  he  heard  of  the  death 
of  his  former  rival,  teacher,  and  friend,  Bemacchi. 
In  a  letter  (in  the  possession  of  the  present 
writer),  dated  April  13,  1756,  he  speaks  with 
deep  regret  of  the  loss  of  one  '  for  whom  he  had 
always  felt  esteem  and  affection,'  and  condoles 
with  his  correspondent,  the  Padre  Martini. 

Shortly  after  the  ascent  of  Charles  III  to  the 
throne  (1759),  Farinelli  received  orders  to  leave 
the  kingdom,  owing  probably  to  Charles's  in- 
tention to  sign  the  family  pact  with  France 
and  Naples,  to  which  the  singer  had  ever  been 
opposed.  He  preserved  his  salary,  but  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  live  at  Bologna  and  not  at 
Naples.  Once  more  in  Italy,  after  25  years  of 
exile,  Farinelli  found  none  of  his  friends  remain- 
ing. Some  were  dead ;  others  had  quitted  the 
country.  New  friends  are  not  easily  made  after 
middle  age ;  and  Farinelli  was  now  5  7  years 
old.  He  had  wealth,  but  his  grandeur  was  gone. 
Yet  he  was  more  addicted  to  talking  of  his 
political  career  than  of  his  triumphs  as  a  singer. 
He  passed  the  20  remaining  years  of  his  life  in 
a  splendid  palazzo,  a  mile  from  Bologna,  con- 
templating for  hours  the  portraits  of  Philip  V, 
Elisabeth,  and  Ferdinand,  in  silence,  interrupted 
only  by  tears  of  regret.  He  received  the  visits 
of  strangers  courteously,  and  showed  pleasure  in 
conversing  with  them  about  the  Spanish  Court. 
He  made  only  one  journey  during  this  period,  to 
Rome,  where  he  expatiated  to  the  Pope  on  the 
riches  and  honours  he  had  enjoyed  at  Madrid. 


The  Holy  Father  answered,  *  Avete  fatta  tanta 
fortuna  costk,  perche  vi  avete  trovato  le  gioie, 
che  avete  perdute  in  qua.' 

When  Bumey  saw  him  at  Bologna  in  1771, 
though  he  no  longer  sang,  he  played  on  the 
viol  d'amour  and  harpsichord,  and  composed  for 
those  instruments:  he  had  also  a  collection  of 
keyed  instruments  in  which  he  took  great  delight, 
especially  a  piano  made  at  Florence  in  1730, 
which  he  called  Rafael  ctUrbino.  Next  to  that, 
he  preferred  a  harpsichord  which  had  been  given 
to  him  by  the  Queen  of  Spain ;  this  he  called 
Correggio,  while  he  named  others  Titian,  Guido, 
etc.  He  had  a  fine  gallery  of  pictures  by  Murillo 
and  Ximenes,  among  which  were  portraits  of  his 
royal  patrons,  and  several  of  himself,  one  by  his 
friend  Amiconi,  representing  him  with  Faustina 
and  Metastasio.  The  latter  was  engraved  by 
I.  Wagner  at  London  (fol.),  and  is  uncommon  ; 
the  head  of  Farinelli  was  copied  from  it  again 
by  the  same  engraver,  but  reversed,  in  an  oval 
(4to),  and  the  first  state  of  this  is  rare :  it 
supplied  Sir  J.  Hawkins  with  the  portrait  for 
his  History  of  Music.  C.  Lucy  also  painted 
Farinelli ;  the  picture  was  engraved  (fol.)  in 
mezzotint,  1735,  by  Alex.  Van  Haecken,  and 
this  print  is  also  scarce. 

Ffctis  falls  into  an  error  in  contradicting  the 
story  of  Farinelli's  suggesting  to  the  Padre  Mar- 
tini to  write  his  History  of  Music,  on  the  ground 
that  he  only  returned  to  Italy  in  1761,  four 
years  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  volume, 
and  had  no  previous  relations  with  the  learned 
author.  The  letter  quoted  above  shows  that  he 
was  in  correspondence  with  him  certainly  as 
early  as  April  1756,  when  he  writes  in  answer 
to  a  letter  of  Martini,  and,  after  adverting  to  the 
death  of  Bemacchi,  orders  twenty-four  copies 
of  his  work,  bound  in  red  morocco,  for  presents 
to  the  Queen  and  other  notabilities  of  the  Court. 
It  is,  therefore,  quite  possible  that  their  corre- 
spondence originated  even  long  before  this.  They 
remained  in  the  closest  intimacy  until  death 
separated  them  by  the  decease  of  Farinelli,  July 
15,  1782,  in  the  78th  year  of  his  age. 

Martinelli  speaks  in  glowing  terms  of  this 
great  artist,  saying  that  he  had  7  or  8  notes 
more  than  ordinary  singers,  and  these  perfectly 
sonorous,  equal,  and  clear ;  that  he  had  also 
much  knowledge  of  music,  and  was  a  worthy 
pupil  of  Porpora.  Mancini,  a  great  master  of 
singing  and  a  fellow -pupil  of  Bemacchi  with 
Farinelli,  speaks  of  him  with  yet  more  en- 
thusiasm. 'His  voice,'  he  says,  'was  thought 
a  marvel,  because  it  was  so  perfect,  so  powerful, 
so  sonorous,  and  so  rich  in  its  extent,  both  in  the 
high  and  the  low  parts  of  the  register,  that  its 
equal  has  never  been  heard  in  our  times.  He 
was,  moreover,  endowed  with  a  creative  genius 
which  inspired  him  with  embellishments  so  new 
and  so  astonishing  that  no  one  was  able  to 
imitate  them.  The  art  of  taking  and  keeping 
the  breath,  so  softly  and  easily  that  no  one  could 
perceive  it,  began  and  died  with  him.  The 
qualities  in  which  he  excelled  were  the  evenness 
of  his  voice,  the  art  of  swelling  its  sound,  the 


FAEINELLI. 


FAKREXC. 


507 


portamento,  the  union  of  the  registers,  a  surprising 
agility,  a  graceful  and  pathetic  style,  and  a  shake 
as  admirable  as  it  was  rare.  There  was  no 
branch  of  the  art  which  he  did  not  carry  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  perfection  ....  The  successes 
which  he  obtained  in  his  youth  did  not  prevent 
him  from  continuing  to  study ;  and  this  great 
artist  applied  himself  with  so  much  perseverance 
that  he  contrived  to  change  in  some  measure  his 
style  and  to  acquire  another  and  superior  method, 
when  his  name  was  already  famous  and  his 
fortune  brilliant.'  Such  was  FarineUi,  as  superior 
to  the  great  singers  of  his  own  period  as  they 
were  to  those  of  more  recent  times.         [J.  M.] 

FARIXELLI,  Giuseppe,  composer,  bom  at 
Este,  May  7,  1 769  ;  in  1 785  entered  the  con- 
servatorio  '  De'  Turchini '  at  Naples,  where  he 
studied  accompaniment  imder  Fago,  and  com- 
position under  Sala  and  Tritto.  In  1808  he 
was  in  Venice,  and  18 10-17  Turin.  In  18 19 
he  was  appointed  chapel-master  at  Trieste,  where 
he  died  Dec,  12,  1836.  He  composed  an  im- 
mense number  of  operas  in  avowed  imitation  of 
Cimarosa,  which  however  were  more  successful 
than  the  majority  of  imitations.  A  duet  he 
introduced  into  the  '  Matrimonio  Segreto '  has 
been  mistaken  for  Cimarosa's  own  composition. 
He  also  wrote  masses,  a  'Stabat'  in  two  parts, 
*nd  other  church  music.  [M.  C.  C] 

FAKMER,  John,  'practitioner  in  the  art  of 
Musique '  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1 6th  century, 
published  in  15 91  a  little  tract  entitled  'Divers 
and  sundrie  waies  of  two  Parts  in  one,  to  the 
number  of  fortie  upon  one  playn  Song ;  some- 
times placing  the  Ground  above  and  the  parts 
benethe,  and  otherwise  the  Ground  benethe  and 
the  parts  above,'  etc.  He  was  one  of  the  ten 
composers  employed  by  T.  Este  to  harmonise  the 
tunes  for  his  '  Whole  Book  of  Psalms '  published 
in  1592.  In  1599  he  published  his  'First  Set 
of  English  Madrigals  to  Foure  Voyces,'  in  the 
address  'To  the  Reader'  prefixed  to  which  he 
says  he  has  fitly '  linkt '  his  '  Musicke  to  number,' 
and  given  to  each  'their  true  eflfect.'  Both  this 
work  and  his  tract  are  dedicated  to  the  Earl  of 
Oxenford,  whom  the  author  describes  as  'my 
very  good  Lord  and  Master.'  Farmer  contributed 
to  '  The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1 601,  the  madrigal 
'  Faire  nimphes  I  heard  one  telling.'  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  biography.  [W.  H.  H.] 

FARMER,  Thomas,  Mus.  Bac,  was  originally 
one  of  the  Waits  of  London,  and  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1684.  He  compoced  instrumental 
music  for  the  theatre  and  contributed  some  songs 
to  'The  Theater  of  Music,'  1685-87,  and  to 
D'Urfey's  Third  Collection  of  Songs,  1685.  In 
1686  he  published  'A  Consort  of  Musick  in  four 
parts,  containing  thirty-three  Lessons  beginning 
with  an  Overture,'  and  in  1690  'A  Second  Con- 
sort of  Musick  in  four  parts,  containing  eleven 
Lessons,  beginning  with  a  Ground,'  Purcell 
composed  an  Elegy,  written  by  Nahum  Tata, 
upon  his  death  (printed  in  Orpheus  Britannicus, 
ii.  35)  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  he 
died  young.  [W.H.H.] 


FARNABY,  Giles,  Mus.  Bac,  was  of  the 
family  of  Famaby  of  Truro,  and  nearly  related 
to  Thomas  Farnabie,  the  famous  Kentish  school- 
master. He  commenced  the  study  of  music 
about  1580,  and  on  July  9,  1592,  graduated  at 
Oxford  as  Bachelor  of  Music.  He  was  one  of 
the  ten  composers  employed  by  Thomas  Este 
to  harmonise  the  tunes  for  his  '  Whole  Book  of 
Psalms,'  published  in  1592.  In  1598  he  pub- 
lished '  Canzonets  to  foure  voyces,  with  a  song  of 
eight  parts,'  with  commendatory  verses  prefixed 
by  Antony  Holbome,  John  Dowland,  Richard 
Alison,  and  Hugh  Holland.  A  madrigal  by 
Farnaby,  'Come,  Charon,  come,'  is  extant  in 
MS.  [W.H.H.] 

FARNESE,  Marianna,  a  seconda  donna  who 
appeared  in  London  about  the  years  1776  and  7. 
She  took  part  in  Traetta's  'Germondo,'  and  also 
played  Calipso  in  his  'Telemaco.'  [J.M.] 

FARRANT,  John.  There  were  two  musi- 
cians of  this  name,  who  both  flourished  about 
the  year  1600.  The  elder  was  organist  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  and  the  other  organist  of 
Christ's  Hospital,  London.  Nothing  more  is 
known  of  their  lives.  [W.H.H.] 

FARRANT,  Richakd,  was  one  of  the  Gen- 
tlemen of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  date  of  his  first  appointment  is 
not  known,  but  he  resigned  in  April,  1564,  on 
becoming  Master  of  the  Children  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  also  a  lay  vicar  and  organist.  During  his 
tenure  of  oflBce  at  Windsor  he  occupied  '  a 
dwelling  house  within  the  Castle,  called  the 
Old  Commons.'  On  Nov.  5,  1569,  he  was  re- 
appointed a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and 
remained  such  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  Nov.  30,  1 580.  Farrant's  church  music  merits 
all  the  eulogy  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  it 
for  solemnity  and  pathos.  His  service  printed 
by  Boyce  in  G  minor  is  given  by  Tudway  (B. 
Museum,  Harl.  MSS.  7337  and  8)  in  A  minor, 
and  called  his  '  High  Service.'  His  two  anthems, 
'Call  to  remembrance'  and  'Hide  not  Thou  Thy 
face'  were  for  many  years  performed  on  Maundy 
Thursday  during  the  distribution  of  the  royal 
bounty.  The  beautiful  anthem,  'Lord,  for  Thy 
tender  mercies'  sake'  (the  words  from  Lydley's 
Prayers),  has  long  been  assigned  to  Farrant, 
although  attributed  by  earlier  writers  to  John 
Hilton,  Tudway  (Add.  MSS.  7340)  gives  another 
anthem — '  0  Lord,  Almighty,'  full,  4  voices — as 
his,  but  this  is  questionable. 

His  son,  Daniel,  was  one  of  the  first  authors 
who  set  lessons  'lyra  way'  for  the  viol,  after  the 
manner  of  the  old  English  lute  or  bandora,  in 
the  time  of  Charles  I.  [W.  H.  H.] 

FARRENC,  Aristide,  bom  at  Marseilles 
April  9,  1794,  died  in  Paris  Feb.  12,  1869,  com- 
posed some  pieces  for  the  flute,  but  is  best  known 
as  a  writer  on  music.  He  took  an  important 
part  in  the  2nd  edition  of  Fe'tis's  'Biographie 
universelle,'  and  wrote  the  biographical  notices 
in  Madame  Farrenc's  '  Tresor  des  Pianistes.' 
He  also  contributed  critiques  to  *  La  France 


508 


FARRENC. 


FAUST. 


musicale,'  and  '*  La  Revue  de  Musique  ancienne 
et  moderBe '  (Rennes  1858).  Some  of  his  valuable 
notes  and  unpublished  articles  are  among  the 
MSS.  in  the  library  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 

His  wife  Louise — bom  in  Paris  May  31,  1804; 
died  there  Sept.  15  1875 — was  a  sister  of  the 
sculptor  Auguste  Dumont,  and  aunt  of  Ernest 
Reyer.  She  studied  under  Reicha,  and  at  an 
early  age  could  compose  both  for  the  orchestra 
and  piano.  She  married  in  1821,  and  made 
several  professional  tours  in  France  with  her 
husband,  both  performing  in  public  with  great 
success.  Madame  Farrenc  was  not  only  a 
clever  woman,  but  an  able  and  conscientious 
teacher,  as  is  shown  by  the  many  excellent 
lemale  pupils  she  trained  during  the  thirty  years 
she  was  professor  of  the  piano  at  the  Conserva- 
toire (Nov.  1 84 2- Jan.  1873).  Besides  some 
remarkable  Etudes,  sonatas,  and  pieces  for  the 
pianoforte,  she  composed  sonatas  for  piano  and 
violin  or  cello,  trios,  two  quintets,  a  sestet,  and 
a  nonet,  for  which  works  she  obtained  in  1869 
the  prize  of  the  Acad^mie  des  Beaux  Arts  for 
chamber-music.  She  also  wrote  two  symphonies 
and  three  overtures  for  full  orchestra,  and  several 
of  her  more  important  compositions  have  been 
performed  at  the  Conservatoire  concerts.  More 
than  by  all  these  however  her  name  will  be 
perpetuated  by  the  *  Trdsor  des  Pianistes,'  a  real 
anthology  of  music,  containing  chefs-d'oeuvre  of 
all  the  classical  masters  of  the  clavecin  and 
pianoforte  from  the  1 6th  century  down  to 
Weber  and  Chopin,  as  well  as  more  modern 
works  of  the  highest  value.  [Tkesor  des 
Pianistes.]  [G.C.] 
FASCH,  Carl  Friedrich  Christian,  founder 
of  the  *  Singakademie '  at  Berlin,  born  Nov.  18, 
1736,  at  Zerbst,  where  his  father  was  Capell- 
meister.  As  a  child  he  was  delicate,  and 
much  indulged.  He  made  rapid  progress  on  the 
violin  and  clavier,  and  in  the  rudiments  of 
harmony.  After  a  short  stay  at  Coethen,  where 
he  made  his  first  attempts  at  composition  in 
church-music,  he  was  sent  to  Strelitz.  Here  he 
continued  his  studies  under  Hertel,  in  all  branches 
of  music,  but  especially  in  accompaniment,  at 
that  time  a  diflBcult  art,  as  the  accompanyist  had 
80  little  to  guide  him.  In  1751  Linicke,  the 
court  clavierist,  having  declined  to  accompany 
Franz  Benda,  Fasch  offered  to  supply  his  place 
at  the  harpsichord,  and  Benda's  praises  incited 
him  to  still  greater  efforts.  After  his  return  to 
Zerbst  he  was  sent  to  complete  his  education 
at  Klosterbergen  near  Magdeburg.  Benda  had 
not  forgotten  their  meeting,  and  in  1756,  when 
just  20,  Fasch  was  appointed  on  his  recommenda- 
tion accompanyist  to  Frederic  the  Great.  His 
coadjutor  was  no  less  a  person  than  Emmanuel 
Bach ;  they  took  it  in  turns  to  accompany  the  King's 
flute-concertos,  and  as  soon  as  Fasch  had  become 
accustomed  to  the  royal  amateur's  impetuous 
style  of  execution  his  accompaniments  gave  every 
satisfaction.  The  Seven  Years  War  put  an  end 
to  Frederic's  flute-playing,  and  as  Fasch  received 
his  salary  in  paper,  worth  only  a  fifth  part  of 
its  nominal  value, — a  misfortune  in  which  he 


anticipated  Beethoven — he  was  compelled  to 
maintain  himself  by  giving  lessons.  For  his 
lessons  in  composition  he  made  a  collection  of 
several  thousand  examples.  About  the  same 
time  he  wrote  several  most  ingenious  canons, 
particularly  one  for  25  voices  containing  five 
canons  put  together,  one  being  in  seven  parts, 
one  in  six  and  three  in  four  parts.  After  the 
battle  of  Torgau  the  King  granted  him  an 
addition  of  100  thalers  to  his  salary,  but  the 
increase  covered  the  direction  of  the  opera,  which 
was  put  into  his  hands  from  1774  to  76.  After 
the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession  Frederic  gave 
up  his  practice,  and  Fasch  was  free  to  follow  his 
natural  inclination  for  church  music.  Li  1783, 
incited  by  a  16-part  Mass  of  Benevoli's,  which 
Reichardt  had  brought  from  Italy,  he  wrote  one 
for  the  same  number  of  voices,  which  however 
proved  too  difiBcult  for  the  court-singers.  He 
retained  his  post  after  Frederic's  death,  but 
occupied  himself  chiefly  with  composition  and 
teaching.  In  the  summer  of  1 790,  as  he  himself 
tells  us,  he  began  choral- meetings  in  the  summer- 
house  of  Geheimrath  Milow,  which  resulted  in 
the  '  Singakademie,'  an  institution  which  under 
his  pupil  and  successor  Zelter  became  very 
popular  and  exercised  an  important  influence  on 
musical  taste  in  Berlin  for  many  years.  Before 
his  death  Fasch  was  twice  visited  by  Beethoven, 
who  spent  some  time  in  Berlin  in  the  summer  of 
1796.  On  the  first  occasion,  June  21,  he  heard 
a  chorale,  the  three  first  numbers  of  Fasch' s 
mass,  and  several  movements  from  his  1 1 9th 
Psalm,  and  he  himself  extemporised  on  one  of 
the  subjects  of  the  latter.  On  the  28th  he  re- 
appeared and  again  extemporised,  to  the  delight 
of  Fasch's  scholars,  who,  as  Beethoven  used  to 
say,  pressed  round  him  and  could  not  applaud 
for  tears  (Thayer's  'Beethoven,'  ii.  13).  The 
Academy  at  that  date  was  about  90  strong,  but 
at  the  time  of  Fasch's  death,  Aug.  3,  1800,  it 
had  increased  to  147.  In  accordance  with  a  wish 
expressed  in  his  will,  the  Academy  performed 
Mozart's  Requiem  to  his  memory — for  the  first 
time  in  Berlin.  The  receipts  amounted  to  1 200 
thalers,  an  extraordinary  sum  in  those  days,  and 
were  applied  to  founding  a  Fund  for  the  per- 
petual maintenance  of  a  poor  family.  In  180 1 
Zelter  published  his  Life — a  brochure  of  62 
pages  4to„  with  a  portrait.  In  1839  the  Academy 
published  Fasch's  best  sacred  works  in  6  volumes. 
A  7th,  issued  by  the  representatives  of  Zelter, 
contains  the  mass  and  the  canon  above  alluded 
to.  Of  his  oratorio  *  Giuseppe  riconosciuto,'  per- 
formed in  1774,  one  terzetto  alone  remains,  Fasch 
having  destroyed  the  rest,  together  with  several 
other  works  composed  before  the  16-part  mass. 
As  a  master  of  composition  in  many  parts,  Fasch 
is  the  last  representative  of  the  great  school  of 
sacred  composers  which  lasted  so  long  in  Italy, 
and  his  works  are  worth  studying.  They  combine 
the  severity  of  ancient  forms  with  modern  harmony 
and  a  fine  vein  of  melody,  and  constitute  a  mine 
which  would  well  repay  investigation.  [F.G.] 
FAUST.  Opera  in  5  acts ;  words  after  Goethe, 
by  Barbier  and  Carre ;  music  by  Gounod.  Pro- 


FAUST. 


FAUX-BOURDOX. 


509 


duced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  Mar.  19,  1859  ;  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  as  'Faust '  June  11,  63  ; 
at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden,  as 
'  Faust  e  Margherita,'  July  2,  63  ;  in  English 
(by  Chorley),  as  'Faust,'  at  Her  Majesty's,  Jan. 
23,  64.    In  Germany  as  '  Margarethe.' 

Music  to  Goethe's  Faust  was  composed  by  Lind- 
painter,  and  appears  to  have  been  produced  at 
Stuttgart  in  June  1832  ;  also  by  Prince  Radziwill, 
the  score  of  which  was  published  in  1 836.  Spohr's 
Faust  (words  by  Bemhard),  a  romantic  opera  in 
2  acts,  is  in  no  respect  connected  with  Goethe's 
play.  It  was  composed  at  Vienna  in  18 13  for 
the  Theatre  an  der  Wien,  but  was  first  performed 
at  Frankfort  in  March  181 8,  and  was  for  many 
years  a  great  favourite.  It  was  produced  in 
London  by  a  German  company  at  the  Prince's 
Theatre  May  21,  1840;  and  in  Italian  at  Covent 
Garden  under  Spohr's  baton  July  15,  52.  [G.] 

FAUSTINA  BORDONI.    See  Hasse,  Sig- 

NORA. 

FAUX-BOURDOX,  or  Falsohordone,  a  simple 
kind  of  Counterpoint  to  the  Church  Plain  Song  ; 
in  other  words,  a  harmony  to  the  ancient  chant. 
The  first  kind  of  variation  from  strictly  unisonous 
singing  in  the  Middle  Ages  wa^  the  '  Organum,' 
or  simple  aggrandisement  of  multitudinous  choral 
effect  by  the  additions  of  octaves  above  and  below 
the  Plain  Song  or  melody,  answering  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  the  diapasons  by  principal  and 
bourdon  stops  in  the  modem  organ.  Other  par- 
allel concords  were  also  (as  in  the  '  mixture'  organ 
stops)  blended  with  the  octaves — as  the  fifth,  and 
even  the  fourth.  These  appear  to  have  been 
used  as  early  as  the  Sth  century.  After  the 
Organum  the  next  improvement  was  the  'Dia- 
phonum'  and  '  Descant,'  and  by  the  14th  century 
there  are  historical  intimations  that  these  had 
led,  by  a  natural  development,  to  the  use  of 

*  Faux  bc-urdon '  at  Avignon,  whence  it  was 
taken  to  Rome  on  the  return  of  the  Papal  Court 
after  its  seventy  years  absence  from  that  city. 
Hawkins  (History,  ch.  56)  mentions  an  English 
MS.  tract,  by  one  Chilston,  preserved  in  the 

*  Manuscript  of  Waltham  Holy  Cross,'  most  likely 
of  the  14th  century,  giving  rules  and  directions 
*for  the  sight  of  descant  ....  and  of  Fahvrdon.^ 
Graforius  (1451-1522),  who  is  justly  considered 
the  father  of  the  artistic  music  of  the  great 
school  which  culminated  in  Counterpoint  k  la 
Pales trina,  as  also  Adam  da  Fulda,  about  the 
same  period,  are  among  the  earliest  writers  who 
speak  of  this  kind  of  harmony.  M.  Danjou  has 
iliscovered  in  the  Library  of  S.  !Mark,  Venice, 
treatises  by  Gulielmus  Monachus,  from  which  it 
is  plain  that  in  the  15th  century  the  faux-bour- 
don  was  held  in  equal  honour  in  England  and 
in  France. 

The  English  term  Fa-burden  is  evidently  a 
v^rruption  from  the  French  and  Italian.  Burden, 
I-  Burthen,  is  used  both  for  the  refrain  of  a  part 
•ng  or  chorus,  and  for  a  vocal  accompaniment 
1  dancing — 

'  Foot  it  featly  here  and  there, 
And  let  the  rest  the  harden  bear.' 


The  word  Bordone,  and  Bourdon,  in  its  pri- 
mary sense,  is  (in  both  languages)  a  pilgrim's 
staff';  hence,  from  similarity  in  form,  tbe  bass- 
pipe,  or  drone,  of  the  bag-pipe  ;  and  thence  again 
simply  a  deep  bass  note.  As  the  earliest  Falsi 
hordoni  of  which  we  have  specimens  are  prin- 
cipally formed,  except  at  their  cadences,  by  suc- 
cessions of  fourths  and  sixths  below  the  Plain 
Song  melody,  such  an  accompanying  bass,  to 
those  who  had  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  use 
the  low  octaves  of  the  organum,  and  to  consider 
thirds  and  sixths  inadmissible  in  the  harmonised 
accompaniment  of  the  Gregorian  Chant,  would 
sound /aZse  ;  and  this  application  of  the  meaning 
of  the  faho  and  faux  seems  a  more  rational 
derivation  than  that  sometimes  given  from  fal- 
setto and  fahette,  as  implying  the  combination 
of  the  high  voices  with  the  low  in  Falso  Bordone 
harmony. 

The  following  example,  from  a  *MS.  copied 
from  authentic  sources  at  ^Rome,  will  give  a 
better  idea  of  the  nature  of  this  kind  of  Counter- 
])oint  than  any  verbal  description.  It  is  a  Faux- 
bourdon,  of  the  15th  century,  on  the  2nd  tone 
(transposed  from  D  to  G)  ;  originally  written  for 
3  voices  with  the  canto  fermo  in  the  alto  part ; 
and  with  a  soprano  part,  ad  libitum,  added  by 
Baini : — 


ij         c             ^     ^                    5<c?     ^  ^ 

'^■^■^    CD    ^    ^    ^    ^           ^  ^ 

Glo  -  ri  -    a      Pa  -  tri      et       Fi  -  li  -  o 

i:^     <:l>    ^  ^ 
^     ^     ^  ^ 

et        Spi    -    ri    -    tu     -     i  gan      -  ,cto. 


The  same  harmony  (in  4  parts)  is  given  by 
Alfieri  (1840)  a  5th  higher.  A  Faux-bourdon 
on  the  same  tone  (transposed  into  Fj)  is  given 
by  M.  C.  Frank,  Paris  1857  :— 

Et     ex  -  ul  -  ta  -  \'X    Spi  -  ri  -  tus    me  -  us 


5     '       !       '  1 

'j     'j    'j    'j  'j 

in 

1 

r  ;   [  \  \  \ 

De  -  0       sa  -  lu  -  ta  - 

 1  1  1  ^  \  

>  i 

ri      me  -  0. 
1 

1 

'  r  r 

'  ^  ^  ^     ^  ^  ' — "--^-^ — 

Falsi  bordoni  by  Vittoria,  Bemabei,  de  Zacha- 

1  'Octo  Melodiae  octo  Modonim  harmonice  factae  ut  modulabantur 
saeculo  \W..  ad  praescriptum  Adami  de  Fulda.  et  Franchini  Gaforii." 

2  For  this  and  similar  specimens  of  harmonies  to  other  tunes,  see 
■  Accompanying  Harmonies  of  Plain  Song,'  by  Kev.  T.  Helmore,  Brief 
Directory,  p. ». 


510 


FAUX-BOURDON. 


FELIX  MERITIS. 


riis,  and  Viadana  will  be  found  in  Proske's  Musica 
Sacra,  torn,  iii.,  Liber  Vesperarum.  [T.H.] 

FAVORITE,  LA.  Opera  in  4  acts  ;  words  by 
Royer  and  Waetz,  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced 
at  the  Acaddmie  royale  Dec.  2,  1840;  in  London, 
as  La  Favorita,  at  Her  Majesty's,  Feb.  16,  47. 

FAWCETT,  John,  bom  at  Bolton-le-moors, 
Lancashire,  in  1 789,  was  originally  a  shoemaker, 
but  abandoned  that  calling  to  follow  the  profes- 
sion of  music  in  his  native  town.  He  composed 
three  sets  of  Psalm  and  Hymn  Tunes,  published 
at  various  periods  under  the  titles  of  '  The  Voice 
of  Harmony,'  'The  Harp  of  Zion,"  and  'Miriam's 
Timbrel,'  which  are  still  very  popular  in  Lanca- 
shire. In  1840  he  edited  and  arranged  the 
accompaniments  to  a  collection  of  psalm  and 
hymn  tunes  and  other  pieces  selected  by  Joseph 
Hart,  the  music  publisher,  entitled  '  Melodia 
divina.'  An  oratorio  of  his  composition,  called 
'Paradise,'  was  published  in  1853.  He  died  at 
Bolton,  Oct.  26,  1867.    His  third  son, 

John  Fawcett,  jun.,  Mus.  Bac,  was  bom 
about  1824,  and  when  only  eleven  years  old 
obtained  the  appointment  of  organist  at  St. 
John's  Church,  Farnworth.  Seven  years  later 
he  succeeded  an  elder  brother  as  organist  of  the 
parish  church,  Bolton.  In  1845,  leaving  a  sister 
to  discharge  his  duties  at  Bolton,  he  came  to 
London  and  entered  as  a  pupil  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  where  he  studied  under 
Stemdale  Bennett.  During  his  stay  in  London 
(about  twelve  months)  he  officiated  as  organist 
of  Curzon  Chapel.  On  Nov.  4,  1852,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  at 
Oxford,  his  exercise,  a  cantata,  entitled  '  Sup- 
plication and  Thanksgiving,'  performed  on  the 
previous  day,  being  highly  commended  by  the 
Professor  of  Music,  Sir  H.  R.  Bishop.  Fawcett 
died,  after  a  short  illness,  at  his  residence  in 
Manchester,  July  i,  1857.  [W.H.H.] 

FAYOLLE,  Francois  Joseph  Marie,  bora 
in  Paris  Aug.  15,  1774;  after  a  brilliant  career 
at  the  College  de  Juilly,  entered  the  corps  des 
ponts  et  chaussees  in  1792,  and  became  'chef 
de  brigade '  of  the  ^^cole  polytechnique  on  its 
foundation  in  1794.  Here,  under  the  instruction 
of  Prony,  Lagrange,  and  Monge,  he  studied  the 
higher  mathematics,  but  without  neglecting  litera- 
ture, and  with  Fontanes'  assistance  translated  a 
great  part  of  the  -^neid.  Of  his  verses  the  fol- 
lowing line  has  alone  survived  : — 

'  Le  temps  n'epargne  pas  ce  qu'on  a  fait  sans 
lui.' 

Though  forgotten  as  a  mathematician  and  a 
poet,  Fayolle  has  acquired  a  solid  reputation  for 
his  services  to  musical  literature.  He  studied 
harmony  under  Perne,  and  the  violoncello  under 
Bami,  but  abstained  from  printing  his  composi- 
tions ;  and  contented  himself  with  publishing 
'Les  quatre  Saisons  du  Pamasse'  (Paris  1805-9), 
a  literary  collection  in  16  vols.  i2mo.  for  which 
he  wrote  many  articles  on  music  and  musicians. 
He  also  furnished  the  greater  part  of  the  bio- 
graphical notices  in  the  'Dictionnaire  historique 
des  Musiciens,'  published  under  the  names  of 


Choron  and  himself  (Paris  1810-11),  a  work  to 
which  Fetis  is  much  indebted.  He  collected 
materials  for  a  History  of  the  Violin,  of  which 
however  only  fragments  appeared,  under  the  title 
'  Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,  Ga\nnies,  Pugnani, 
et  Viotti,  extraites  d'une  histoire  du  violon' 
(Paris  1 8 10).  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Fayolle 
came  to  England,  where  he  taught  French,  and 
wTote  for  the  '  Ha.rmonicon.'  On  the  eve  of  the 
Revolution  of  1830  he  returned  to  Paris,  and 
resumed  his  old  occupation  as  a  musical  critic. 
Among  his  later  works  may  be  mentioned  a 
pamphlet  called  'Paganini  et  Beriot'  (Paris 
1 830),  and  the  articles  on  musicians  in  the  supple- 
ment to  Michaud's  '  Biographic  Universelle.'  He 
died  Dec.  2,  1852,  at  Ste.  Perrine,  a  house  of 
refuge  in  Paris.  [G.  C] 

FAYRFAX,  Robert,  Mus.  Doc,  of  an  an- 
cient Yorkshire  family,  was  bom  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  15th  century.  He  was  of  Bayford, 
Hertfordshire,  and  is  supposed  to  have  held  the 
appointment  of  organist  or  chanter  of  St.  Alban's 
Abbey  early  in  the  i6th  century.  It  appears 
from  the  Privy  Purse  Expences  of  Elizabeth  of 
York  that  on  March  28,  1502  (the  Princess  be- 
ing then  at  St.  Alban's),  Fayrfax  was  paid  20s. 
'for  setting  an  Anthem  of  oure  lady  and  Saint 
Elizabeth.'  In  1504  he  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1 5 11  was 
admitted  to  the  same  degree  at  Oxford.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Alban's  Abbey,  under  a  stone  after- 
wards covered  by  the  mayor's  seat.  Several  of 
his  compositions  are  extant  in  MS.  in  the  Music 
School,  Oxford,  and  the  British  Museum.  In 
the  latter  library,  Add.  MSS.  5465,  is  a  volume 
of  MS.  old  English  songs  for  2,  3,  and  4  voices 
by  composers  of  the  15th  and  1 6th  centuries 
formerly  belonging  to  him,  and  afterwards  in 
the  possession  of  General  Fairfax,  at  whose  death 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Ralph  Thoresby  of 
Leeds.  Four  three-part  songs  by  Fayrfax  are 
printed  by  John  Staiford  Smith  in  his  Old 
English  Songs,  and  others  by  Hawkins  and 
Burney.  [W.H.H.] 

FELDLAGER  IN  SCHLESIEN,  EIN,  opera 
in  3  acts,  words  by  Relistab,  music  by  Meyer- 
beer ;  written  and  composed  in  memory  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great  for  the  opening  of  the  Berlin 
Opera  house — burnt  Aug.  18,  1843;  re-opened 
Dec.  7,  44.  It  was  performed  with  extraordinary 
applause  at  Vienna  Feb.  1 7,  47,  with  -Jenny  Lind 
as  Vielka ;  80  florins  were  given  for  places,  and 
Mej'erbeer  was  called  on  ten  times.  The  Feld- 
lager  appears  never  to  have  been  played  either 
in  France  or  England,  but  some  of  the  music  was 
afterwards  used  up  in  the  Etoile  du  Nord.  [G.] 

FELIX  MERITIS,  an  institution  in  Amster- 
dam that  includes  with  the  performance  of  music 
the  cultivation  of  letters,  art,  and  science.  It 
occupies  a  building  architecturally  important, 
with  a  large  concert-room,  library,  and  obser- 
vatory, situated  on  the  Keizer.^gracht,  one  of  the 
larger  canals.  Orchestral  concerts  take  place  in 
the  winter,  similar  to  those  of  the  London 
Philharmonic  and  the  Crj'stal  Palace  :  they  are 


FELIX  MEEITIS. 


FERIAL  AyD  FESTAL. 


511 


at  the  present  time  condi^cted  by  the  eminent 
Dutch  musician,  Heer  Joh.  J.  H.  Yerhulst. 
The  usual  number  is  lo,  and  the  subscription  is 
equivalent  to  £5.     The  early  historj'  of  Felix 
Mentis  has  been  narrated  by  Professor  J orisson 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Centenary,  Xov.  2,  1877. 
It  was  foimded  in  1777,  beginning  its  existence  t 
on  the  Leliegracht  (Lily  Canal)  of  Amsterdam.  I 
The  founders  intended  it  to  be  *  for  the  further-  ^ 
ance  of  laudable  and  useful  arts  and  sciences ;  the  , 
augmentation  of  reason  and  virtue  ;  the  increase  I 
and  prosperity  of  trade,  navigation,  agriculture,  i 
and  fishery,'  etc.,  etc.    But  Felix  began  at  once  j 
with  music  and  fine  art,  adding  literature  to  the 
scheme  two  years  later.   The  original  locale  soon  \ 
proved  to  be  too  small,  and  in  May  1782  the  , 
members  removed  to  the  Vorburgwal.    In  1785  | 
continued  increase  determined  the  erection  of 
the  present  building  on  the  Keizersgracht,  com- 
pleted three  years  after,  and  with  400  members, 
instead  of,  as  at  first,  40.    (On  May  i,  1S76, 
the  nimiber  of  members  of  all  classes  was  324.) 
The  wave  of  disturbance  caused  by  the  French 
Revolution  washed  over  Felix  Meritis,  and  in 
1792,  through  want  of  funds,  the  concerts  ceased. 
However,  the  leaders  of  the  institution  would 
not  allow  it  to  sink  in  the  vortex  of  political 
speculation;  and,  in  the  abolition  of  societies 
throughout  Holland  this  one  was  exempted. 
During  the  clatter  of  weapons  the  Muses  were 
silent,  but  in  i8oo  the  complement  of  members 
was  again  full,  and  in  1806  the  reading-room, 
long  closed  during  the  prohibition  of  newspapvers, 
opened  again.     In  that  year  Louis  Bonaparte, 
xnade  King  of  Holland,  offered  his  protection, 
which  was  declined,  as  was  also  the  proposal 
that  the  public  business  of  the  countr}-  should 
be  carried  on  in  the  building.    Xapoleon  I.  and 
Marie  Louise,  were  however  later  received  in 
it.    In  these  troubled  times  the  music  of  Felix 
Meritis  tended  to  soften  the  feelings  of  distress 
and  almost  despair  of  the  Amsterdam  patriots ; 
yet  that  solace  ceased  once  more  towards  the 
close  of  1S13,  the  country  being  in  a  state  of 
insurrection  against  the  French.    Afte:r  1S15 
came  peace  and  the  gentle  art-s  again,  and  within 
the  last  thirty  years  great  has  been  the  spiritual 
harvest  of  the  '  h^ppy  through  their  deserts ' ! 

The  name  Felix  Meritis  was  more  than  once 
applied  by  Robert  Schumann  to  Felix  Mendels- 
sohn ;  see '  Gesammelte  Schriften '  (Leipzig,  1 854), 
L  219  ;  also  i.  191,  92,  and  93.  [A.  J.H.] 

FELTOX,  Rev.  William,  bom  171 3,  vicar- 
dioral  of  Hereford  Cathedral  in  the  middle  of 
the  iSth  century,  was  distinguished  in  his  day  as 
a  composer  for,  and  performer  on,  the  organ  and 
harpsichord.     He  published  three  sets  of  con- 
certos for  those  instrimients  in  imitation  of  those 
of  Handel.    Bumey.  in  the  life  of  Handel  pre- 
-"^xed  to  his  account  of  the  Commemoration, 
lates,  on  the  authority  of  Abraham  Brown, 
e  violinist,  a  droll  anecdote  of  Felton  s  un- 
.^cessful  attempt,  through  Brown,  to  procure 
name  of  Handel  as  a  subscriber  to  the  second 
set  of  these  concertos.    Felton  also  published 
two  or  three  sets  of  lessons  for  the  same  instru- 


ments.  He  was  one  of  the  stewards  of  the  Meet- 
ing of  the  Three  Choirs  at  Hereford  1744,  and 
at  Gloucester  1745.    'Felton's  Gavot'  was  long 
highly  popular.  He  died  Dec.  6,  1 769.  W.H.H.] 
FEXTOX,  Lavixia,  whose  real  name  was 
Beswick,  was  an  actress  and  singer  who  first 
appeared  in  1726  at  the  Ha\-market  Theatre  as 
the  Parish  Girl,  in  Gay's  burlesque.  'The  What 
d'ye  call  it,'  and  afterwards  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields  Theatre,  July  15,  1726,  as  Lucilla  in  Sir 
W.  Davenant's  comedy,  •  The  Man's  the  Master.' 
She  attracted  no  particular  attention  imtil  she 
appeared  as  Polly  Peachem  in  '  The  Beggar's 
Opera,'  on  the  first  night  of  its  performance, 
Jan.  29.  172S,  when  she  'became  all  at  once 
the  idol  of  the  town  ;  her  pictures  were  engraven 
and  sold  in  great  numbers ;  her  life  written  ; 
books  of  letters  and  verses  to  her  published  ;  and 
pamphlets  made  of  even  her  very  sayings  and 
jests.'    This  success  led  to  her  being  entrusted 
with  more  important  parts  than  had  before  been 
assigned  to  her.    At  the  end  of  the  season,  after 
she  had  played  Polly  upwards  of  60  times,  she 
withdrew  from  the  stage  and  went  to  live  with 
Charles,  third  Duke  of  Bolton.  On  Oct.  21,  1 751, 
his  wife,  from  whom  he  had  been  separated 
many  years,  having  died,  the  Duke  married 
j  Lavinia  Beswick  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  She 
I  became  a  widow  in  1754,  died  in  January,  1760, 
1  at  West  Combe  Park,  Greenwich,  and  was  buried 
in  Greenwich  Church,  Feb.  3,  1760.  [W.H.H.] 
FEO.  Frakcesco,  one  of  the  masters  of  the 
Xeap?litan  school,  was  bom  at  Xaples  in  1699. 
The  traditions  of  Greco  and  Scarlatti  were  still 
fresh  there,  and  it  was  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
last  named  that  Domenico  Gizzi  had  opened  the 
private  school  at  which  Feo  learnt  the  art  of 
singing  and  the  principles  of  composition.  His 
bent  was  essentially  dramatic,  as  indeed  was  that 
of  nearly  all  the  Neapolitans  of  his  epoch,  with 
the  exception  of  Durante,  whose  colder  and 
gloomier  temperament  predisposed  him  towards 
!  the  ecclesiastical  severities  of  the  Roman  style. 
I  Feo,  like  Durante  and  Leo,  passed  some  time  at 
1  the  Vatican  as  the  pupil  of  Pitoni,  but  the  in- 
I  fluence  of  his  master  was  not  sufficient  to  divert 
I  him  from  Opera.    His  'Ipermestra,'  'Ariana,' 
1  and  'Andromache'  were  all  published  at  Rome 
itself,  and  apparently  during  his  residence  there. 
I  In  1740  he  succeeded  his  old  master  Gizzi  at 
Naples,  and  did  much  to  establish  the  school  as 
a  nursery  of  great  singers.    Though  addicted  to 
the  stage,  Feo  did  not  alt<>gether  neglect  Church 
I  Music,  and  his  work  is  distinguished  by  eleva- 
j  tion  of  style  and  profound  scientific  knowledge. 
;  But  a  certain  sensuousness.  even  in  his  sacred 
j  pieces,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  Gluck  bor- 
i  rowed  the  subject  of  a  Kyrie  by  him  for  a  chorus 
in  one  of  his  operas.  [E.  H.  P.] 

FERL\L  AXD  FESTAL.  In  the  Christian 
Church  from  very  early  times  the  term  Feria 
secunda  was  used  to  denote  Monday,  Feria  tertia 
Tuesday,  and  so  on.  Hence  the  word  Feria,  or 
;  Ferial  day,  came  to  denote  a  day  marked  by  no 
special  observance,  either  of  a  festal  or  a  peni- 
I  tential  character.    So  far  as  music  is  concerned. 


512         FERIAL  and  FESTAL. 


FERRARA. 


the  chief  difference  is  that  on  the  ferial  days  the 
music  is  less  elaborate  and  ornate  than  on  festal 
days,  when  it  is  more  florid,  for  more  voices, 
accompanied  by  the  organ,  etc.  The  two  kinds 
are  known  respectively  as  the  ferial  use  and 
festal  use.  [G.] 

FERLENDIS,  Signoea,  daughter  of  an  archi- 
tect named  Barberi,  bom  at  Rome  about  1778' 
Her  voice  was  a  strong  contralto,  but  somewhat 
hard  and  inflexible.  Having  studied  with  a 
teacher  called  Moscheri,  she  made  her  dehut 
at  Lisbon.  Here  she  had  the  advantage  of  some 
lessons  from  Crescentini,  and  here  also  (1802) 
she  married  Alessandro  Ferlendis,  the  oboist, 
member  of  a  very  distinguished  Italian  family 
of  players  on  the  oboe  and  English  horn.  She 
appeared  at  Madrid  in  the  next  year,  at  Milan 
in  1804,  and  in  1805  at  Paris  (Theatre  Lou- 
vois)  in  Fioravanti's  'Capricciosa  pentita.'  She 
achieved  there,  however,  no  success  in  any  other 
role  but  that  one.  Soon  after  this,  she  made 
ber  first  appearance  in  London  with  Catalani  in 
Oimarosa's '  Orazzi  e  Curiazzi.'  She  was  '  a  pretty 
good  actress,  and  at  that  time  first  buffa  ;  she 
was  less  liked  than  she  deserved,  for  she  had  a 
very  good  contralto  voice,  and  was  far  from  a 
bad  huff  a.  She  would  have  been  thought,  too, 
to  have  acted  the  part  of  Orazzia  well,  had  it 
not  been  for  the  comparison  with  Grassini,  and 
for  Catalani's  then  eclipsing  everybody.'  (Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe.)  She  accompanied  her  hus- 
band to  Italy  in  18 10;  her  later  career  is  not 
known.  [J.  M.] 

FERMATA  is  the  Italian  name  for  the  sign 
which  in  English  is  commonly  called  a 
Pause,  and  signifies  that  the  note  over  which  it 
is  placed  should  be  held  on  beyond  its  rrs 

natural  duration.     It  is  sometimes   H  

put  over  a  bar  or  double  bar,  in  ■' 
which  case  it  intimates  a  short  interval  of 
silence.  Schumann,  in  the  first  movement  of 
his  '  Faschingsschwank  in  Wien'  for  the  piano- 
forte, has  the  sign  over  the  double  bar  in  this 
manner,  where  the  key  changes  from  two  flats 
to  six  sharps,  and  has  also  written  '  Kurze 
Pause.'  [C.H.H.P.] 

FERN  AND  CORTEZ,  OU  LA  CONQUETE 
DU  MEXIQUE.  Opera  in  3  acts;  words  by 
Esm^nard  and  De  Jouy,  after  Piron  ;  music  by 
Spontini.  Produced  at  the  Acaddmie  impdriale 
Nov.  28,  1808;  at  Dresden,  March  1812;  after 
revision  by  the  composer,  at  Paris,  May  28, 1817, 
Berlin,  Apr.  20,  181 8. 

FERRABOSCO  (or  FERABOSCO),  Alfonso, 
an  Italian  musician  who  settled  in  England  in 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  ranked  among 
the  first  of  the  Elizabethan  era.  He  composed 
motets,  madrigals,  and  pieces  for  the  virginals. 
His  first  book  of  madrigals  was  printed  at  Venice 
in  1542,  and  some  of  his  motets  at  the  same 
place  in  1 544.  Morley  (Introduction  to  Practical 
Music,  1597)  speaks  of  a  'vertuous  contention' 
between  Ferrabosco  and  W.  Byrd  in  making 
each  to  the  number  of  40  parts  upon  the  plain- 
song  of  Miserere,  *  without  malice,  envie,  or 


backbiting,'  'each  making  other  Censor  of  that 
which  they  had  done.'  And  Peacham  mentions 
another  friendly  contest  between  them  which 
could  best  set  the  words  of  the  madrigal,  '  The 
nightingale  so  pleasant  and  so  gay,'  and  awards 
the  palm  to  Ferrabosco.  Many  of  Ferrabosco's 
madrigals  were  printed  in  the  two  books  of  *Mu- 
sica  Transalpina,'  1588  and  1597,  and  several  of 
his  other  compositions  are  extant  in  MS. 

[W.H.H.] 

FERRABOSCO,  Alfonso,  the  younger,  prob- 
ably son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Greenwich 
about  1580,  was  one  of  the  extraordinary  grooms 
of  the  privy  chamber  of  J ames  I,  and  the  instructor 
in  music  of  Prince  Henry,  for  his  services  in  which 
respect  he  was  rewarded  in  1605  with  an  annuity 
of  £50.  In  1609  he  published  a  folio  volume  of 
'Ayres,'  dedicated  to  Prince  Henry,  and  pre- 
faced by  commendatory  verses  by  Ben  Jonson, 
Dr.  Campion,  and  N.  Tomkins.  This  work  con- 
tains many  of  the  songs  in  Ben  Jonson' s  plays 
and  masques.  In  the  same  year  Ferrabosco 
published  some  Lessons  for  Viols,  with  some 
introductory  lines  by  Ben  Jonson.  He  was  one 
of  the  contributors  to  the  collection  published  in 
1 61 4  by  Sir  William  Leighton  under  the  title  of 
*  The  Teares  or  Lamentacions  of  a  SorrowfuU 
Soule.'  He  composed  numerous  Fancies  for 
viols.  Antony  Wood  says  he  first  set  music 
lyra-way  for  the  lute.  In  1641  his  name  occurs 
in  a  warrant  exempting  the  king's  musicians 
from  the  payment  of  subsidies.  He  died  in 
1652.  Pepys  twice  (1654  and  1667)  mentions  a 
lady  named  Ferrabosco  as  a  good  singer.  At 
the  latter  date  she  was  an  attendant  on  the 
Duchess  of  Newcastle.  She  was  probably  a 
daughter  of  Alfonso  the  younger.  A  fine  song 
by  Ferrabosco,  'Shall  I  seek  to  ease  my  grief?' 
from  the  'Ayres'  above  mentioned,  is  published 
by  Dr.  Rimbault  (Novello).  [W.  H.  H.] 

FERRABOSCO,  John,  Mus.  Bac,  organist 
of  Ely  Cathedral  from  1662  to  his  death  in  1682, 
was  probably  a  son  of  Alfonso  Ferrabosco  the 
younger.  He  obtained  his  degree  at  Cambridge 
in  1 671  'per  literas  regias.'  Eight  complete 
services  and  eleven  anthems  by  him  are  preserved 
in  MS.  in  the  library  of  Ely  Cathedral,  some 
of  which  have  often  been  erroneously  ascribed  to 
his  presumed  father.  [W.H.H.] 

FERRARA.  The  earliest  and  best -known 
musical  academy  in  Ferrara  was  that  of  the 
'Intrepidi,'  founded  in  1600  by  Giambattista 
Aleotti  d'Argenta  for  dramatic  musical  repre- 
sentation. The  magistrates  of  the  city  allowed 
the  academicians  100  scudi  a  year  for  public 
celebrations  in  their  theatre.  Previous  to  the 
founding  of  this  academy,  Ferrara  could  boast 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  theatres  of  Italy, 
opened  in  1484  by  Ercole  I,  Duke  of  Ferrara, 
in  which  were  celebrated  the  '  Feste  Musicali,' 
those  earliest  forms  of  the  musical  drama  universal 
in  Italy  in  the  15th  century.  While  the  •  Orfeo' 
of  Poliziano  was  represented  at  Mantua,  the 
theatre  of  Ferrara  witnessed  the  '  Cefalo '  of 
Niccol6  da  Correggio,  the  '  Feast  of  Amphitrion? 


FERRARA. 


FERREL. 


513 


and  Sosia,'  and  others.  The  'Intrepidi'  in  1607 
represented  with  great  pomp  the  Pastorale  called 
*  La  Filla  di  Sciro '  by  Guidubaldo  Bonarelli. 

Frescobaldi  was  a  native  of  Ferrara  and  made 
his  studies  there.  [C.M.P.] 

FERRARESE  DEL  BENE,  the  sobriquet  of 
Francesca  Gabrielli,  an  Italian  singer,  native  of 
Ferrara.    When  Bumey  was  in  Venice,  in  Aug. 
1770,  he  heard  at  the  Ospedaletto  an  orphan  girl 
la  Fen'arese  with  an  'extraordinary  compass'  and 
a  •  fair  natural  voice.'    She  sang  in  London  from 
1784  to  87  in  Cherubini's  'Giulio  Sabino'  and 
other  parts,  but  without  much  success.    In  1 789 
she  was  prima  donna  in  Vienna.    Mozart  wrote 
!     for  her  the  Rondo  'Al  desio,'  introduced  into 
the  part  of  the  Countess  in  Figaro  on  its  revival 
I     Aug.  89,  and  she  played  Fiordiligi  in  'Cosi  fan 
ji     tutte '  at  its  production  Jan.  26,  90.  Mozart 
j!     did  not  think  much  of  her,  for  in  speaking  of 
1'    Allegrandi  he  says,  'she  is  much  better  than 
1     the  Ferrarese,  though  that  is  not  saying  a  great 
I     deal.'    She  probably  owed  her  good  fortune  to 
i     her  pretty  eyes  and  mouth,  and  to  her  intrigue 
j     -with  da  Ponte,  with  whom  she  lived  as  his 
j    mistress   for  three  years.     In  the  end  she 
j     quarrelled  with  the  other  singers,  and  was  sent 
I    from  Vienna  by  the  Emperor.  [G.] 

I  FERRARI,  Benedetto,  called  'della  Tiorba,' 
i  an  Italian  musician,  and  composer  of  words  and 
i  music  for  the  species  of  Italian  dramas  called 
I  *dramme  per  musica,'  was  born  most  probably 
(  at  Reggio  in  1597  ;  as  according  to  a  letter,  now 
\  in  the  archives  of  Modena,  written  by  him  to 
!  the  Duke  of  Modena  in  1623,  his  reputation 
I  as  a  musician,  and  especially  as  a  player  on  the 
'  theorbo,  was  by  that  time  considerable.  It 
f    was  largely  owing  to  him  that  the  '  dramma 

imusicale'  took  such  deep  root   in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  herein  lies  his  chief  interest  for 
I     us.    His  opera  'Andromeda,'  set  to  music  by 
I     Manelli  and  brought  out  at  the  Teatro  San 
Cassiano  at  Venice  in  1637,  was  the  first  opera 
I    performed  before  a  mixed  audience.    In  1639 
'    followed  his  'Adone,'  set  by  Monteverde,  and 
!    *Armida,'  of  which  he  wrote  both  words  and 
\    music.    Its  success  induced  Ferrari  to  devote 
himself  more  to  con)position  than  before.  He 
\    remained  in  Venice  till  1644,  when  he  was  in- 
i    vited  to  Vienna  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand. 
I    A  ballet  by  him  was  performed  at  the  Diet  of 
Ratisbon  in  1653.    In  the  same  year  he  was 
i    appointed  maestro  di  capella  to  Duke  Alfonso 
of  Modena,  on  whose  death  in  1662  he  was 
dismissed,  but  reappointed  in  1674,  died 
in  possession  of  the  post  Oct.  22,  1681.  His 
t    librettos  were  collected  and  printed  at  Milan  and 
•    Piacenza,  and  passed  through  several  editions ; 
I    none  of  these  collections  however  are  complete. 
The  library  at  Modena  contains  several  of  his 
MSS.,  including  the  ballet  '  Dafne  in  alloro' 
^ Vienna,  1 65 1 ).  We  have  not  sufficient  materials 
t(i  form  any  opinion  on  the  style  of  his  music. 
H  e  published  at  Venice  in  1638  '  Musiche  varie 
a  voce  sola,'  in  which,  according  to  Burney,  the 
term  '  Cantata'  occurs  for  the  first  time,  although 
(c.) 


the  invention  of  this  kind  of  piece  was  claimed 
by  Barbara  Strozzi  twenty  years  later.  [F.G.] 
FERRARI,  DoMENico,  an  eminent  Italian 
violin-player,  bom  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Tartini,  and  lived 
for  a  number  of  years  at  Cremona.  About  the 
year  1749  he  began  to  travel,  and  met  with 
great  success  at  Vienna,  where  he  was  considered 
the  greatest  living  violin-player.  In  1753  he 
became  a  member  of  the  band  of  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg  at  Stuttgart,  of  which  Nardini 
was  at  that  time  leader.  If  Ferrari  was  a  pupil 
of  Tartini,  he  certainly,  according  to  contempo- 
rary critics,  did  not  retain  the  style  of  that  great 
master  in  after  life.  He  had  an  astonishing 
ability  in  the  execution  of  octave-runs  and  har- 
monics, and  appears  altogether  to  have  been 
more  a  player  than  a  musician.  He  twice  visited 
Paris,  and  played  there  with  great  success.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  1780,  according  to  report,  by 
the  hand  of  a  murderer.  Ferrari  published  a  set 
of  6  Violin-Sonatas  (Paris  and  London),  which 
however  are  now  forgotten.  [P.  D.] 

FERRARI,  GiACOMO  Gotifredo,  a  cultivated 
and  versatile  musician,  son  of  a  merchant  at 
Roveredo,  born  there  1759.  He  learned  the 
pianoforte  at  Verona,  and  the  flute,  violin,  oboe, 
and  double-bass  at  Roveredo,  and  studied  theory 
under  Pater  Marianus  Stecher  at  the  convent  of 
Mariaberg  near  Chur.  After  his  father's  death 
he  accompanied  Prince  Lichtenstein  to  Rome 
and  Naples,  and  studied  for  two  years  and  a  half 
under  Latilla  at  Paisiello's  recommendation. 
Here  also  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  M.  Cam- 
pan,  Marie  Antoinette's  master  of  the  house- 
hold, and  went  with  him  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
appointed  accompany ist  to  the  new  Theatre 
Feydeau.  In  1793  the  company  was  dispersed, 
and  Ferrari  shortly  afterwards  left  France. 
Having  travelled  for  some  time  he  finally  settled 
in  London,  where  he  composed  a  very  large 
number  of  works,  including  4  operas  and  2 
ballets.  In  1804  he  married  Miss  Henry,  a 
well-known  pianist.  From  1809  to  18 12  he 
suff'ered  from  loss  of  sight.  In  18 14  he  went 
to  Italy  with  Broadwood  the  pianoforte-maker, 
and  visited  Naples,  Venice,  etc.,  returning  in 
1816.  He  died  in  London  I)ec.  1842.  He  was 
an  active  teacher  of  singing,  and  published  a 
'Treatise  on  Singing'  in  2  vols.,  of  which 
a  French  translation  appeared  in  1827.  His 
'Studio  di  musica  pratica  e  teorica'  (London) 
is  a  useful  treatise.  Two  of  his  French  songs, 
'Qu'il  faudrait  de  philosophie'  and  'Quand 
I'amour  nacquit  k  Cythfere,'  were  extremely 
popular  in  their  day.  His  acquaintance  with 
almost  every  contemporary  musician  of  im- 
portance gives  a  historical  value  to  his  book 
*  Anedotti  .  .  .  occorsi  nella  vita  di  G.  G.  Ferrari,* 
2  vols.  London,  1830.  Besides  the  operas,  ballets, 
and  songs  already  named,  Ferrari  composed  an 
extraordinary  quantity  of  music  for  the  voice, 
pianoforte,  flute,  and  harp.  [F.  G.] 

FERREL,  Jean  Francois,  musician  in  Paris 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  wrote 

LI 


514 


FERREL. 


FESCA. 


a  small  pamphlet  *A  savoir  que  les  maistres 
de  dance,  qui  sont  de  vrays  maistres  larrons  k 
I'endroit  des  violons  de  France,  n'ont  pas  royale 
commission  d'incorporrer  ^s  leur  compagnie  les 
organistes  et  austres  musiciens,  comme  aussy  de 
leur  faire  paier  redevance,  d^monstre  par  J.  F. 
Ferrel,  praticien  de  musique  a  Paris,  natif  de 
I'Anjou'  (Paris,  1659).  This  was  the  signal  for 
a  contest  lasting  for  100  years,  between  the  French 
musicians  and  the  dancing-masters,  whose  chief, 
the  '  roi  des  mene triers,'  claimed  jurisdiction  over 
all  musicians.  Hard  words  were  exchanged  on 
both  sides,  and  after  several  law-suits,  a  decree  of 
the  Paris  parliament  in  1 750  settled  the  question 
in  favour  of  the  musicians.  Some  of  the  pamphlets 
had  curious  titles ;  for  example, '  La  cloche  felee,  ou 
le  bruit  faict  par  un  musicien  qui  ne  veult  etre 
maistre  de  dance  parce  qu'il  ne  salt  sur  quel 
pied  se  tenir,'  and  '  Discours  pour  prouver  que  la 
danse  dans  sa  plus  noble  partie  n'a  pas  besoin  des 
instrmnens  de  musique,  et  qu'elle  est  en  toute  in- 
dependante  du  violon.'  [See  Fetis.]  [M.C.C] 

FERRETTI,  Giovanni,  bom  at  Venice  about 
1540,  composed  five  books  of  'Canzoni'  in  5 
parts  (Venice  1567-91),  2  books  in  6  parts 
(Venice  1576-86),  and  another  of  5-part  madri- 
gals (Venice  1 588),  all  excellent  examples  of  their 
kind.  A  madrigal  of  his,  '  Siat'  avertiti,'  for  5 
voices,  is  included  in  Webb's  madrigals.  [M.  C.  C] 

FERRI,  Baldassare,  one  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary singers  who  ever  lived,  was  bom  at 
Perugia,  Dec.  9,  16 10.  He  owed  to  an  accident 
in  his  boyhood  the  operation  by  which  he  became 
a  sopranist.  At  the  age  of  11  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  Bishop  of  Orvieto  as  a  chorister, 
and  remained  there  until  1625,  when  Prince 
Vladislas  of  Poland,  then  on  a  visit  at  Rome, 
carried  him  ofl'  to  his  father's  Court.  In  1665 
he  was  transferred  to  Ferdinand  III,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  whose  successor,  Leopold  I,  loaded 
him  with  riches  and  honours.  This  prince  had 
a  portrait  of  Ferri,  crowned  with  laurels,  hanging 
in  his  bedchamber,  and  inscribed,  'Baldassare 
Perugino,  Re  dei  Musici.'  At  the  age  of  65  he 
received  permission  to  retire  to  his  native  country, 
with  a  passport,  the  terms  of  which  indicated 
sufl&ciently  the  consideration  in  which  he  was 
held.  He  reached  Italy  in  1675,  and  died  at 
Perugia,  Sept.  8, 1680. 

Ferri  was  made  a  Knight  of  S.  Mark  of 
Venice  in  1 643  ;  and,  therefore,  probably  visited 
Italy  at  that  time.  He  aroused  the  greatest 
enthusiasm  wherever  he  appeared ;  hundreds  of 
sonnets  were  written  in  his  honour,  he  was 
covered  with  roses  in  his  carriage  after  simply 
singing  a  cantata,  and  at  Florence  a  number  of 
distinguished  persons  went  three  miles  out  of 
the  town,  to  escort  him  into  it.  (Ginguene.) 
He  is  said  also  to  have  visited  London,  and  to 
have  sung  here  the  part  of  'Zephyr' :  but  this 
must  be  a  fable,  as  Italian  opera  did  not  begin 
here  till  1692, — 12  years  after  his  death.  It 
is  true  that  in  M.  Locke's  'Psyche'  (1671)  there 
is  a  character  caUed  'Zephyr' ;  but  he  has  only 
four  lines  to  speak,  and  none  to  sing.  Ferri 


had,  nevertheless,  made  one  journey  (before 
1654)  to  Sweden,  to  gratify  Queen  Christina's 
wish  to  hear  him.  Ginguen^  says  that  his 
portrait  was  engraved  with  the  inscription  '  Qui 
fecit  mirabilia  multa' ;  but  such  a  portrait  (as 
far  as  the  present  writer  knows)  has  never  been 
seen.  A  medal  was  struck,  bearing  on  one  side 
his  head  crowned  with  bays,  and  on  the  other 
the  device  of  a  swan  dying  by  the  banks  of 
Meander.  Ferri  was  tall  and  handsome,  with 
refined  manners  ;  and  he  expressed  himself  with 
distinction.  He  died  very  rich,  leaving  600,000 
crowns  for  a  pious  foundation. 

His  voice,  a  beautiful  soprano,  had  an  in- 
describable limpidity,  combined  with  the  greatest 
agility  and  facility,  a  perfect  intonation,  a 
brilliant  shake,  and  inexhaustible  length  of 
breath.  Although  he  seems  to  have  surpassed 
all  the  evirati  in  brilliance  and  endurance,  he 
was  quite  as  remarkable  for  pathos  as  for  those 
qualities.  (Bontempi,  Historia  Musica.)  [J.M.] 

FERTfi,  Papillon  de  la,  became  in  1777,  by 
purchase,  'Intendant  des  Menus-plaisirs '  to 
Louis  XVI,  and  as  such  had  the  direction  of 
the  '  Ecole  Royale  de  chant '  founded  by  the 
Baron  de  Breteuil,  and  of  the  opera  after  the 
municipality  had  given  up  the  administration 
of  it.  In  1790  he  published  a  reply  to  a  pam- 
phlet by  the  artists  of  the  opera — '  Memoire 
justificatif  des  sujets  de  1' Academic  royale  de 
musique' — in  which  they  demanded  a  reform  of 
the  administration.  His  son  occupied  the  same 
post  after  the  Restoration.  [M.C.C] 

FESCA,  Friedrich  Ernst,  composer,  bora 
at  Magdeburg,  Feb.  15,  1789.  His  father  was 
an  amateur,  and  his  mother  a  singer,  pupil  of 
J.  A.  Hiller,  so  he  heard  good  music  in  his 
youth,  and  as  soon  as  he  could  play  the  violin 
had  taste  enough  to  choose  the  quartets  and 
quintets  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  in  preference  to 
Pleyel's  music,  for  which  there  was  then  a 
perfect  rage  in  Germany.  Having  completed 
his  elementary  studies,  he  went  through  a  course 
of  counterpoint  with  Pitterlin,  conductor  of  the 
Magdeburg  theatre.  On  Pitterlin's  death  in 
1804  he  became  a  pupil  of  August  Eberhardt 
Miiller  at  Leipsic.  Here  he  played  a  violin  con- 
certo of  his  own  with  brilliant  success.  In  1806 
he  accepted  a  place  in  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg's 
band,  but  in  the  following  year  became  solo 
violinist  under  Reichardfc  at  Cassel,  where  he 
passed  six  happy  years  and  composed  his  first 
seven  quartets  and  first  two  symphonies,  in- 
teresting works,  especially  when  he  himself  played 
the  first  violin.  In  181 4,  after  a  visit  to 
Vienna,  he  was  appointed  solo  violin,  and  in  the 
following  year  concert-meister,  to  the  Duke  of 
Baden  at  Carlsruhe.  During  the  next  eleven 
years  he  wrote  2  operas,  'Cantemir'  and  'Leila,' 
overtures,  quartets,  quintets,  chorales,  psalms 
and  other  sacred  music.  He  died  at  Carlsruhe 
May  24,  1826,  of  consumption,  after  many  years' 
suft'ering,  which  however  had  not  impaired  his 
powers,  as  his  last  works  contain  some  of  his 
best  writing.    His  *De  profundis,'  arranged  in 


FESCA. 


FESTING. 


515 


4  parts  by  Strauss,  was  sung  at  his  funeral. 
Fesca  was  thoughtful,  earnest,  and  warmhearted, 
with  occasional  traits  of  humour  in  striking  con- 
trast to  his  keen  sensibility  and  lofty  enthusiasm 
for  art.  He  appreciated  success,  but  steadfastly 
declined  to  sacrifice  his  own  perceptions  of  the 
good  and  beautiful  for  popularity.  Fesca's  rank 
as  a  composer  has  been  much  disputed.  There 
is  a  want  of  depth  in  his  ideas,  but  his  melo- 
dies are  taking  and  his  combinations  effective. 
His  quartets  and  quintets,  without  possessing 
the  qualities  of  the  great  masters,  have  a  grace 
and  elegance  peculiar  to  himself,  and  are  emi- 
nently attractive.  His  symphonies  are  feebly 
instrumented,  but  his  sacred  works  are  of  real 
merit.  In  richness  of  modulation  he  approaches 
Spohr.  A  complete  edition  of  his  quartets  and 
quintets  (20  and  5  in  number)  has  been  published 
in  Paris  (Rimbault) .  His  son,  Alexander  Ernst, 
bom  at  Carlsruhe  May  22,1820,  died  at  Brunswick 
Feb.  2  2,  1 849,  was  a  pupil  of  Rungenhagen,  VVil- 
j  helm  Bach,  and  Taubert,  and  composer  of  trios  for 
I  pianoforte,  violin,  and  cello,  and  other  chamber- 
j  music  popular  in  their  day.  His  best  opera  was 
I  *Le  Troubadour' (Brunswick,  1854).  [M.C.C.] 
j  FESTA,  CosTANZO,  one  of  the  earliest  com- 
posers of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  somewhere 
"  towards  the  close  of  the  1 5th  century.  He  was 
i  elected  a  member  of  the  Pontifical  choir  in  151 7, 
and  died  April  10, 1545.  He  eventually  became 
Maestro  at  the  Vatican,  and  his  nomination  was 
i  so  far  singular  that  he  was  at  that  time  the  only 
]  Italian  in  a  similar  position  throughout  the 
1  Peninsula.  His  genius  cannot  be  doubted,  and 
Dr.  Bumey,  who  had  been  at  the  trouble  of 
scoring  a  great  number  of  his  Madrigals,  was 
i  astonished  at  the  rhythm,  grace,  and  facility  of 
them.  The  Doctor  caUs  one  of  Testa's  Motetti, 
*Quam  pulchra  es,  anima  mea,'  a  model  of 
elegance,  simplicity,  and  pure  harmony,  and 
says  that  'the  subjects  of  imitation  in  it  are  as 
modem,  and  that  the  parts  sing  as  well,  as  if 
it  were  a  production  of  the  eighteenth  century.' 
Festa,  according  to  Baini,  fell  in  his  motets 
into  a  fashion  too  prevalent  in  his  day,  of  setting 
distinct  words  to  each  voice.  The  Abb^  ( '  Life 
of  Palestrina,'  vol.  i.  pp.  95-103)  explains  in 
great  detail  the  lengths  to  which  this  absurd 
and  undignified  affectation  was  carried,  and 
quotes  with  obvious  and  well  merited  approval 
a  rebuke  administered  by  the  Cardinal  Capranica, 
in  the  pontificate  of  Niccolo  V,  to  some  singer 
who  had  asked  him  to  admire  the  caprice.  '  Mi 
pare,'  said  the  Cardinal,  *di  udir  una  mandra 
di  porcelli,  che  grugniscono  a  tutta  forza  senza 
profferire  per6  un  suono  articolato,  non  che  una 
parola.' 

The  principal  repertories  for  Festa's  music  are 
the  collections  which  flowed  from  the  presses  of 
Gardano  and  of  Scotto  at  Venice  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 6th  century,  and  for  which  the  curious 
enquirer  must  be  referred  to  the  Bibliographic 
of  Eitner.  The  archives  of  the  Pontifical  chapel 
are  rich  in  his  MSS.,  and  a  celebrated  Te  Deum 
of  his  is  still  sung  by  the  Pontifical  choir  at  the 
election  of  a  new  Pope.    Burney,  in  his  History 


(iii.  245,  6)  prints  a  motet  and  a  madrigal  of 
Festa's  ;  and  a  Te  Devun  and  motet  are  given 
in  Bock's  collection  (vi.  31,  40).  His  madrigal 
'Down  in  a  flow'ry  vale'  ('Quando  ritrovo  la 
mia  pastorella')  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being 
the  most  popular  piece  of  this  description  in 
England.  [E.H.P.] 

FESTING,  Michael  Christian,  an  eminent 
performer  on,  and  composer  for  the  violiii,  was 
the  son  of  a  flautist  of  the  same  names,  who  was 
a  member  of  the  orchestra  of  the  King's  Theatre 
in  the  Haymarket  about  1727.  Festing  was  at 
first  a  pupil  of  Richard  Jones,  leader  of  the  band 
at  Drury  Lane,  but  subsequently  studied  under 
Geminiani.  He  first  appeared  in  public  about 
1724.  He  became  a  member  of  the  king's  private 
band  and  first  violin  at  an  amateur  association 
which  met  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern  in 
the  Strand,  under  the  name  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society.  On  the  opening  of  Ranelagh  Gardens 
in  1742  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  music 
as  well  as  leader  of  the  band. 

Festing  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the 
Society  of  Musicians.  Being  seated  one  day  at 
the  window  of  the  Orange  Coffee-house  in  the 
Haymarket  in  company  with  Weidemann,  the 
flautist,  and  Vincent,  the  oboist,  they  observed 
two  very  intelligent  looking  boys  driving  milch 
asses.  On  inquiry  they  found  them  to  be  the 
orphans  of  Kytch,  an  eminent  but  imprudent 
German  oboist,  who  had  settled  in  London  and 
then  recently  died,  literally  in  the  streets,  from 
sheer  want.  Shocked  by  this  discovery  Festing 
consulted  with  Dr.  Greene,  his  intimate  friend, 
and  other  eminent  musicians,  and  the  result  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Society  of  Musicians 
for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  decayed 
musicians  and  their  families.  Festing  for  many 
years  performed  gratuitously  the  duties  of  secre- 
tary to  this  institution.  He  died  July  24,  1752. 
In  September  of  that  year  his  goods,  books,  and 
instruments  were  sold  at  his  house  in  Warwick 
Street,  Golden  Square.  He  left  an  only  son, 
the  Rev.  Michael  Festing,  rector  of  Wyke  Regis, 
Dorset,  who  married  the  only  child  of  his  father's 
friend.  Dr.  Greene.  From  this  union  sprang 
many  descendants  to  perpetuate  the  name  of 
Festing,  and  not  many  years  since  an  Hertford- 
shire innkeeper,  bearing  the  names  of  Maurice 
Greene  Festing,  was  living.  Festing's  composi* 
tions  consist  of  several  sets  of  solos  for  the  violin  ; 
sonatas,  concertos  and  symphonies  for  stringed 
and  other  instruments ;  part  of  the  3rd  chapter 
of  Habakkuk,  paraphrased ;  Addison's  Ode  for 
St. Cecilia's  day ;  Milton's  Song  on  May  morning; 
an  Ode  on  the  return  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland 
from  Scotland  in  t  745  ;  an  ode  '  For  thee  how 
I  do  mourn';  and  many  cantatas  and  songs  for 
Ranelagh.  Sir  John  Hawkins  says  that  '  as  a 
performer  on  the  violin  Festing  was  inferior  to 
many  of  his  time,  but  as  a  composer,  particularly 
of  solos  for  that  instrument,  the  nature  and 
genius  whereof  he  perfectly  understood,  he  had 
but  few  equals.'  Festing  had  a  brother  of  the 
name  of  John,  an  oboist  and  teacher  of  the  flute, 
whose  success  in  his  profession  was  such  that  he 
L12 


516 


FESTING. 


FESTIVALS. 


died  in  1772  worth  £8,000,  acquired  chiefly  by 
teaching.  [W.H.H.] 

FESTIVALS.  The  earliest  musical  festivals 
of  which  any  trustworthy  record  exists  were  held 
in  Italy.  At  an  interview  between  Fi-ancis  I, 
King  of  France,  and  Pope  Leo  X  at  Bologna  in 
1 5 15,  the  musicians  attached  to  their  respective 
courts  combined  and  gave  a  performance,  but  no 
details  of  the  programme  have  been  preserved. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  1 7  th  century  there  was 
a  thanksgiving  festival  at  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  on 
the  cessation  of  the  Plague,  when  a  mass  by 
Benevoli  for  six  choirs  was  sung  by  more  than 
200  voices  with  organ  accompaniment,  the  sixth 
choir  occupying  the  highest  part  of  the  cupola. 
In  France  the  first  festival  recorded  is  that 
which  took  place  as  a  thanksgiving  for  the 
recovery  of  the  eldest  son  of  Louis  XIV,  when 
Lulli's  '  Te  Deum '  (written  to  celebrate  a  similar 
happy  event  in  His  Majesty's  own  life  in  1686) 
was  performed  by  300  musicians.  In  Bohemia 
the  earliest  festival  was  held  at  Prague  in  honour 
of  the  coronation  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI  as 
King  of  Bohemia,  when  an  opera  by  Fux  was 
performed  in  the  open  air  by  a  band  of  200  and 
a  chorus  of  100  voices — a  somewhat  singular 
proportion  of  orchestral  to  vocal  resources — and 
of  this  an  account  is  given  by  Burney  in  his 
German  Tour,  vol.  ii.  p.  178.  French  musicians 
united  at  Paris  in  1767  in  a  solemn  service  at 
the  funeral  of  Rameau ;  and  at  Naples  in  1774, 
at  the  burial  of  Jomelli,  the  service  was  rendered 
by  300  musicians.  In  Austria  the  earliest 
festivals  were  given  by  the  Musical  Institution 
at  Vienna  (Tonkiinstler  -  Societat),  by  whose 
members,  to  the  number  of  400,  oratorios  were 
performed  twice  annually,  in  Advent  and  Lent, 
for  charitable  purposes,  beginning  with  1772.^ 
In  the  same  city  there  was  a  festival  in  honour 
of  Haydn  in  1808,  at  which  the  'Creation'  was 
performed,  and  at  which  the  composer  bade 
farewell  to  the  world.  More  important,  and  in 
its  dimensions  approaching  more  nearly  to  the 
modern  festival,  was  a  performance  given  at 
Vienna  in  181 1,  also  in  Haydn's  honour,  when  the 
numbers  are  said  to  have  been  upwards  of  700. 

The  greatest  of  the  German  festivals,  the 
Lower  Rhenish,  had  its  origin  in  a  '  Thuringian 
Musical  Festival,'  held  at  Erfurt  in  1 8 1 1 ,  under 
the  direction  of  BischofF,  the  organist  of  Gran- 
kenhausen,  whose  example  was  imitated  in  1 81 7 
when  Johann  Schornstein,  the  musical  director 
at  Elberfeld,  gave  a  performance  at  that  town 
in  which  the  musicians  of  Diisseldorf  also  took 
part.  At  first  the  Lower  Rhenish  festivals  were 
held  alternately  at  Elberfeld  and  Diisseldorf, 
but  in  182 1  Cologne  joined  in  the  scheme,  and 
the  Musikfest  took  place  there.  In  1825  the 
festival  was  held  at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  1827 — the  year  of  Beethoven's 
death — when  Elberfeld  once  more  took  its  place, 
it  has  been  held  at  Diisseldorf,  Aix,  or  Cologne. 

[NlEDERRHEINISCHE  MUSIKFESTE.] 

In  England  the  earliest  festivals  were  those 
held  at  St,  Paul's  Cathedral  in  aid  of  the  Sons  of 
X  Uanslick's '  Concert-weseu  iu  Wien,'  p.  18. 


the  Clergy  Corporation,  at  which,  since  the  year 
1 709,  a  full  band  and  choir  has  annually  assisted, 
the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians  for  many  years 
undertaking  to  supply  the  orchestra.  The  second 
English  festival  established  was  that  of  'The 
Three  Choirs' — Gloucester,  Worcester,  and  Here- 
ford— which  after  having  been  held  previously 
for  some  years  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  lay 
clerks  and  choristers,  was  in  1724  utilised  as 
a  means  of  securing  an  annual  collection  for 
the  widows  and  orphans  of  the  clergy  of  the 
three  dioceses.  [See  Three  Choirs  Festivals.] 
In  1739  a  festival,  to  which  Handel  lent  his  aid, 
was  established  in  connection  with  the  '  Fund  for 
the  Support  of  Decayed  Musicians,'  and  this 
institution  was  in  1790  incorporated  as  'The 
Royal  Society  of  Musicians,'  which  still  follows 
the  ancient  custom  by  giving  an  annual  per- 
formance of  the  'Messiah'  in  aid  of  its  funds. 
In  1749  Handel  conducted  a  festival  at  the 
Foundling  Hospital  in  aid  of  that  charity,  and 
directed  it  annually  until  his  death.  [See  Found- 
ling Hospital.]  Festivals  were  subsequently 
held  at  Cambridge  in  1749  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Chancellor's  installation;  at  Leeds  in  1767 
for  the  Leeds  Infirmary  then  recently  opened  ; 
at  Birmingham  in  1768  [see  Birmingham];  at 
Beverly  in  1769 — at  the  opening  of  Snetzler's 
organ  in  the  Minster;  at  Norwich  in  1770  [see 
Norwich]  ;  at  Westminster  Abbey  in  1784  [see 
Handel  Commemoration];  at  Oxford  in  1785; 
at  Manchester  in  1785  ;  at  Sheffield  in  1786;  at 
Derby,  Winchester,  and  Salisbury — in  celebration 
of  the  opening  of  Green's  organ — in  1788  ;  at 
Hull  in  1789  in  aid  of  the  Infirmary  ;  at  Liver- 
pool in  1790;  at  York  in  1791  (held  annually 
till  1802  and  revived  1823)  [see  York]  ;  at 
St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  in  1792 — the  first 
annual  performance  of  the  'Messiah'  in  aid  of 
the  Westminster  Hospital ;  and  at  Edinburgh  in 
18 1 5.  Many  of  these  festivals  were  continued  in 
subsequent  years,  and  some  are  still  held.  The 
Sons  of  the  Clergy  Festival,  the  Three  Choirs 
Festival,  the  Birmingham  and  Norwich  Festivals, 
are  now  held  triennially,  and  at  Leeds,  Liverpool, 
and  Bristol,  festivals  of  a  similar  character  are 
also  held  every  third  year.  So  are  the  Handel 
Festivals  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  which  after  a  preliminary  trial 
in  1857  began  their  triennial  existence  in  1859. 
[Handel  Festival.]  The  Edinburgh  Orchestral 
Festivals  are  now  held  annually  under  the 
direction  of  the  Reid  Professor  of  Music,  and 
festivals  of  importance  have  been  established  at 
Glasgow  and  Dundee. 

Festivals  of  Parochial  Choirs,  which  are  now 
held  annually  in  the  majority  of  the  cathedrals 
and  at  other  large  churches,  were  first  organised 
about  the  year  1850,  the  Cheadle  Association  in 
the  diocese  of  Lichfield  being  one  of  the  earliest. 
The  fijst  festival  of  this  nature  on  a  large  scale 
was  held  in  Durham  Cathedral  in  1863.  Next 
in  order  in  the  cathedral  or  diocesan  festivals 
came  Ely,  Peterborough,  Salisbury,  and  Norwich, 
and  at  York  in  1 861  there  was  a  festival  in  the 
Minster  with  2700  trained  singers.  Similar 


FESTIVALS. 


FtTIS. 


517 


services  are  now  held  annually  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  the  system  has  been  adopted  in 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  in  the  United  States.  [See 
Charity  Children.]  [CM.] 

rfiTIS,  FRAN901S  Joseph,  born  March  25, 
1784,  at  Mons,  died  March  25,  1871,  at  Brussels, 
the  most  learned,  laborious,  and  prolific  musical 
litterateur  of  his  time.  He  was  the  son  of  an 
organist  at  Mons,  and  early  learned  to  play  the 
violin,  piano,  and  organ,  completing  his  studies 
at  the  Paris  Conservatoire.  Boieldieu  and 
Pradher  were  his  masters  for  the  piano,  but  he 
only  succeeded  in  gaining  the  harmony  prize  in 
1803,  and  the  second  'second  prix '  for  com- 
position in  1807,  scarcely  as  much  as  might  have 
been  expected  from  one  who  delighted  to  style 
himself  the  pupil  of  Beethoven.  He  married 
in  1806,  and  in  181 1  pecuniary  difficulties, 
caused  by  the  loss  of  his  wife's  fortune,  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  to  the  Ardennes,  where  he 
remained  till  his  appointment  as  organist  and 
professor  of  music  at  Douai  in  Dec.  1813.  In 
1 82 1  he  succeeded  Eler  as  professor  of  counter- 
point and  fugue  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  and 
became  librarian  of  that  institution  in  1827.  In 
March  1833  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Brussels  Conservatoire  and  maitre  de  chapelle 
to  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  two  important  posts, 
which,  besides  ensuring  him  many  gratifying 
distinctions,  obliged  him  to  take  part  in  the 
labours  of  the  Belgian  Academie  Eoyale,  for 
which  he  wrote  several  interesting  memoirs. 

Fetis  must  be  considered  separately  in  his 
various  capacities  of  composer,  author  of  theo- 
retical works,  historian,  and  critic.  As  a 
composer  he  wrote  much  pianoforte  music  for 
2  and  4  hands,  chamber-music,  duos,  a 
quartet,  quintets,  and  a  sestet,  overtures  and 
symphonies  for  orchestra,  operas  and  sacred 
music.  His  operas  'L'Amant  et  le  Mari' 
(1820),  'Marie  Stuart  en  Ecosse'  (1823),  'La 
Vieille'  (1826),  and  '  Le  Mannequin  de  Ber- 
game'  (1832)  were  produced  at  the  'Opera 
Comique'  with  some  success,  though  they  now 
seem  feeble  and  antiquated.  Among  his  sacred 
compositions  we  will  only  specify  his  'Messes 
faciles  pour  I'orgue,'  and  his  '  Messe  de  Requiem ' 
composed  for  the  funeral  of  the  Queen  of  the 
Belgians  (1850).  The  greater  part  of  his 
church  music  is  unpublished.  Fdtis's  fame 
however  rests  not  upon  his  compositions,  but 
upon  his  writings  on  the  theory,  history,  and 
literature  of  music.  His  *  Methode  elementaire 
....  d'harmonie  et  d'accompagnement '  (1824, 
36,  41),  which  has  been  translated  into  English 
(Cocks  &  Co.)  and  Italian ;  his  '  Solfeges  pro- 
gressifs';  'Manuel  des  principes  de  musique'; 
*  Traits  Elementaire  de  musique'  (Brussels  1831- 
32)  ;  *  Traite  du  chant  en  choeur' — translated  by 
Helmore  (Novello)  ;  '  Manuel  des  jeunes  com- 
positeurs';  'Methode  des  m^thodes'  de  piano'; 
and  '  Methode  Elementaire  de  Plain  Chant, '  have 
been  of  great  service  to  teachers,  though  some  of 
them  bear  traces  of  having  been  written  in  haste 
for  the  publishers.  Far  above  these  must  be 
ranked  his  'TraitE  de  I'accompagnement  de  la 


partition'  (1829);  his  'Traite  complet  de  la 
the'orie  et  de  la  pratique  de  1 'harmonic '  (1844), 
which  has  passed  through  many  editions  and 
been  translated  into  several  languages;  and 
his  '  Traite  du  contrepoint  et  de  la  fugue' 
(1824),  a  really  classical  work.  These  two  last 
Fetis  considered  his  best  original  productions, 
and  looked  to  them  for  his  permanent  reputa- 
tion. They  were  the  more  important  in  his 
eyes  because  he  believed  in  the  infallibility  of 
his  doctrines.  Outside  his  own  peculiar  system 
of  harmonic  generation — the  '  onmitonic '  system, 
whose  main  principle  is  that  harmonic  combina- 
tions exist  by  which  any  given  sound  may  be 
resolved  into  any  key  and  any  mode — he  saw 
nothing  but  error  and  confusion.  As  a  historian 
he  was  equally  systematic  and  equally  impatient 
of  contradiction.  Nevertheless,  in  his  '  Biographic 
universelle  des  Musiciens,'  and  in  his  'Histoire 
genErale  de  la  Musique'  errors  of  detail  and 
mistakes  in  chronology  abound,  while  many  of 
the  opinions  he  advances  are  open  to  question. 
Easy  as  it  may  be  however  to  find  fault  with 
these  two  standard  works,  it  is  impossible  to 
do  without  them.  The  first  edition  of  the 
'Biographic'  (Paris  1835-44)  is  especially  de- 
fective, but  it  contains  a  remarkable  introduc- 
tion founded  on  the  writings  of  Forkel,  Gerber, 
Kiesewetter,  Hawkins,  and  others.  Fetis  in- 
tended to  use  this  introduction  as  material  for  a 
'Philosophic  de  la  Musique,'  but  had  not  time 
to  accomplish  it.  The  second  edition  of  the 
'Biographic'  (Paris  1860-65)  though  more  com- 
plete and  more  satisfactory  than  its  predecessor, 
should  still  be  consulted  with  discretion ;  its 
dates  are  still  often  wrong,  and  there  are  mistakes, 
especially  in  the  articles  on  English  musicians, 
which  are  almost  ludicrous,  and  might  have  been 
avoided.  [For  Supplement  see  POUGIN.]  Fetis 
unfortunately  allows  his  judgment  to  be  biassed 
by  passion  or  interest.  It  is  a  pity  that  in  his 
'Histoire  gene'rale  de  la  Musique'  (Didot,  5 
vols.  1869-76)  he  is  not  more  just  to  some  of  his 
predecessors,  such  as  Yilloteau  and  Adrien  de  la 
Fage,  whom  he  quotes  freely  but  never  without 
some  depreciatory  remark,  thus  forgetting  the 
poet's  words : — 

*  Ah !  doit-on  hEriter  de  ceux  qu'on  assassine  V 
In  spite  of  this  defect,  and  of  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  dogmatism,  the  'Histoire  generale  de 
la  I\iusique,'  although  a  fragment — for  it  ceases 
at  the  15th  century — exhibits  Fetis  at  his  best. 
Another  useful  work  is  '  La  Musique  mise  a  la 
portee  de  tout  le  monde'  (Paris  1830,  34,  47), 
which  has  been  translated  into  German,  English, 
Spanish,  and  even  Russian.  The  same  elevation 
and  clearness  appear  in  his  inniunerable  articles 
and  reviews,  which  were  all  incorporated  in  the 
'  Biographic,'  the  '  CuriositEs  historiques  de  la 
Musique'  (Paris  1S30),  the  '  Esquisse  de  I'histoire 
de  I'harmonie'  (Paris  1S40,  now  very  scarce), 
and  other  works  already  named.  The  'Revue 
musicale '  which  he  started  in  1827,  and  con- 
tinued till  35,  was  the  foundation  of  the  musical 
press  of  France.  This  short  resumE  of  FEtis's 
labom-s  will  suffice  to  show  the  immense  services 


513 


r^:Tis. 


FIASCO. 


he  rendered  to  musical  instruction  and  literature. 
Had  he  been  a  little  less  one-sided,  and  a  little 
more  disinterested  and  fair,  he  would  have  been 
a  model  critic  and  litterateur. 

His  eldest  son,  Edouard,  bom  at  Bouvignes 
iji  Belgium,  May  i6,  1812,  at  an  early  age 
assisted  his  father,  and  edited  the  'Revue 
musicale'  from  1833  to  35.  He  is  now  art 
critic  of  the  'Ind^pendance  Beige,'  has  edited 
the  5  th  vol.  of  '  Histoire  g<^nerale  de  la  Musique,' 
and  has  published  'L^gende  de  Saint  Hubert' 
(Brussels  1847),  'Les  Musiciens  Beiges'  (Brus- 
sels 1848),  a  useful  work,  and  a  'Catalogue 
raisonne'  (1877)  of  his  father's  valuable  library 
purchased  by  the  Government  for  the  '  Biblio- 
thfeque  Eoyale'  of  which  E.  F^tis  is  librarian. 
He  is  also  professor  of  aesthetics  to  the  Brufrsels 
Academic  des  Beaux  Arts  and  member  of  the 
Academie  Eoyale  in  Brussels.  [G.  C] 

FEVIN,  Antoine,  composer  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, whose  works  entitle  him  to  a  position 
amongst  his  contemporaries  second  alone  to  that 
of  Josquin  Depres.  We  have  only  a  few  vague 
conjectures  as  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  his 
life.  Bumey  mentions  Orleans  as  his  birthplace, 
and  later  historians  have  accepted  his  statement. 
Indeed,  there  is  little  reason  to  dispute  it,  unless 
the  existence  of  Fevin's  compositions  in  MS.  in 
the  cathedral  at  Toledo,  and  the  opinion  of 
Spanish  musicians,  can  make  him  a  Spaniard, 
as  Gevaert  and  Eslava  would  have  him  to  be. 
There  are  some  books  of  masses  in  the  Vienna 
library  containing  three  by  'Anthonius  Fevin, 
pie  memorie.'  Ambros,  in  his  History  of  Music 
(iii.  274)  shows  that  the  date  of  these  books 
lies  between  1514  and  1516,  and  assuming  that 
Fevin  died  about  this  time,  and  moreover  (as 
Glarean  leads  us  to  infer)  that  he  died  quite 
young,  places  his  birth  about  1490.  We  may, 
at  any  rate,  accept  these  dates  as  approximately 
true,  and  at  once  see  that  it  is  scarcely  correct  to 
call  Fevin  a  contemporary  of  Josquin.  Although 
he  died  a  few  years  before  the  great  master,  he 
was  probably  born  40  years  after  the  date  of  Jos- 
quin's  birth.  Had  it  not  been  for  his  premature 
death,  might  not  the  'Felix  Jodoci  aemulator,'  a3 
Glarean  calls  him,  have  lived  on  to  work  by  the 
pide  of  Lassus  and  share  with  him  the  g'ory  of 
a  brighter  period  ?  Surely  there  was  in  '  that 
noble  youth,  whose  modesty  was  equal  to  his 
genius '  (again  we  quote  Glarean),  every  element 
of  greatness,  except  perhaps  physical  strength, 
requisite  for  making  his  name  stand  with  those 
of  Clement  and  Gombert  in  the  gap  between 
Josquin  and  Lassus.  But  although  Fevin  can 
never  be  the  hero  of  any  chapter  in  musical 
history,  there  is  little  doubt  that  when  the 
compositions  of  his  time  become  once  more 
generally  known,  the  few  works  which  he  has 
left  behind  him  will  find  favour  as  soon  as  any, 
on  account  of  the  peculiar  charm  which  veils  his 
most  elaborate  workmanship,  and  the  simplicity 
of  effect  which  seems  to  come  so  naturally  to 
him,  and  so  well  agrees  with  the  personal 
character  for  which  Glarean  admired  him.  We 
give  the  following  list  of  his  works,  and  the  various 


collections  in  which  they  appear  : — (i)  3  masses, 
'  Sancta  Trinitas,' '  Mente tota,'  and  'Ave  Maria,' 
from  a  book  of  5  masses  (Petrucci,  Fossombrone 
15 1 5).  The  only  known  copy  of  this  work,  with 
all  the  parts,  is  in  the  British  Museum.  Bumey 
has  given  two  beautiful  extracts  from  the  1st 
mass  in  his  History.  (2)3  masses,  'Ave  Maria,' 
'Mente  Tota,'  and  'De  Feria,'  in  'Liber  quin- 
decim  Missarum'  (Andreas  Antiquis,  Rom.  1 516), 
a  copy  of  which  is  in  the  INIazarin  Library  at 
Paris.  (3)  6  motets  from  the  1st  book  of  the 
'Motetti  della  corona'  (Petrucci,  Fossombrone 
1 5 14).  (4)  A  motet,  'Descende  in  hortum 
meum,'  and  a  fugue,  '  Quae  es  ista,'  from  the 
'  Cantiones  selectae  ultra  centum'  (Kriesstein, 
Augsburg  1540).  (5)  2  lamentations,  'Migravit 
Juda'  and  '  Recordare  est,'  from  the  collection  by 
Le  Roy  and  Ballard,  Paris  1557.  (6)  Detached 
movements  from  masses  in  Eslava's  *  Lira-sacro- 
Hispana.'  (7)  i  magnificat  from  Attaignant's 
5th  book  for  4  voices,  and  2  motets  from  his  i  ith 
book  (Paris  1534).  (8)  i  piece  in  the  'Bicinia 
Gallica,  etc'  (Rhau,  Wittenberg  1545).  (9) 
3  masses,  '  O  quam  glorifica  luce/  '  Requiem,' 
and  '  Mente  tota,'  in  the  '  Ambraser  Messen'  at 
Vienna,  and  3  MS.  motets  in  same  library,  (10) 
A  mass,  '  Salve  sancta  parens,'  the  only  copy  of 
which  is  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Munich.  There 
is  a  song  of  his,  '  Je  le  I'airray,'  in  the  Harleian 
MSS.  5242  ;  and  fragments  of  two  masses  in 
Burney's  musical  extracts.  Add.  MSS.  11,581-2 
—both  in  the  British  Museum.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

FIALA,  Joseph,  eminent  oboist,  bom  1749 
at  Lobkowitz  in  Bohemia.  He  taught  himself 
the  oboe,  for  which  he  had  a  perfect  passion, 
but  being  a  serf  was  compelled  to  menial  labour 
in  the  Schloss.  He  ran  away,  and  was  recaptmred, 
upon  which  his  mistress,  the  Countess  Lobkowitz, 
ordered  his  front  teeth  to  be  pulled  out  that  he 
might  be  incapable  of  playing  :  but  some  of  the 
nobility  of  Prague  interceded  for  him  with  the 
Emperor,  who  commanded  him  to  be  set  free. 
He  first  entered  Prince  Wallerstein's  band,  and 
in  1777  that  of  the  Elector  at  Munich.  He  was 
afterwards  in  that  of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg, 
where  he  made  the  intimate  acquaintance  of  the 
Mozarts.  In  1785  he  was  suddenly  discharged 
by  the  Archbishop,  with  a  loss  of  200  florins,  on 
which  Mozart  not  only  urged  him  to  come  to 
Vienna,  but  ofiered  him  a  good  engagement. 
After  a  residence  of  some  years  in  Russia  he 
became  in  1792  Capellmeister  to  Prince  Fiirsten- 
berg  at  Donauschingen,  where  he  died  in  1816. 
He  published  two  sets  of  quartets  (Frankfort 
and  Vienna,  about  1780-86),  'Six  duos  pour 
violon  et  violoncello'  (Augsburg  1799),  and  two 
sets  of  trios  for  flute,  oboe,  and  bassoon  (Ratisbon 
1806),  besides  MS.  concertos  for  flute,  oboe,  and 
cello.  He  played  several  other  instruments  well, 
especially  the  cello  and  double  bass,  and  was 
evidently  a  man  of  mark.  [M.C.C.] 

FIASCO  (a  flask).  '  Faire  fiasco,'  '  to  make 
a  fiasco,'  i.  e.  a  complete  failure — a  phrase  of 
somewhat  recent  introduction.  The  term,  though 
Italian,  is  not  used  by  the  Italians  in  this  sense, 
but  fii-st  by  the  French  and  than  by  ourselves. 


FIASCO. 


FIELD. 


519 


The  date  and  origin  of  the  expression  are  unknown 
to  Littr^  ;  hut  it  is  tempting  to  believe  the  image 
to  be  that  of  a  flask  falling  and  breaking — or,  as 
our  own  slang  has  it,  'coming  to  utter  smash.'  [G.] 

FIDDLE.  The  old  English  word,  before  'viol' 
came  in,  and  still  the  more  idiomatic  of  the  two. 
Both  are  possibly  derived  from  the  same  root — 
vitula,  a  calf,  from  the  springing  motion  of  dancers 
(Diez  and  Littre  ;  and  compare  the  connection  of 
Geige  and  jig").  Fiddlestick  is  the  violin-bow, 
as  in  the  Epigram  on  a  Bad  Fiddler : — 
Old  Orpheus  play'd  so  well  he  mov'd  Old  Nick, 
Whilst  thou  mov'st  nothing — but  thy  fiddlestick. 
The  Germans  have  three  terms  for  the  instru- 
ment— Fiedel,  Geige,  and  Violine.  [G.] 

FIDELIO,  ODER  DIE  EHELICHE  LIEBE. 
Beethoven's  single  opera  (op.  72) ;  the  words 
adapted  by  Joseph  Sonnleithner  from  Bouilly's 
*  L^onore,  ou  I'Amour  conjugal.'  He  received 
the  text  in  the  winter  of  1804,  and  composed 
the  opera  at  Hetzendorf  in  the  summer.  It  was 
produced  ( i .)  at  the  Theater  an  der  Wien,  Vienna, 
on  Wednesday,  Nov.  20,  1805,  in  3  acts;  the 
overture  was  probably  that  known  as  '  Leonora 
No.  2.'  Cherubini  was  in  the  house.  (2.)  It 
was  played  again  on  the  21st  and  22nd,  and  then 
withdrawn.  (See  p.  185  a.)  The  libretto  was 
then  reduced  by  Breuning  to  2  acts ;  3  pieces  of 
music — said  to  have  been  an  air  for  Pizzaro  with 
chorus ;  a  duet,  Leonore  and  Marzelline ;  and  a 
terzet,  Marzelline,  Jaquino,  and  Rocco — were 
sacrificed,  and  the  overture  '  Leonora  No.  3 ' 
composed.  It  was  plaj^ed  again  at  the  Imperial 
private  theatre  on  Saturday,  March  29,  1806, 
and  April  10,  and  again  withdrawn.  (3.)  Early 
ini8i4  the  opera,  as  again  revised  by  Treitschke, 
was  submitted  to  Beethoven ;  he  at  once  set  to 
work,  and  it  was  produced  a  third  time,  in  2 
acts,  at  the  Karnthnerthor  theatre,  Vienna,  on 
May  23,  18 1 4,  as  Fidelio.  The  overture  was 
that  of  the  *  Ruins  of  Athens,'  but  on  the  26th 
the  overture  in  E,  known  as  the  'Overture  to 
Fidelio,'  was  first  played.  It  was  Beethoven's 
wish  that  the  opera  should  be  called  Leonora, 
but  it  was  never  performed  under  that  name. 
(4.)  It  was  produced  in  Paris,  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  translated  by  Barbier  and  Carre,  and 
in  3  acts,  May  5,  i860.  In  London  byChelard's 
German  company  (Schroder,  etc.)  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  May  18,  1832.  In  English  (Malibran) 
at  Covent  Garden,  June  12,  35.  In  Italian 
(Cruvelli  and  Sims  Reeves,  Recitatives  by  Balfe) 
at  Her  Majesty's,  May  20,  1851.  (5.)  The  chief 
editions  are — a  P.  F.  score  of  the  2nd  arrange- 
ment (by  Moscheles  under  B.'s  direction)  without 
Overture  or  Finale,  1810 ;  with  them,  1815  ; 
both  entitled  'Leonore.'  A  ditto  of  the  3rd 
arrangement,  entitled  'Fidelio,'  Aug.  1814.  A 
critical  edition  by  Otto  Jahn  of  the  complete 
work  as  '  Leonora,'  in  P.  F.  score,  showing  the 
variations  and  changes  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel, 
185 1 ).  An  English  translation  by  Oliphant 
(Addison  &  Hollier),  and  another  by  Soane, 
with  Preface  (Boosey).  The  4  overtures  are 
given  in  the  Royal  Edition  (Boosey).  [G.] 


FIELD,  Henry,  called  'Field  of  Bath,'  was 
bom  Dec.  6,  1797,  and  died  May  19,  1848. 
Pupil  of  Coombs  of  Chippenham.  Beyond  these 
facts,  and  that  he  was  a  careful  pianist  and 
greatly  esteemed  as  a  teacher,  there  is  nothing 
to  explain  why  he  should  require  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  his  greater  namesake.  [G.] 

FIELD,  John,  known  as  'Russian  Field'  to 
distinguish  him  from  Henry  Field.  Born  at 
Dublin  July  26,  1782,  died  Jan.  11,  1837,  at 
Moscow.  To  a  modern  pianist  who  is  aware  of 
Chopin  and  Liszt,  the  name  of  John  Field  recalls 
little  or  nothing  beyond  'Field's  Nocturnes,' — 
not  the  seven  concertos,  so  much  admired  in 
their  day,  nor  the  three  sonatas  dedicated  to  his 
master  Clementi,  nor  the  pianoforte  quintet  with 
strings,  nor  the  'Airs  varies,'  or  'Polonaise  en 
rondeau,'  or  similar  more  or  less  sentimental 
inanities, — but  Field's  Nocturnes  pure  and  simple. 
And  here  again,  not  the  entire  lot  of  twenty  little 
sentimental  effusions  bound  up  into  a  nocturnal 
sheaf,  but  about  half  a  dozen  delicate  little  lyrics 
— the  nocturnes  in  A,  Eb,  C  minor,  Ab,  and  Bb 
(nos.  4,  7,  2,  3,  and  5,  in  Liszt's  edition),  the 
very  essence  of  all  idylls  and  eclogues,  'Poesies 
intimes '  of  simple  charm  and  inimitable  grace, 
such  as  no  undue  popularity  can  render  stale, 
no  sham  imitation  nauseous.  Both  as  a  player 
and  as  a  composer  Chopin,  and  with  him  all 
modern  pianists,  are  much  indebted  to  Field. 
The  form  of  Chopin's  weird  nocturnes,  the  kind 
of  emotion  embodied  therein,  the  type  of  melody 
and  its  graceful  embellishments,  the  peciiliar 
weaving  accompaniments  in  widespread  chords, 
with  their  vaguely  prolonged  sound  resting  on 
the  pedals,  all  this  and  more  we  owe  to  Field. 

Field's  method  of  playing,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected from  dementi's  iDest  pupil,  was  distin- 
guished by  the  most  smooth  and  equable  touch, 
the  most  perfect  legato,  with  supple  wrists  and 
quiet  position  of  the  hands,  a  suave  and  sing- 
ing tone,  capable  of  endless  modifications  and 
delicate  shades  of  expression.  He  is  reported  to 
have  played  his  nocturnes  with  an  inexhaustible 
variety  of  embellishments,  and,  like  Chopin  after 
him,  is  said  to  have  preferred  the  smaller  square 
and  upright  pianofortes  to  grands.  Schuberth 
&  Co.'s  edition  of  his  Nocturnes  is  prefaced 
by  a  charming  essay  in  French  on  Field  and  his 
musical  ways,  by  Franz  Liszt,  well  worth 
reading. 

Field  came  of  a  family  of  musicians.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  violinist  engaged  at  a  theatre  in 
Dublin,  who  again  was  the  son  of  an  organist. 
His  grandfather  taught  him  the  rudiments  of 
music  and  grounded  him  on  the  piano.  He  told 
Fdtis  that  both  his  father  and  grandfather  forced 
him  to  practice  so  unmercifully,  that  he  attempted 
to  run  away  from  home  —  to  which,  however, 
abject  misery  soon  brought  him  back.  The  elder 
Field,  who  was  subsequently  engaged  as  violinist 
at  Bath,  and  afterwards  at  the  Hajnnarket 
Theatre,  brought  young  John  to  London  and 
apprenticed  him  (for  a  premium  of  100  guineas) 
to  Clementi,  with  whom  he  became  a  sort  of 
musical  salesman  in  the  pianoforte  shop  of  Cle- 


520 


FIELD. 


FIGURE. 


inenti  and  Co.,  and  from  whom,  up  to  his  22nd 
year,  he  received  regular  instruction  in  pianoforte 
playing.  In  1802  Clementi  took  Field  to  Paris, 
where  his  admirable  rendering  of  Bach's  and 
Handel's  fugues  astonished  musicians  ;  thence  to 
Germany,  and  thereafter  to  Russia.  Here  he 
was  encountered  by  Spohr,  who  gives  a  graphic 
account  of  him.  Clementi  kept  him  to  his  old 
trade  of  showing  off  the  pianos  in  the  ware- 
house, and  there  he  was  to  be  found,  a  pale 
melancholy  youth,  awkward  and  shy,  speaking 
no  language  but  his  own,  and  in  clothes  which 
he  had  far  outgrown;  but  who  had  only  to 
place  his  hands  on  the  keys  for  all  such  draw- 
backs to  be  at  once  forgotten  (Spohr,  Selbstbio- 
graphie  i.  43). 

On  dementi's  departure  in  1804  Field  settled 
at  St.  Petersburg  as  a  teacher,  where  his  lessons 
were  much  sought  after  and  extraordinarily  well 
paid.  In  1823  he  went  to  Moscow,  and  gave 
concerts  with  even  greater  success  than  in  Peters- 
burg. After  further  travelling  in  Russia  he 
returned  to  London  and  played  at  the  Philhar- 
monic— a  concerto  of  his  own — Feb.  27,  1832. 
From  thence  he  went  to  Paris,  and  in  1833 
through  Belgium  and  Switzerland  to  Italy,  where 
at  Milan,  Venice  and  Naples,  his  playing  did 
not  please  the  aristocratic  mob,  and  his  concerts 
did  not  pay.  Habits  of  intemperance  had  grown 
upon  him ;  he  suffered  from  fistula,  and  his 
situation  at  Naples  became  worse  and  worse. 
He  lay  in  a  hospital  for  nine  months  in  the  most 
deplorable  condition,  from  which  at  last  a  Russian 
family  named  Raemanow  rescued  him,  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  consent  to  return  with 
them  to  Moscow.  On  their  way  back  Field  was 
heard  at  Vienna,  and  elicited  transports  of 
admiration  by  the  exquisite  playing  of  his 
Nocturnes.  But  his  health  was  gone.  Hardly 
arrived  at  Moscow  he  succumbed,  and  was 
buried  there  in  Jan.  1837. 

Field's  printed  compositions  for  the  piano  are 
as  follows  : — 7  Concertos  (No.  i,  Eb  ;  No.  2,  Ab ; 
No.  3,  Eb;  No.  4,  Eb  ;  No.  5,  C,  'L'incendie 
par  I'orage' ;  No.  6,  C ;  No.  7,  C  minor) ;  2 
Divertimenti,  with  accompaniment  of  two  violins, 
flute,  viola  and  bass ;  a  Quintet  and  a  Rondo  for 
piano  and  strings ;  Variations  on  a  Russian  air  for 
four  hands ;  a  grand  Valse,  4  Sonatas,  3  of  which 
are  dedicated  to  Clementi ;  2  'Airs  en  Rondeau' ; 
Fantasie  sur  le  motif  de  la  Polonaise,  '  Ah,  quel 
dommage';  Rondeau  Ecossais ;  Polonaise  en  forme 
de  Rondo ;  deux  airs  Anglais,  and  *  Vive  Henry 
IV'  varies  ;  and  20  pieces  to  which  in  recent 
editions  the  name  of  Nocturnes  is  applied,  though 
it  properly  belongs  to  not  more  than  a  dozen  of 
them.  [E.  D.] 

FIERRABRAS.  An  opera  in  3  acts  by 
Schubert,  words  by  Kupelwieser.  It  was  com- 
missioned by  Barbaja,  but  owing  to  his  failure 
was  never  performed,  and  remains  in  MS.  in 
the  Library  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde 
at  Vienna.  Act  i,  304  pages,  is  dated  at  be- 
ginning and  end  25th  and  31st  May  (1823); 
Act  2,  31st  May  and  5th  June.  The  overture 
ia  occasionally  played  at  concerts.  [G.] 


FIFE.  The  smaller  variety  of  the  simple  flute, 
possessing  at  most  one  key.  It  is  made  in  several 
keys,  F,  Bb,  and  Eb.  It  is  seldom  used  in 
Orchestral  music,  and  only  for  the  production  of 
peculiar  effects.  Fifes  are  combined  with  drums 
in  military  use.  They  play  simple  melodies, 
without  bass,  of  a  marked  character  and  rhythm, 
suitable  to  mark  the  time  of  marching.  [W.  H.  S.] 

FIFTEENTH  is  a  stop  or  set  of  pipes  in  an 
organ  sounding  2  octaves,  or  15  notes,  above  the 
Open  diapason.  Thus  when  the  Fifteenth  and 
Open  diapason  stops  are  drawn  out  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  finger  is  placed  on  the  key  of 
middle  C,  two  notes  are  sounded — middle  C  and 
C  two  octaves  above  it. 

FIFTH.  A  Fifth  is  the  perfect  consonance, 
the  ratio  of  the  vibrational  numbers  of  the  limiting 
sounds  of  which  is  2  :  3.  It  is  called  fifth  because 
5  diatonic  notes  are  passed  through  in  arriving 
from  one  extreme  of  the  interval  to  the  other, 
whence  the  Greeks  called  it  8ia  irivre,  Diapente. 
The  interval  consists  of  3  whole  tones  and  a 
semitone.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FIGARO.    See  Nozze  di  Figaeo. 

FIGURANTE.  A  ballet-dancer  who  takes 
an  independent  part  in  the  piece  ;  also,  in  France, 
a  subordinate  character  in  a  play,  who  comes  on 
but  has  nothing  to  say. 

FIGURE  is  any  short  succession  of  notes, 
either  as  melody  or  a  group  of  chords,  which  pro- 
duces a  single,  complete,  and  distinct  impression. 
The  term  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  German 
Motiv,  which  is  thus  defined  in  Reissmann's  con- 
tinuation of  Mendel's  Lexicon  : — '  Motiv,  Ge- 
danke,  in  der  Musik,  das  kleinere  Glied  eines 
solchen,  aus  dem  dieser  sich  organisch  entwick- 
elt.'  It  is  in  fact  the  shortest  complete  idea  in 
music  ;  and  in  subdividing  musical  works  into 
their  constituent  portions,  as  separate  movements, 
sections,  periods,  phrases,  the  units  are  the  figures, 
and  any  subdivision  below  them  will  leave  only 
expressionless  single  notes,  as  unmeaning  as  the 
separate  letters  of  a  word. 

Figures  play  a  most  important  part  in  instru- 
mental music,  in  which  it  is  necessary  that  a 
strong  and  definite  impression  should  be  produced 
to  answer  the  purpose  of  words,  and  convey  the 
sense  of  vitality  to  the  otherwise  incoherent  suc- 
cession of  sounds.  In  pure  vocal  music  this  is 
not  the  case,  as  on  the  one  hand  the  words  assist 
the  audience  to  follow  and  understand  what  they 
hear,  and  on  the  other  the  quality  of  voices  in 
combination  is  such  as  to  render  strong  charac- 
teristic features  somewhat  inappropriate.  But 
without  strongly  marked  figures  the  very  reason 
of  existence  of  instrumental  movements  can 
hardly  be  perceived,  and  the  success  of  a  move- 
ment of  any  dimensions  must  ultimately  depend, 
to  a  very  large  extent,  on  the  appropriate  de- 
velopment of  the  figures  which  are  contained  in 
the  chief  subjects.  The  common  expression  that 
a  subject  is  very  'workable,'  merely  means  that 
it  contains  well-marked  figures  ;  though  it  must 
be  observed  on  the  other  hand,  that  there  are 
not  a  few  instances  in  which  masterly  treatment 


FIGURE. 


FIGURE. 


521 


has  invested  with  powerful  interest  a  figure 
which  at  first  sight  would  seem  altogether  de- 
ficient in  character. 

As  clear  an  instance  as  could  be  given  of  the 
breaking  up  of  a  subject  into  its  constituent 
figures  for  the  purpose  of  development,  is  the 
treatment  of  the  first  subject  of  Beethoven's 
Pastoral  Sjinphony,  which  he  breaks  up  into 
(a)  (b)  (c) 


three  figures  corresponding  to  the  first  three 
bars.  As  au  example  of  his  treatment  of  (a) 
may  be  taken — 


I 


&c. 


(6)  is  twice  repeated  no  less  than  thirty -six  times 
successively  in  the  development  of  the  movement ; 
and  (c)  appears  at  the  close  as  follows  : — 


Examples  of  this  kind  of  treatment  of  the 
figures  contained  in  subjects  are  very  numerous 
in  classical  instrumental  music,  in  various  degrees 
of  refinement  and  ingenuity  ;  as  in  the  ist  move- 
ment of  Mozart's  G  minor  S3'-mphony ;  in  the 
same  movement  of  Beethoven's  8th  Symphony; 
and  in  a  large  number  of  Bach's  fugues,  as  for 
instance  Nos.  2,  7,  16,  of  the  Wohltemperirte 
Klavier.  The  beautiful  little  musical  poem,  the 
1 8th  fugue  of  that  series,  contains  as  happy  a 
specimen  of  this  device  as  could  be  cited. 

In  music  of  an  ideally  high  order,  everything 
should  be  recognisable  as  having  a  meaning ;  or, 
in  other  words,  every  part  of  the  music  should 
be  capable  of  being  analysed  into  figures,  so  that 
even  the  most  insignificant  instrument  in  the 
orchestra  should  not  be  merely  making  sounds 
to  fill  up  the  mass  of  the  harmony,  but  should 
be  playing  something  which  is  worth  playing  in 
itself.  It  is  of  course  impossible  for  any  but  the 
highest  genius  to  carry  this  out  consistently,  but 
in  proportion  as  music  approaches  to  this  ideal, 
it  is  of  a  high  order  as  a  work  of  art,  and  in  the 
measure  in  which  it  recedes  from  it,  it  approaches 
more  nearly  to  the  mass  of  base,  slovenly,  or 
false  contrivances  which  lie  at  the  other  ex- 
treme, and  are  not  works  of  art  at  all.  This 
will  be  very  well  recognised  by  a  comparison 
of  Schubert's  method  of  treating  the  accompani- 
ment of  his  songs  and  the  method  adopted  in  the 
large  proportion  of  the  thousands  of  'popular' 
songs  which  annually  make  their  appearance  in 
this  country.  For  even  when  the  figure  is  as 
simple  as  in  'Wohin,'  'Mein,'  or  'Ave  Maria,' 
the  figure  is  there,  and  is  clearly  recognised,  and 
is  as  different  from  mere  sound  or  stuflBng  to 
support  the  voice  as  a  living  creature  is  from 
dead  and  inert  clay. 


Bach  and  Beethoven  were  the  great  masters 
in  the  use  of  figures,  and  both  were  content  at 
times  to  make  a  short  figure  of  three  or  four 
notes  the  basis  of  a  whole  movement.  As  ex- 
amples of  this  may  be  quoted  the  truly  famous 
rhythmic  figure  of  the  C  minor  Symphony  {d), 
the  figure  of  the  Scherzo  of  the  9th  Symphony 
(e),  and  the  figure  of  the  first  movement  of  the 
last  Sonata,  in  C  minor  (/).  As  a  beautiful  ex- 
ample from  Bach  may  be  quoted  the  Adagio  from 
the  Toccata  in  D  minor  (g),  but  it  nmst  be  said 

.  ^    (d)  ^  ..  . 


that  examples  in  his  works  are  almost  innumer- 
able, and  will  meet  the  student  at  every  turn. 

A  very  peculiar  use  which  Bach  occasionally 
makes  of  figures,  is  to  use  one  as  the  bond  of 
connection  running  through  a  whole  movement 
by  constant  repetition,  as  in  Prelude  No.  10  of 
the  Wohltemperirte  Klavier,  and  in  the  slow 
movement  of  the  Italian  Concerto,  where  it  serves 
as  accompaniment  to  an  impassioned  recitative. 
In  this  case  the  figure  is  not  identical  on  each 
repetition,  but  is  freely  modified,  in  such  a  way 
however  that  it  is  always  recognised  as  the 
same,  partly  by  the  rhythm  and  partly  by  the 
relative  positions  of  the  successive  notes.  This 
manner  of  modifying  a  given  figure  shows  a 
tendency  in  the  direction  of  a  mode  of  treatment 
which  has  become  a  feature  in  modern  music  : 
namely,  the  practice  of  transforming  figures  in 
order  to  show  different  aspects  of  the  same 
thought,  or  to  establish  a  connection  between 
one  thought  and  another  by  bringing  out  the 
characteristics  they  possess  in  common.  As  a 
simple  specimen  of  this  kind  of  transformation, 
may  be  quoted  a  passage  from -the  first  move- 
ment of  Brahms's  P.  F,  Quintet  in  F  minor. 
The  figure  stands  at  first  as  at  (h),  then  by 
transposition  as  at  {i).  Its  first  stage  of  trans- 
formation is  (j)  ;  further  {k)  {I)  (m)  are  pro- 
gressive modifications  towards  the  stage  {n), 
(/^) 


(k)   .  ^   (0  (m)  ^  (n) 


which,  having  been  repeated  twice  in  different 


522 


FIGURE. 


FIGURED  BASS. 


positions,  appears  finally  as  the  figure  immedi- 
ately attached  to  the  Cadence  in  Db,  thus — 


A  similar  very  fine  example — too  familiar  to 
need  quotation  here — is  at  the  close  of  Beethoven's 
Overture  to  Coriolan. 

The  use  which  Wagner  makes  of  strongly 
marked  figures  is  very  important,  as  he 
establishes  a  consistent  connection  between  the 
characters  and  situations  and  the  music  by  using 
appropriate  figures  (Leitmotive),  which  appear 
whenever  the  ideas  or  characters  to  which  they 
belong  come  prominently  forward. 

That  figures  vary  in  intensity  to  an  immense 
degree  hardly  requires  to  be  pointed  out ;  and  it 
will  also  be  obvious  that  figures  of  accompaniment 
do  not  require  to  be  so  marked  as  figures  which 
occupy  positions  of  individual  importance.  With 
regard  to  the  latter  it  may  be  remarked  that 
there  is  hardly  any  department  in  music  in  which 
true  feeling  and  inspiration  are  more  absolutely 
indispensable,  since  no  amount  of  ingenuity  or 
perseverance  can  produce  such  figures  as  that 
which  opens  the  C-minor  Symphony,  or  such 
soul-moving  figures  as  those  in  the  death  march 
of  Siegfried  in  Wagner's  *  Gotterdanimerung.' 

As  the  common  notion  that  music  chiefly 
consists  of  pleasant  tunes  grows  weaker,  the 
importance  of  figures  becomes  proportionately 
greater.  A  succession  of  isolated  tunes  is  always 
more  or  less  inconsequent,  however  deftly  they 
may  be  connected  together,  but  by  the  appropriate 
use  of  figures  and  groups  of  figures,  such  as  real 
musicians  only  can  invent,  and  the  gradual  un- 
folding of  all  their  latent  possibilities,  continuous 
and  logical  works  of  art  may  be  constructed ;  such 
as  will  not  merely  tickle  the  hearer's  fancy,  but 
arouse  profound  interest,  and  raise  him  mentally 
and  morally  to  a  higher  standard.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FIGURED.  A  translation  of  Figurato,  an- 
other word  for  Flokid.  Figured  Counterpoint 
is  where  several  notes  of  various  lengths,  with 
syncopations  and  other  ornamental  devices,  are 
set  against  the  single  notes  of  the  Canto  fermo ; 
and  Figured  melody,  or  Canto  fignrato,  was  the 
breaking  up  of  the  long  notes  of  the  church 
melodies  into  larger  or  more  rapid  figures  or 
passages.  The  figarirter  Choral,  or  Figured 
chorale,  of  the  German  school  was  a  similar 
treatment  of  their  church  tunes,  in  which  either 
the  melody  itself  or  its  accompaniments  are 
broken  up  into  *  figures '  or  groups  of  smaller 
notes  than  the  original.  Of  this  numberless  ex- 
amples may  be  found  in  the  works  of  J.  S.  Bach. 

FIGURED  BASS  is  a  species  of  musical  short- 
hand by  which  the  harmony  only  of  a  piece  is 
indicated.  It  consists  of  the  bass  notes  alone, 
with  figures  to  represent  the  chords.  It  seems 
to  have  been  first  employed  by  Peri,  Caccini, 
Viadana,  and  Monteverde,  about  1600,  in  the 
accompaniments  of  their  Recitatives  and  Songs, 
and  was  afterwards  for  some  time  in  universal 
use  for  accompaniment;  songs  such  as  the  col- 


lection of  the  Orpheus  Britannicus,  and  anthems 
such  as  Boyce's  collection,  and  great  works  like 
Bach's  Passion  and  Handel's  Messiah,  having 
accompaniments  indicated  in  this  manner.  The 
bass  line  consisted  of  the  lowest  part  of  whatever 
was  going  on  at  the  time,  whether  treble,  or 
tenor,  or  bass,  and  in  choral  works  it  often  leapt 
about  promiscuously  in  a  manner  that  would  be 
very  harassing  to  a  player  unaccustomed  to  the 
process,  as  for  example 


from  the  last  chorus  of  the  Messiah. 

The  figures  represented  the  diatonic  intervals 
counting  upwards,  without  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  chord ;  thus  2  always  meant  the  next 
diatonic  note  above — D  above  C,  as  in  (a),  and 
4  the  next  note  but  two,  as  (&),  and  so  on  up  to 
the  9th,  above  which  the  figures  of  the  lower 
octave  were  repeated  ;  and  the  choice  of  the  par- 
ticular octave  in  which  a  note  represented  by  a 
figure  should  be  placed,  as  well  as  the  progression 
of  the  parts,  was  generally  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  player. 

It  was  not  customary  to  insert  all  the  figures, 
as  some  intervals  were  looked  upon  as  too  familiar 
to  require  indication,  such  as  the  octave  and 
the  fifth  and  the  third,  or  any  of  them  in 
combination  with  other  intervals;  thus  a  7  by 
itself  would  admit  of  any  or  all  of  them  being 
taken  without  being  indicated,  as  (c)  ;  and  a  9 
would  admit  of  a  fifth  and  a  third,  as  {d) ;  and 
a  6  of  a  third,  but  not  of  a  fifth,  as  (e) ;  and  a  4 
of  a  fifth  and  an  octave,  as  (/).  When  a  2  was 
written  alone  over  a  note  it  admitted  also  of  a 
sixth  and  a  fourth,  as  (g)  ;  but  more  commonly 
the  4  was  written  with  the  2,  and  the  sixth  only 
was  understood;  and  this  seems  to  be  the  only 
case  in  which  notes  other  than  the  octave  or  fifth 
or  third  are  left  to  be  understood. 


(a) 


A 


1  1 — '^-j-'-t  i 


I  r  ^ 

When  notes  were  chromatically  altered  the 
accidental  was  added  by  the  side  of  the  figure 
representing  that  note  (7b),  or  for  sharpening  a 
note  a  line  was  drawn  through  the  figure  or  by 
its  side,  as  at  (k),  and  as  it  was  not  customary  to 
write  the  3,  when  the  third  was  to  be  chromatically 
altered  the  accidental  was  placed  by  itself  with  the 
bass  note — thus  a  simple  J,  b,  or  t],  implied  a  9, 
bj  or  t],  3rd.  When  the  bass  moved  and  any  or  all 


FIGUEED  BASS. 


FIX  ALE. 


523 


.  :he  notes  of  the  harmony  above  it  stood  still, 
it  waa  common  to  indicate  this  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  fignrea  indicating  the  notes  which 
remained  stationary  to  the  place  where  they 
moved  again,  and  if  the  notes  happened  to  be 
such  aa  were  usually  left  to  be  understood  by 
the  player,  the  Unes  were  dra^vn  over  the  bass 
from  the  point  in  which  it  began  to  move  mider 
the  implied  chord.  Whenever  the  bass  was  to 
be  unaccompanied  by  harmony,  the  words  '  Tasto 
Solo'  were  written. 

The  figures  were  usually  written  in  their 
numerical  order,  though  for  special  purposes  they 
might  be  reversed  when  the  Cfjmposer  required  a 
particular  disposition  of  the  notes,  and  similar 
emergencies  often  caused  the  8  or  the  5  or  the  3 
to  be  inserted  if  it  was  indispensable  that  the 
notes  represented  by  those  figures  should  not  be 
miBsed  out.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FTLLE  DU  PvEGIMEXT,  LA.  Opera  in  2 
acts ;  words  by  Bayard  and  St.  Georges  ;  music  by 
Donizetti.  Produced  at  the  Opera  comique  Feb. 
II,  1 840.  In  London,  as  La  Figlia  di  Reggi- 
mento,  at  Her  Majesty's  (Jenny  Lind)  May  27, 
1847 ;  and  as  The  Daughter  of  the  Eegiment 
(Fitzball)  at  Surrey  Theatre  Dec.  21,  47. 

FILTSCH,  Charles,  bom  about  1830  at  Her- 
mannstadt,  Siebenburgen,  Hungary.  He  appears 
to  have  received  his  earliest  regular  instruction 
on  the  piano  from  Mittag  at  Vienna.  Li  1842 
he  was  in  Paris,  studying  under  Chopin  and 
Liszt.  In  the  summer  of  43  he  came  to  London 
(at  the  same  time  with  Ernst,  Halle,  Sivori, 
Dreyschock,  and  Spohr),  and  appeared  twice  in 
pablic,  once  on  June  14,  at  St.  James's  Theatre, 
between  two  of  the  plays,  and  again  on  July  4, 
at  a  Matinee  of  his  own  at  the  Hanover  Square 
Booms.  On  the  latter  occasion,  besides  the 
Scherzo  in  B  minor  and  other  pieces  of  Chopin, 
he  played  a  Prelude  and  Fugue  of  Bach's  and  a 
piece  in  A  from  the  'Temperaments'  of  Men- 
delssohn. In  the  last  of  these  he  was  peculiarly 
happy.  'Presto  de  Mendelssohn,'  said  Spohr, 
the  moment  he  saw  Filtsch  seated  at  the  piano 
at  Sir  G.  Smart's  a  few  nights  after.  He  also 
played  at  Buckingham  Palace  before  the  Queen 
and  Prince  Albert.  He  was  then  13  years  old, 
and  his  plajnng  is  described  as  most  remarkable 
h  for  execution  and  expression — fuU  at  once 

vi.'our  and  feeling,  poetry  and  passion.  (See 
the  Musical  Examiner  for  June  1 7  and  July  8, 
1843.)  Every  one  who  met  him  seems  to  have 
loved  him.  He  was  '  le  petit '  in  Paris,  and 
'little  Filtach'  in  London.  According  to  the 
enthusiastic  von  Lenz,  Chopin  said  that  he  played 
his  music  better  than  he  himself,  while  Liszt  on 
one  occasion  exclaimed  '  Quand  ce  petit  vo3-agera 
je  fermerai  boutique.'  (Lenz,  '  Grosse  P.F.  Vir- 
tuosen,'  p.  36 ;  '  Beethoven  et  sea  3  Styles,'  i. 
229.)  But  he  was  not  de-tined  to  fulfil  the 
promise  of  so  brilliant  a  childhood  —  the  blade 
was  too  keen  for  the  scabbard ;  and,  as  Mos- 
cheles  warned  him,  he  practised  too  much  for 
his  strength ;  consumption  showed  itself,  and  he 
died  at  Venice  on  May  1 1,  1845.  [G.] 


FINALE,  (i)  The  last  movement  of  a  sym- 
phony, sonata,  concerto,  or  other  instrumental 
composition.  (2)  The  piece  of  music  with  which 
any  of  the  acts  of  an  opera  are  brought  to  a 
close. 

(1)  The  finales  of  the  first  great  master  of 
the  sjTnphony,  Haydn,  though  developed  with 
extraordinary  skill  and  inexhaustible  invention, 
are  mostly  of  a  somewhat  playful  character. 
Though  their  treatment  is  learned,  their  snbjects 
are  often  trite.  They  are  almost  uniformly  cast 
in  the  'rondo,'  as  contradistinguished  from  the 
*  sonata'  form.  The  finales  of  more  recent  masters 
exhibit  a  somewhat  severer  purpose,  and  are  cast 
in  forms  for  which,  seeing  their  variety,  no  name 
has  been,  or  seems  likely  to  be,  devised.  In  the 
finale  to  Mozart's  so-called  'Jupiter  Symphony' 
every  conceivable  contrapuntal  resource  is  em- 
ployed, with  a  freedom  unsurpassed  by  the 
greatest  masters  of  fugue,  to  give  effect  to  ideas 
such  as  have  been  vouchsafed  to  few  other  com- 
posers. In  those  of  Beethoven  the  great  musical 
poet  goes  'from  strength  to  strength,'  and  having, 
as  he  would  seem  to  have  thought,  exhausted 
all  the  capabilities  for  effect  of  the  instrumental 
orchestra,  brings  the  chorus  to  bear  on  his  latest 
symphony — a  colossal  monument  of  the  inven- 
tion, and  command  of  invention,  of  its  composer  ; 
surpassing  in  scale,  variety,  and  effect  all  former 
and  indeed  subsequent  efforts  of  the  kind. 

(2)  In  the  earlier  operas,  of  whatever  nation, 
each  act  was  commonly  terminated  by  an  aria 
or  at  the  most  duet,  constructed  rather  to 
exhibit  the  powers  of  the  singer  or  singers 
employed  in  it,  than  to  carry  on  or  even 
emphasise  the  action.  The  last  act  was  some- 
times brought  to  a  close  with  a  chorus,  generally 
brief  and  always  of  the  simplest  character. 
The  finale  proper — the  great  concerted  piece 
in  the  course  of  which  the  interest;  of  each 
act  culminates  —  is  a  modem  addition  to  the 
musical  drama,  having  its  origin  in  the  earlier 
Italian  opera  bujfa  of  the  last  century.  The 
principal  masters  of  this  delightful  variety  of 
musical  composition  were  Leo,  Pergolesi,  the 
Italianised  German  Hasse,  and  Logroscino  ;  and 
it  is  in  the  operas  of  the  last  of  these,  otherwise 
greatly  distinguished  for  their  inventiveness  and 
spirit,  that  the  finale  first  appears,  though  in  a 
somewhat  primitive  form.  To  Piccinni  its 
development,  if  not  its  perfectionment,  is  sub- 
sequently due.  His  opera  'La  Cecchina,  ossia 
la  Buona  Figliuola '  owed  much  of  its  extra- 
ordinary popularity  to  the  introduction  of  finales 
in  which  the  action  was  carried  on,  and  which 
were  first  enlivened  to  the  ear  by  the  varieties 
of  key  and  of  rhythm  given  to  the  successive 
movements,  and  to  the  eye  by  the  entrances  and 
exits  of  the  different  persons  of  the  drama. 

Two  of  the  finest  specimens  of  this  class  form 
large  portions  of  Mozart's  '  Xozze  di  Figaro.' 
One  of  them — that  to  the  second  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  performed,  the  first  act— consists  of 
no  less  than  eight  movements,  as  various  in 
character  as  are  the  nine  personages  who  are 
concerned  in  it,  and  whose  several  accusations, 


524 


FINALE. 


FINGER. 


defences,  protests,  recriminations,  and  alterna- 
tions of  success  and  failure  are  wrought  into 
a  work  of  musical  art  which,  as  has  been  well 
said,  '  begias  on  an  eminence  and  rises  to  the 
last  note.' 

The  great  concerted  piece,  whether  introduced 
at  the  end  of  an  act  or  elsewhere,  has  not  been 
made  an  essential  feature  of  modem  opera 
■without  strong  protest ;  and  this  by  the  same 
writer  whose  amusiag  designation  of  barytones 
and  basses  has  already  been  quoted.  [Bass.] 
Lord  Moimt-Edgecumbe  (Musical  Keminiscences, 
Sect,  vii.)  attributes  its  introduction  to  no  other 
cause  than  the  decline  of  the  art  of  singing,  and  the 
consequent  necessity  for  making  compensation  to 
the  musical  hearer  for  a  deficiency  of  individual 
excellence  by  a  superfluity  of  aggregate  mediocrity. 
*  Composers,'  he  says,  '  having  (now)  few  good 
voices,  and  few  good  singers  to  write  for,  have 
been  obliged  to  adapt  their  compositions  to  the 
abUities  of  those  who  were  to  perform  in  them  ; 
and  as  fom-,  five,  or  six  moderate  performers 
produce  a  better  effect  jointly  than  they  could 
by  their  single  efforts,  songs  have  disappeared, 
and  interminable  quartettos,  quintettes,  sestettos 
etc.  usurp  their  place.'  And  again,  'It  is 
evident  that  in  such  compositions  each  indivi- 
dual singer  has  little  room  for  displaying  either 
a  fine  voice  or  good  singing,  and  that  power 
of  lungs  is  more  essential  than  either ;  very 
good  singers  therefore  are  scarcely  necessar}', 
and  it  must  be  confessed  that  though  there  are 
now  none  so  good,  neither  are  there  many  so 
bad  as  I  remember  in  the  inferior  characters. 
In  these  levelling  days,  equalisation  has  ex- 
tended itself  to  the  stage  and  musical  profession  ; 
and  a  kind  of  mediocrity  of  talent  prevails, 
which,  if  it  did  not  occasion  the  invention  of 
these  melodramatic  pieces  is  at  least  very  favour- 
able to  their  execution.'  The  most  extraordinary 
thing  connected  with  this  passage  is  that  it  was 
written  half  a  century  after  the  production  of 
Mozart's  'Kozze  di  Eigaro,'  with  which  the 
venerable  critic  was  certainly  well  acquainted. 
From  the  most  recent  form  of  opera,  that  of 
Wagner,  the  finale,  like  the  air,  the  duet,  the  trio 
or  other  self-contained  movement,  has  entirely 
disappeared.  Each  act  may  be  described  as 
one  movement,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
which  no  natural  pause  is  to  be  found,  and  from 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  a  connected, 
or  in  itself  complete  extract.  It  is  difficult  to 
conceive  that  this  '  system '  should  in  its  integ- 
rity maintain,  or  attain,  extensive  popularity; 
but  it  wiU  no  doubt  more  or  less  affect  all  future 
musical  dramas.  [J.H.] 

EINCH,  Hon.  and  Eev.  Edwaed,  a  pre- 
bendary of  York  in  1 704,  composed  several  pieces 
of  church  music.  Of  these  a  '  Te  Deum '  and  an 
anthem  'Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,'  are  included 
in  Tudway's  collection  of  church  music  in  the 
British  Museum  (Harl.  MSS.  1337-42).  He 
died  Feb.  14,  1738,  aged  74.  [W.H.H.] 

EIXGERBOAED.  The  Fingerboard  is  that 
part  of  the  violin  and  other  stringed  instruments 
played  with  a  bow,  over  which  the  strings  are 


stretched,  and  against  which  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  of  the  player  press  the  strings  in  order 
to  produce  sounds  not  given  by  the  open  string. 

The  fingerboard  of  the  violin  is  best  made  of 
ebony,  as  harder  and  less  easily  worn  out  than  any 
other  wood.  Its  surface  is  somewhat  curved — 
corresponding  to  the  top  line  of  the  bridge,  but 
not  quite  so  much — in  order  to  allow  the  bow' 
to  touch  each  string  separately,  which  would  be 
impossible,  if  bridge  and  fingerboard  were  flat. 
On  an  average-sized  violin  it  measures  10^  inches 
in  length,  while  its  width  is  about  i  inch  nearest 
to  the  head  of  the  violin  and  i-|  inch  at  the 
bridge-end.  It  is  glued  on  to  the  neck,  and 
extends  from  the  head  to  about  three -fourths  of 
the  distance  between  the  neck  and  the  bridge. 
At  the  head-end  it  has  a  slight  rim,  called  the 
'  nut,'  which  supports  the  strings  and  keeps  them 
at  a  distance  sufficient  to  allow  them  to  vibrate 
without  touching  the  fingerboard.  This  distance 
varies  considerably  according  to  the  style  of  the 
player.  A  broad  tone  and  an  energetic  treat- 
ment of  the  instrument  require  much  room  for 
the  greater  vibration  of  the  strings,  and  conse- 
quently a  high  nut.  Amateur-players,  as  a  rule, 
prefer  a  low  nut,  which  makes  it  easier  to  press 
the  strings  down,  but  does  not  aUow  of  the  pro- 
duction of  a  powerful  tone. 

The  fingerboard,  getting  worn  by  the  constant 
action  of  the  fingers,  must  be  renewed  from  time 
to  time.  The  modem  technique  of  violin- playing 
requires  the  neck,  and  in  consequence  the  finger- 
board, to  be  considerably  longer  than  they  were 
at  the  time  of  the  great  Cremona  makers.  For 
these  reasons  we  hardly  ever  find  an  old  instru- 
ment with  either  the  original  fingerboard,  bridge, 
sound-post,  or  bass-bar,  all  of  which  however  can 
be  made  just  as  well  by  any  good  violin-maker 
now  living  as  by  the  ancient  masters. 

The  fingerboards  of  the  Violoncello  and  Double- 
bass  are  made  on  the  same  principle  as  that  of 
the  ^iolin,  except  that  the  side  of  the  fingerboard 
over  which  the  lowest  string  is  stretched  is 
flattened  in  order  to  give  sufficient  room  for  its 
vibration.  Spohr  adopted  a  somewhat  similar 
plan  on  his  violin  by  having  a  little  scooping-out 
undemeath  the  fourth  string,  which  grew  flatter 
and  narrower  towards  the  nut. 

In  the  instruments  of  the  older  viola-,  gamba-, 
and  13-ra-tribe,  the  fingerboard  was  provided  with 
frets.  [F.  D.] 

FINGER,  GoTTFBiED  or  Godfrey,  a  native 
of  Olmiitz  in  Moravia,  came  to  England  about 
16S5,  and  was  appointed  chapel-master  to  James 
II.  "  In  1688  he  published  'Sonatse  XII.  pro 
Diversis  Instrumentis.  Opus  Primum,'  and  in 
1690  '  Six  Sonatas  or  Solos,  three  for  a  violin 
and  three  for  a  flute.'  In  1691.  in  conjunction 
with  John  Banister,  he  published  'Ajres,  Chtr 
cones,  Divisions  and  Sonatas  for  Violins  and 
Flutes,'  and  shortly  after  joined  Godfrey  Keller 
in  producing  '  A  Set  of  Sonatas  in  five  parts  for 
flutes  and  hautboys.'  He  subsequently  pub- 
lished other  sonatas  for  violins  and  flutes.  In 
1693  Finger  composed  the  music  for  Theophilus 
Parsons'  Ode  for  the  annual  celebration  of  St 


FINGER. 


FLSTtEEIXG. 


525 


t  ilia's  dav.  In  1696,  in  conjunction  with  John 
Eccles,  he  composed  the  music  for  Motteux'3 
masque,  'The  Loves  of  Mars  and  Venus,'  and 
in  the  next  year  that  for  Ravenscroft's  comedy, 
*The  Anatomist,  or,  The  Sham  Doctor.'  In 
1 701  he  set  to  music  Elkanah  Settle's  opera, 

*  The  Virgin  Prophetess,  or,  The  Siege  of  Troy.' 
In  the  same  year  he  was  awarded  the  fourth 
prize  for  the  composition  of  Congreve's  masque, 
•The  Judgment  of  Paris.'  the  others  being  given 
to  John  Weldon,  John  Eccles,  and  Daniel  Pur- 
cell.  Finger  was  so  displeased  at  the  ill  recep- 
tion of  his  composition  that  he  quitted  England 
and  returned  to  Germany,  where  in  1702  he 
obtained  the  appointment  of  chamber  musician 
to  Sophia  Charlotte,  Queen  of  Prussia.  Whilst 
at  Berlin  he  composed  two  German  operas,  '  Sieg 
der  Schonheit  uber  die  Helden'  and  'Roxane,' 
both  performed  in  1706.  In  171 7  he  became 
chapel-master  at  the  court  of  Gotha.  Nothing 
ia  known  of  his  subsequent  career.  Besides  the 
above-mentioned  comj)03ition3  Finger  wrote  in- 
strumental music  for  the  following  plays — '  The 
Wives'  Excuse,'  1692;  'Love  for  Love,'  1695; 
•The  Mourning  Bride,'  1697;  'Love  at  a  loss,' 

•  Love  makes  a  man,'  '  The  Humours  of  the  A^re,' 
and  '  Sir  Harry  Wildair,'  1701.  [W.H.H.] 

FIXGERING  (Ger.  Fingersatz,  AppUcatur; 
Fr.  Doigte),  the  method  which  governs  the 
application  of  the  fingers  to  the  keys  of  any 
keyed  insixument,  to  the  various  positions  upon 
stringed  instruments,  or  to  the  holes  and  keys  of 
wind  instruments,  the  object  of  the  rules  being 
in  aU  cases  to  facilitate  execution.  The  word  is 
also  applied  to  the  numerals  placed  above  or 
beneath  the  notes,  by  which  the  particular  fingers 
to  be  used  are  indicated. 

In  this  article  we  have  to  do  with  the  fingering 
of  the  pianoforte  (that  of  the  organ,  though  dif- 
ferent in  detail,  is  founded  on  the  same  prin- 
ciples, and  will  not  require  separate  considera- 
tion) ;  for  the  fingering  of  wind  and  stringed 
instruments  the  reader  is  referred  to  each  par- 
ticular name. 

In  order  to  tmderstand  the  principles  upon 
which  the  rules  of  modem  fingering  are  based,  it 
will  be  well  to  glance  briefly  at  the  history  of 
those  rules,  and  in  so  doing  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  two  causes  have  operated  to  influence 
iheir  development  —  the  construction  of  the 
keyboard,  and  the  nature  of  the  music  to  be 
performed.  It  is  only  in  comparatively  modem 
times,  in  fact  since  the  rise  of  modem  music, 
that  the  second  of  these  two  causes  can  have  had 
much  influence,  for  the  earliest  use  of  the  organ 
was  merely  to  accompany  the  simple  melodies  or 
plainsongs  of  the  church,  and  when  in  later 
years  instrumental  music  proper  came  into  exist- 
ence, which  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century,  its  st^-le  and  character  closely  resembled 
that  of  the  vocal  music  of  the  time.  The  form 
and  constmction  of  the  keyboard,  on  the  other 
nd,  must  have  afiected  the  development  of  any 

-:em  of  fingering  from,  the  very  banning,  and 
i^c  various  changes  which  took  place  from  time 
to  time  are  in  fact  sufiicient  to  account  for  cer- 


tain remarkable  differences  which  exist  between 
the  earliest  rules  of  fingerin^^  and  those  in  force 
at  the  present  time.  Unril  the  latter  half  of  the 
1 6th  century  there  would  appear  to  have  been 
no  idea  of  establishing  rules  for  fingering;  nor 
could  this  have  been  odierwise,  for  from  the  time 
of  the  earliest  organs,  the  keys  of  which  were 
from  3  to  6  inches  wide,  and  were  struck  with 
the  closed  fist,  down  to  about  the  year  1480, 
when,  although  narriDwer,  the  octave  still  mea- 
sured about  two  inches  more  than  on  the  modem 
keyboard,  any  auempt  at  fingering  in  the  modem 
sense  must  have  been  out  of  the  question.  The 
earliest  marked  finsrering  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  is  that  given  by  Ammerbach  in  his 
'Orgel  oder  Instrument  Tabulatur'  (Leipzig, 
15 7 1).  This,  like  aU  the  fingering  iu  use  then 
and  for  long  afterwanis,  is  characterised  by  the 
almost  complete  avoidance  of  the  use  of  the 
thumb  and  little  finger,  the  former  being  only 
occasionally  marked  in  the  left  hand,  and  the 
latter  never  employed  except  in  playing  intervals 
of  not  less  than  a  fourth  in  the  same  hand- 
Ammerbach's  fingering  for  the  scale  is  as  follows, 
the  thumbs  being  marked  0  and  the  fingers  with 
the  first  three  numerals  : — 
Right  Hand.  ^ 

12^'n;-»-      -  2121535151 


This  kind  of  fingering,  stiff  and  awkward  as  it 
appears  to  us,  remained  in  use  for  upwards  of 
a  century,  and  is  even  found  as  late  as  1718,  in 
the  third  edirion  of  an  anonymous  work  entitled 
'Kurzen  jedoch  griindlichen  Wegweiser,'  etc. 
Two  causes  probably  contributed  to  retard  the 
introduction  of  a  more  complete  system.  In  the 
first  place,  the  organ  and  clavichord  not  being 
tuned  upon  the  system  of  equal  temperament, 
music  for  these  instruments  was  only  wriuen  in 
the  simplest  keys,  with  the  black  keys  but  rarely 
used ;  and  in  the  second  place  the  keyboards 
of  the  earlier  organs  were  usually  placed  so  high 
above  the  seat  of  the  player  that  the  elbows  were 
of  necessity  considerably  lower  than  the  fingers. 
The  consequence  of  the  hands  being  held  in  this 
position,  and  of  the  black  keys  being  but  seldom 
required,  would  be  that  the  three  long  fingers, 
stretched  out  horizontally,  would  be  chiefly  used, 
while  the  thumb  and  little  finger,  being  too  short 
to  reach  the  keys  without  difficulty,  would  simply 
hang  down  below  the  level  of  the  keyboard. 

But  although  this  was  the  usuid  method  of 
the  time,  it  is  highly  probable  that  various 
experiments,  tending  in  the  direction  of  the  use 
of  the  thvunb,  were  made  from  time  to  time  by 
different  players.  Thus  Praetorius  says  ('Syn- 
tagma Musicum,'  1619%  'Many  think  it  a  matter 
of  great  importance,  and  des-pise  such  organists 
as  do  not  iise  this  or  that  particular  fingering, 
which  in  my  opinion  is  not  worth  the  talk ;  for 
let  a  player  run  up  or  down  with  either  first, 
middle,  or  third  finger,  aye,  even  with  his  nose  if 
that  could  help  him,  provided  even.-thing  is  done 
clearly,  correctly,  and  gracefully,  it  does  not  much 


526 


PINGEEING, 


FINGERING. 


matter  how  or  in  what  manner  it  is  accomplished.* 

One  of  the  boldest  of  these  experimenters  was 
Couperin,  who  in  his  work  '  L'art  de  toucher  le 
clavecin'  (Paris,  171 7)  gives  numerous  examples 
of  the  employment  of  the  thumb.  He  uses  it 
however  in  a  very  unmethodical  way  ;  for  in- 
stance, he  would  use  it  on  the  first  note  of  an 
ascending  scale,  but  not  again  throughout  the 
octave ;  he  employs  it  for  a  change  of  fingers 
on  a  single  note,  and  for  extensions,  but  in 
passing  it  under  the  fingers  he  only  makes  use 
of  the  first  finger,  except  in  two  cases,  in  one 
of  which  the  second  finger  of  the  left  hand  is 
passed  over  the  thumb,  and  in  the  other  the 
thumb  is  passed  under  the  third  finger,  in  the 
very  unpractical  fashion  shown  in  the  last  bar 
of  the  following  example,  which  is  an  extract 
from  a  composition  of  his  entitled  'Le  Mouche- 
ron,'  and  will  serve  to  give  a  general  idea  of  his 
fingering. 


About  this  time  also  the  thumb  first  came 
into  use  in  England.  Purcell  gives  a  rule  for 
it  in  the  instructions  for  fingering  in  his  '  Choice 
Collection  of  Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord,'  pub- 
lished about  1 700,  but  he  employs  it  in  a  very 
tentative  manner,  using  it  only  once  throughout 
a  scale  of  two  octaves.   His  scale  is  as  follows  : — 


Contemporary  with  Couperin  we  find  Sebastian 
Bach,  to  whose  genius  fingering  owes  its  most 
striking  development,  since  in  his  hands  it  became 
transformed  from  a  chaos  of  unpractical  rules  to 
a  perfect  system,  which  has  endured  in  its  essential 
parts  to  the  present  day.  Bach  adopted  the  then 
newly  invented  system  of  equal  temperament  for 
the  tuning  of  the  clavichord,  and  was  therefore 
enabled  to  write  in  every  key ;  thus  the  black 
keys  were  in  continual  use,  and  this  fact,  together 
•with  the  great  complexity  of  his  music,  rendered 
the  adoption  of  an  entirely  new  system  of  finger- 


ing inevitable,  all  existing  methods  being  totally 
inadequate.  Accordingly,  he  fixed  the  place  of 
the  thumb  in  the  scale,  and  m.ade  free  use  of 
both  that  and  the  little  finger  in  every  possible 
position.  In  consequence  of  this  the  hands  were 
held  in  a  more  forward  position  on  the  keyboard, 
the  wrists  were  raised,  the  long  fingers  became 
bent,  and  therefore  gained  greatly  in  flexibility, 
and  thus  Bach  acquired  such  a  prodigious  power 
of  execution  as  compared  with  his  contemporaries, 
that  it  is  said  that  nothing  which  was  at  all 
possible  was  for  him  in  the  smallest  degree 
difficult. 

Our  knowledge  of  Bach's  method  is  derived 
from  the  writings  of  his  son,  Emanuel,  who 
taught  it  in  his  '  Versuch  liber  die  wahre  Art 
das  Clavier  zu  spielen.'  But  it  would  not  be 
safe  to  conclude  that  he  gave  it  literally  and 
without  omissions.  At  any  rate  there  are  two 
small  pieces  extant,  the  marked  fingering  in 
which  is  undoubtedly  by  Sebastian  Bach  himself, 
and  yet  differs  in  several  respects  from  his  own 
rules  as  given  by  his  son.  These  pieces  are  to 
be  found  in  the  'Clavierbiichlein,'  and  one  of 
them  is  also  published  as  No.  1 1  of  '  Douze  petits 
Preludes,'  but  without  Bach's  fingering.  The 
other  is  here  given  complete  : — 


2  3  2   3  1   3  2  ) 

<     2  3  2  3  4 

fl^^ifaJ--  • 

1 

2r.f7~r'P 

 1  

1  V" 

^.  - 

y,  ^ 

t   r  1 

r 

1 

d — ^ 

4  3 

X  3     2  1^^ 

! — f  •  -  H  «■ 

r 

^   ^Px  1 

1     2  3  4    2  1 

X  1 

2  4 

In  the  above  example  it  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  although  Bach  himself  had  laid  down  the 
rule,  that  the  thumb  in  scale-playing  was  to  be 
used  twice  in  the  octave,  he  does  not  abide  by 
it,  the  scales  in  this  instance  being  fingered 
according  to  the  older  plan  of  passing  the  second 
finger  over  the  third,  or  the  first  over  the  thumb. 
In  the  fifth  bar  again  the  second  finger  passes 
over  the  first — a  progression  which  is  disallowed 
by  Emanuel  Bach. 

The  discrepancies  between  Bach's  fingering 
and  his  son's  rules,  shown  in  the  other  piece 
mentioned,  occur  between  bars  22  and  23,  34 
and  35,  and  38  and  39,  and  consist  in  passing 


riNGERIXG. 


FINK. 


527 


the  second  finger  over  the  first,  the  little  finger 
under  the  third  (left  hand),  and  the  third  over 
the  little  finger  (left  hand  also). 

Bar  22,  23. 


From  these  discrepancies  it  would  appear  that 
Bach's  own  fingering  was  more  varied  than  the 
description  of  it  which  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  that  it  was  free  in  the  sense  not  only  of 
employing  every  possible  new  combination  of 
fingers,  but  also  of  making  use  of  all  the  old 
ones,  such  as  the  passing  of  one  long  finger  over 
another.  Emanuel  Bach  restricts  this  freedom 
to  some  extent,  allowing  for  instance  the  passage 
of  the  second  finger  over  the  third,  but  of  no 
other  long  finger.  Thus  only  so  much  of  Bach's 
'  method  has  remained  in  practical  use  to  the 
;  present  day  as  Emanuel  Bach  retained,  and  as 
is  absolutely  essential  for  the  performance  of  his 
works. 

Emanuel  Bach's  fingering  has  been  practically 
that  of  all  his  successors  untU  the  most  recent 
times ;  Clementi,  Hummel,  and  Czemy  adopted 
it  almost  without  change,  excepting  only  the 
limitation  caused  by  the  introduction  of  the 
pianoforte,  the  touch  of  which  requires  a  much 
sharper  blow  from  the  finger  than  that  of  the 
clavichord  or  harpsichord,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  gentle  gliding  of  the  second  finger 
over  the  third,  which  was  allowed  by  Emanuel 
Bach,  has  become  unsuitable,  and  is  now  rarely 
used. 

In  the  teaching  of  all  the  above-named  masters, 
one  principle  is  particularly  observed, — the  thumb 
is  not  used  on  a  black  key  except  (as  Emanuel 
Bach  puts  it)  'in  cases  of  necessity,'  and  it  is 
the  abolition  of  this  restriction  which  forms  the 
latest  development  of  fingering.  Modem  com- 
posers, and  in  particular  Chopin  and  Liszt,  have 
by  their  invention  of  novel  passages  and  diffi- 
culties done  once  more  for  the  thumb  what  Bach 
did  for  it,  and  just  as  he  redeemed  it  from  a 


condition  of  uselessness,  so  have  they  freed  its 
employment  from  all  rules  and  restrictions  what- 
soever. Hummel,  in  his  'Art  of  playing  the 
Pianoforte,'  says  'We  must  employ  the  same 
succession  of  fingers  when  a  passage  consists  of 
a  progression  of  similar  groups  of  notes  ....  The 
intervention  of  the  black  key  changes  the  sym- 
metrical progression  so  far  only  as  the  rule 
forbids  the  use  of  the  thumb  on  the  black  keys.' 
But  the  modem  system  of  fingering  would  employ 
absolutely  the  same  order  of  fingers  throughout 
such  a  progression  without  considering  whether 
black  keys  intervene  or  no.  Many  examples  of 
the  application  of  this  principle  may  be  found 
in  Tausig's  edition  of  dementi's  'Gradus  ad 
Parnassum,'  especially  in  the  first  study,  a  com- 
parison of  which  with  the  original  edition  (where 
it  is  No.  16)  will  at  once  show  its  distinctive 
characteristics.  That  the  method  has  immense 
advantages  and  tends  greatly  to  facilitate  the 
execution  of  modem  difficulties  cannot  be  doubted, 
even  if  it  but  rarely  produces  the  striking  results 
ascribed  to  it  by  Von  Biilow,  who  says  in  the 
preface  to  his  edition  of  Cramer's  Studies,  that 
in  his  view  (which  he  admits  may  be  somewhat 
chimerical),  a  modem  pianist  of  the  first  rank 
ought  to  be  able  by  its  help  to  execute  Bee- 
thoven's 'Sonata  Appassionata'  as  readily  in  the 
key  of  FjJ  minor  as  in  that  of  F  minor,  and  with 
the  same  fingering  ! 

There  are  two  methods  of  marking  fingering, 
one  used  in  England  and  the  other  in  all  other 
countries.  Both  consist  of  figures  placed  above 
the  notes,  but  in  the  English  system  the  thumb 
is  represented  by  a  x  ,  and  the  four  fingers  by 
I,  2,  3,  and  4,  while  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy,  the  first  five  numerals  are  employed,  the 
thumb  being  numbered  i,  and  the  four  fijigers  2, 
3,  4,  and  5.  This  plan  was  probably  introduced 
into  Germany — where  its  adoption  only  dates 
from  the  time  of  Bach — from  Italy,  since  the 
earliest  German  fingering  (as  in  the  example 
from  Ammerbach  quoted  above)  was  precisely 
the  same  as  the  present  English  system,  except 
that  the  thumb  was  indicated  by  a  cypher 
instead  of  a  cross.  The  same  method  came  into 
partial  use  in  England  for  a  short  time,  and  may 
be  found  spoken  of  as  the  'Italian  manner  of 
fingering'  in  a  treatise  entitled  '  The  Harpsichord 
Illustrated  and  Improv'd,'  published  about  1740. 
Purcell  also  adopted  it  in  his  'Choice  Col- 
lection '  quoted  above,  but  with  the  bewildering 
modification,  that  whereas  in  the  right  hand  the 
thumb  was  numbered  1,  and  so  on  to  the  little 
finger,  in  the  left  hand  the  little  finger  was 
called  the  first,  and  the  thumb  the  fifth.  [F.T.] 

FINK,  Gottfried  Wilhelm,  theologian  and 
musical  critic,  born  March  7,  1783,  at  Sulz  in 
Thuringia,  was  educated  at  Naumburg,  where 
he  was  chorister,  and  Leipzig  (1804-9).  He 
began  writing  for  the  AUgemeine  musik.  Zeitung 
in  1808,  and  in  1827  succeeded  Eochlitz  as 
editor,  a  post  he  held  till  1841.  In  1842  he 
became  for  a  short  time  professor  of  music  to  the 
University  of  Leipzig.  He  died  at  Halle  Aug. 
27,  1846.    Fink's  only  musical  works  of  value 


628 


FINK. 


FISCHER. 


were  the  *Musikalischer  Hausschatz,'  a  collection 
of  Lieder,  &c.  (Leipzig  1843),  and  'Die  deutsche 
Liedertafel'  (ibid.  46).  As  an  author  he  pub- 
lished various  volumes  and  pamphlets,  but  none 
of  which  the  names  are  worth  preserving.  Besides 
the  Zeitung,  he  was  a  prolific  contributor  to  the 
Conversations -Lexicons  of  Ersch  and  Gruber, 
and  of  Brockhaus,  and  to  Schilling's  'Lexicon  der 
Tonkunst.'  .  He  left  in  MS.  a  history  of  music, 
upon  which  he  had  been  engaged  for  20  years. 
Fink  was  at  once  narrow  and  superficial,  and  a 
strong  conservative ;  and  the  Zeitung  did  not 
maintain  under  his  editorship  the  position  it  held 
in  the  musical  world  under  Rochlitz.  [M.C.C.] 

FIORAVANTI,  Valentino,  composer,  born 
in  Rome  1770,  studied  under  Sala  at  the  '  Pietk 
de'  Turchini '  at  Naples.  His  first  opera  '  Coi 
matti  il  savio  si  perde  '  produced  at  the  Pergola 
in  Florence  1791,  was  followed  by  at  least  50 
others,  all  comic.  He  was  invited  to  Paris  in 
consequence  of  the  success  of  'Le  Cantatrici 
Villane '  (1806)  and  there  wrote  *I  virtuosi 
ambulanti'  (1807).  These  two  were  on  the 
whole  his  best  operas,  though  all  possessed  a 
genuine  vein  of  comedy,  a  freshness,  and  an 
ease  in  the  part-writing,  which  concealed  their 
triviality  and  want  of  originality,  and  made 
them  very  popular  in  their  day.  In  June  181 6 
he  succeeded  Jannaconi  as  maestro  di  capella 
to  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  while  in  that  post 
wrote  a  quantity  of  church  music  very  inferior 
to  his  operas.  His  character  was  gentle  and 
retiring  ;  and  the  last  few  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  very  quietly.  He  died  at  Capua,  on  his 
way  to  Naples,  June  16,  1837.  Like  Paisiello 
and  other  considerable  Italian  composers  of  that 
date,  Fioravanti  was  extinguished  by  Rossini. 

His  son  ViNCENZO,  born  1810,  also  composed 
operas  with  ephemeral  success.  [M.  C.  C] 

FIORILLO,  Federigo,  violin-player  and  com- 
poser, was  born  in  1753  at  Brunswick,  where  his 
father  Ignazio,  a  Neapolitan  by  birth,  lived  as 
conductor  of  the  opera.  He  appears  to  have 
been  originally  a  player  of  the  mandoline,  and 
only  afterwards  to  have  taken  up  the  violin.  In 
1780  he  went  to  Poland,  and  about  the  year 
83  we  find  him  conductor  of  the  band  at  Riga, 
where  he  stayed  for  two  years.  In  85  he 
played  with  much  success  at  the  Concert  Spi- 
rituel  at  Paris,  and  published  some  of  his  com- 
positions, which  were  very  favourably  received. 
In  1788  he  went  to  London,  where  he  appears  to 
have  been  less  successful  as  a  violinist,  as  we 
conclude  from  the  fact  that  he  played  the  viola 
part  in  Salomon's  quartet-party.  His  last  ap- 
pearance in  public  in  London  took  place  in  the 
year  1 794,  when  he  performed  a  Concerto  on  the 
viola  at  the  Antient  Concert.  Of  the  rest  of  his 
life  but  little  is  known,  except  that  he  went  from 
London  to  Amsterdam,  and  in  1823  was  in  Paris. 
Place  and  date  of  his  death  are  not  known.  His 
numerous  compositions  are  Duos  for  Violins,  for 
Piano  and  Violin,  and  Violin  and  Cello ;  Ti'ios 
for  Flute,  Violin,  and  Tenor,  for  2  Violins  and 
Bass;  Quartets  and  Quintets  for  Stringed  In- 


struments; Concertos  for  the  Violin;  Concert- 
antes  for  2  Violins,  etc.).  They  were  very 
favourably  received  in  his  time,  and,  although 
somewhat  dry  and  old-fashioned,  show  him  to 
have  been  a  sound  and  earnest  musician.  There 
is  however  one  particular  work  which  has  brought 
his  name  down  to  our  time,  and  will  probably 
long  remain  a  standard.  His  36  Caprices  or 
Etudes  are  known  and  valued  by  every  violin- 
player.  They  rank  with  the  classical  studies 
of  Elreutzer  and  Rode,  and,  apart  from  their 
usefulness,  are  not  without  merit  as  compositions. 
They  have  been  edited  over  and  over  again — most 
recently  by  Ferdinand  David  (Leipzig,  Seufi"). 
Spohr  wrote  and  published  an  accompanying 
violin-part  to  them.  [P.  D.] 

FIORITURE,  flowerets.  The  Italian  term  for 
ornaments — scales,  arpeggios,  turns,  shakes,  etc. 
— introduced  by  singers  into  airs.  In  the  last 
century  airs  were  often  written  plain,  and  were 
embroidered  by  the  singers  according  to  their 
taste  and  ability.  Such  songs  as  '0  dolce  con- 
cento'  and  'Nel  cor  piil'  were  seldom  sung  alike 
by  two  diflferent  singers.  Rossini's  early  airs 
were  written  for  the  same  treatment — witness 
*Non  piti  mesta.'  A  remnant  of  it  many  will 
still  remember  in  the  long  tasteless  cadenzas 
indulged  in  at  the  close  of  Handel's  airs.  This 
was  all  very  well  as  long  as  singers  were  also 
good  musicians,  and  as  long  as  the  singing  was 
more  thought  of  than  what  was  sung.  But  now 
these  things  are  changed,  and  the  composer 
writes  exactly  what  he  intends  to  be  sung — 
notes,  nuances,  and  expression. 

The  practice  of '  fieri ture'  was  not  unknown  to 
players  in  the  orchestra  as  well  as  to  singers. 
Spohr  gives  some  amusing  and  almost  incredible 
instances  of  such  freaks  of  Horns  and  Clarinets 
in  the  Tutti  of  his  '  Scena  Cantante'  Concerto,  at 
Rome  in  1816  (Selbstbiographie,  i.  330).  [G.] 

FIREWORK  MUSIC.  A  series  of  pieces- 
Overture,  Allegro,  Lentement,  Bourse,  Largo 
alia  siciliana,  Allegro,  and  2  Minuets,  all  in  the 
key  of  D — written  by  Handel  and  performed  at 
the  Fireworks  given  in  the  Green  Park,  April 
27,  1749,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  The  band — 100  in  all — contained  24 
oboes,  12  bassoons,  9  trumpets,  9  horns,  3  tim- 
pani, besides  strings.  [G.] 

FIRING  is  pulling  all  the  bells  in  a  tower  at 
once,  so  as  to  make  them  strike  together.  It  is 
practised  in  England  on  specially  joyful  or 
mournful  occasions — on  the  latter  with  the  bells 
mufiied.  [C.A.W.T.] 

FIS  and  FISIS,  the  German  terms  for  Fff  and 
Fx.  The  equivalent  French  terms  are  Fa  ditse 
and  Fa  double  diese. 

FISCHER.  A  family  of  singers  of  the  i8th 
and  19th  centuries.  The  founder  was  Ludwig, 
a  Bass,  of  whom  Otto  Jahn  (Mozart,  2nd  ed.  i. 
661,  630)  speaks  as  'an  artist  of  extraordinary 
gift,  for  compass,  power,  and  beauty  of  voice, 
and  artistic  perfection  both  in  singing  and  play- 
ing, probably  the  greatest  German  bass-singer.' 
He  was  born  at  Mayence,  1 745,  and  well  known 


FISCHER. 


nSCHHOFF. 


529 


at  the  theatres  of  Munich  (1778),  Vienna  (79), 
Paris  (83),  Italy  (84),  Berlin  (88),  etc.  He 
died  at  Berlin,  July  10,  1825.  , 
He  was  the  original  Osmin  in  the  t 
'  Entfiihrung,'  and  had  a  compass  I  — 

of  two  octaves  and  a  half  '  all  j  ~ 

round,  even,  and  in  tune'  (Reich- 
ardt). 

Fischer  was  a  great  ally  of  Mozart's,  who 
wrote  for  him  '  Non  so,  d'onde  viene,'  and 
often  mentions  him  with  affection — 'A  truly 
splendid  voice,  though  the  Archbishop  told  me 
he  sang  too  low  for  a  bass,  and  I  assured  him  he 
should  sing  higher  next  time'  (Sept.  26,  81)  ; 
•A  man  whose  loss  is  irretrievable'  (Feb.  5,  83) ; 
'  I  went  to  see  the  Fischers  ;  I  cannot  describe 
their  joy,  the  whole  family  desire  to  be  re- 
membered to  you'  (March  17,  81).  The  others 
of  the  family  were  his  wife  Barbara,  a  more  than 
respectable  singer  and  actress  ;  his  son  Joseph 
( 1 780-1862),  also  a  bass  of  renown,  but  more 
known  as  an  Impresario  than  a  singer;  his 
daughters  Fischer- Vernier — who  in  1835  founded 
a  singing  school  of  great  repute  for  girls  in 
Vienna — and  Wilhelmine,  and  Joseph's  adopted 
daughter,  Fischer  -  MarafFa,  all  good  efficient 
intelligent  artists.  [M.C.C.] 

FISCHER,  Gottfried,  son  of  a  master  baker 
of  Bonn,  born  there  July  21,  1780 — ten  years 
after  Beethoven ;  the  author  of  a  narrative  or 
collection  of  anecdotes  on  Bonn  and  the  Bee- 
thoven family,  their  circumstances  and  connect- 
ions, from  the  grandfather  of  Ludwig  to  Lud wig's 
own  youth.  The  Fischers  lived  at  934  in  the 
Rheingasse,  in  which  the  Beethovens  also  lived 
from  1775,  and  which  was  for  long  believed  to 
be  the  birthplace  of  the  composer.  Fischer's 
narrative  was  not  committed  to  writing  till  1838, 
and  though  highly  curious  and  interesting,  and 
written  with  apparent  hona  fides,  cannot  be 
closely  relied  on  as  to  dates.  It  has  been  sifted 
and  employed  by  Thayer  in  his  Life  of  Beethoven 
(see  vol.  i.  Anhang  vii.).  [G-.] 

FISCHER,  J  OH  ANN  Christian,  distinguished 
oboist,  bom  1733  at  Freiburg  (Breisgau),  was  for 
some  years  in  the  court  band  at  Dresden,  then 
in  the  service  of  Frederic  the  Great,  and  after 
a  successful  concert  tour  by  Mannheim,  Holland, 
and  Paris,  came  to  London,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  at  the  Thatched  House,  June  2, 1 768 ; 
J.  C.  Bach  playing  the  'pianoforte'  for  the  first 
time  at  the  same  concert.  Fischer  was  for  many 
years  a  great  attraction  at  the  Bach -Abel  and 
Vauxhall  concerts,  and  as  a  member  of  the 
Queen's  band  played  frequently  before  the  court. 
His  playing  of  Handel's  fourth  oboe  concerto  at 
the  Handel  Commemoration  in  1 784  so  delighted 
the  King  that  he  expressed  his  satisfaction  in 
a  note  on  his  book  of  the  words.  (Memoir  of 
Dr.  Burney  by  Mme.  D'Arblay,  ii.  385.)  His 
tone  must  have  been  very  powerful  since  Giardini 
the  violinist  characterised  it  as  'such  an  impu- 
dence of  tone  as  no  other  instrument  could  contend 
with' ;  and  according  to  the  ABCDario  'it  was 
very  fine  and  inexpressibly  well-managed.'  On 
the  death  of  Stanley,  Master  of  the  King's  band 


(1786),  Fischer  competed  with  Burney  and  others 
for  the  vacant  post,  but  Parsons  was  appointed, 
and  Fischer  soon  after  went  abroad,  probably  in 
disgust  at  his  failure.  Mozart  in  1766  as  a  boy 
had  been  enchanted  with  his  playing  in  Holland, 
but  on  hearing  him  again  in  Vienna,  severely 
criticises  him  (letter  to  his  father,  April  4,^  1 787), 
and  condemns  alike  his  tone,  his  execution,  and 
his  compositions.  From  1790  he  remained  in 
London.  While  playing  at  court  he  was  struck 
with  paralysis,  and  died  April  29,  1800  (see 
'  Times'  of  May  i).  Kelly,  in  his  'Reminiscences' 
(vol.  i.  9),  gives  an  anecdote  of  Fischer's  pride 
as  an  artist.  A  certain  nobleman  having  invited 
him  to  supper  much  against  his  will,  said  when 
he  arrived,  *I  hope,  Mr,  Fischer,  you  have 
brought  your  oboe  in  your  pocket ' ;  to  which  he 
replied,  '  No,  my  lord ;  my  oboe  never  sups,'  and 
instantly  left  the  house.  He  was  very  intimate 
with  Gainsborough,  who  was  a  great  lover  of 
music,  and  whose  pretty  daughter  Mary  he 
married,  though  the  father  gave  a  very  unwilling 
consent,  foreseeing  the  short  duration  of  the 
marriage.  (Fulcher's  Life  of  Gainsborough.) 
There  is  a  fine  portrait  of  Fischer  by  Gains- 
borough at  Hampton  Court  (private  dining-room, 
No.  747)-  Thicknesse  mentions  a  second  in  full 
uniform — 'scarlet  and  gold  like  a  colonel  of  the 
Foot  Guards.' 

Zuck  and  Kellner  were  his  best-known  pupils 
in  London.  J.  C.  Bach  wrote  a  quartet  for  two 
oboes,  viola,  and  cello,  for  him,  which  he  often 
played.  His  own  compositions  (of  which  Fetis 
and  Gerber  give  a  partial  list)  consist  of  solos, 
duets,  concertos,  quartets,  etc.  On  this  point 
the  ABCDario  says,  '  as  a  composer  his  desire  to 
be  original  often  makes  him  introduce  whimsical 
and  outre  passages,  which  nothing  but  his  plajang 
could  cover.'  Mozart,  in  spite  of  his  unfavour- 
able opinion  of  him,  immortalised  his  minuet  by 
writing  variations  for  it  (1773),  which  he  often 
played  to  display  his  bravura  (Kochel,  No.  179). 
'This  minuet  was  then  all  the  rage,'  as  Kelly 
writes,  after  hearing  Fischer  play  it  in  Dublin 
(Rem.  1.  9),  and  it  continued  to  be  the  rage  for 
many  years.  [C.F.P.] 

FISCHHOFF.  The  FischhofF  MS.  is  the 
name  of  a  collection  of  many  and  valuable 
particulars  of  Beethoven's  life  existing  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  A  short  biography 
of  the  composer  was  published  soon  after  his 
death  by  Schlosser,  which  was  even  more  im- 
perfect and  incorrect  than  such  hasty  compilations 
are  wont  to  be.  It  was  quickly  followed  (Oct.  6, 
1827)  by  a  public  notice  from  Hotschevar,  the 
legal  representative  of  the  Beethoven  family,  to 
the  effect  that  an  adequate  biography  was  in 
preparation  which  would  correct  the  many  and 
important  errors  to  be  found  in  Schlosser.  This 
appears  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  collection. 
On  Carl  van  Beethoven's  majority  it  came  into 
his  hands,  and  at  length,  after  some  vicissitudes, 
into  those  of  FischhofF,  from  whom  it  was  ac- 
quired by  the  Berlin  Library,  where  it  remains 

>  See  otto  Jahn's  'Mozart.'  iii.  309. 

M  m 


530 


FISCHHOFF. 


FITZWILLIAM  COLLECTION. 


still  unpublished  as  a  whole.  It  contains  copies 
of  a  vast  number  of  letters  and  documents,  many 
of  Avhich  no  longer  exist ;  of  memoranda  and 
remarks  scribbled  by  Beethoven  in  pocket-books 
and  journals  ;  of  the  personal  recollections  of  his 
intimate  friend  Zmeskall ;  and  of  a  few  printed 
materials  dating  from  1830  to  37.  Mr.  Thayer 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  of  Beethoven's 
biographers  to  make  systematic  use  of  this  im- 
portant source,  and  it  is  from  the  ist  volume  of 
his  Biography  (p.  ix)  that  the  above  information 
is  obtained.  [G-.] 
FISH,  William,  bom  in  Norwich  in  1775, 
became,  early  in  life,  a  violinist  in  the  theatre 
there.  He  was  next  a  teacher  of  music,  then 
principal  oboist  at  the  theatre,  etc.,  and  event- 
ually leader  of  the  band  at  the  concerts.  He 
numbered  among  his  pupils  Edward  Taylor, 
afterwards  professor  of  music  in  Gresham  Col- 
lege, and  George  Perry,  afterwards  leader  of  the 
band  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  He  died, 
at  a  very  advanced  age,  about  1863  or  4.  He  com- 
posed numerous  songs,  and  other  vocal  pieces,  and 
concertos  for  various  instruments.       [W.  H.  H.] 

FISHER,  John  Abraham,  Mus.  Doc,  was 
born  at  Dunstable,  1744.  He  became  a  stu- 
dent of  the  violin  under  Pinto,  and  made  his 
first  appearance  in  public  in  July  1765  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  in  a  concert  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Musical  Fund.  About  1770  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Powell  the  actor,  and  became,  in  he» 
right,  proprietor  of  a  sixteenth  share  in  Covent 
Garden  Theatre.  He  composed  for  that  and 
other  theatres  the  music  for  the  following  pan- 
tomimes, viz.  'The  Monster  of  the  Wood,'  1772  ; 
'The  Sylphs,'  1774;  'Prometheus,'  1776;  and 
'The  Norwood  Gipsies,'  1777;  and  also  music 
for  the  opening  of  '  Macbeth.'  On  July  2,  1777, 
an  oratorio  by  Fisher,  entitled  '  Providence,'  was 
performed  in  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  at  Oxford, 
and  on  the  5th  of  the  same  month  the  composer 
(as  a  member  of  Magdalen  College)  accumulated 
the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Music. 
His  oratorio  was  performed  in  Freemasons'  Hall, 
London,  on  May  28,  1778,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Middlesex  Hospital,  and  again  in  1780.  On  the 
death  of  his  wife  Fisher  disposed  of  his  interest 
in  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  and  started  on  a 
professional  tour  through  Russia  and  Germany. 
In  1784  he  reached  Vienna,  where  he  induced 
the  youthful  Anna  Selina  Storace  to  become 
his  second  wife — contrary  to  the  advice  of  all 
her  friends.  The  union  proved  an  unhappy  one, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  parties  separated  and  the 
wife  never  after  used  her  husband's  name.  The 
Em])eror,  incensed  at  Storace's  having  had  to 
submit  to  blows  from  her  husband,  ordered  Fisher 
to  quit  his  dominions.  He  then  went  to  Dublin 
and  gave  concerts  in  the  Rotunda.  When  or  where 
his  existence  terminated  is  unknown.  Besides 
the  above-named  compositions  Fisher  published 
some  symphonies  for  orchestra.  [W.  H.  H.] 

FITZWILLIAM,  Edwakd  Francis,  son  of 
Edward  and  Frances  Fitzwilliam — both  actors 
and  singers — born  in  1824.    He  was  educated 


for  the  musical  profession,  and  devoted  himself 
especially  to  the  study  of  composition.  In  1853 
he  published  a  set  of  1 2  songs  which  were  much 
admired,  and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed 
director  of  the  music  at  the  Hay  market  Theatre, 
where  he  produced  an  operetta  called  '  Love's 
Alarms,'  and  music  for  some  minor  pieces.  About 
1855  he  married  Miss  Ellen  Chaplin,  a  member 
of  the  Haymarket  company,  so  well  known  as 
Mrs.  E.  Fitzwilliam.  His  compositions  were 
distinguished  by  an  intelligence  which  gave 
promise  of  great  excellence  when  he  should  have 
fully  mastered  the  technicalities  of  his  art — a 
hope  disappointed  by  his  early  death,  after  a 
lingering  illness,  on  Jan.  20,  1857.  Besides  the 
songs  above  mentioned,  he  published  a  Te  Deum, 
and  a  hymn,  '  0  incomprehensible  Creator.'  A 
quartet  from  the  former  is  given  by  Mr.  Hullah 
in  his  *  Sacred  Music  for  Family  Use.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

FITZWILLIAM  COLLECTION,  THE.  In 
the  year  1816  Viscount  Fitzwilliam  died,  leaving 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  the  annual  interest  on  £100,000  in 
money,  and  a  large  number  of  valuable  paintings, 
books,  engravings,  and  other  works  of  art.  Of 
these  a  collection  of  MS.  music  forms  a  portion. 
Its  most  prominent  features  are  the  Virginall- 
book  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  a  volume  of  anthems  in 
the  handwriting  of  Henry  Purcell,  and  another 
in  that  of  Dr.  Blow,  containing  various  pieces  not 
yet  printed ;  and  a  miscellaneous  collection  em- 
bracing the  works  of  more  than  250  composers, 
mostly  of  the  17th  and  1 8th  centuries,  and  chiefly 
of  the  Italian  school;  as  for  instance  Clari, 
3  Masses,  3  Dixit  Dominus,  a  Stabat,  a  Con- 
fitebor  etc. ;  Leo,  a  Mass,  2  Miserere,  3  Dixit — 
a  5,  a  8  (in  autograph)  and  a  10;  an  Oratorio 
etc ;  CoLONNA,  a  Magnificat,  a  Confitebor,  a 
Domine  ad  adjuvandum,  a  Beatus  vir,  a  Dixit  etc ; 
JoMELLi,  a  Miserere,  a  Dixit  (a  8),  2  Operas,  an 
Oratorio,  etc. ;  Bononcini,  a  Mass  {k  8),  an  Opera, 
a  Psalm,  Cantatas,  etc. ;  Pergolesi,  a  Mass,  a 
Kyrie  and  Gloria  (k  10),  portions  of  a  Dixit  etc.; 
Durante,  a  Messa  de'  Morti  (k  8),  a  Litany  and 
Motets.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  the  auto- 
graph of  a  Symphony  in  F,  'di  me  Giuseppe 
Haydn  787,'  and  some  interesting  MSS.  in 
Handel's  autograph.  Kelway  is  said  to  have 
been  employed  by  Lord  Fitzwilliam  to  collect  for 
him  in  Italy. 

A  portion  of  the  above  music  was  published  by 
the  late  Vincent  Novello  in  1825  by  permission 
of  the  University  authorities.  The  list  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 


Bonno,  Cum  Sancto. 
Bononcini,  Eterna  fac. 

Do.  In  te  Domine.  Orch. 

Do.  Sanctus.  Orch. 

Do.  Te  ergo  quaesumus. 
Cafaro,  Amen. 
Carissimi,  Dulce  te. 

Do.  Et  sic  laudabimus. 

Do.  Gaudeamus  omues. 

Do.  O  felix  anima. 

Do.  Surgamus,  eamus. 
Clari,  Amen.  Orch. 

Do.  Cujus  animam.  Orch. 

Do.  Cum  Sancto.  Orch. 

Do.  Cum  Sancto.  Orcb. 


Clari, 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Cum  Sancto. 
De  profundis,  Orch. 
Domine  Deus.  Orch. 
Gloria  Tatri,  Alto  Solo.  Orch. 
Gloria  Patri.  Orch. 
Gratias  agimus. 
Kyrie  eleison.  Orch. 
Kyrie  eleison.  Orch. 
Laetatus  sum,  &  8. 
O  quam  tristis.  Orch. 
Quae  mcerebat.  Orch. 
Quando  corpus.  Orch. 
Quando  corpus. 
Qui  toUis. 
Saucta  Slater. 


FITZWILLIAM  COLLECTION. 


FLAGEOLET. 


531 


Clari,  Sicut  erat.  Orch. 

Do.  Sicut  erat.  Orch. 

Do.  Stabat  Mater.  Orch. 

Do.  Tecum  priDcipiuni. 
Conti,  Amen. 

Colonna.  Dumiae  ad  adjuvandum. 
Orch. 

Do.  Gloria  Fatri. 

Do.  Paratum  cor. 

Do.  Sicut  erat. 
Durante,  Cantate  Domino. 

Do.  Protexisti  me  Deus. 
Feroce.  Adoramus  Te. 
Jomelli,  Confirma  hoc  Deus. 
Leo,  Amen,  i  10.  Orch. 

Do.  Christus  factus  est. 

Do.  Cum  Sancto  Spiritu.  Orch. 

Do.  Dixit  Dominus,  d  8.  Orch. 

Do.  Kyrie  eleison. 

Do.  Qui  toll  is.  Orch. 

Do.  Qui  toUis. 


Leo,  Sicut  erat.  Orch.  (Dixit  in  A). 
Do.  Sicut  erat.  A 10.  Orch.  (Dixit 
in  D). 

Do.  Tu  es  Sacerdos  (Dixit  in  A). 
Do.  Tu  es  Sacerdos.  Orch.  (Dixit 
in  D). 

Do.  Tu  es  Sacerdos.  Orch.  (Dixit 
in  C). 

Lupi,  Audivi  vocem,  i6. 
Vittoria,  Regina  Cceli. 
Martini,  Sicut  erat.  Orch. 

Do.  Sicut  erat,  a  6.  Orch. 
O.  Lasso,  Sicut  ablactatus. 
Palestrina,  Et  incamatus. 
Pergolesi,  Dominus  a  dextris,  &  6. 
Orch, 

Do.  Gloria  Fatri.  Orch, 

Do.  Juravit  Dominus. 

Do.  Sicut  erat. 
Perti.  Adoramus  Te. 
Stradella,  Dove  Battista.     J^Q  ^ 


FINTA  GIARDINIERA,  LA.  Opera  bufFa 
in  3  acts,  author  of  libretto  unknown  ;  music  by 
Mozart;  produced  at  Munich  Jan.  13,  1/75. 

FINTA  SEMPLICE,  LA.  Opera  buffa  in 
3  acts ;  libretto  by  Coltellini,  music  by  Mozart ; 
composed  at  Vienna  in  r  768,  when  he  was  only 
1 2,  but  apparently  never  put  on  the  stage. 

FLADT,  Anton,  eminent  oboist,  bom  1775 
at  Mannheim,  studied  under  Ramm,  succeeded 
Lebrun  in  the  orchestra  at  Munich  (1790).  He 
travelled  much,  visiting  Vienna  (1793),  Italy, 
the  Tjnrol,  the  Rhine,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Englanci 
(1798),  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  France.  When 
in  London  the  Prince  of  Wales  made  him  liberal 
offers  to  remain  in  England.  After  1810  he 
resided  entirely  at  Munich.  He  composed  three 
concertinos  for  oboe  and  orchestra,  and  some 
pieces  for  two  flageolets.  •    [M.  C.  C] 

FLAGEOLET.  The  French  and  Italian  term 
for  the  harmonic  notes  in  the  violin  and  other 
instruments  of  that  tribe ;  doubtless  so  called 
because  in  quality  they  resembled  the  flageolet. 
[Harmonics.] 

FLAGEOLET  (Old  Fr.  Jlajol).  The  modem 
form  of  the  old  Flute  d  bee  or  straight  flute.  The 
upper  part  consists  of  a  plain  mouthpiece,  leading 
to  a  cavity,  in  which  is  a  sounding-lip  exactly 
resembling  that  of  an  open  pipe  in  the  organ. 
The  air  is  shaped  by  a  thin  groove  into  a  flat 
sheet,  which  strikes  against  the  feather-edge  of 
an  aperture  formed  in  the  intermediate  part  of 
the  instrument.  The  vibrations  thus  originated 
pass  into  a  conical  tube,  which,  unlike  the  organ- 
pipe,  is  furnished  with  lateral  holes,  and  some- 
times with  keys.  The  fundamental  note  of  the 
speaking  throat,  being  coerced  by  different 
lengths  of  consonant  tube,  gives  a  simple  scale ; 
which  can  be  extended  by  forcing  wind  in  more 
strongly,  and  thus  producing  the  first  two  or 
three  harmonics  of  the  ground  tone. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  Flageolet  is  the 
ordinary  tin  whistle  with  six  holes.  This  con- 
sists of  a  conical  tube  of  metal  stopped  at  the 
top  by  a  square  block  of  wood,  except  in  a 
narrow  anterior  fissure.  Below  the  fissure  is 
a  gap,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  flattened  so 
as  to  cut  and  intercept  the  stream  of  air.  In 
more  elaborate  instruments  a  chamber  is  added 
above  containing  moist  sponge  intended  to  hold 
back  the  condensed  moisture  of  the  breath. 


In  the  whistle,  and  in  the  English  Flageolet, 
the  scale  is  simply  that  of  the  Flute;  indeed, 
flutes  are  made  from  which  the  usual  head  can 
be  removed  and  that  of  the  Flageolet  substituted. 
The  French  Flageolet  is  similar  in  its  upper 
part,  but  possesses  a  more  complicated  scale,  and 
an  abundance  of  auxiliary  keys. 

Tlie  invention  of  the  Flageolet  is  ascribed  by 
Bumey  (Hist.  iii.  278  note)  to  the  Sieur  Juvigny, 
who  played  it  in  the  famous  *  Ballet  comique  de  la 
Royne,'  1581.  In  the  time  of  Mersennus  (1600- 
1648)  the  principal  teacher  and  player  was  Le 
Vacher  (Hawkins,  chap.  126).  It  appears  to 
have  superseded  the  more  ancient  Recorder, 
much  as  the  Violin  did  the  Viol.  The  two  were 
obviously  for  a  time  in  use  together  in  this 
country ;  for  the  *  Genteel  Companion,  being 
exact  directions  for  the  Recorder,  carefully  com- 
posed and  gathered  by  Humphrey  Salter,'  is 
dated  from  the  '  Lute  in  St.  Paul's  churchyard ' 
in  1683,  whereas  the  'Pleasant  companion,  or 
new  lessons  and  instructions  for  the  Flagelet  by 
Thomas  Greeting,  Gent.'  was  'printed  for  J. 
Playford,  and  sold  at  his  shop  near  the  Temple 
Church'  in  1682,  The  former  work  gives  a  plate 
of  the  long  bulky  Recorder,  reaching  halfway 
down  to  the  player's  knee,  whereas  the  latter 
represents  him  sitting  over  a  table  on  which  lies 
his  book,  holding  in  his  mouth  and  hands  the 
'Flagelet,'  a  pipe  not  more  than  nine  inches 
long  ;  on  the  table  lies  one  somewhat  larger, 
apparently  about  twelve  inches  in  length.  'It 
may  be  carried  in  the  pocket,  and  so  without  any 
trouble  be  a  companion  by  land  and  by  water.' 
In  the  same  way  the  early  Violins  were  termed 
piccoli  Violini  alia  Franceae  in  opposition  to  the 
more  bulky  Viol.  Both  instruments  read  from  a 
staff  of  six  lines,  each  of  which  represents  a  hole 
to  be  stopped.  In  the  Recorder  music  the  tune, 
with  proper  notes  and  time,  is  placed  on  a  staff 
above,  whereas  in  the  Flageolet  a  single  symbol 
above  the  staff  shows  the  time,  but  not  the  in- 
tervals of  the  melody.  The  recorder  had  a  top 
hole  stopped  with  the  left  thumb,  followed  by 
three  for  the  first  three  fingers  of  that  hand,  a 
fifth  stopped  by  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand, 
and  four  more  with  the  right  fingers.  It  thus 
possesses  a  scale  of  eight  notes.  The  flageolet 
has  only  six  holes,  stopped  by  a  different  ar- 
rangement ;  their  closure  being  appropriated 
successively  to  the  thumb,  first,  and  second 
fingers  of  the  left,  followed  in  order  by  the  first 
finger,  thumb,  and  second  fingers  of  the  right 
hand.  This  fingering  seems  to  be  unique  of  its 
kind,  and  persists  in  the  French  Flageolet. 

The  Double  flageolet  was  invented  by  a  person 
named  Bainbridge  about  1800,  and  his  Method 
for  the  instrument  is  supplemented  after  about 
20  years  by  his  son-in-law.  It  consists  of  two 
'  patent  Flageolets,  the  sides  close  to  each  other  ; 
the  one  has  seven  holes  in  front  and  one  behind ; 
the  other  only  four  in  front.  The  seven-holed 
Flageolet  is  played  with  the  left  hand,  the  four- 
holed  Flageolet  is  played  with  the  right  hand; 
and  in  playing  duets  you  will  in  general  have 
the  same  number  of  holes  covered  on  the  second 
M  m  2 


532 


FLAGEOLET. 


FLIGHT. 


Flageolet  as  on  the  first.'  From  the  examples 
it  appears  that  in  this  case  the  two  instruments 
play  in  thirds ;  intervals  larger  than  this  being 
possible  in  a  few  cases.  The  two  tubes  are  set 
in  a  single  block  and  blown  by  one  mouthpiece. 
Contrivances  were  added  for  silencing  one  of  the 
two  pipes  when  required,  but  they  seem  to  have 
been  often  blown  in  unison  to  a  single  note. 
The  instrument,  though  still  within  the  memory 
of  some,  has  entirely  and  most  deservedly  gone 
out  of  use.  No  music  of  importance  seems  to 
have  been  composed  for  it. 

The  single  English  and  French  Flageolets  are 
still  to  be  met  with,  chiefly  in  dance  music. 
The  former  has  been  described  as  a  simple  form 
of  Flute  a  bee.  The  latter  is  a  far  more  com- 
plicated instrument,  possessing  two  holes  for  the 
thumbs  at  the  back  and  four  in  front  for  the  two 
first  fingers  of  the  two  hands.  Indeed  it  is 
distinctly  a  descendant  of  the  old  Flageolet 
given  above.  The  half-stopping  of  the  left  hand 
thumb-hole  by  means  of  a  grooved  plate  for  the 
thumb-nail,  and  the  introduction  of  the  tip  of 
the  right  little  finger  into  the  small  everted 
bell  at  the  bottom  of  the  instrument,  are  devices 
peculiar  to  this  difficult  but  rather  ineflFective 
instrument.  Its  compass  is  two  ^ 
octaves  and  three  semitones  from  ^ 
G  on  the  treble  stave.  A  full  n  | 
Method  is  published  by  Bousquet.     /K  J  — 

The  Flageolet  is  never  found  in  tT 
orchestral  scores,  but  there  is  a  tradition  of  some 
authority  that  the  solo  part  in  *  0  ruddier  than 
the  cherry,'  marked  in  the  score  as  '  Flauto,'  was 
played  in  Handel's  time  on  the  flageolet ;  and  Mr. 
Sullivan  has  introduced  it  with  excellent  eff'ect  in 
the  part  of  Dr.  Daly  in  his  'Sorcerer.'  [W.H. S.] 

FLAMAND-GR^:TIIY,  Louis  Victor,  bom 
1764,  married  the  niece  of  Gr^try,  and  bought 
'I'Ermitage,'  near  Montmorency,  long  the  alter- 
nate residence  of  Rousseau  and  Gretry,  and  the 
burial  place  of  the  latter.  An  offer  he  made,  but 
subsequently  withdrew,  of  presenting  Gretry 's 
heart  to  Li^ge,  the  native  place  of  the  composer, 
involved  him  in  a  long  and  ruinous  lawsuit, 
which  finally  went  against  him.  He  died  in 
Paris,  July  1843.  [M.C.C.] 

FLAT.  A  term  employed  in  the  sense  of 
lowering ;  an  artist  sings  or  plays  flat  when  his 
notes  are  below  the  right  pitch.  B  flat  is  a 
semitone  lower  than  B,  E  flat  than  E,  and  so 
on;  to  'flatten'  (baissei^)  a  sound  or  an  instrument 
is  to  make  it  lower  than  before,  just  as  to 
'sharpen'  it  is  to  raise  it.  The  sign  used  to 
denote  this  flattening  in  music  is  b,  called  a 
flat — Fr.  h&mol ;  Ital.  Bemolle  ;  Germ.  Be.  It 
has  been  already  shown  under  Accidentals  and 
B  (p.  19  a  and  107)  how  the  signs  of  the  flat  (b) 
and  natural  (t])  were  derived  from  two  forms  of 
the  letter  b.  A  double  flat  is  a  descent  of  two 
semitones,  and  is  marked  by  bb.  The  flat  of  a 
note  is  not  the  same  pitch  (does  not  give  the 
same  number  of  vibrations)  as  the  sharp  of  the 
note  a  tone  below  it,  though  on  a  keyed  instru- 
ment the  two  are  represented  by  the  same  black 


key ;  nor  are  B  and  E  the  same  as  Cb  and  Fb— 
and  so  on.  This  will  be  explained  under  In- 
terval. 

In  German  musical  nomenclature  the  notes 
are  flattened  by  adding  es  to  the  letter,  as  Es, 
Des,  Ges,  etc.,  A  flat  is  As,  and  B  flat  B,  though 
Hes  has  been  used.  Double  flats  are  Deses,  etc. 
The  b  and  $  in  German  literature  were  formerly 
used  to  express  minor  and  major,  as  Gb  for  G 
minor,  D#  for  D  major,  and  even  Eb  for  E 
minor,  and  As  J  for  A  flat  major,  (See  the 
earlier  Indexes  of  the  Allgemeine  musikalische 
Zeitung  for  frequent  instances  of  this  strange 
usage.)  Such  ambiguities  are  now  avoided  by 
the  use  of  the  words  dur  and  moll  for  major  and 
minor.  [G,] 

FLAT  FIFTH  is  an  interval  which  is  less 
by  one  semitone  than  a  perfect  fifth,  and  is 
dissonant. 

FLAUTO  TRAVERSO  (Ital.;  Fr.  Flufe 
traversiere).  The  distinguishing  name  of  the 
Flute  with  a  lateral  mouthpiece,  held  across  the 
performer,  as  opposed  to  the  Flute  ct  hec  or  Fla- 
geolet, held  straight  in  front.  [Flute.]  [W.H.S.] 

FLEMING,  Alexander,  minister  of  the 
Scotch  Church,  author  of  two  small  treatises  in 
favour  of  the  introduction  of  organs  into  Scotch 
churches  (Glasgow  1808),  the  first  suggestion  of 
the  kind  since  the  Reformation.  [M.C.C.] 

FLIEGENDE  HOLLANDER,  DER.  Opera 
in  3  acts,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner ; 
produced  at  Dresden,  Jan.  2,  1843.  In  London 
at  Drury  Lane,  as  L'Ollandese  dannato,  July  23, 
1870  ;  and  by  Carl  Rosa,  as  the  Flying  Dutch- 
man, at  the  Lyceum,  Oct.  1876  ;  at  Covent 
Garden  as  H  Vascello  fantasma,  June  16,  77, 

The  words  were  sold  by  Wagner  to  the  manager 
of  the  Grand  Opera  in  1841,  set  by  Dietsch  as 
Le  Vaisseau  fant6me,  and  brought  out  there 
Nov.  9,  1842.  [G.] 

FLIGHT,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  organ  builder, 
born  about  1 767,  was  the  son  of  Benjamin  Flight, 
who,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  carried 
on,  in  partnership  with  John  Kelly,  under  the 
style  of  '  Flight  and  Kelly,'  the  business  of  organ 
building  at  Exeter  Change.  Young  Flight  learned 
the  art  of  constructing  organs  from  his  father. 
About  the  year  1800  he  commenced  business, 
in  partnership  with  Joseph  Robson,  in  Lisle 
Street,  Leicester  Square,  under  the  style  of '  Flight 
and  Robson.'  They  afterwards  removed  to  St. 
Martin's  Lane,  where  they  constructed  and  for 
many  years  publicly  exhibited  the  Apollonicon. 
[See  Apollonicon.]  The  partnership  was  dis- 
solved in  1832,  after  which  Flight,  in  conjunction 
with  his  son,  J.  Flight,  who  had  long  actively 
assisted  him,  carried  on  business  in  St.  Martin's 
Lane,  as  'Flight  and  Son.'  Flight  invented 
many  improvements  in  organ  building  which 
prepared  the  way  for  still  superior  mechanism. 
Amongst  them  was  an  apparatus  for  steadying 
the  wind,  added  to  the  bellows  during  a  repara- 
tion of  Father  Schmidt's  organ  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  which  preceded,  and  possibly  sug- 
gested, the  concussion  bellows.    B.  Flight  died 


FUGHT. 


FLORENCE. 


533 


in  1847  aged  80,  and  Robson  in  1876.  Flight's 
son  continues  the  business  in  St.  Martin's  Lane 
under  the  name  of  'Flight  and  Son.'  [W.H.H.] 
FLINTOFT,  Rev.  Luke,  was  appointed  Gen- 
tleman of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1715,  having 
been  Priest -Vicar  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  from 
I  704  to  1714.  In  July  1719  he  was  appointed 
Reader  in  Whitehall  chapel.  He  was  also  a 
minor  canon  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  died 
Nov.  3,  1727.  He  is  presumed  to  have  invented 
the  double  chant,  his  beautiful  chant  in  G  minor 
being  the  earliest  known.  [W.  H.  H.] 

FLORENCE  (Firenze),  although  in  point  of 
great  masters  inferior  to  the  other  schools  of 
music  in  Italy,  can  still  claim  her  place  among 
the  earliest  institutions  for  instruction  in  that 
science.  Casella,  the  friend  of  Dante,  was  a 
native  of  Florence,  and  as  early  as  1310  there 
existed  a  philharmonic  society  there,  which 
Burney,  writing  in  1789,  speaks  of  as  'still  in 
existence,'  and  which  invented  the  Laudi 
Spirituali.  Under  the  famous  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  the  streets  of  Florence  resounded  with 
the  'Canti  Carnascialeschi, '  ^  the  gay  and  frivolous 
songs  of  the  Carnival,  against  which  Savonarola 
protested,  and  the  music  of  which  was  often 
sacrificed  on  the  pile  of  '  Vanith,.'  To  the  history 
of  Florentine  music  during  that  epoch  may  be 
added  the  name  of  Antonio  Squarcialuppi,  organ- 
ist of  the  Duomo ;  but  passing  over  the  other 
masters  of  this  first  epoch  of  the  Florentine 
school  we  come  to  the  dawn  of  the  opera  music, 
which  had  a  fitting  birthplace  in  festive  Florence, 
For  the  purpose  of  promoting  this  kind  of  music, 
a  private  musical  academy  called  '  Degli  Alterati' 
(the  thirsters)  was  founded  in  1 56S  at  Florence 
by  seven  Florentine  noblemen  who  assembled  at 
the  house  of  Giambattista  Strozzi.  They  chose 
as  their  device  a  cask  of  grapes  filled  to  over- 
flowing, and  the  motto  '  Quid  non  designat 
ebrietas  ?'  Giovanni  Bardi  Conte  di  Vamio 
belonged  to  this  academy,  and,  after  the  death 
of  Strozzi,  his  house  became  the  rendezvous  of 
the  academicians,  Bardi  had  for  many  years 
studied  the  theory  and  practice  of  music  till  he 
became  a  correct  and  good  composer;  and  he 
was  often  solicited  to  prepare  for  the  stage  those 
mythological  representations  which  under  the 
nanie  of  '  Feste  musicali '  were  among  the 
earliest  forms  taken  by  the  musical  drama. 
These  entertainments  were  first  represented  at 
Florence  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  in  keeping 
with  the  gorgeous  character  of  the  Medici  feasts. 

Ymcenzo  Galilei — father  of  the  great  Galileo — 
was  another  member  of  the  academy  'Degli 
Alterati.'  He  wrote  a  clever  treatise,  '  Dialogo 
della  Musica  antica  e  modema'  (Florence  1581), 
upon  the  abuse  of  modern  music,  in  which  he 
places  in  the  mouth  of  Bardi  an  attack  upon  the 
madrigali  and  the  researches  after  counterpoint. 
He  was  also  a  composer,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
the  first  who  composed  melodies  for  a  single 
voice.  He  set  to  music  the  speech  of  L^golino 
(Inf.  xxxiii.)  beginning  'La  bocca  sollevb  dal 

Fublisbed  by  Grazzini,  Florence  1559. 


fero  pasto' ;  also  a  portion  of  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah. 

Girolamo  Mei  was  another  member  of  this 
academy,  and  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  a  composer 
of  the  Roman  School  who,  previous  to  the  com- 
position of  the  first  entire  musical  drama  by 
Rinuccini,  had  divided  into  scenes  and  set  to 
music  two  Pastorales — 'La  disperazione  di  Si- 
leno'  and  'II  Satiro' — the  latter  to  words  by 
Laura  Guidiccini,  a  lady  of  Lucca. 

When  Bardi  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Clementi  VIII.  the  society  of  the  'Alterati' 
assembled  in  the  house  of  Jacopo  Corsi,  a 
Florentine  nobleman,  an  enlightened  lover  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  passionately  devoted  to  dramatic 
music.  They  soon  added  to  their  number  the 
names  of  Ottavio  Rinnuccini  the  poet,  Jacopo 
Peri,  the  composer,  and  Giulio  Caccini,  who, 
besides  his  talent  for  composition  had  the  gift 
of  a  beautiful  voice.  These  three  occupied  them- 
selves in  developing  the  first  attempts  at  musical 
drama  into  the  finished  performance  called  the 
opera.  They  invented  the  recitative  by  which 
the  Italian  opera  and  the  oratorio  are  distin- 
guished from  the  opera  of  other  countries  and 
from  other  species  of  theatrical  musical  exhibition. 
'  Dafne '  was  the  first  result  of  their  united 
efforts.  Rinuccini  composed  the  poetry,  Caccini 
and  Peri  the  music,  and  the  whole  was  repre- 
sented in  the  house  of  Jacopo  Corsi,  1596. 
'This,'  says  Burney  (Hist.  iv.  p.  18),  'seems  the 
true  era  whence  the  opera  or  drama  wholly  set 
to  music,  and  in  which  the  dialogue  was  neither 
sung  in  measure  nor  declaimed  without  music, 
but  recited  in  simple  musical  tones  which 
amounted  not  to  singing,  and  yet  was  difi"erent 
from  speech, — should  be  dated.'  'Dafne'  was 
succeeded  by  'Euridice,'  represented  with  gor- 
geous splendour  in  1600  at  the  feasts  given  in 
Florence  in  honoiu:  of  the  marriage  of  Henry  IV 
of  France  with  Maria  de'  Medici.  None  of  the 
subsequent  compositions  of  the  great  masters  of 
operatic  music  produced  anything  like  the  effect 
of  these  first  representations,  which  introduced 
Italy  as  it  were  to  a  new  art — that  of  'musica 
parlante.'  The  poet  Angel  0  Grillo  (the  friend  of 
Tasso),  writing  to  Caccini,  observed  :  '  You  are 
the  father  of  a  new  kind  of  music,  or  rather 
singing,  which  is  not  a  song,  but  a  recitative  song 
of  a  nobler  and  higher  order  than  the  popular 
song ;  which  does  not  sever  or  maim  the  words, 
nor  deprive  them  of  life,  but  gives  new  force  and 
vigour  to  both.  It  is  then  a  new  and  wonderful 
invention,  or  rather  a  revival  of  the  ancient 
Greek  musical  drama  whicli  has  been  lost  to  us 
for  so  many  centuries'  (Tiraboschi,  \'ii.  1321). 
Rinuccini's  next  opera,  'Arianna,'  composed  by 
Monteverde,  was  represented  at  the  nuptials  of 
Francesco  Gonzaga  of  jNIantua  with  the  Infanta 
Margaret  of  Savoy  (Doni,  Opere,  ii.  25). 

This  first  academy  for  theatrical  music  was 
succeeded  by  many  others,  as  the  passion  for 
musical  representation  became  universal  in  Italy. 
Quadrio  (i.  71)  mentions  three  in  Florence, 
'degl'  Infocati,'  'degl'  Immobili,'  'de*  Sorgenti,' 
founded  between  1550  and  1560  especially  for 


534 


FLORENCE. 


FLOTOW. 


promoting  this  kind  of  music.  Each  of  these 
had  its  own  theatre  and  vied  with  the  others  in 
the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  its  represen- 
tations. Indeed,  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, the  theatres  of  Italy,  constructed  in  many 
cases  by  no  less  an  architect  than  Palladio,  and 
where  the  most  melodious  of  all  modem  languages 
first  appeared  married  to  sweet  harmony,  were 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  world. 

The  Florentine  school  of  music  differs  from  the 
other  great  schools  of  Italy  in  that  the  com- 
posers of  dramatic  music  just  enumerated  were 
only  amateurs,  and  had  been  for  the  most  part 
trained  in  the  great  schools  of  Rome  and  Bo- 
logna. Nor  did  Florence  ever  produce  any  great 
composers  of  church  music,  although  composer 
succeeded  composer  in  that  brilliant  operatic 
music  of  which  we  have  traced  the  first  begin- 
nings, until  we  arrive  at  the  great  Cherubini, 
who  was  a  master  in  both  the  church  and  the 
theatre. 

The  present  '  Royal  Musical  Institute '  of  Flo- 
rence is  of  recent  foundation,  and  was  opened  for 
public  instruction  in  1862.  Its  objects  are,  To 
teach  the  science,  history,  and  practice  of  music ; 
to  maintain  a  public  library  of  music ;  to  grant 
rewards  to  deserving  artists ;  to  perform  the  best 
works  of  modern  and  ancient  masters.  It  is  an 
establishment  for  public  and  gratuitous  instruc- 
tion, and  comprises  three  sections — that  of  admin- 
istration; that  of  instruction ;  and  the  Academy. 
The  administration  is  directed  by  a  President, 
assisted  by  three  Professors,  who  form  the  Council 
of  Management.  The  department  of  instruction 
contains  schools  for  the  rudiments  of  music  and 
musical  reading ;  for  solfeggio ;  for  solo  and  part 
singing ;  for  keyed,  stringed,  and  wind  instru- 
ments ;  for  thorough  bass,  counterpoint,  and  com- 
position ;  and  for  aesthetics  and  musical  history. 
The  Academy  is  composed  of  resident,  corre- 
sponding, and  honorary  members.  The  Exam- 
iners are  chosen  from  the  resident  members  of 
the  Academy,  as  are  also  the  three  members  of 
the  council  of  management.  The  number  of 
pupils  averages  220,  and  is  regulated  by  the 
applications  for  admission,  the  result  of  the  ex- 
aminations, and  the  means  available  for  imparting 
instruction.  [C.  M.P.J 

FLORID.  Music  in  rapid  figures,  divisions, 
or  passages,  the  stem  of  the  simple  melody 
bursting  torth,  as  it  were,  into  leaves  and  flowers. 
The  image  is  the  same  as  that  in  Fioriture.  The 
Italian  term  is  Figurato.  Examples  are  hardly 
necessary ;  but  the  genesis  of  florid  passages  is 
highly  interesting,  and  an  instance  or  two,  from 
the  simplest  form  to  the  very  highest  art,  may 
be  forgiven. 

Bach,  Christmas  Oratorio. 


Mozart,  G-minor  Symphony, 


Such  florid  passages  are  essential  to  Variations, 
and  the  last  of  these  examples  is  taken  from  the 
finest  set  of  variations  existing. 

For  Florid  Counterpoint  see  p.  4086.  [G.] 

FLORILEGIUM  PORTENSE.  a  collec- 
tion of  sacred  vocal  music  of  the  i6th  century, 
in  separate  parts,  published  in  2  vols,  by  Boden- 
schatz  in  i6i8  and  21,  and  containing  in  all  265 
pieces.  [Bodenschatz.] 

FLOTOW,  Friedrich,  Freiherr  von,  Ger- 
man opera  composer,  born  April  27,  181 2,  son 
of  a  landed  nobleman  of  the  arch  duchy  of 
Mecklenburg ;  was  educated  with  a  view  to  the 
diplomatic  service.  In  1827  he  went  to  Paris, 
when  music  was  at  its  best.  The  brilliant 
artistic  life  into  which  he  was  thrown  aroused 
him  to  a  consciousness  of  his  own  talent  for 
music,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  a  course  of 
study  under  Reicha.  The  Revolution  of  1830 
drove  him  away  for  a  time,  but  feeling  that  the 
atmosphere  of  Paris  was  necessary  to  his  success, 
he  soon  returned,  and  produced  his  first  dra- 
matic attempts  at  the  private  houses  of  some 
of  the  aristocracy.  *  Stradella '  was  brought  out 
at  the  Palais  Royal  as  a  short  piece  lyrique  in 
1837  ;  but  Flotow's  first  public  success  was  at 
the  Theatre  de  la  Renaissance,  where  he  pro- 
duced, May  31,  1839,  'Le  Naufrage  de  la 
Meduse,'  which  ran  for  53  nights  in  12  months, 
and  at  once  established  his  position.  He  after- 
wards re- wrote  the  piece,  and  produced  it  at 
Hamburg  in  1845  as  'Die  Matroseu,'  whence 
it  spread  to  the  other  theatres  of  Germany. 
Meantime  he  had  composed  for  the  Paris  theatres 
several  other  operas,  such  as  '  L'esclave  de 
Camoens'  (1843),  and  'L'ame  en  peine'  (1S46), 
known  in  London  as  'Leoline'  (Princess's 
Theatre,  Oct.  16,  1848).  'Stradella'  was  re- 
written as  an  opera,  and  brought  out  at  Ham- 
burg, Dec.  30,  44,  and  has  had  extraordinary 
success  throughout  Germany.  In  Paris,  though 
published,  it  has  never  been  produced.  In 
London  it  was  brought  out  in  English  at  Drury 
Lane,  June  6,  46 — a  dead  failure — and  in  Italian 


FLOTOW. 


FLUTE. 


535 


in  1S64  at  Covent  Garden,  when  it  lasted  two 
nights  only,  killed  by  a  joke  of  Ronconi's.  It 
was  followed  by  'Martha'  (Vienna,  Nov.  25, 
I S 4 7),  which  was  remodelled  from  a  ballet  written 
in  conjunction  with  Burgmiiller  and  Delcevez  in 
1 S44,  and  in  its  new  form  quickly  spread  all 
over  the  world  (London,  Covent  Garden,  1858). 
These  two  works  Flotow  has  never  surpassed,  and 
f  his  later  operas  'Die  Grossfiirstin'  (1850), 
Indra  '(1853),'  R  iibezahl"  (1854),'  Hilda'  (1855), 
'Der  Miiller  von  Meran'  (1856),  'La  Veuve  Gra- 
pin'  (i859\  'L'Ombre'  (1869),  'Naida'  (Milan, 
:3\  'H  Flor  d'Harlem'  (Turin,  76),  the  only 
>  lues  which  have  attained  any  general  popularity 
were  'Indra,'  *  La  Veuve  Grapin,' and  'L'Ombre,' 
tlie  last  of  which  was  enormously  successful  not 
(mly  in  Paris,  but  in  Italy  and  Spain,  and  has 
been  produced  in  London  (Her  Majesty's)  Jan. 
1  2, 1878,  as  'The  Phantom.'  His  ' Enchanteresse' 
-  in  rehearsal  at  the  Italiens,  and  his  '  Rosellana' 
<  not  yet  complete  (Feb.  1878). 

In  1S56  he  was  appointed  Intendant  of  the 
ourt  theatre  at  Schwerin,  a  post  which  he  re- 
ained  till  1 863.  The  only  important  works  he  pro- 
iuced  during  this  period,  when  he  had  so  many 
uducements  to  compose,  were  a  'Fackeltanz' 
md  some  charming  music  to  Shakspeare's  '  Win- 
er's Tale.'    After  giving  up  the  management  of 
the  theatre  in  1S63  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  in 
1 868  removed  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna, 
where  he  still  resides.     His  remaining  com- 
positions, overtures,  songs,  and  chamber  music, 
are  little  known,  and  call  for  no  remark.  In  1 864 
Flotow  was  elected  corresponding  member  of  the 
Institut  de  France. 

The  great  success  of  'Stradella'  and  'Martha' 
must  be  mainly  ascribed  to  the  melody  which 
pervades  them,  and  to  their  light  and  attractive 
chara-cter,  Flotow' s  comic  talent  is  considerable, 
and  he  has  great  natural  instinct  for  the  stage. 
His  earl}-  French  experience  taught  him  the 
virtue  of  lively  and  well-accentuated  rhythm, 
and  gave  him  dexterity  in  the  construction  of  1 
extended  pieces,  to  which  he  writes  pleasing  ' 
iiamiony  and  piquant  orchestration.  On  the  | 
other  hand,  his  music  has  rarely  anything  below  I 
the  surface,  his  rh}-thm  frequently  degenerates  ' 
into  that  of  mere  dance-tunes,  his  modulations 
are  poor,  and  he  is  prone  to  sentimentality,  which, 
though  popular  in  our  days,  is  none  the  less  mor- 
bid. In  the  scientitic  part  of  composition  he  too 
often  betrays  the  amateur.  On  the  whole  the 
conclusion  is  forced  upon  us  that,  in  spite  of  his 
popularity,  Flotow  will  not  live  in  the  history  of 
dramatic  music.  [A.M.] 
FLOWERS,  George  French,  Mus.  Doc.,  son 
of  Rev.  Field  Flowers,  Rector  of  Partney,  Lin- 
colnshire, born  at  Boston  iSii,  studied  music 
in  Germany  under  C.  H.  Rinck  and  Schnyder 
von  Wartensee,  and  was  for  some  time  organist 
of  the  English  Chapel  in  Paris.  Returning 
home  he  became  organist  of  St.  Mark's  Church, 
Myddelton  Square.  In  1S39  he  graduated  as 
Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford.  For  a  period  he 
was  the  music  critic  of  the  'Literary  Gazette.' 
In  1848  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 


the  Professorship  of  Music  at  Oxford,  as  he  was 
in  1863  for  that  in  Gresham  College.  In  1851 
he  established '  The  British  School  of  Vocalization' 
for  teaching  singing  on  new  principles,  and  in 
the  two  years  following  gave  concerts  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  the  progress  made  by  his 
pupils,  the  most  notable  of  whom  was  Miss 
Featherstone,  now  Mrs.  Howard  Paul.  In  1865 
Flowers  proceeded  Doctor  of  Music.  He  wrote 
an  'Essay  on  the  construction  of  Fugue,  with  an 
Introduction  containing  new  Rules  of  Harmony,' 
and  composed  Fugues  in  the  style  of  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  other  organ  music,  and  Tennyson  s 
Ode  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
and  other  vocal  pieces.  He  was  also  a  copious 
contributor  to  the  musical  periodicals.  He  died 
of  cholera,  June  14,  1872.  [W.H.H.] 

FLUGEL  (a  wing).  The  German  appellation 
of  a  grand  pianoforte  or  a  harpsichord,  from  the 
wing  shape  common  to  both.  See  Goethe's  pun 
on  gefiiigelte  Geister  in  '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,' 
p.  24.  Stutz  Flugel  is  a  short  grand  pianoforte. 
[See  Harpsichord,  Grand  Piano.]     [A.  J.H.] 

FLUGEL  HORN.  The  German  name  for 
instruments  of  the  Bugle  family.  Originally, 
say  the  dictionaries,  a  hunting  horn  (Waldhorn, 
Jagdhorn),  used  by  the  huntsman  whose  duty  it 
was  to  watch  in  the  Fliigebi,  or  paths  cut  through 
the  wood,  and  give  a  signal  on  the  approa^^h  of  the 
game.  The  Flugel  horn  now  used  in  the  English 
and  German  armies  is  a  Bb  comet  with  pistons 
and  a  horn  mouthpiece.  The  pistons  have  super- 
seded a  clumsy  kind  of  keys,  from  which  it  used 
to  be  called  Klappenhorn.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  several  instaruments  in  the  Alto,  Tenor, 
and  Bass  clefs.  [W.H.S.] 

FLUE -WORK.  Organ-stops,  in  regard  to 
the  manner  in  which  their  sound  is  generated, 
are  grouped  in  two  great  classes — Reed-work 
and  Flue-work.  All  organ-stops  in  which  the 
sound  is  produced  by  the  wind  passing  through 
a  fissure,  jlue,  or  ^vind-way,  and  sti-iking  against 
an  edge  above,  belong  to  the  Flue-work,  whatever 
may  be  the  shape,  make,  or  tone  of  their  pipes. 
The  peculiarities  of  shape  or  proportion,  make, 
and  tone,  lead  however  to  a  subsequent  division 
into  Principal-work,  Gedact-work,  and  Flute- 
work.  [E.J.  H.] 

FLUTE  (Germ.  Flote,  Querfloh ;  Ital.  Flauto, 
Flauio  traverso ;  Fr.  Flute,  Flute  traversiere). 
An  ancient  instrument  used  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  It  has  always  had  two  principal  forms, 
the  direct  flute  or  Flute  d  bee,  now  developed 
into  the  Flageolet,  and  the  German  flute  or 
Flute  traversiere,  which  appears  to  have  super- 
seded it  about  1720.  There  is  however  evidence 
of  an  intermediate  instrument,  partaking  of  the 
characters  of  both,  which  will  be  described 
farther  on. . 

The  Flute,  as  now  employed,  consists  essentially 
of  a  tube,  conical  from  below  upwards,  terminating 
in  the  Head,  and  stopped  at  the  top  by  a  cork. 
In  the  side  of  the  head  is  a  large  orifice  with 
sharp  edges,  situated  less  than  an  inch  below 
the  cork,  through  which  the  breath  is  forced 


536 


FLUTE. 


FLUTE. 


obliquely  from  tlie  approximated  lips.    In  the 
lower  part  are  six  holes — to  be  stopped  by  the 
first  three  fingers  of  either  hand — and  various 
intermediate  keys ;  there  are  also  on  the  lowest 
joint   three,   or   even   four,   levers  producing 
additional  notes  below  the  regular  scale  of  the 
instrument.    It  is  held  transversely  and  sloping 
downwards  against  the  lower  lip,  with  the  orifice 
in  the  head  turned  somewhat  outwards,  so  that 
the  stream  of  wind  shall  impinge  upon  its  outer 
edge.    By  this  impact  of  the  current  upon  the 
wedge -like  margin  of  the  aperture  sound  is 
produced.    Considerable  practice  is  required  to 
develop  any  note  whatever,  and  much  controversy 
exists  as  to  the  exact  cause  of  the  musical 
vibration.    It  is  not  however  necessary  that  the 
feather  edge  should  be  at  the  side  of  ^ 
the  main  tube  ;  for  in  the  Nay  or  ||| 
Egyptian  flute  figured  in  the  margin^         ill  J 
the  extreme  circular  end  of  the  tube         I  | 
itself  (here   made   of  bamboo)   is  ^ 
thinned  away  so  as  to  produce  a         l|f  : 
linear  termination,  against  which  the  I 
current  of  breath  is  directed.    Such  mi 
a  flute  might  be  held  straight  in  l| 
front  of  the  player,  like  the  Flageolet  m 
or  flute  k  bee  ;  in  which,  however,  ■ 
the  simple  combination  of  orifice  and  Ip 
lip  is  replaced  by  a  far  more  com-  m 
plicated  arrangement,  exactly  similar  |||f 
to  the  mouth  of  a  diapason  organ-  lif 
pipe.    As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  held  fM 
obliquely  towards  the  right  side  of  |fej 
the  player,  like  the  modern  transverse  iBj 
flute,  except  that  its  lower  extremity  Wj 
bears  considerably  downwards,  so  as  mi 
to  enable  the  blast  to  enter  a  terminal  9 
instead  of  a  lateral  orifice.    An  almost  similar 
instrument  to  the  one  here  figured  is  in  the 
ancient  Egyptian  collection  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  from  the  absence  of  the  usual  lateral 
hole  was  considered  to  be  a  forgery.    Not  only 
is  the  same  instrument  still  in  use  at  the  present 
day,  but  the  mode  of  playing  and  the  position  of 
the  ancient  instrument  can  be  recovered  from 
the  plaster  mural  decorations  still  preserved. 
The  only  diff'erence  in  the  more  ancient  instru- 
ment is  that  the  scale  is  one  of  four  orifices, 
whereas  the  modem  possesses  the  full  complement 
of  six.    Either  of  these  may  be  looked  upon  as 
intermediate  between  the  flute  and  the  flue-pipe 
of  the  organ,  the  foot  and  'languid'  being  in 
this  case  supplied  by  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 
and  the  linear  opening  of  the  lips. 

No  instrument  has  undergone  so  many  changes 
and  improvements  within  the  last  half  century 
as  the  Flute.  The  bore,  instead  of  being  conical, 
has  been  made  cylindrical ;  the  fingering  and 
disposition  of  the  keys  have  been  entirely  altered 
according  to  the  system  named  after  Boehm. 

The  flute,  though  not  possessing  a  very  ex- 
tensive compass,  is  especially  prominent  in  con- 
certed music,  from  the  acuteness  of  the  sounds 

>  This  curious  instrument  is  still  used  by  the  peasants  about  the 
Nile.  The  original  of  the  figure  was  brought  from  Egypt  by  F. 
Girdlestone,  Esq.,  of  the  Charterhouse.  Bee  an  admirable  cut  in 
Lane's '  Modem  Egyptians.' 


it  is  competent  to  produce.  Indeed,  the  Piccolo, 
or  small  Octave  variety,  emits  the  sharpest  notes 
ordinarily  used  in  music.  Its  true  Scale  may  be 
considered  to  begin  on  D  (i )  below  the  treble  stave, 
and  hence  the  Flute  is  often  called  a  D  instru- 
ment. The  notes  Cj,  C,  Bb,  and  even  Bb,  below  D, 
are  obtained  by  associated  levers  set  in  motion 
by  the  two  little  fingers  of  either  hand,  but  do 
not  occur  again  in  the  higher  registers.  By  the 
successive  removal  of  the  three  first  fingers  of 
the  right  hand,  followed  by  those  of  the  left, 
the  series  of  notes  rising  from  D  to  Cj  (2)  are 
elicited,  and  on  D  again  (3)  a  new  octave  harmonic 
scale  is  commenced  by  closing  all  the  holes  except 
that  beneath  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand.  In 
this  respect  the  scale  is  similar  to  the  Oboe  and 
Bassoon,  with  the  exception  that  the  latter,  being 
fundamentally  in  the  key  of  G,  change  upon 
that  note  instead  of  upon  D.  The  second  octave 
is  produced  by  a  stronger  pressure  of  wind  and 
an  alteration  of  embouchure,  rising  to  D  above 
the  stave  (4),  and  there  remains  a  third  still 
higher  octave,  obtained  by  cross-fingerings  often 
of  a  complicated  nature,  rising  to  D  or  even  DJJ 
in  altissimo  (5) — 


(0      (2)      (3)      (4)  (S) 


The  scale  here  described  is  that  of  the  old  eight- 
keyed  Flute. 

The  principles  of  the  Flute  originally  invented 
by  Captain  Gordon  of  Charles  the  Tenth's  Swiss 
Guards  and  introduced  by  Theobald  Boehm  ^  in 
his  new  flute,  constructed  in  1832,  were  princi- 
pally ( I )  that  each  note  should  speak  independently 
out  of  a  single  hole,  as  though  the  remainder  of 
the  bore  were  entirely  cut  off;  (2)  that  all  keys 
in  their  position  of  rest  should  be  permanently 
open.  He  also  aimed  at  equalising  the  difficulty 
of  the  different  keys,  some  of  which,  on  the  older 
flute,  were  notoriously  inconvenient  and  all  but 
impracticable.  A  subsequent  improvement  con- 
sisted in  substituting  a  cylindrical  for  a  conical 
bore.  In  its  latest  modification,  the  Boehm  flute 
consists  of  a  cylindrical  tube  terminating  at  the 
upper  end,  above  the  embouchure  in  a  conical 
or  'parabolic'  prolongation.  For  the  left  hand, 
which  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  instrument 
next  to  the  head,  are  four  open  keys  to  be  closed 
by  the  first  finger,  thumb  (situated  at  the  back 
of  the  instrument),  second,  and  third  fingers 
successively.  For  the  little  finger  of  this  hand 
is  an  open  key  producing  the  Gjf  or  Ab.  On  the 
right  hand  joint  are  three  open  keys,  for  the 
first,  second,  and  ring  fingers  respectively,  with 
accessory  or  'shake  keys'  (which  are  normally 
closed)  interposed.  For  the  right  little  finger 
are  the  closed  key  of  DJJ  and  the  two  open  keys 
of  Cjf  and  C.  In  many  flutes  mechanism,  still 
worked  by  the  right  little  finger,  is  added  to 
produce  Btj  and  even  Bb.     But  from  the  D|| 

1  See  his  pamphlet  'tJber  den  Fljitenbau  und  die  neuesten  Ver- 
besserungen,'  Mainz,  1847. 


FLUTE. 


FLUTE. 


537 


downwards  all  the  work  is  accessory,  and  not 
directly  used  in  the  production  of  the  natural 
scale.  For  this  reason  the  instrument  is  said 
to  stand  in  the  key  of  D.  For  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  each  sound  by  the  closure  of  a  single 
orifice,  a  somewhat  new  arrangement  of  the  scale 
is  necessary  on  certain  notes.  The  for  instance, 
in  either  octave  is  produced  by  closing  the  five 
holes  of  the  left  hand.  For  the  F  a  whole  tone 
below,  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  is  added. 
The  intermediate  Fj  is  obtained  by  depressing 
the  pad  of  the  middle  or  ring  fingers,  that  of 
the  index  being  left  open.  In  the  Clarinet, 
Oboe,  Bassoon,  and  other  octave-scaled  instru- 
ments, the  a  whole  tone  below  C,  which  in 
a  D  instrument  like  the  flute  is  represented  by 
the  Fij  below  the  middle  G,  has  to  be  produced 
by  closing  the  Bi;  and  AC  holes  and  Hfcing  an 
intermediate  Bi?  key,  thus  lowering  the  pitch  a 
minor  third  and  raising  it  a  semitone.  The  same 
method  as  that  for  the  Fjf  is  employed  for  the  Bb 
or  AJ,  which  is  produced  by  lowering  the  B;  a 
semitone  through  the  intervention  of  a  lever  ac- 
tuated by  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  those  of 
the  left,  middle,  and  ring  fingers  being  left  open. 

The  compass  of  the  Boehm  Flute  m. 
is  from  C  to  C  three  octaves  higher, 
though  the  Cj  above  this  note,  and    ,  n  — . 
even  more  acute  soimds,  can  be    /[\  — 
obtained  by  exceptional  players. 

A  variety  of  other  Flutes,  modified  more  or 
less  from  the  old  eight- keyed  instrument  or  the 
Boehm  system,  are  to  be  met  with.  Among  these 
may  be  named  those  of  Siccama,  Clinton,  and 
Carte.  Their  differences  are  chiefly  mechanical. 
The  main  distinction  between  the  older  and 
the  more  modem  instruments  is  the  adoption 
of  the  cylindrical  bore.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  tlus  contrivance  adds  materially  to  the 
power  of  tone,  and  gives  it  a  reedy  quality 
closely  approximating  to  that  of  the  Clarinet. 
But  it  is  a  question  if  it  does  not  to  the  same 
extent  modify  its  peculiar  orchestral  character, 
and  diminish  its  purity  of  intonation.  This 
distinctive  quality  of  tone  has  been  shown  by 
Helmholtz  (Ellis's  Tr.  113,  141,  172)  to  be  pecu- 
liar, and  free  from  most  harmonic  '  upper  partials' 
except  the  octaves. 

The  literature  of  the  Flute  is  so  extensive  as 
hardly  to  admit  of  illustration  within  moderate 
limits.  Bach  uses  it  freely  both  as  an  obbligato 
instrument  and  in  concerted  passages,  and  ever 
since  his  time  it  has  held  a  prominent  place  in 
the  band.  In  the  scores  of  his  works  it  is  some- 
times marked  Travei'sUre  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Flute-k-bec. 

Haydn,  both  in  his  Symphonies  and  in  his 
Oratorios,  awards  it  the  same  prominence.  The 
Trio  for  three  Flutes  in  the  '  Creation '  may  be 
named  as  an  illustration. 

Handel  usually  specifies  the  'German'  Flute, 
and  often  indicates  its  importance  by  the  words 
'with  the  accompaniment  of  a  German  Flute.' 
It  is  diflBcult  to  understand  how  the  players  of 
his  day  were  able  to  make  themselves  heard 
with  the  few  Flutes  then  allotted  to  the  Orchestra 


against  the  large  numbers  of  Oboes  and  Bassoons. 
In  the  Handel  Commemoration  in  "Westminster 
Abbey  in  17S4  there  were  6  Flutes  against  26 
Oboes  and  26  Bassoons,  besides  1 2  Trumpets  and 
the  same  number  of  Horns.  Handel  produces, 
however,  a  magnificent  eSect  in  the  Dead  March 
in  '  Saul'  by  the  simple  employment  of  two  Flutes 
moving  in  thirds  against  the  reiterated  bass  of 
the  kettledrtim. 

Mozart,  except  in  some  of  his  Symphonies, 
which  were  ob\-iously  written  for  a  small  band, 
j  freely  scores  for  this  instrument.  The  opera 
I  of  the  Zauberflote  derives  its  name  from  it. 
i  There  are  also  two  Concertos  for  solo  Flute 
'  and  Orchestra  in  G  and  D,  and  one  for  Flute 
and  Harp  among  his  works  (Kochel,  313,  31 4, 
I  299^. 

Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  and  all  later  writers, 
I  give  it  the  leading  part  of  the  wind  in  all  their 
I  compositions.   The  solo  shortly  after  the  trumpet 
I  flourishes  in  the  Overture  to  Leonora  Xo.  3  will 
'  not  be  forgotten,  or  the  lovely  part  for  two  flutes 
in  the  2nd  movement  of  the  Italian  Symphony. 
Schvunann  also  has  introduced  a  prominent  ca- 
denza for  it  in  the  Finale  to  his  B  flat  Symphony. 
The  difficult  accompaniment  to  the  Eanz  des 
Taches,  played  by  the  Oboe,  in  Eossini's  over- 
ture to  '  Wiiliam  Tell '  affords  a  good  illustration 
of  the  mechanical  complexities  which  this  flexible 
and  agile  instrument  is  competent,  and  conse- 
quently is  expected,  to  surmoimt.    In  a  di'amatic 
sense  it  is  used  by  Mendelssohn  in  the  sacrificial 
chorus  '  0  be  gracious '  in  St.  Paul,  and  by 
Gretry  in  '  Andromaque,'  in  which  the  part  of 
Andromache  is  always  accompanied  by  3  flutes. 

The  most  voluminous  writer  for  the  Flute  was 
probably  Quantz,  who  composed  200  solos  and 
300  concertos  for  Frederick  the  Great  alone. 
But  the  instrument  had  a  distinguished  writer, 
Kuhlau,  as  the  special  exponent  of  its  powers 
and  beauty.  This  eminent  contrapimtist  devoted 
nearly  the  whole  of  his  short  life  to  Flute  com- 
positions. This  singular  fact  has  been  accounted 
for  by  the  statement  that  an  amateur  flute-player 
of  position  employed  him  constantly  and  liberally 
in  writing  them.  Kuhlau  has  been  termed  the 
'Beethoven  of  the  Flute.'  It  vrill  be  seen  from 
the  list  given  below  that  Solos,  Duets,  Trios,  and 
even  Quartets  for  Flutes,  are  among  his  volu- 
minous works.  Indeed,  but  for  a  fire  which 
destroyed  the  composer's  manuscripts,  their  num- 
ber would  be  at  least  threefold.  Such  as  are 
extant  afford  inestimable  models  of  construction 
and  originality. 

Flute  Music. 

Mozart. — Grand  duo  in  G,  op.  76  ;  Andante 
in  C,  Concerto  in  G,  Eondo  in  D,  op.  86, 

Spohr. — Concerto  in  modo  di  Scena  Cantante, 
op.  47. 

Weber. — Eomanza  Siciliana  in  G  minor,  with 
Orchestra ;  Trio  for  Flute,  Cello,  and  Pianoforte, 
op.  63. 

Beethoven. — Serenade  for  Flute,  Violin,  and 
Alto,  op.  25. 

Hatdn.— Two  Trios  for  two  Flutes  and  Cello. 


538 


FLUTE. 


rODOE-M  AIN  VIEL1.E. 


KuHLAU. — Three  grand  Trios  for  three  Flutes, 
op.  13  ;  Do,  do.,  op.  86  ;  One  do.,  op.  90 ;  Three 
Quintets  for  Flute  and  String  Quartet  in  D,  E,  A, 
op.  51;  Grand  Quartet  for  four  Flutes  in  E,  op. 
103 ;  Six  sets  of  three  Duets  for  two  Flutes, 
ops.  10,  39,  80,  81,  87  ;  Solos,  with  Pianoforte, 
op.  57  ;  Three  Fantasies,  Do.  do,,  op.  95. 

Reicha. — Quartet  for  four  Flutes  in  D,  op.  12; 
24  Quintets  for  wind  instruments. 

Schubert. — Introduction  and  Variations  on 
'Trockne  Blumen,'  for  Flute  and  Piano,  op. 
160.  [W.H.S.] 

FLUTE  D' AMOUR  (Germ.  Liehesflote).  An 
old  form  of  flute  with  a  narrow  bore,  standing  in 
the  key  of  A,  and  corresponding  in  pitch  with 
the  Oboe  d'amore.  Both  were  supposed  to  possess 
a  smooth  and  fascinating  quality  of  tone,  whence 
the  name  is  derived.  [W.H.  S.] 

FLUTE-WORK.  Under  this  head  are 
grouped  all  the  flue- stops,  of  whatever  kind, 
shape,  or  tone,  that  are  not  classed  as  Princi- 
PAL-WORK,  or  Gedact-work,  and  it  also  includes 
various  modifications  of  these  two  classes  of 
stops.  [Flue-work.]  Thus  when  the  '  scale'  of 
the  pipes  of  a  cylindrical  stop  is  reduced  below 
the  proportion  essential  to  secure  the  broad  and 
fall  Diapason  tone,  and  the  sound  becomes 
delicate  as  in  a  Dulciana,  or  crisp"  as  in  a 
Gamba ;  or  when  it  is  increased  beyond  the 
Diapason  scale,  and  the  tone  becomes  thicJc 
or  less  resonant  as  in  the  Block -flote,  the  stop 
becomes  a  member  of  the  'flute-work.'  Also, 
if  the  covers  of  the  pipes  of  a  closed  metal-stop 
be  punctured,  and  a  narrow  tube — in  Germany 
called  a  reed,  in  France  a  chimney — be  inserted, 
the  stop  then  becomes  a  member  of  the  flute- 
work  under  the  name  RoUr-flote,  FlMe  a  cheminee, 
or  '  Metal  stopped -Diapason  (or  Flute)  with 
chimneys.'  A  unison  cylindrical  stop  will  be 
occasionally  met  with  labelled  as  a  member  of 
the  flute-work.  All  stops  the  pipes  of  which 
taper  upwards,  as  the  Spitz-flbte  and  Gemshorn  ; 
all  three-  or  four-sided  open  wood  pipes,  as  the 
Hohl -flote,  Clarabella,  Wald -flute.  Oboe-flute, 
and  Suabe-flute  ;  and  most  string-toned  stops,  as 
Salicional  and  Viol  d'Amore, — are  members  of 
the  Flute-work. 

The  invention  of  the  conical,  the  string -toned, 
and  the  other  stops  classified  as  flute- work, 
dates  back  no  farther  than  the  commencement 
of  the  1 6th  century.  [E.  J.  H,] 

FOCHETTI,  a  bass,  who  sang  in  London  in 
1775  and  6,  In  the  former  year  he  appeared  in 
Sacchini's  '  Motezuma ' ;  in  the  latter  he  played 
Nardo  in  the  '  Isola  d'amore '  of  the  same  com- 
poser, and  in  *La  Sposa  fedele.'  [J.  M.] 

FODOR,  Joseph,  violin-player,  born  in  1752 
at  Venloo.  In  1 766  he  studied  under  Franz  Benda 
at  Berlin,  and  having  acquired  great  proficiency, 
travelled  for  a  number  of  years  in  Germany,  the 
Netherlands,  and  France,  establishing  his  repu- 
tation as  an  eminent  violinist.  In  1 794  he  went 
to  St.  Petersburg,  and  remained  there  up  to  his 
death  in  1828.  Spohr,  who  heard  him  in  1803, 
considers  him  wanting  in  feeling  and  taste,  and 


objects  to  his  unsteady  manner  of  bowing,  but 
acknowledges  his  great  technical  skill.  His 
numerous  compositions — Concertos  and  Solos  for 
the  Violin,  Duos  for  Violins,  and  Quartets  for 
Strings,  are  well  written,  and  met  with  much 
success  in  their  time.  The  famous  singer,  Mme. 
Fodor-Mainvielle,  was  his  daughter,  and  his  two 
younger  brothers,  Carl  and  Anton,  were  clever 
pianists  and  composers.  [F-D.] 
FODOR-MAINVIELLE,  Josephine,  cele- 
brated singer,  born  1793  in  Paris,  where  her 
father,  Joseph  Fodor  the  violinist,  had  settled 
in  1787.  In  1794  her  parents  removed  to  St. 
Petersburg,  where  she  played  both  pianoforte 
and  harp  when  only  eleven.  Three  years  after 
she  became  known  as  a  singer,  and  in  1810  made 
her  first  appearance  at  the  Court  Theatre  in 
Fioravanti's  'Cantatrici  villanelle,'  which  was 
repeated  60  times,  so  successful  was  her  per- 
formance. In  1 81 2  she  married  the  actor  Main- 
vielle,  and  travelled  with  him  to  Stockholm, 
Copenhagen,  returning  to  Paris,  where  she 
was  engaged  for  the  Op^ra  Comique.  Her  first 
appearance,  Aug.  9,  1814,  was  a  comparative 
failure ;  it  was  evident  that  French  opera  was 
not  her  province,  and  she  was  transferred  in 
November  of  the  same  year  to  the  Theatre 
Italien,  then  under  Mme.  Catalani's  management. 
Here  she  remained  till  the  beginning  of  1816, 
when  she  left  for  London.  In  London  she  sang 
for  three  seasons  as  prima  donna,  listened  to 
with  respect,  though  never  a  warm  favourite. 
'  Don  Giovanni '  was  brought  out  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1817,  and  Zerlina  was  her  best 
character.  In  July  1 81 8  she  went  to  Italy, 
returning  to  Paris  early  in  the  following  year, 
after  Catalani  had  given  up  the  opera.  Ros- 
sini's '  Barbiere '  was  then  given  for  the  first 
time  in  Paris  (Oct.  26,  1819)  and  she  played 
Rosina,  as  well  as  Ninetta,  Agnese,  and  other 
first-rate  parts.  In  1822,  suff'ering  severely  from 
dyspepsia,  she  was  advised  to  try  the  milder- 
climate  of  Naples,  which  so  completely  restored 
her  that  she  appeared  at  San  Carlo  as  Desdemona, 
Semiramide,  and  Zelmira,  creating  in  all  20  new 
parts.  In  the  following  year  she  sang  for  a 
whole  season  in  Vienna,  but  returned  to  Naples 
and  remained  there  till  1825,  when  she  again 
went  to  Paris.  On  Dec.  9  she  appeared  in 
Semiramide,  but  her  voice  failed  and  she  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  stage.  This  misfortune 
was  followed  by  a  hoarseness  which  prevented 
her  singing  again  in  Paris.  The  management 
having  declined  to  fulfil  their  contract,  she 
brought  a  succession  of  actions  against  them, 
and  finally  accepted  a  compromise  in  1828. 
After  her  return  to  Naples  her  voice  so  far 
improved  that  she  sang  again  at  San  Carlo,  but 
its  peculiar  charm  was  gone  though  her  style 
was  as  fine  as  ever,  and  served  as  a  model  for 
no  less  a  sinsrer  than  Henrietta  Sontag.  Men- 
delssohn saw  a  great  deal  of  her  at  Naples  in 
1 83 1,  and  his  very  favourable  impression  may  be 
learned  from  his  letters  (April  27,  1 831).  Her 
last  appearance  was  at  Bordeaux  in  1833,  after 
which  she  retired  into  private  life. 


FODOR-MAINVIELLE. 


FORBES. 


539 


When  at  her  prime,  Fodor's  voice  was  not 
only  powerful  but  extremely  sweet  and  round, 
with  a  peculiarly  charming  accent,  and  a  fault- 
less intonation.    She  was  very  painstaking,  and 
acquired  by  practice  a  flexibility  with  which 
she  was  not  naturally  gifted.    Her  daughter 
Enrichetta,  also  a  singer  of  merit,  was  very 
successful  at  the  Konigstadt  Theatre  in  Berlin 
between  the  years  1846-9  (not  the  Friedrich- 
Wilhelmstadt  Theatre).  [F.G.] 
FORSTEMANN,  Carl  Eduard,  antiquary, 
published  *  Georg  Friedrich  Handel's  Stamm- 
baum,  nach  original-Quellen  und  authentischen 
Nachrichten  aufgestellt  und  erlautert'  (Leipzig, 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  1844),  a  carefully  compiled 
genealogy  of  the  great  composer.  [M.C.C.] 
FORSTER,  Emanuel  Aloys,  composer  of 
good  chamber-music,  bom  at  Niederstein,  Glatz, 
Silesia,  Jan.  26,  1748.    In  his  youth  he  studied 
music  by  himself,  and  composed  industriously, 
while  obeying  his  father  by  attending  the  Latin 
school,  and  working  under  him  as  an  accountant 
at  a  tavern.  He  afterwards  served  in  the  Prussian 
army,  and  in  1776  resolved  to  go  to  Vienna  in 
order  to  cultivate  music  thoroughly.    There  he 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  valued  teachers  of 
thorough-bass  and  composition,  and  his  works 
were  universally  respected  as  the  products  of 
sound  thought  and  earnest  study.    In  1802  he 
published    his    'Anleitung    zum  Generalbass' 
(Traeg)  with  146  examples,  a  clear  practical  work 
still  of  value.    In  1S05  it  was  re-published  by 
Breitkopf  &  Hai'tel,  and  a  new  edition  by 
Artaria  in  1824.     Forster  added  three  supple- 
mentary numbers  of  practical  examples.  His 
compositions  consist  of  48  violin  quartets,  nume- 
rous pianoforte  sonatas,  preludes  and  fugues  for 
oi^an,  Lieder,  etc.    He  composed  the  variations 
in  A  on  an  air  from  Sarti's  opera  '  I  finti  Eredi,' 
which  were  long  attributed  to  Mozart,  and  ex- 
tremely popular;  and  which  appeared  in  many 
editions  of  ^Mozart's  works.     (Kochel,  p.  530, 
No.  289  ;  compare  Jahn's  '  Mozart,'  ed.  i,  iv.  11 ; 
ed.  2,  ii.  137.)  Forster  was  held  in  high  estimation 
by  all  the  composers  of  his  own  time,  particularly 
by  Beethoven,  who  speaks  of  him  in  terms  im- 
plying he  had  learnt  much  from  him.    He  died 
at  Vienna  Nov.  12,  1823.    His  place  and  date  of 
birth  and  death,  much  disputed  points,  are  given 
here  from  the  Transactions  of  the  '  Tonkiinstler- 
Societat,'  of  which  he  was  a  member.  [C.F.P.] 
FOGGIA,  Francesco,  the  last  Italian  church- 
composer  who  remained  faithful  to  the  traditions 
of  Palestrina ;  born  in  Rome  1604,  studied  under 
Cifra,  Nanini,  and  Agostini.    He  then  entered 
the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Cologne,  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria,  and  the  Archduke  Leopold  of  Austria 
in  turn.    After  his  return  to  Italy  he  was  ap- 
]>ointed  maestro  di  capella  successively  at  Narni, 
Montefiascone,  and  the  following  churches  in 
Rome, —  Santa  Maria  in  Aquiro,  Santa  Maria 
in  Trastevere,  St.  John  Lateran  (1636-61),  San 
Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  and  Santa  ^laria  Maggiore 
(,1677),  which  last  post  he  retained  till  his  death, 
Jan.  8,  i6SS,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 


Antonio.  He  is  buried  in  the  church  of  S. 
Praxede,  He  published  much  church  music  for 
from  2  to  9  voices  (see  the  list  in  Fetis),  and 
most  of  the  churches  in  Rome  possess  some 
works  by  him  in  MS.  Martini  has  analysed  some 
of  his  motets  in  the  '  Saggio  di  contrappunto.' 
Liberati  calls  him  'il  sostegno  e  il  padre  della 
musica  e  della  vera  armonica  ecclesiastica.'  He 
was  one  of  the  first  musicians  to  write  tonal 
fugues,  while  he  was  the  last  Italian  capable 
of  composing  genuine  church  mil  sic  in  the  poly- 
phonic style.  Mr.  Hullah  has  printed  a  fine 
motet  by  him  in  his  'Vocal  Scores.'  [^'•G''] 
FOLIA.  Said  to  be  an  old  Spanish  dance  for 
a  single  dancer — *ces  belles  chaconnes,  ces  Folies 
d'Espagne,'  which  the  son  of  the  seneschal  of 
Rennes  danced  to  such  perfection  (Mad.  de  Se- 
vigne,  July  24,  1689).  But  really  all  that  is 
known  of  it  is  that  the  22  variations,  or  the 
theme  of  them,  which  close  Corelli's  12  solos 
(op.  5)  are  entitled  Follia ;  that  the  same  bass 
and  air,  but  'v\dth  different  variations,  are  given 
in  the  'Division  Violin'  as  'Faronell's  division 
on  a  giound';  that  Vivaldi's  op.  i,  no.  12,  is  a  set 
of  variations  on  the  same ;  and  that  Hawkins 
(chap.  J 41)  cites  it  as  'a  favourite  air  Known  in 
England  by  the  name  of  Farinelli's^  Ground,' 
composed  by  Farinelli,  the  uncle  of  the  singer, 
who  was  court  musician  at  Hanover  in  1684,  It 
seems  to  follow  from  this  that  the  ground,  and  not 
the  treble  part,  was  the  '  air,'  just  as  it  is  in  the 
chaconnes  of  Bach  and  Handel  (60  variations).  The 
ground  is  one  on  which  a  skilful  violin  player  and 
a  skilful  dancer  might  go  on  fiddling  and  dancing 
ad  infinitum.  The  following  is  Corelli's  theme :  — 


5^ 

 .  

t 

-iS>  =  

6 

7  6 

% 

Cherubini  has  introduced  8  bars  of  it  in  the 
opening  of  the  Overture  to  the  '  Hutellerie  Por- 
|tugaise.'  [G.] 
FORBES,  Henry,  bom  in  1804,  studied  music 
under  Sir  George  Smart,  Hummel,  Moscheles,  and 
Herz.  He  was  an  excellent  pianist  and  org-anist, 
and  conductor  of  the  Societa  Armonica.  He  for 
some  years  held  the  appointment  of  organist  of 
the  parish  church  of  St.  Luke,  Chelsea.  His  pub- 
lished compositions  comprise  several  songs  and 
a  collection  of  psalm  tunes  for  4  voices  called 

1  The  common  English  name  was  '  Fardineirs,"  as  Madame  de 
Querouaille  was  called  "  Madam  Carvell.' 


540 


FORBES. 


FORLANA. 


'National  Psalmody.'  He  also  composed  'The 
Fairy  Oak,'  an  opera  produced  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  in  1845,  and  'Ruth,'  an  oratorio,  per- 
formed at  Hanover  Square  Rooms  in  1847.  He 
died  Xov.  24, 1859.  [W.H.H.] 

FORD,  David  Everaed,  organist  of  Lyming- 
ton,  Hants,  published  between  1822  and  1836 
seven  books  of  psahn  and  hymn  tunes  for  two 
voices  with  organ  accompaniment.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  an  elementary  work  entitled  '  The 
Rudiments  of  Music,'  which  passed  through  seve- 
ral editions.  [W.H.H,] 

FORD,  Miss,  was  about  1760  distinguished  as 
a  performer  on  the  harmonica  or  musical  glasses. 
She  published  '  Instructions  for  playing  on  the 
Musical  Glasses,'  1760.  In  October,  1761,  she 
announced  a  concert  at  '  the  large  Room,  late 
Cock's  Auction  Room,  over  the  great  China-shop, 
near  Spring  Garden,'  at  which  she  engaged  'to 
sing  some  favourite  English  Songs  and  accompany 
herself  on  the  Musical  Glasses,'  and  also  to  '  play 
a  Lesson  on  the  Guittar,  and  a  Solo  on  the  Viol 
di  Gamba.'  [W.H.H.] 

FORD,  Thomas,  was  one  of  the  musicians  of 
Prince  Henry,  son  of  James  I.  In  1607  he  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  '  Musicke  of  Sundrie 
Kindes,  set  forth  in  two  Bookes.  The  first 
whereof  are  Aires  for  4  Voices  to  the  Lute, 
Orpharion,  or  Basse-Viol,  with  a  Dialogue  for 
two  Voyces  and  two  Bass  Viols  in  parts  tunde 
the  Lute  way.  The  Second  are  Pavens,  Gali- 
ards,  Thumpes  and  such  like,  for  two  Basse 
Viols,  the  Liera  way,  so  made  as  the  greatest 
number  may  serve  to  play  alone,  very  easie  to  be 
performde.'  This  work  contains  the  beautiful 
four-part  songs  '  Since  first  I  saw  your  face,'  and 
'  There  is  a  ladie  sweet  and  kind.'  Ford  was 
a  contributor  to  Leighton's  '  Teares  or  Lamenta- 
cions  of  a  Sorrowfull  Soule,'  1614.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Charles  I.  he  was  appointed  one  of  his 
musicians  at  a  yearly  salary  of  £80.  Ford  com- 
posed some  canons  and  rounds  printed  in  Hilton's 
'  Catch  that  Catch  can,'  and  an  anthem  printed 
in  the  Anthems  by  Madrigal  Composers  of  the 
Mus.  Antiq.  Society.  He  was  buried  at  S.  Mar- 
garet's West.,  Nov.  17,  1648.  [W.H.H.] 

FORKEL,  JoHANN  NicoLArs,  a  meritorious 
though  over-rated  writer  on  the  history  and 
theory  of  music,  son  of  a  shoemaker,  bom  Feb. 
22,  1749,  Meeder  near  Coburg;  educated 
himself  by  the  study  of  Mattheson's  'VoUkom- 
mener  Capellmeister. '  Having  a  fine  voice  he 
was  appointed  chorister  at  Luneburg  in  1762, 
and  4  years  later  '  Chorprafect '  at  Schwerin. 
In  1769  he  entered  the  university  of  Gottingen 
to  study  law,  but  soon  occupied  himself  exclu- 
sively with  music,  and  became  organist  of  the 
university  church.  In  1778  he  was  appointed 
director  of  music  to  the  University  and  gra- 
duated as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1 780.  On  the 
death  of  Emmanuel  Bach  he  hoped  to  have 
been  appointed  his  successor  at  Hamburg,  but 
Schwenke  obtained  the  post,  and  Forkel  re- 
mained at  Gottingen  tiU  his  death,  March  17, 
1818.    He  is  best  known  as  a  musical  critic  and 


historian.  His  first  work,  'Ueber  die  Theorie 
der  Musik,  etc.'  (Cramer,  Gottingen,  1774),  a 
pamphlet  urging  the  foundation  of  lectures  on 
music  at  Gottingen,  was  followed  by  many 
others,  especially  '  Musikalisch-kritische  Biblio- 
thek,'  3  vols.  (Gotha,  1774),  containing  violent 
attacks  on  Gluck's  'Iphigenie  in  Aulide';  the 
'Mus.  Almanach  fiir  Deutschland '  for  1782,  3, 
4,  and  9,  containing  particulars  (not  always  trust- 
worthy) as  to  novelties  in  music;  his  'AUge- 
meine  Geschichte  der  Musik,'  2  vols.  (Leipzig 
1788  and  1 801),  founded  on  Hawkins,  Bumey, 
and  Marpurg,  now  superseded,  but  interesting 
as  a  literary  ^  curiosity ;  '  Geschichte  der  Italien- 
ischen  Oper,'  2  vols.  (Leipzig  1789),  a  transla- 
tion of  Arteaga's  book  ;  and  '  Allgemeine  Litera- 
tur  der  Musik'  (Leipzig  1 792),  his  most  important 
work.  This  book,  which  shows  the  amount  of 
his  knowledge  and  reading,  is  the  foundation 
of  Becker's  '  Systematisch  •  chronologische  Dar- 
steUung  der  musikalischen  Literatur,'  Forkel 
was  the  first  to  attempt  a  biography  of  Bach 
(Ueber  J.  S.  B.'s  Leben,  Kunst,  und  Kunstwerke. 
Leipzig,  1802),  translated  into  English  under 
the  title  'Life  of  J.  S.  Bach,  with  a  critical 
review  of  his  compositions'  (London  1820).  As 
he  knew  little  of  Bach's  great  sacred  vocal  works, 
he  treats  him  mainly  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  organ  and  clavier,  but  the  book  will  always 
remain  as  the  foundation  of  all  subsequent  Lives 
of  the  great  musician. 

The  royal  library  at  Berlin  contains  an  interest- 
ing specimen  of  Forkel's  labours.  This  is  a  large 
volume  of  church  music  of  the  i6th  century, 
scored  by  himself,  and,  though  printed,  unique. 
It  was  intended  to  form  the  ist  volume  of  a 
series  of  examples  illustrating  the  history  of 
music,  and  was  undertaken  at  the  instance  of 
Sonnleithner  of  Vienna.  The  plates  were  engraved 
in  Leipzig,  and  the  proofs  were  already  in  Forkel's 
hands,  when  the  French  took  the  city  in  1806, 
and  seized  everything  in  the  shape  of  metal  to 
be  converted  into  bullets.  His  plates  having 
been  thus  destroyed  Forkel  had  the  proof-sheets 
bound,  and  this  is  the  copy  now  at  Berlin.  The 
masses  it  contains  are  taken  from  '  Missse  tre- 
decim  .  .  .  Xorinbergae  .  .  .  arte  Hieronymi  Gra- 
phei,  1539,' and  '  Liber  quindecim  Missarum  .  ,  . 
Xorimbergae  apud  Joh.  Petreium,  1539.'  [F.G.] 

FORLANA.  An  Italian  dance,  a  favourite 
with  the  Venetian  gondoliers.  It  is  in  6-8  or 
6-4  time,  but  possesses  no  special  characteristics. 
An  example  of  this  dance  may  be  found  in  J.  S. 
Bach's  suite  for  orchestra  in  C  major.  The 
following  quotation  of  the  opening  bars  of  a 
forlana  of  the  1 7th  century  is  from  F.  L.  Schu- 
bert's 'Die  Tanzmusik.' 


r— 1 

•-  J 

[E.P.] 


'  After  Forkel's  death,  Srhwickert,  the  publisher,  offered  the  n 
rials  for  completing  the  third  volume  to  F^tis  and  Choron,  but 
declined  the  task. 


FORM. 


FORM. 


541 


FORINI.  The  means  by  which  unity  and  pro- 
portion are  arrived  at  in  musical  works  are  the 
relative  distribution  of  keys  and  harmonic  bases 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  'subjects'  or  figures  or 
melodies  on  the  other;  and  this  distribution  is 
called  the  Form  of  the  work.  The  order  of 
'listribution  varies  greatly  with  the  conditions. 
Music  set  to  poetry  with  a  'burden'  to  each 
verse  would  naturally  adopt  the  form  of  repeating 
the  same  melody  to  each  recurrence  of  the 
])urden  ;  and  when  the  words  implied  similar 
circumstances  and  feelings  would  adopt  repetition 
of  similar  or  allied  phrases.  In  dramatic  works 
the  order  of  distribution  must  vary  with  the 
development  of  the  emotional  crises,  and  in  such 
cases  will  be  rather  a  distribution  of  culminations 
and  gradations  of  intensity  of  passion  and  emotion, 
than  the  more  obvious  one  of  key  and  figure ; 
though,  if  the  relation  between  important  figures 
of  melody  and  the  special  circumstances  to  which 
they  are  appended  be  observed,  the  notion  of 
form  as  defined  by  subjects  will  still  continue  to 
he  perceptible.  Analogously,  in  music  which  is 
supposed  to  represent  some  story  or  idea,  such  as 
is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Programme  Music, 
the  form  must  be  developed  with  the  view  of  in- 
terpreting that  programme  truly  and  consistently. 
Such  music  may  be  compared  in  this  to  the  work 
of  a  painter  who  trusts  rather  to  the  stirring 
nature  of  his  subject  than  to  the  perfection  of  its 
composition  to  engage  and  delight  the  beholders, 
while  in  a  portrait  or  picture  of  less  vivid  interest 
the  element  of  composition,  following  generally 
and  easily  recognised  principles,  would  be  of  vital 
importance.  Similarly  in  programme  music  the 
composer  may  choose  to  follow  the  established 
so-called  classical  models,  but  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  a  genius  deeply  impregnated  with 
the  spirit  of  his  subject  would  seek  to  create  a 
f  )rm  of  his  own  which  should  be  more  in  con- 
sonance with  the  spirit  of  his  programme — even 
as  Beethoven  did  without  programme,  expressing 
some  marvellous  inner  workings  of  his  emotions, 
in  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  E,  op.  109. 
But  even  v/ith  Beethoven,  in  the  case  of  music 
without  either  programme  or  words  to  explain  its 
purpose,  such  irregularity  is  rare.  It  is  here 
especially  that  the  nature  and  capacity  of  the 
minds  of  the  auditors  play  an  important  part. 
Their  attention  has  to  be  retained  for  a  space 
of  time,  sometimes  by  no  means  insignificant ; 
and  connection  has  to  be  established  for  them 
without  the  aid  of  words  or  other  accessories 
between  parts  of  the  movement  which  appear  at 
considerable  distance  from  each  other,  and  the 
whole  must  be  so  contrived  that  the  impression 
upon  the  most  cultivated  hearer  shall  be  one  of 
unity  and  consistency.  In  such  a  case  Form  will 
inevitably  play  an  important  part,  becoming  more 
and  more  complex  and  interesting  in  proportion 
to  the  development  of  readiness  of  comprehension 
in  the  auditors.  The  adoption  of  a  form  which 
is  quite  beyond  the  intellectual  standard  of  those 
for  whom  it  is  intended  is  a  waste  of  valuable 
work  ;  but  a  perfect  adaptation  of  it  to  their 
highest  standard  is  both  the  only  means  of 


leading  them  on  to  still  higher  things,  and  the 
only  starting  point  for  further  progress.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  in  musical  works  which 
are  connected  with  words  or  programme — whether 
choruses,  songs,  arias,  or  ballads,  etc. — Form  is 
dependent  on  the  words  ;  and  such  works,  as  far 
as  they  are  reducible  to  any  definable  system, 
are  reducible  only  to  the  simplest,  and  such  as 
admits  of  infinite  latitude  of  variation  within  its 
limits.  But  in  instrumental  music  there  has 
been  a  steady  and  perceptible  growth  of  certain 
fundamental  principles  by  a  process  that  is 
wonderfully  like  evolution,  from  the  simplest 
couplings  of  repeated  ideas  by  a  short  link  of 
some  sort,  up  to  the  complex  but  consistent 
completeness  of  the  great  instrumental  works  of 
Beethoven. 

There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that  the  first 
attempts  at  Form  in  music  were  essentially  un- 
conscious and  unpremeditated.  Therefore  if  any 
conformity  be  observed  in  the  forms  of  early 
music  derived  from  various  sources,  it  would 
seem  to  indicate  a  sort  of  consensus  of  instinct  on 
the  part  of  the  composers  which  will  be  the  true 
starting  point  of  its  posterior  development.  It 
must  be  remarked  by  way  of  parenthesis  that  in 
the  early  days  of  modem  music — apart  from  the 
ecclesiastical  music  of  the  Roman  Church — the 
instrumental  and  vocal  orders  were  not  nearly  so 
distinct  as  they  are  ^now,  for  the  tendency  to 
strongly  and  clearly  marked  distinction  in  kind 
is  notoriously  a  matter  of  slow  growth.  Hence 
examples  may  be  drawn  with  perfect  safety  from 
both  kinds  wherever  they  can  be  found. 

The  first  basis  of  true  Form,  apart  from  the 
balance  of  groups  of  rhythms,  is  essentially 
repetition  of  some  sort,  and  what  is  most  vital 
to  the  question  is  the  manner  of  the  repetition. 
The  simplest  and  most  elementary  kind  is  the 
repetition  of  a  phrase  or  bit  of  melody  with  a 
short  passage  in  the  middle  to  connect  the  two 
statements.  As  an  early  example  of  this  form 
may  be  taken  an  ancient  German  chorale,  'Jesus 
Christus  unser  Holland,  Der  den  Tod  iiberwand' 
(1535),  which  is  as  follows : — 


In  fhis  the  bars  bracketed  are  the  same,  and  the 
phrase  which  connects  them  is  very  short ;  and 
the  whole  presents  about  as  simple  and  un- 
sophisticated a  specimen  of  Form  as  could  well 
be  conceived.  The  simple  basis  of  which  this  is 
a  type  is  the  origin  of  the  Rondo-form,  which 
has  survived  with  great  variety  and  modification 
of  treatment  till  the  present  day.  The  first 
advances  upon  the  above  example  which  offer 

1  For  instance,  the  old  English  madrigals  were  published  as  '  apt  for 
Viob  and  Voices.' 


542 


FORM. 


FORM. 


any  points  of;  interest  seem  to  be  in  cases  where 
we  find  either  a  contrast  aimed  at  in  the  passage 
which  forms  the  link,  or  a  number  of  repetitions 
succeeding  one  another,  with  differences  in  the 
passages  connecting  them.  These  two  consti- 
tute the  two  great  branches  through  which 
this  primitive  idea  diverged  into  thousands  of 
Arias,  Lieder,  Nocturnes,  Romances,  Scherzos, 
and  other  lyrical  pieces  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  movement  which  still  retains  its  name  of 
Rondo  on  the  other.  As  an  early  example  of 
the  first  we  may  take  the  song  'Roland  courez 
aux  armes'  from  Lully's  opera  'Roland,'  which 
is  too  long  for  insertion  here,  but  will  be  found 
in  the  136th  chapter  of  Hawkins's  'History  of 
Music'  In  this  there  are  12  bars  of  melody 
in  C,  concluding  in  that  key;  followed  by  12 
more  bars,  in  which  there  is  modulation  first  to 
the  relative  minor  A,  and  then  to  the  dominant 
key  G  major,  in  which  key  this  portion  concludes  ; 
after  which  the  first  twelve  bars  are  resumed 
precisely  as  at  first,  and  so  the  whole  concludes. 
Here  the  employment  of  modulation  in  the  con- 
necting passage  is  a  strong  element  of  contrast, 
and  indicates  a  considerable  advance  in  musical 
ideas  on  the  obscure  tonality  of  the  preceding  ex- 
ample. On  the  other  hand,  almost  contemporary 
with  Lully,  there  are,  in  the  works  of  Couperin, 
numerous  specimens  of  the  Rondo,  consisting  of 
a  number  of  repetitions,  with  differences  in  the 
connecting  passages.  In  these  the  passage  with 
which  the  movement  commences  is  repeated  over 
and  over  again  bodily  and  without  disguise,  and 
separate  short  passages,  of  similar  length  but 
varying  character,  are  put  in  between.  Couperin 
was  particularly  fond  of  the  Rondo-form,  and 
examples  may  be  found  in  profusion  in  his 
works.  The  one  which  is  perhaps  best  known 
and  most  available  for  reference  is  the  '  Cha- 
conne  en  Rondeau,'  published  in  the  sixth  num- 
ber of  Pauer's  'Alte  Claviermusik.'  A  point 
specially  observable  in  them  is  the  rigidity  and 
absence  of  any  attempt  at  sophistication  in  the 
process.  The  sections  are  like  crude  squares 
and  circles  fitted  together  into  a  design,  and  no 
attempt,  or  very  little  at  best,  is  made  to  soften 
off  the  outlines  by  making  the  sections  pass  into 
one  another.  The  chief  subject  is  distinct  and 
the  episodes  are  distinct,  and  the  number  of 
repetitions  seems  to  depend  solely  on  the  capacity 
of  the  composer  to  put  something  in  between. 
Still  it  is  clear  that  the  virtue  of  contrasts  both 
of  style  and  of  key  is  appreciated,  though  the 
range  of  modulation  is  extremely  limited.  It  is 
noticeable  moreover,  as  illustrating  the  point 
of  view  from  which  Form  at  that  time  was 
regarded,  when  recognised  as  such,  that  the 
divisions  of  the  Rondo  are  marked  with  extra 
emphasis  by  a  Fermata  or  pause.  From  this 
to  such  a  Rondo  as  we  find  in  the  Partita  in 
C  minor  of  Bach  is  a  great  step.  Here  there 
are  no  strongly  marked  divisions  to  stiffen  the 
movement  into  formality,  but  it  flows  on  almost 
interruptedly  from  first  to  last.  The  episodes 
modulate  more  freely,  and  there  is  not  such 
rigid  regularity  in  the  reappearance  of  the  main 


subject.  It  appears  once  outside  of  the  principal 
key,  and  (which  is  yet  more  important)  is  brought 
in  at  the  end  in  an  extremely  happy  variation  ; 
which  is  prophetic  of  Beethoven's  favourite  prac- 
tice of  putting  identical  ideas  in  different  lights. 
The  next  stage  of  development  of  this  form — and 
that  probably  rather  a  change  than  an  improve- 
ment on  the  above  beautiful  little  specimen  of 
Bach  —  is  the  Rondo  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. 
Their  treatment  of  it  is  practically  the  same  as 
Couperin' s,  but  in  many  cases  is  strongly  modified 
by  the  more  important  and  elaborate  '  First- 
mo  vement-form,'  which  by  their  time  had  grown 
into  clearness  of  system  and  definition.  The 
Rondo-form  pure  and  simple  has  remained  till 
now  much  as  it  was  in  Couperin's  time,  gaining 
more  in  expansion  than  in  change  of  outline. 
Even  the  great  Rondo  of  Beethoven's  '  Wald- 
stein'  Sonata  (op.  53)  consists  of  the  repetition 
of  a  subject  of  some  length  interspersed  with 
episodes  ;  with  modifications  in  the  length  of  the 
episodes  and  the  repetition  of  one  of  them,  and 
a  great  Coda  founded  on  the  principal  subject  to 
conclude  with.  The  further  consideration  of  the 
Rondo  as  affected  by  the  'first  movement'  form 
must  be  postponed  till  after  the  examination  of 
the  latter. 

By  the  side  of  the  primitive  Rondo  above 
quoted  a  form  more  complex  in  principle  is  found. 
In  this  form  the  relations  of  harmonic  roots  come 
largely  into  play,  but  its  most  striking  and 
singular  feature  is  the  manner  of  the  repetition 
by  which  it  is  characterised.  And  in  this  case 
examples  drawn  from  various  early  sources  which 
agree  in  the  peculiar  manner  of  the  repetition 
will  be  of  value,  as  above  indicated.  In  this 
form  the  movement  is  divided  into  two  halves, 
and  these  again  into  two  sections.  The  first 
half,  or  complete  period,  comprises  a  sort  of  rough 
balance  between  the  amount  which  tends  to  the 
Tonic  and  the  amount  which  tends  to  the  Domi- 
nant, thereby  indicating  the  division  into  two 
sections  ;  and  the  second  half  begins  with  passages 
which  have  more  freedom  in  the  distribution  of 
their  roots,  which  constitutes  its  first  section,  and 
ends  with  a  quotation  of  the  last  bars  or  figures 
of  the  first  half,  which  constitutes  its  second 
section.  This  will  be  best  understood  from  an  , 
example.  The  following  is  a  very  early  specimen  [ 
of  the  dance  tune  called  a  'Branle'  or  'Brawl,*  ' 
from  the  '  Orchesographie'  of  Thoinot  Arbeau  i 
(Langres,  1545)  :— 

[a)   


In  this  it  will  be  observed  that  the  first  half  j 
of  the  little  tune  is  divided  at  (a)  by  the  strong 
emphasis  on  the  Dominant,  from  which  point 
it  returns  to  the  Tonic,  and  so  closes  the  first 


FORM. 


FORM. 


543 


iialf.  The  second  half,  commencing  at  (6),  can 
easily  be  perceived  to  have  a  freer  harmonic 
basis  than  either  of  the  first  sections,  and  so 
leads  the  mind  away  from  the  Tonic  and  Domi- 
nant centres  in  order  that  they  ma}'  come  in 
fresh  again  for  the  conclusion ;  and  having  carried 
the  figure  on  to  an  apparently  disproportionate 
length  (which  serves  the  excellent  purpose  of 
breaking  the  monotony  of  constant  pairs  of  bars), 
finally,  at  (c),  resumes  the  little  tail-piece  of  the 
first  half  and  thereby  clenches  the  whole  into 
completeness.  The  manner  in  which  this  answers 
the  requirements  of  artistic  construction  is  very 
remarkable,  and  it  will  be  found  hereafter  that 
it  does  so  throughout  on  a  precisely  similar 
scheme,  in  miniature,  to  that  of  a  19th  century 
Symphony  movement.  It  would  be  natural  to 
suppose  that  this  was  pure  accident  if  there 
were  not  other  ancient  examples  of  the  same 
fonn  coming  from  the  most  opposite  sources. 
The  above  Branle  is  a  French  dance  tune ;  if  we 
tarn  from  it  and  take  the  most  famous  German 
Chorale  'Ein  feste  Burg'  (1529),  the  principles 
of  its  construction  will  be  found  to  be  identical. 
Tt  is  so  well  known  tliat  it  is  needless  to  quote 
it.^  It  will  be  sufficient  to  point  out  that  the 
first  half  of  the  tune  ends  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  second  line ;  and  of  this  half  the  first  line 
ends  on  the  Dominant  and  the  second  on  the 
Tonic,  precisely  as  in  the  Branle ;  and  it  is  then 
repeated  for  the  third  and  fourth  lines.  The 
music  to  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
lines  answers  to  the  passage  between  (6)  and  (c) 
in  the  Branle,  and  like  it  presents  a  variety  of 
harmonic  bases ;  and  to  clench  it  all  together 
the  music  of  the  second  line  is  quoted  to  conclude 
with,  precisely  as  is  the  little  tailpiece  of  the 
first  half  in  the  Branle.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
feel  the  force  of  this  as  a  point  of  musical  form 
when  it  is  once  realised ;  it  has  the  eflTect  of 
completeness  for  a  short  tune  which  is  unrivalled. 
If  we  turn  to  far  other  sources  we  shall  find  an 
early  English  specimen  in  the  well-known  *  Since 
first  I  saw  your  face'  (1607),  in  which  the 
second  and  last  line  will  again  be  found  to  be 
identical,  and  the  other  points  of  the  scheme  to 
conform  in  like  manner.  Even  in  Italy,  where 
the  value  of  form  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
so  readily  appreci;ited  as  by  Teutons,  we  find 
a  little  Sinfonia  for  flutes  in  Giacorao  Peri's 
I  'Euridice'  (1600) — the  first  musical  diama  per- 
formed in  modern  Europe — which  at  least  has 
the  one  important  feature  of  repeating  a  little 
!  characteristic  figure  of  the  cadence  of  the  first 
!  half  to  conclude  the  whole.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
I  posed  that  this  form  was  by  any  means  universal 
J  so  early  as  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century — a 
S  time  when  notions  of  harmony  proper,  as  apart 
from  polyphony,  were  but  dawning,  and  the 

I musical  scales  and  keys  as  we  now  know  them 
were  quite  vague  and  unsettled.    It  is  wonderful 
enough  that  there  should  be  any  examples  of 
i     Form  at  all  in  such  a  state  of  musical  language  ; 
I     for  Form  as  now  recognised  depends  greatly  upon 
those  two  very  elements  of  harmonic  bases  and 
>  It  is  given  on  p.  i&i. 


relation  of  keys  ;  so  that  what  \vas  then  done  in 
those  departments  must  have  been  done  by  in- 
stinct. But  by  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  century 
musical  knowledge  in  these  respects  was  much 
more  nearly  complete,  and  the  scope  of  composers 
proportionately  widened.  Accordingly  we  find 
a  greater  fireedom  in  the  treatment  of  forms ; 
but  the  outline  of  the  same  form  on  a  larger 
scale  is  found  to  predominate  in  the  instrumental 
works  of  the  time,  especially  such  as  pass  under 
the  names  of  dances  ;  though  it  is  probable  that 
those  sets  of  them  which  were  called  'Suites,' 
or  'Sonatas,*  or  'Ordres,'  were  rather  purely 
Musical  than  Terpsichorean.  In  the  ecclesias- 
tical Sonatas  (Senate  di  Chiesa)  the  style  still 
continues  fugal  and  polyphonic. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  faint 
idea  of  the  number  of  examples  of  this  form 
which  are  to  be  found  in  these  dance-tune  suites, 
but  it  will  be  well  to  take  some  typical  speci- 
mens and  indicate  the  points  in  which  they  show 
development.  In  Corelli's  Chamber  Sonatas 
there  are  many  clear  instances.  Thus,  in  the 
Giga  of  Sonata  IV  of  the  '  Opera  Quarta,'  there 
is  the  usual  division  into  two  halves.  Of  these 
the  first  is  again  divided  into  two  phrases,  the 
first  phrase  all  in  the  Tonic  key,  D  ;  the  second 
then  modula.ting  to  the  key  of  the  Dominant  and 
closing  in  it.  The  second  half  begins  with  a 
sort  of  development  of  the  figures  of  the  first 
part,  then  modulates  to  nearly  related  keys,  and 
after  passing  back  to  the  original  key  concludes 
with  a  quotation  of  the  last  few  bars  of  the 
first  half.  In  this  scheme  there  are  two  points 
of  advance  on  the  previous  examples;  the  first 
part  concludes  in  what  we  will  henceforv/ard 
call  the  complementary  key,  or  key  of  the  Domi- 
nant, instead  of  merely  passing  to  it  and  back 
and  closing  in  the  principal  key — by  that  means 
establishing  more  clearly  the  balance  between  it 
and  the  principal  key ;  and  secondly,  the  first 
part  of  the  second  half  of  the  movement  presents 
some  attempt  at  a  development  of  the  features 
of  the  subjects  of  the  first  part,  and  real  free 
modulation.  The  Corrente  and  Giga  of  the  7th 
Sonata  of  the  '  Opera  Seconda '  are  also  remark- 
ably clear  specimens  of  repetition  of  the  end  of 
the  first  part  as  a  conclusion  to  the  whole,  since 
full  six  bars  in  each  are  repeated.  Both  examples 
are  however  inferior  to  the  above-quoted  Giga  in 
respect  of  the  conclusion  of  the  first  part  being 
in  the  principal  key — like  the  older  examples 
first  quoted  as  typical — though  like  that  Giga 
they  are  superior  to  the  older  examples  in  the 
free  modulations  and  reference  to  the  conspicuous 
figures  of  the  subjects  in  the  first  section  of  the 
second  half  of  the  movements. 

Domenico  Scarlatti  (1683-1757)  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Handel  and  Bach,  being  but  two 
years  older  than  the  former ;  nevertheless  he 
must  be  considered  as  historically  prior  to  them, 
inasmuch  as  the  very  power  of  their  genius 
would  make  them  rather  the  prophets  of  what 
was  to  come  than  representatives  of  prevalent 
contemporary  ideas.  Domenico  Scarlatti  left 
many  examples  of  Studies  or  Sonatas  which  are 


544 


PORM. 


FORM. 


essentially  expansions  of  the  plan  of  the  ori- 
ginal Branle.  In  some  the  first  part  concludes 
in  the  principal,  and  in  some  in  the  comple- 
mentary key,  either  Dominant  or  relative  major. 
A  very  extended  example  is  found  in  a  Study  in 
D  minor,  Allegro  (no.  7  of  a  set  of  '  Pieces  pour 
le  Clavecin'  published  by  Cramer),  In  this 
there  is  first  a  section  chiefly  in  D  minor,  which 
modulates  to  F,  the  relative  major,  and  con- 
cludes in  that  key — altogether  22  bars  ;  and 
then  another  section,  of  21  bars,  all  in  F  major, 
and  closing  in  that  key.  This  concludes  the 
first  half,  which  corresponds  with  the  first  half 
of  a  modern  Sonata  movement.  The  second  half 
sets  out  with  a  reference  to  the  first  subject  in 
F,  and  then  modulates  freely  to  various  keys, 
ultimately  closing  in  the  original  key  of  D  minor, 
and  there  taking  up  the  thread  of  the  latter 
section  of  the  first  half  of  the  movement,  and 
giving  the  whole  21  bars  almost  identically, 
transposed  from  the  original  key  of  F  into  the 
principal  key  of  D.  The  descent  of  this  move- 
ment from  the  dance  type  is  sufficiently  clear 
without  again  going  over  the  ground.  Its  most 
conspicuous  advance  is  in  its  relative  extension, 
22  bars  corresponding  to  2  in  the  original  ex- 
ample, and  the  other  divisions  being  in  propor- 
tion. The  free  modulation  of  the  second  half 
of  the  movement  is  the  strict  counterpart  on  a 
large  scale  of  the  changing  harmonic  basis  in 
the  Branle,  and  this  is  an  advance  due  to  the 
great  increase  of  musical  knowledge  and  re- 
sources. In  other  respects  the  similarity  be- 
tween the  typical  progenitor  and  its  descendant 
is  sufficiently  clear.  D.  Scarlatti's  works  are 
almost  universally  a  great  advance  on  Corelli  in 
the  clear  definition  of  the  subjects  and  the  variety 
of  the  rhythms,  which  enables  him  to  approach 
much  more  nearly  to  modern  ideas  in  what  is 
called  the  'development'  of  the  subjects  ;  though 
it  is  true  that  a  mere  patchwork  of  short  subjects 
stated  one  after  another  often  serves  the  purpose 
with  him  of  the  more  continuous  and  artistic 
modem  development.  It  will  also  be  noticed 
that  Scarlatti  generally  abandons  the  names  of 
the  dance  tunes  while  retaining  their  forms. 

There  were  other  contemporaries  of  Bach  and 
Handel  who  must  be  noticed  before  them  for  the 
same  reasons  as  Scarlatti.  Their  works  generally 
present  the  feature  of  extensive  repetition  of  the 
last  section  of  the  first  part  as  a  conclusion  to  the 
whole,  in  a  very  marked  manner.  Thus  in  a 
Corrente  from  a  Suite  by  Domenico  Zipoli  (born 
1685)  precisely  the  same  system  is  observable  as 
in  the  example  by  Scarlatti.  And  in  a  Sonata 
by  Wagenseil  (bom  1688)  in  F,  op.  I,  the  first 
movement  is  a  very  extended  specimen  of  the 
same  kind  ;  and  the  last  movement,  a  Minuetto, 
is  remai-kable  for  the  great  length  of  the  phrase 
repeated.  The  first  half  of  the  movement  is  but 
16  bars,  of  which  the  latter  12  are  all  in  the 
Dominant  key  ;  and  the  whole  of  these  1 2  bars 
are  repeated  at  the  conclusion,  the  first  4  having 
been  disposed  of  at  the  commencement  of  the 
preceding  *  development/  as  in  the  Study  of 
Scarlatti. 


Bach  and  Handel  present  an  extraordinary 
variety  of  forms  in  their  works.  Some  are  iden- 
tical with  the  form  of  the  Branle  and  *  Ein'  feste 
Burg' ;  others  are  like  the  primitive  Rondo  on  a 
very  extended  scale;  and  many  exhibit  various 
stages  of  progressive  development  up  to  perfect 
types  of  the  complete  modern  forms  as  used  by 
Mozart. 

A  very  large  number  of  the  movements  in  the 
Suites  of  both  Bach  and  Handel  are  in  the  same 
form  as  the  previous  examples.  The  first  half 
is  divided,  not  very  strongly,  into  two  sections,  in 
which  the  principal  key  and  the  complementary 
key  altemately  predominate.  The  second  half 
sets  out  with  development  and  free  modulation, 
and  concludes  with  a  quotation  of  the  concluding 
bars  or  features  of  the  first  half.  To  take  Bach's 
'Suites  Fran9aises'  as  examples,  the  following, 
among  others,  will  be  found  to  conform  to  this 
simple  scheme  : — Gigue  of  No.  i,  in  D  minor  j 
Courante  of  No.  2,  in  C  minor ;  Gigue  of  No.  5, 
in  B  minor ;  Courante  of  No.  4,  in  Eb  ;  the  Alle- 
mande  and  the  Courante  of  No.  5,  in  G ;  and  the 
Courante  and  the  Bourrde  of  No.  6,  in  E.  As 
examples  of  the  same  from  Handel's  Suites  the 
following  may  be  taken  : — the  Courante  in  No.  i, 
in  A ;  the  Allegro  in  No.  2,  in  F ;  the  Courante 
in  No.  4,  in  E  minor ;  the  Allemande  in  No.  5, 
in  E  major  ;  and  the  Gigues  in  the  5th,  7th,  8th, 
and  loth  Suites.  In  many  of  these  there  is  a 
systematic  development  of  the  figures  of  the  sub- 
ject in  the  first  section  of  the  second  half  of  the 
movement ;  but  a  tendency  is  also  observable  to 
commence  the  second  half  of  the  movement  with 
a  quotation  of  the  commencement  of  the  whole, 
which  answers  practically  to  the  first  subject. 
This  was  also  noticed  in  the  example  quoted 
from  Scarlatti.  Bach  not  unfrequently  begins 
the  second  half  with  an  inversion  of  the  charac- 
teristic figure  of  the  commencement,  or  treats 
it  in  a  free  kind  of  double  counterpoint,  as  he 
sometimes  does  in  repeating  the  conclusion  of  the 
first  half  at  the  conclusion  of  the  whole.  (See 
the  last  4  bars  of  the  Allemande  in  the  Partita 
No.  2,  in  C  minor.)  How  the  subject  reappears 
is  however  a  matter  of  subsidiary  importance. 
What  is  chiefly  important  is  the  fact  that  the 
first  subject  gradually  begins  to  make  its  appear- 
ance clearly  and  definitely  in  the  second  part  as 
a  repetition  from  the  first  part ;  and  it  is  very 
interesting  and  curious  to  note  that  there  was  a 
long  hesitation  as  to  the  position  in  the  second 
half  which  this  repetition  should  occupy.  The 
balance  for  a  long  time  was  certainly  in  favour 
of  its  appearing  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
half,  and  in  the  complementary  key  of  the  move- 
ment. A  very  clear  and  easily  recognisable 
instance  of  this  is  the  opening  '  pomposo '  move- 
ment of  the  Overture  to  Handel's  *  Samson,' 
which  diff"ers  in  form  from  the  first  movement  of 
a  modem  Sonata  or  Symphony  in  tliis  one  par- 
ticular only.  But  there  are  specimens  of  form 
in  both  Bach  and  Handel  which  are  prophetic  of 
the  complete  modern  system  of  Mozart.  The 
fact  is  so  interesting  and  instructive  that  it  will 
be  worth  while  to  give  an  analysis  of  the  shortest 


FORM, 


rOEM. 


545 


example  of  Bach,  in  order  that  it  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  scheme  of  Mozart's  form,  which 
will  be  given  later.  A  little  Air  in  the  Suite 
Francaise  Xo.  4,  in  Eb  major,  set3  out  with  a 
clearly  defined  figure  which  may  be  called  the 
'first  subject/  and  modulates  in  the  fourth  bar 
to  the  key  of  the  Dominant,  in  which  the  figure 
which  may  also  be  called  by  analogy  the  '  second 
subject'  appears,  and  with  this  the  first  half  of 
the  movement  concludes.  The  second  half  sets 
out  with  modulations  and  hints  at  the  figures  of 
the  first  half,  after  10  bars  comes  to  a  pause  on 
the  Dominant  of  the  original  key,  and  from  thence 
recommences  the  first  subject ;  and  the  latter 
part  of  the  section  being  deftly  altered  by  a 
device  of  modulation  —  of  which  Mozart  made 
great  use  in  the  same  position  in  the  movement — 
enables  the  whole  of  the  last  4  bars  of  the  first 
half  of  the  movement  to  follow  also  in  Eb,  so 
concluding  the  Air. 

There  is  no  need  to  give  a  like  detailed  ana- 
lysis of  the  AUegro  in  Handel's  Suite  Xo.  14, 
in  G.  It  will  suffice  to  point  out  that  its  form 
is  identical  with  the  preceding  on  a  large  scale ; 
and  that  it  is  clearer  and  easier  to  recognise, 
inasmuch  as  the  sections  do  not  flow  so  closely 
into  one  another,  and  the  subjects  are  more 
definite.  These  two  examples  are  however  ex- 
ceptional as  regards  both  Bach  and  Handel  and 
their  immediate  successors.  The  tendency  was  stiU 
for  a  time  to  adopt  the  form  of  reproducing  the 
first  subject  at  the  commencement  of  the  second 
half  of  the  ^movement;  and  in  point  of  fact  it 
is  not  difficult  to  see  why  it  was  preferred,  since 
if  nothing  else  could  be  said  for  it,  it  certainly 
seemed  to  keep  the  balance  of  the  keys  more 
equal.  For  by  this  system  the  subject  which 
-  .  eared  in  the  principal  key  in  the  first  half 
e  in  in  the  complementary  key  in  the  second 
^f,  and  the  second  subject  vice  versa,  whereas 
the  later  system  the  first  subject  always 
appears  in  the  principal  key.  Moreover  the  still 
older  system  of  merely  repeating  the  ending  of 
the  first  half  still  lingers  on  the  scene  after  the 
time  of  Bach  and  Handel,  for  in  a  Sonata  by 
Galuppi  (1703-85)  in  D  (published  in  Bauer's 
*  Alte  Clavier  Musik")  there  is  a  charming  little 
opening  Adagio  which  seems  to  look  both  for- 
wards and  backwards  at  once ;  for  its  form  is  a 
clear  specimen  of  the  mere  repetition  of  the  con- 
cluding phrase  of  the  first  part  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole,  while  its  soft  melodious  manner 
and  characteristic  definition  of  sections  by  ca- 
dences and  semi-cadences  (tending  to  cut  it  up 
into  so  many  little  tunes),  make  it  in  spirit  a 
ry  near  relation  of  Mozart's.  And  one  might 
take  this  little  movement,  without  much  stretch 
of  imagination,  as  the  final  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  movements  which  look  back  towards 
e  primitive  form  as  displayed  in  the  original 
Branle,  and  those  which  look  on  towards  the 
Mozart  and  Haydn  epoch.  The  other  movements 
of  Galuppi's  Sonata  are  in  the  more  developed 
fonn,  in  which  the  first  subject  is  quoted  at  the 

*  The  jlow  movement  of  Beethoven's  Quartet  in  D  major,  op.  18, 
kan  example  of  tbu  form. 
(C.) 


commencement  of  the  second  half  of  the  move- 
ment. 

In  Galuppi's  contemporary,  F.  D.  Faradies,  we 
find  even  a  closer  relationship  to  Mozart  in  many 
respects.  The  first  movement  of  his  Sonata  in  A, 
for  instance,  is  on  an  extended  scale.  His 
subjects  are  clearly  defined,  and  the  growing 
tendency  to  cut  the  movement  up  into  sections 
is  still  clearer  than  in  Galuppi.  The  subject?  are 
definitely  restated,  but  after  the  earlier  manner, 
with  the  first  subject  reproduced  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  half.  It  is  however  noticeable  that 
in  the  lively  Finale  of  this  Sonata  the  subjects 
both  reappear  at  the  end  of  the  whole. 

If  we  tm-n  to  the  distinguished  German  com- 
posers of  this  epoch  we  find  ourselves  as  it  were 
among  the  immediate  exemplars  of  Haydn.  In 
them  both  the  manner  and  form  of  their  great 
successors  are  prefigured,  and  there  is  no  longer 
any  doubt  about  the  basis  of  construction  of  the 
movement ;  the  first  part  being  as  it  were  the 
thesis  of  the  subjects,  and  the  second  part  their 
discussion  and  re-statement ;  but  there  is  still  an 
uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  respective  posi- 
tions of  the  re-statements.  If,  for  instance,  we 
examine  a  Sonata  of  Johann  Christian  Bach, 
op.  17  (Pauer's  *Alte  Clavier  Musik'),  we  find  a 
very  clear  and  extended  specimen  of  the  older 
system.  The  first  half  has  a  very  long  section  in 
the  principal  key  (Bb^i,  and  another  section,  also 
long,  in  the  Dominant  key  (F)  —  all  of  which  is 
as  usual  repeated.  The  second  half  commences 
with  a  clear  statement  of  the  first  section 
in  the  Dominant  key,  followed  by  development 
and  modulation,  and  pausing  on  the  Dominant 
of  the  original  key  of  Bb,  in  which  all  the 
second  section  of  the  first  part  is  reproduced 
with  an  exactness  which  is  almost  tiresome.  It 
is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  last  movement  is 
in  the  Gigue  time  and  style  without  being  so 
named,  and  is  a  happy  instance  of  the  gradual 
complete  mergence  of  the  old  dance  Suite  in  the 
Sonata.  As  a  reverse  to  this  picture  there  is  a 
Bouree  in  a  Suite  by  Johann  Ludwig  Krebs — a 
contemporary  of  Johann  Christian  Bach,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  his  father's  pupils — 
which,  though  called  by  the  old  dance  name,  is 
in  perfect  modem  form,  and  shows  so  aptly  the 
transition  of  the  repeated  ending  of  the  first  part 
into  a  second  subject  that  it  is  worth  quoting  in 
outline. 


N  a 


546 


FORM. 


FORM. 


This  is  followed  by  7  more  bars  of  development 
after  the  mamier  of  this  coDomencement,  modu' 
lating  to  C  minor  and  Ab  and  thence  back  to  Eb, 
in  which  key  the  first  subject  is  resumed  as 
follows  : — 


In  this  the  passage  from  (a)  to  (5)  constitutes 
the  first  subject  and  section ;  and  that  from  (&) 
to  (c)  the  second,  in  the  Dominant  key,  cor- 
responding to  a  '  second  subject' ;  then  follow 
the  development  and  modulation,  from  (c)  to  {d) ; 
and  then  the  repeat  of  the  first  section  in  the 
principal  key,  with  the  little  cadence  figure  (e), 
which  is  treated  in  preciselj-  the  manner  that 
a  second  subject  would  be  treated  in  a  more 
extended  movement,  being  given  complete,  trans- 
posed from  the  Dominant  key  to  the  original 
Tonic.  That  Krebs  had  well  defined  his  own 
objects  in  these  matters  is  clear  from  the  fact 
that  the  Polonaise  from  the  same  suite,  and  an 
Allemande  from  another  in  Bb  are  constructed 
after  precisely  the  same  system. 

There  remains  yet  the  most  important  pre- 
decessor of  Haydn,  namely  Emmanuel  Bach,  in 
whose  Sonatas  Form  reached  a  very  remarkable 
pitch  of  perfection.  Many  of  them  stand  in  a 
very  peculiar  relation  both  to  the  old  order  and 
to  the  new  which  was  destined  to  supplant  it  on 
the  principle  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest ;  for 
they  present  examples  of  the  reappearance  of  the 
first  subject  at  the  commencement  of  the  second 
half  of  the  movement,  as  well  as  after  the  section 
devoted  to  development  and  modulation — in 
other  words,  both  in  its  older  position  and  in  its 
recognised  place  in  modem  instrumental  works. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  Sonata  in  G  in  the  first 
collection  published  at  Leipzig  in  1779,  and  in 
Billow's  little  selection  of  Six.  The  same  also 
in  the  last  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  A  (which 
is  both  in  Billow's  collection  and  in  Bauer's 
•Alte  Meister'),  and  in  the  first  movement  of 
the  Sonata  in  F  minor  from  the  third  set  of 
Clavier  Sonatas,  also  edited  by  Biilow.  The 
sonata  in  D  minor  approaches  more  nearly  to 
modern  ways  in  the  position  of  the  repetition  of 
the  first  subject  in  the  second  part ;  but  offers  a 
marked  instance  of  independent  thought  in  re- 
producing the  second  subject  in  the  key  of  the 
third  below  the  Tonic  (that  is,  in  Bb  relative  to 
D),  and  afterwards  passing  back  to  the  principal 
key,  and  reproducing  the  rest  of  the  materials  of 
the  section  after  the  usual  manner — thus  in  some 
respects  anticipating  Beethoven. 

A  great  deal  more  might  be  said  on  the  in- 
dividual and  thoughtful  use  of  Form  which  is 
observable  in  the  works  of  Emmanuel  Bach  ;  but 
it  will  be  merely  necessary  to  point  out  that  the 
study  of  them  as  works  of  art,  by  those  who  are 


as  yet  unacquainted  with  them  will  throw  quite 
a  new  light  on  Haydn  and  Mozart.  He  has 
been  called  ^  their  forerunner,  and  he  thoroughly 
justifies  the  title  not  only  by  the  clearness  and 
distinctness  of  his  form,  but  by  certain  undefinable 
qualities  of  style  and  sentiment.  Something  of 
this  may  be  due  to  his  view  that  music  should 
be  interpreted  as  vocally  as  possible  (see  Bumey, 
vol.  iv.  chap,  x.),  which  is  also  a  very  distinguish- 
ing trait  of  the  Mozart  school.  It  must  also  be 
noted  that  in  him  the  continuous  fugal  manner 
seems  finally  to  have  yielded  before  the  growing 
predominance  of  the  essentially  distinct  modem 
harmonic  style.  The  forms  of  the  fugal  style, 
such  as  they  were,  were  rather  relative  than 
positive,  and  depended  upon  certain  laws — not 
very  clearly  defined  or  consistently  observed — as 
to  the  modes  of  recurrence  of  the  subjects; 
whereas  the  forms  of  the  modem  harmonic  style 
are  positive  and  systematic.  The  forms  of  the 
fugal  style  may  be  compared  to  the  composition 
of  lines  and  curves  in  a  drawing,  in  which  they 
are  not  preconceived,  but  grow  into  completeness 
by  the  attention  which  is  bestowed  by  the  artist 
on  their  relations  to  one  another.  Whereas  the 
forms  of  the  harmonic  style  are  architectural, 
and  are  governed  by  certain  necessary  prior  con- 
siderations as  vital  as  that  of  roof  and  walls  to 
the  architect,  whereby  the  movement  comes  to 
be  divided  into  sections  chiefly  based  upon  the 
succession  of  keys,  in  which  the  various  subjects 
are  rather  indicators  of  outline  than  positive 
elements  of  construction.  In  Emmanuel  Bach  we 
find  a  number  of  figures  and  subjects  characteristic 
of  each  of  the  primary  sections,  as  we  do  in 
Beethoven ;  and  the  spirit  of  his  great  father, 
though  attenuated  enough,  is  yet  perceptible  in 
his  manner  of  treating  short  and  pregnant  figures, 
and  in  some  peculiarities  of  phraseology.  These 
are  probably  the  chief  points  of  connection  between 
the  spirit  of  the  great  giant  and  the  graces  of  the 
less  austere  style  of  Haydn  and  Mozart. 

It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  realisation 
of  this  practically  new  discovery  of  the  element 
of  positive  harmonic  or  Tonal  form  in  music  must 
have  acted  like  many  other  fresh  discoveries  in 
the  realms  of  art,  and  tended  to  swamp  the  other 
elements  of  eff'ect ;  making  composers  look  to 
form  rather  as  ultimate  and  preeminent  than  as 
inevitable  but  subsidiary.  It  seems  not  improb- 
able that  the  vapid  and  meaningless  common- 
place which  often  off"ends  the  sensitive  musician 
in  the  works  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  appears 
like  just  so  much  rubbish  shot  in  to  fill  up  a 
hole,  was  the  result  of  this  strong  new  feeling 
for  form  as  paramount,  and  that  it  remained  for 
Beethoven  to  ree^^tablish  definitely  the  principle 
of  giving  equal  intensity  to  every  part  of  the  piece 
in  proportion  to  its  importance.  With  Haydn  and 
Mozart  it  is  frequent  to  find  very  sweet  tunes, 
and  sometimes  very  serious  and  pregnant  tunes, 
in  each  of  the  primary  sections,  and  then  a  lot 
of  scurrying  about — '  brilliant  passages'  as  they 
are  often  called — the  only  purpose  of  which  is  to 
mark  the  cadence,  or  point  out  that  the  tune 

»  VonBttlow,  Prefiwe.  I 


FORM. 


FORM. 


647 


which  is  just  finished  is  in  such  or  such  a  key. 
Haydn's  early  Quartets  are  sometimes  very  little 
more  than  jingle  in  one  key  and  more  jingle  in 
another,  to  fill  up  his  recognised  system  of  form, 
without  ever  rising  to  the  dignity  of  a  tune,  and 
much  less  to  a  figure  with  any  intensity  of 
meaning ;  and  some  of  INIozart's  instrumental 
productions  are  but  little  better. 

That  Haydn  studied  the  works  of  Emmanuel 
Bach  is  well  known,  for  he  himself  confessed  it ; 
and  the  immediate  connection  between  him  and 
his  predecessors  is  nowhere  more  clear  than  in 
the  similarity  of  occasional  irregularities  of  con- 
struction in  the  second  half  of  his  movements. 
There  is  more  than  one  instance  of  his  first 
I     subject  reappearing  clearly  at  the  beginning  of 
I     the  second  half  of  a  movement  instead  of  in  its 
I     latter  portion  (Quartet  in  F  major,  op.  2,  No.  4 ; 
I     No.  67  in  Trautwein) ;  and  further  than  this, 
I     and  corroborative  of  the  continuous  descent,  is 
the  fact  that  when  the  first  subject  reappears  in 
what  we  should  call  its  right  place,  there  are 
conspicuous  irregularities  in  the  procedure,  just 
,     as  if  Haydn  were  half  apologising  for  a  liberty. 
For  the  section  is  often  prolonged  and  followed 
by  irregular  modulations  before  the  second  subject 
I     reappears,  and  is  then  far  more  closely  followed 
t    than  the  first  subject  and  the  materials  of  the 
I    first  section.    Another  point  illustrating  a  linger- 
ing feeling  for  the  old  practice  of  repeating  the 
!    conclusion  or  cadence-figures  of  the  first  part  at 
I    the  conclusion  of  the  whole,  is  that  a  sort  of 
premature  coda  is  occasionally  inserted  after  the 
earlier  figures  of  the  second  section  on  its  repetition 
in  this  place,  aftei'  which  the  concluding  bars  of 
the  first  part  are  exactly  resmned  for  the  finish. 
Of  this  even  Mozart  gives  a  singular  and  very 
clear  instance  in  the  first  movement  of  his  G- 
minor  Symphony. 

Of  the  minor  incidental  facts  which  are  con- 
spicuous in  Haydn's  works  the  most  prominent 
is  his  distribution  of  the  subjects  in  the  first 
part.  He  conforms  to  the  key-element  of  Form 
in  this  part  with  persistent  regularity,  but 
one  subject  irequently  suffices  for  both  sections. 
With  this  principal  subject  (occasionally  after 
a  short  independent  introduction  in  slow  time) 
he  commences  operations ;  and  after  concluding 
the  first  section  and  passing  to  his  complementary 
•  key  for  the  second,  he  reproduces  it  in  that  key, 
sometimes  varied  and  sometimes  quite  simply — 
as  in  the  weU-known  S^Tnphony  in  D,  No.  7  of 
Salomon's  set  (first  movement),  or  in  that  in  Eb, 
'  No.  9  of  the  same  series  (also  first  movement),  or 
'  in  the  Quartet  in  F  minor,  op.  55,  or  the  Finale 
of  the  Quartet  in  C,  op.  75  (No,  i  in  Trautwein). 
And  even  where  the  second  section  has  several 
new  features  in  it  the  first  subject  is  often  still 
the  centre  of  attraction,  as  in  the  first  movement 
of  the  Quartet  in  C  (No.  16,  Trautwein),  and 
the  same  movement  of  the  Quartet  in  F  (No.  11, 
Trautwein).  On  the  other  hand  Haydn  is  some- 
times profuse  with  his  subjects,  and  like  Beethoven 
gives  several  in  each  section  ;  and  again  it  is  not 
unconunon  with  hiTn  to  modulate  into  his  com- 
plementary key  and  go  on  with  the  same  materials 

I 


for  some  time  before  producing  his  second  subject, 
an  analogous  practice  to  which  is  also  to  be  met 
with  in  Beethoven. 

A  far  more  important  item  in  Haydn's  de- 
velopment of  Form  is  the  use  of  a  feature  which 
has  latterly  become  very  conspicuous  in  instru- 
mental compositions,  namely  the  Coda,  and  its 
analogue,  the  independent  episode  which  usually 
concludes  the  first  half  of  the  movement. 

Every  musician  is  aware  that  in  the  early 
period  of  purely  formal  music  it  was  common 
to  mark  all  the  divisions  of  the  movements 
clearly  by  closes  and  half  closes ;  and  the  more 
vital  the  division  the  stronger  the  cadence. 
Both  Haydn  and  Mozart  repeat  their  cadences 
in  a  manner  which  to  modem  ears  often  sounds 
excessive ;  and,  as  already  pointed  out,  they  are 
both  at  times  content  to  make  mere  '  business ' 
of  it  by  brilliant  passages,  or  bald  chords ;  but 
in  movements  which  were  more  earnestly  carried 
out  the  virtue  of  making  the  cadence  also  part  of 
the  music  proper,  and  not  a  mere  rigid  meaning- 
less line  to  mark  the  divisions  of  the  pattern, 
was  soon  recognised.  There  were  two  ways  of 
eff'ecting  this ;  either  by  allusion  to  the  figures 
of  the  subjects  adapted  to  the  form  of  the 
cadence,  or  by  an  entirely  new  figure  standing 
harmonically  on  the  same  basis.  From  this 
practice  the  final  episode  to  the  first  part  of  the 
movement  was  developed,  and  attained  at  times 
no  insignificant  dimensions.  But  the  Coda  proper 
had  a  somewhat  diff"erent  origin.  In  the  days 
before  Haydn  it  was  almost  invariable  to  repeat 
the  second  half  of  the  movement  as  well  as  the 
first,  and  Haydn  usually  conformed  to  the  practice. 
So  long  as  the  movements  were  of  no  great  length 
this  would  seem  suflBcient  without  any  addition, 
but  when  they  attained  to  any  considerable 
dimensions  the  poverty  and  want  of  finish  in 
ending  twice  over  in  precisely  the  same  way 
would  soon  become  apparent ;  and  consequently 
a  passage  was  sometimes  added  after  the  repeat 
to  make  the  conclusion  more  full,  as  in  Haydn's 
well-known  Quartet  in  D  minor,  op.  76,  the  first 
movement  of  the  Quartet  in  C  (Trautwein,  No. 
56),  the  last  movement  of  the  Quartet  in  E, 
No.  17,  and  many  others.  It  seems  almost 
superfluous  to  point  out  that  the  same  doctrine 
really  applies  to  the  conclusion  of  the  movement, 
even  when  the  latter  half  is  not  repeated  ;  since 
unless  an  addition  of  some  sort  is  made  the 
whole  concludes  with  no  greater  force  than  the 
half;  the  conclusion  being  merely  a  repetition 
of  the  cadence  figure  of  the  first  half  of  the 
movement.  This  case  however  is  less  obvious 
than  the  former,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
virtue  of  the  Coda  was  first  observed  in  con- 
nection with  movements  in  which  the  second 
half  was  repeated,  and  that  it  was  afterwards 
found  to  apply  to  all  indiscriminately.  A  Coda 
in  both  cases  is  to  be  defined  as  the  passage  in 
the  latter  part  of  a  movement  which  commences 
at  the  point  where  the  substance  of  the  repeated 
first  part  comes  to  an  end.  In  Haydn  codas  are 
tolerably  plentiful,  both  in  movements  in  which 
the  latter  half  is  repeated  and  in  movements  in 

Nn2 


518 


FORM. 


FORM. 


which  it  is  not.  They  are  generally  constructed 
out  of  materials  taken  from  the  movement,  which 
are  usually  presented  in  some  new  light,  or  asso- 
ciated together  in  a  fresh  manner  ;  and  the  form 
is  absolutely  independent.  Modulation  is  rarely 
to  be  found,  for  the  intention  of  the  Coda  was  to 
strengthen  the  impression  of  the  principal  key 
at  the  conclusion,  and  musicians  had  to  be  taught 
by  Beethoven  how  to  do  this  without  incessantly 
reiterating  the  same  series  of  chords  in  the  same 
key.  As  an  instance  of  the  consideration  and 
acuteness  which  characterise  Haydn's  very  varied 
treatment  of  forms  may  be  taken  the  Coda  of  the 
first  movement  of  the  Symphony  in  C,  No.  I  of 
the  Salomon  set.  In  this  movement  he  misses 
out  certain  prominent  figures  of  the  first  section 
on  its  repetition  in  the  second  half,  and  after 
passing  on  duly  through  the  recapitulation  of 
the  second  section  lie  takes  these  same  omitted 
figures  as  a  basis  whereon  to  build  his  Coda. 
Many  similar  instances  of  well-devised  manipula- 
tion of  the  details  of  form  are  scattered  through- 
out his  works,  which  show  his  remarkable  sagacity 
and  tact.  They  cannot  be  brought  under  any 
system,  but  are  well  worth  careful  study  to  see 
how  the  old  forms  can  be  constantly  renewed 
by  logically  conceived  devices,  without  being 
positively  relinquished. 

Haydn  represents  the  last  stage  of  progress 
towards  clear  and  complete  definition  of  abstract 
Form,  which  appears  in  its  final  technical  perfection 
in  Mozart.  In  Mozart  Form  may  be  studied  in 
its  greatest  simplicity  and  clearness.  His  mar- 
vellous gift  of  melody  enabled  him  to  dispense 
with  much  elaboration  of  the  accepted  outlines, 
and  to  use  devices  of  such  extreme  simplicity  in 
transition  from  one  section  to  another  that  the 
difficulty  of  realising  his  scheme  of  construction 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Not  that  he  was 
incapable  of  elaborating  his  forms,  for  there  are 
many  fine  examples  to  prove  the  contrary ;  but 
it  is  evident  that  he  considered  obviousness  of 
outline  to  be  a  virtue,  because  it  enabled  the 
ordinary  hearer  as  well  as  the  cultivated  musician 
to  appreciate  the  symmetrical  beauty  of  his  com- 
positions. Apart  from  these  points  of  systematic 
definition  Mozart  was  not  an  innovator,  and 
consequently  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  point 
out  his  advances  on  Haydn.  But  inasmuch  as 
he  is  generally  recognised  as  the  perfect  master 
of  the  formal  element  in  music  it  will  be  advisable 
to  give  an  outline  of  his  system. 

The  first  section,  which  tends  to  mark  clearly 
the  principal  key  of  the  movement,  sets  out  with 
the  principal  subject,  generally  a  tune  of  simple 
form,  such  as  8  bars  divided  into  corresponding 
groups  of  four  (see  the  popular  Sonata  in  C 
minor).  This  is  either  repeated  at  once  or  else 
gives  place  to  a  continuation  of  less  marked 
character  of  figure,  generally  commencing  on  the 
Dominant  bass  ;  the  order  of  succession  of  this 
repetition  and  continuation  is  uncertain,  but 
whichever  comes  last  (unless  the  section  is  fur- 
ther extended)  usually  passes  to  the  Dominant 
key,  and  pauses  on  its  Dominant ;  or  pauses  with- 
out modulation  on  the  last  chord  of  a  half  close 


in  the  original  key ;  or,  if  the  key  of  the  whole 
movement  be  minor,  a  little  more  modulation 
will  take  place  in  order  to  pass  to  the  key  of  the 
relative  major  and  pause  on  its  Dominant.  The 
second  section — which  tends  to  define  clearly  the 
complementary  key  of  the  movement,  whether 
Dominant  or  Relative  major  to  the  original — 
usually  starts  with  a  new  subject  somewhat  con- 
trasted with  the  features  of  the  first  section,  and 
may  be  followed  by  a  further  accessory  subject, 
or  derivative  continuation,  or  other  form  of  pro- 
longation, and  so  passes  to  the  frequent  repetition 
of  the  cadence  of  the  complementary  key,  with 
either  brilliant  passages,  or  occasionally  a  definite 
fresh  feature  or  subject  which  constitutes  the 
Cadence  episode  of  the  first  part.  These  two 
sections — constituting  the  first  half  of  the  move- 
ment— are  usually  repeated  entire. 

The  second  half  of  the  movement  commences 
with  a  section  which  is  frequently  the  longest  of 
all ;  it  sometimes  opens  with  a  quotation  of  the 
first  subject,  analogous  to  the  old  practice  com- 
mon before  Haydn,  and  proceeds  to  develop  freely 
the  features  of  the  subjects  of  the  first  part,  like  a 
discussion  on  theses.  Here  cadences  are  avoided, 
as  also  the  complete  statement  of  any  idea,  or  any 
obvious  grouping  of  bars  into  fixed  successions; 
modulations  are  constant,  and  so  irregular  that  it 
would  be  no  virtue  to  find  the  succession  alike  in 
any  two  movements ;  the  whole  object  being 
obviously  to  produce  a  strong  formal  contrast 
to  the  regularity  of  the  first  half  of  the  move- 
ment ;  to  lead  the  hearer  through  a  maze  of 
various  keys,  and  by  a  certain  artistic  confusion 
of  subject-matter  and  rhythm  to  induce  a  fresh 
appetite  for  regularity  which  the  final  return  of 
the  original  subjects  and  sections  will  definitely 
satisfy.  This  section  Mozart  generally  concludes 
by  distinctly  modulating  back  to  his  principal  key, 
and  either  pausing  on  its  dominant,  or  passing 
(perhaps  with  a  little  artistically  devised  hesi- 
tation), into  the  first  subject  of  the  movement, 
which  betokens  the  commencement  of  the  fourth 
section.  This  section  is  usually  given  without 
much  disguise  or  *  change,  and  if  it  concludes 
with  a  pause  on  the  Dominant  chord  of  the 
original  key  (i.  e.  the  final  chord  of  a  half  close), 
will  need  no  further  manipulation,  since  the 
second  subject  can  follow  as  well  in  the  original 
key  as  in  that  of  the  Dominant,  as  it  did  in 
the  first  part.  If  however  the  section  concludes 
on  the  Dominant  of  that  Dominant  key  in  the 
first  half  of  the  movement,  a  little  more  manipu- 
lation will  be  necessary.  Mozart's  device  is  com- 
monly to  make  some  slight  change  in  the  order  of 
things  at  the  latter  part  of  the  section,  whereby 
the  course  of  the  stream  is  turned  aside  into  a 
Sub-dominant  channel,  which  key  standing  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  principal  key  that  the 
principal  key  stands  to  the  Dominant,  it  will 
only  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  latter  part  of  the 
section  in  that  key  and  pause  again  on  the 
Dominant  of  the  original  key,  in  which  the 

1  In  the  first  movement  of  the  'Jupiter'  Symphony  so  exact  Is  tha 
repetition,  that  !a  one  of  the  editions  a  passage  of  21  bars  is  not  re- 
printed, but  a  reference  '  Da  Capo '  is  made  to  Its  occurrence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Allegro. 


FORM. 


FORM. 


549 


second  section  of  the  first  half  then  follows  simply 
in  the  same  order  as  at  the  first.  If  the  principal 
key  of  the  movement  happens  to  be  minor,  and 
the  second  section  of  the  first  part  to  be  in  the 
relative  major,  its  reappearance  in  either  the 
major  or  minor  of  the  principal  key  depends 
chiefly  on  its  character ;  and  the  passage  that 
led  to  it  by  modulation  would  be  either  omitted 
altogether  or  so  manipulated  as  not  to  conclude 
out  of  the  principal  key. 

With  this  simple  order  of  reproduction  of  the 
first  two  sections  Mozart  is  generally  contented, 
and  the  little  alterations  which  he  does  occasion- 
ally make  are  of  a  straightforward  nature,  such  as 
producing  the  second  subject  before  the  first  (as  in 
a  Sonata  in  D  major  composed  in  1778),  or  pro- 
ducing the  second  subject  in  the  Dominant  key 
first  and  repeating  it  in  the  principal  key  (as  in 
a  Sonata  in  C  composed  in  1779).  The  whole  of 
the  latter  half  of  the  movement  is  frequently 
repeated,  and  in  that  case  generally  followed  by 
a  Coda — as  in  the  last  movements  of  Quartets  in 
G  minor  No.  i,  and  A,  No.  5,  and  D,  No.  10  ;  first 
movements  of  Quartets  in  Bb,  No.  2,  and  D,  No. 
10  ;  slow  movement  of  Quartet  in  F,  No.  8 ;  first 
movement  of  Sonata  in  C  minor ;  and  of  Quintets 
in  G  minor,  D,  and  Eb ;  and  last  movement  of  the 
'  J upiter '  Symphony.  The  Coda  is  generally 
constructed  out  of  prominent  features  of  the  move- 
ment, presented  in  some  new  light  by  fresh  asso- 
ciations and  fi:esh  contrasts.  It  is  seldom  of  any 
great  length,  and  contains  no  conspicuous  modu- 
lation, as  that  would  have  been  held  to  weaken 
the  impression  of  the  principal  key,  which  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  movement  should  be  as  strong 
as  possible.  In  a  few  instances  there  are  codas 
without  the  latter  half  of  the  movement  having 
been  repeated.  Of  this  there  is  at  least  one  very 
beautiful  instance  in  the  short  Coda  of  the  slow 
movement  of  the  Quartet  in  Bb,  which  is  con- 
structed out  of  ejaculatory  fragments  of  the  first 
subject,  never  touching  its  first  phrase,  but 
passing  like  a  sweet  broken  reminiscence.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  scheme  is  but 
a  rough  outline,  since  to  deal  with  the  subject 
completely  would  necessitate  so  much  detail  as 
to  preclude  all  possibility  of  clearness. 

It  is  commonly  held  that  the  influence  of  Mo- 
zart upon  Beethoven  was  paramount  in  his  first 
period;  but  strong  though  the  influence  of  so 
great  a  star  must  inevitably  have  been  upon  the 
unfolding  genius,  his  giant  spirit  soon  asserted 
itself;  especially  in  that  which  seems  the  very 
marrow  of  his  works,  and  makes  Form  appear  in 
an  entirely  new  phase,  namely  the  element  of 
universally  distributed  intensity.  To  him  that  by- 
word 'brilliant  passages'  was  as  hateful  as  'Cant' 
to  Carlyle.  To  him  bombast  and  gesticulation 
at  a  particular  spot  in  a  movement — just  because 
certain  supposed  laws  of  form  point  to  that  spot 
as  requiring  bustle  and  noise — were  impossible. 
If  there  is  excitement  to  be  got  up  at  any  par- 
ticular point  there  must  be  something  real  in 
the  bustle  and  vehemence ;  something  intense 
enough  to  justify  it,  or  else  it  will  be  mere 
vanity ;  the  cleverness  of  the  fingers  disguising 


the  emptiness  of  the  soul, — a  fit  accompaniment 
to  'the  clatter  of  dishes  at  a  princely  table,'  as 
Wagner  says,  but  not  Music.  Such  is  the  vital 
germ  from  which  spring  the  real  peculiarities 
and  individualities  of  Beethoven's  instrumental 
compositions.  It  must  now  be  a  Form  of  spirit 
as  well  as  a  Form  in  the  framework;  it  is  to 
become  internal  as  well  external.  The  day  for 
stringing  certain  tunes  together  after  a  certain 
plan  is  past,  and  Form  by  itself  ceases  to  be  a 
final  and  absolute  good.  A  musical  movement 
in  Beethoven  becomes  a  continuous  and  complete 
poem ;  or,  as  Mr .  Dannreuther '  says, '  an  organism' 
which  is  gradually  unfolded  before  us,  marred  by 
none  of  the  ugly  gaps  of  dead  stuffing  which 
wei-e  part  of  the  ^ form''  of  his  predecessors. 
Moreover  Form  itself  must  drop  into  the  back- 
ground and  become  a  hidden  presence  rather 
than  an  obvious  and  pressing  feature.  As  a 
basis  Beethoven  accepted  the  forms  of  Mozart, 
and  continued  to  employ  them  as  the  outline  of 
his  scheme.  '  He  retained,'  as  the  same  writer 
has  admirably  said,  'the  triune  symmetry  of 
exposition,  illustration  and  repetition,'  which  as 
far  as  we  know  at  present  is  the  most  perfect 
system  arrived  at,  either  theoretically  or  empiri- 
cally ;  but  he  treated  the  details  with  the  inde- 
pendence and  force  of  his  essentially  individual 
nature.  He  absorbed  the  principle  in  such  a 
fashion  that  it  became  natural  for  him  to  speak 
after  that  manner  ;  and  greatly  as  the  form  varies 
it  is  essentially  the  same  in  principle,  whether 
in  the  Trio  in  Eb,  opus  i,  or  the  Quartet  in  F, 
opus  135.^ 

In  estimating  the  great  diflference  between 
Mozart  and  Beethoven  in  their  manner  of  treat- 
ing forms  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Mozart, 
as  has  been  before  observed,  wrote  at  a  time 
when  the  idea  of  harmonic  form  was  compara- 
tively new  to  the  world  of  music,  and  to  conform 
to  it  was  in  itself  a  good,  and  to  say  the  merest 
trifles  according  to  its  system  a  somrce  of  satisfac- 
tion to  the  hearer.  It  has  been  happily  suggested 
that  Mozart  lived  in  an  era  and  in  the  very  at- 
mosphere of  court  etiquette,  and  that  this  shows 
itself  in  the  formality  of  his  works;  but  it  is 
probable  that  this  is  but  half  the  cause  of  the 
effect.  For  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
very  basis  of  the  system  was  clear  definition  of 
tonality ;  that  is  to  say,  the  key  must  be  strongly 
marked  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  movement, 
and  each  section  in  a  different  key  must  be  clearly 
pointed  out  by  the  use  of  cadences  to  define  the 
whereabouts.  It  is  in  the  very  nature  of  things 
that  when  the  system  was  new  the  hearers  of  the 
music  should  be  but  little  apt  at  seizing  quickly 
what  key  was  at  any  given  moment  of  the  highest 
importance  ;  and  equally  in  the  nature  of  things 
that  this  faculty  should  have  been  capable  of 
development,  and  that  the  auditors  of  Beethoven's 
later  days  should  have  been  better  able  to  tell 
their  whereabouts  with  much  less  indication  than 
could  the  auditors  of  Mozart.  Hence  there  were 
two  causes  acting  on  the  development  of  form. 
On  the  one  hand,  as  the  system  grew  familiar,  it 
>  In  •  Macmillan's  Magazine '  for  July,  1876. 


550 


FOEM. 


FORM. 


was  inevitable  that  people  should  lose  much  of 
the  satisfaction  which  was  derived  from  the  form 
itself  as  such  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  their 
capacity  for  realising  their  whereabouts  at  any 
time  being  developed  by  practice,  gave  more 
scope  to  the  composer  to  unify  his  composition 
by  omitting  those  hard  lines  of  definition  which 
had  been  previously  necessary  to  assist  the  unde- 
veloped musical  faculty  of  the  auditors.  Thus 
Mozart  prepared  the  way  for  Beethoven  in  those 
very  things  which  at  fii'st  sight  seem  most  op- 
posed to  his  practice.  Without  such  education 
the  musical  poems  of  Beethoven  must  have  fallen 
upon  deaf  ears. 

Beethoven  then  very  soon  abandoned  the  formal 
definition  of  the  sections  by  cadences,  and  by 
degrees  seems  rather  to  have  aimed  at  obscuring 
the  obviousness  of  the  system  than  at  pointing  it 
out.  The  division  of  the  movements  becomes 
more  subtle,  and  the  sections  pass  into  one  an- 
other without  stopping  ostentatiously  to  indicate 
the  whereabouts  ;  and,  last  but  not  least,  he 
soon  breaks  away  from  the  old  recognised 
system,  which  ordained  the  Dominant  or  relative 
major  as  the  only  admissible  key  for  the  com- 
plementary section  of  the  first  part.  Thus  as 
early  as  his  2nd  and  3rd  Sonatas  the  second 
sections  begin  in  the  Dominant  minor  key,  and 
in  the  slow  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  Eb  (op.  7) 
the  Dominant  is  discarded  in  favour  of  the  key 
of  the  third  below  the  tonic  —  A  b  relative  to 
the  principal  key  C.  In  the  first  movement  of 
the  Sonata  in  G-  (op.  31)  he  begins  his  second 
subject  in  the  key  of  the  major  third,  and  that 
major — i.  e.  B,  relative  to  G  ;  and  the  same  key 
(relatively)  is  adopted  in  the  Waldstein  Sonata 
and  the  Leonora  Overture.  The  efiect  of  such 
fresh  and  unexpected  transitions  must  have  been 
immense  on  minds  accustomed  only  to  the  formal 
regularity  of  Mozart.  Moreover  Beethoven  early 
began  the  practice  of  taking  one  principal  key  as 
central  and  surrounding  it  with  a  posse  of  other 
keys  both  related  and  remote.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  the  opening  passages  of  the  Wald- 
stein and  Appassionata  Sonatas,  in  both  of  which 
a  new  key  is  introduced  in  less  than  half  a  dozen 
bars,  and  then  passes  back  to  the  principal  key  ; 
and  this  practice  is  not  done  in  the  vague  way  so 
often  met  with  in  Mozart  and  Haydn,  where  their 
excessive  use  of  rapid  transitions  in  the  third  sec- 
tion of  the  movement  has  the  effect  of  men  beat- 
ing about  in  the  dark.  True  it  is  that  there  are 
instances  of  this  in  Beethoven's  early  works  while 
he  wrote  under  the  same  order  of  influences  as 
they  did ;  but  in  his  maturer  works  these  sub- 
sidiary modulations  are  conceived  with  large 
breadth  of  purpose  founded  on  certain  peculiari- 
ties in  the  affinities  of  the  keys  employed,  which 
makes  the  music  that  is  heard  in  them  produce 
the  most  varied  feelings  in  the  mind  of  the  auditor. 
It  is  most  important  for  a  young  student  to  avoid 
the  hasty  conclusion  from  insufficient  observation 
that  to  modulate  much  is  to  be  free  and  bold,  for 
it  is  nothing  of  the  sort.  Irregular  purposeless 
modulation  is  sheer  weakness  and  vapidity. 
Strength  is  shown  in  nothing  more  conspicuously 


than  in  the  capacity  to  continue  long  in  one 
key  without  ceasing  to  be  interesting ;  and  when 
that  is  efi'ected  a  bold  stroke  of  well-defined 
modulation  comes  with  its  proper  force.  For 
when  keys  are  rapidly  interlaced  the  force  of 
their  mutual  contrasts  is  weakened  and  even 
destroyed  ;  their  vital  energy  is  frittered  away  to 
gratify  an  unwholesome  taste  for  variety,  and  is 
no  longer  of  any  use  for  steady  action.  In  Bee- 
thoven action  is  always  steady,  and  the  effects  of 
the  changing  keys  come  with  their  full  force.  A 
new  key  is  sought  because  it  gives  additional 
vitality  to  a  subject  or  episode,  or  throws  a  new 
light  upon  an  idea  from  a  strange  and  unexpected 
quarter,  as  in  the  wonderful  stroke  of  genius  at 
the  outset  of  the  '  Appassionata.'  As  other  in- 
stances may  be  quoted  the  first  movement  of  the 
Sona,ta  in  G,  op.  31,  No.  i ;  Scherzo  of  Quartet 
in  F,  op.  59,  No.  I ;  first  movement  of  Quartet  in 
F  minor,  op.  95. 

The  Episode  which  concludes  the  first  part  of 
the  movement  is  almost  invariably  of  some  im- 
portance in  Beethoven's  works.  Very  generally 
he  reproduces  figures  of  his  first  subject,  as  in 
the  Prometheus  and  Leonora  Overtures,  the  first 
movements  of  the  Quartets  in  F  major  (op.  59, 
No.  i)  and  Eb  (op.  127),  the  Symphonies  in  D, 
Eroica,  C  minor,  and  A,  the  Sonata  in  E 
(op.  14),  and  the  last  movement  of  the  Appas- 
sionata. But  more  frequently  he  produces  a 
new  subject,  often  of  quite  equal  importance  and 
beauty  to  either  the  first  or  the  second — to  quote 
but  one  instance  out  of  many  take  the  first 
movement  of  the  Sonata  in  G  (op.  14) — and  very 
often  does  so  besides  referring  to  his  first  subject. 
The  chief  thing  to  notice  from  this  is  that  the 
Episode  in  question  has  grown  into  important 
dimensions  in  his  hands,  and  is  so  clear,  and  its 
distinction  as  a  separate  section  from  what  pre- 
cedes it  so  marked,  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
hear  it  spoken  of  as  the  Coda  of  the  first  part. 

In  the  part  devoted  to  the  development  of 
the  features  of  the  subjects,  which  commonly 
commences  the  second  half  of  the  movement, 
Beethoven  is  especially  great.  No  musician 
ever  had  such  a  capacity  for  throwing  an  infinite 
variety  of  lights  upon  one  central  idea ;  it  is  no 
*  business '  or  pedantry,  but  an  extraordinary 
genius  for  transforming  rhythms  and  melodies 
so  that  though  they  be  recognised  by  the  hearer 
as  the  same  which  he  has  heard  before,  they 
seem  to  tell  a  totally  different  story  ;  just  as  the 
same  ideas  working  in  the  minds  of  men  of  dif- 
ferent circumstances  or  habits  of  thought  may 
give  them  the  most  opposite  feelings.  As  was 
pointed  out  with  reference  to  Mozart,  no  system 
is  deducible  from  the  order  of  this  division  of  the 
movement,  than  which  none  shows  more  infal- 
libly the  calibre  of  the  composer.  As  a  rule 
Beethoven  avoids  the  complete  statement  of  any 
of  his  subjects,  but  breaks  them  up  into  their 
constituent  figures,  and  mixes  them  up  in  new 
situations,  avoiding  cadences  and  uniformity  of 
groups  of  bars  and  rhythms.  As  far  as  pos- 
sible the  return  to  the  original  key  is  marked 
in  some  more  refined  way  than  the  matter -of- 


rOEM. 


FORM. 


551 


fact  plan  of  baldly  passing  to  its  Dominant, 

pausing,  and  re -commencing  operations.  The 
reprise  of  the  first  subject  is  sufficient  indication 
to  the  hearer  as  to  what  part  of  the  movement 
he  has  arrived  at,  and  the  approaches  to  it  re- 
quire to  be  so  fined  off,  that  it  may  burst  upon 
liim  with  the  extra  force  of  a  surprise.  Some- 
times a  similar  effect  is  obtained  by  the  totally 
opposite  course  of  raising  expectation  by  hints  of 
what  is  to  come,  and  then  deferring  it  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  suspended  anticipation  of  the 
mind  may  heighten  the  sense  of  pleasure  in  its 
Liratification,  as  in  the  last  movement  of  the 
Waldstein  Sonata.  Again  the  return  is  not  un- 
frequently  made  the  climax  of  a  grand  culmina- 
tion of  increasing  force  and  fury,  such  as  that 
in  the  first  movement  of  the  Waldstein  Sonata 
(where  the  return  is  pp)  and  the  4th  and  8th 
Symphonies,  a  device  which  is  as  moving  to  the 
hearer  as  either  of  the  former  ones,  and  equally 
intense  and  original. 

In  the  recapitulation  of  his  subjects,  as  might 
be  anticipated  from  his  intensity  in  all  things, 
there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  avoid  the  appa- 
rent platitude  of  repeating  them  exactly  as  at  first. 
Sometimes  they  appear  with  new  features,  or  new 
orders  of  modulation,  and  sometimes  altogether 
as  variations  of  the  originals.  As  instances  of 
this  may  be  taken  the  recapitulation  of  the  first 
subjects  in  the  first  movements  of  the  Eroica 
S\Tnphony,  D  minor  Sonata  (op.  31,  No.  2),  the 
Waldstein,  the  Appassionata,  and  the  Bb  Sonata, 
op.  106,  the  first  movement  of  the  Quartet  in  Eb, 
op.  127,  and  of  the  Kreutzer  Sonata,  the  slow 
movements  of  the  Violin  Sonata  in  C  minor,  op. 
.-o.  and  of  the  great  Bb  Sonata  just  named,  all 
which  present  the  various  features  above  enu- 
merated in  great  perfection.  No  system  can  be 
defined  of  the  way  in  which  Beethoven  connects 
his  first  and  second  subject  in  this  part  of  the 
movement,  as  he  particularly  avoids  sameness 
of  procedure  in  such  matters.  As  a  rule  the 
second  subject  is  given  more  simply  than  the 
first ;  no  doubt  because  of  its  being  generally 
of  less  vital  importance,  and  less  prominent  in 
the  mind  of  the  hearer,  and  therefore  requiring 
to  be  more  easily  recognisable.  With  regard 
to  the  key  in  which  it  appears,  he  occasionally 
varies,  particularly  when  it  has  not  appeared  in 
the  fii"st  part  in  the  orthodox  Dominant  key. 
Thus  in  the  first  movement  of  the  great  Quartet 
in  Bb,  op.  130,  the  second  subject,  which  had 
appeared  in  the  first  part  in  the  key  of  the  third 
below  (Gb  relative  to  Bb),  appears  in  the  recapi- 
tulation in  the  key  of  the  minor  third  above — Db. 
And  in  the  Sonata  in  G  major,  op.  31,  the  second 
subject,  which  appeared  in  the  key  of  the  major 
third  in  the  first  part,  appears  in  the  reprise  in 
that  of  the  minor  third  below.  These  and  other 
analogous  instances  seem  to  indicate  that  in  the 
statement  and  restatement  of  his  subjects,  when 
they  did  not  follow  the  established  order,  he  held 
the  balance  to  be  between  the  third  above  and 
the  third  below,  major  and  minor.  The  reason 
for  his  not  doing  so  in  the  Bb  Sonata  (op.  106) 
is  no  doubt  because  in  the  very  elaborate  repeat 


of  the  first  section  he  had  modulated  so  far  away 
from  the  principal  key. 

The  last  point  to  which  we  come  in  Beethoven's 
treatment  of  the  Sonata-forms  is  his  use  of  the 
Coda,  which  is,  no  doubt,  the  most  remarkable 
and  individual  of  all.  It  has  been  before  pointed 
out  that  Mozart  confines  himself  chiefly  to  Codas 
after  repetition  of  the  second  half  of  his  move- 
ments, and  these  are  sometimes  interesting  and 
forcible;  but  Codas  added  for  less  obvious  reasons 
are  rare ;  and  as  a  rule  both  his  Codas  and 
Haydn's  remain  steadily  in  the  principal  key 
of  the  movement,  and  strengthen  the  Cadence 
by  repetition  rather  than  by  leading  the  mind 
away  to  another  key,  and  then  back  again  up  to 
a  fresh  climax  of  key- definition.  That  is  to  say, 
they  added  for  formal  purposes  and  not  for  the 
sake  of  fresh  points  of  interest.  Beethoven,  on 
the  other  hand,  seemed  to  look  upon  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  movement  as  a  point  where  interest 
should  be  concentrated,  and  some  most  moving 
effects  produced.  It  must  have  seemed  to  him 
a  pure  absurdity  to  end  the  whole  precisely  as 
the  half,  and  to  conclude  with  matter  which  had 
lost  part  of  its  zest  from  having  been  all  heard 
before.  Hence  from  quite  an  early  period  (e.g. 
slow  movement  of  D  major  Sonata,  op.  10,  No. 
3)  he  began  to  reproduce  his  subjects  in  new  and 
interesting  phases  in  this  part  of  the  movement, 
indulging  in  free  and  forcible  modulation,  which 
seems  even  from  the  point  of  pure  form  to  endow 
the  final  Cadence  with  fresh  force  when  the  ori- 
ginal key  is  regained.  The  form  of  the  Coda  is 
evidently  quite  independent.  He  either  com- 
mences it  from  an  interrupted  Cadence  at  the 
end  of  the  preceding  section,  or  passes  on  from  the 
final  chord  without  stopping — in  the  latter  case 
generally  with  decisive  modulation.  In  other 
cases  he  does  not  conclude  the  preceding  section, 
but  as  it  were  grafts  the  Coda  on  to  the  old 
stock,  from  which  it  springs  with  wonderful  and 
altogether  renewed  vigour.  As  conspicuous  in- 
stances may  be  quoted  the  Coda  of  the  Sonata  in 
Eb,  Op.  81a,  ('Les  Adieux,  1' Absence,  et  le  Re- 
tour,')  which  is  quite  the  culminating  point  of 
interest  in  the  movement ;  the  vehement  and 
impetuous  Coda  of  the  last  movement  of  the  Ap- 
passionata Sonata,  which  introduces  quite  a  new 
feature,  and  the  Coda  to  the  last  movement  of 
the  Waldstein  Sonata.  The  two  climacteric  Codas 
of  all,  however,  are  those  to  the  first  movements 
of  the  Eroica  and  the  9th  Symphony,  which  are 
sublime.  The  former  chiefly  by  reason  of  its 
outset,  for  there  is  hardly  anything  more  amazing 
in  music  than  the  drop  from  the  piano  Tonic  Eb 
which  concludes  the  preceding  section,  to  a  forte 
Db,  and  then  to  the  chord  of  C  major  fortissimo. 
But  the  whole  Coda  of  the  first  movement  of  the 
9th  Symphony  is  a  perpetual  climax  and  a  type 
of  Beethoven's  grandest  conceptions,  full  of 
varied  modulation,  and  constant  representation 
of  the  features  of  the  subjects  in  various  new 
lights,  and  ending  with  a  surging,  giant-striding 
specimen  of  'Tonic  and  Dominant,'  by  way  of 
enforcing  the  key,  which  is  quite  without  rival 
in  the  whole  domain  of  music. 


552 


FORM. 


rOEM. 


There  can  be  no  object  in  following  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  system  of  Form  further  than 
Beethoven,  for  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  there  is 
anything  further  to  trace.  His  works  present 
it  in  its  greatest  variety  and  on  the  grandest 
scale  ;  and  his  successors,  great  as  many  of  them 
have  been,  have  not  even  approached  him,  far 
less  added  to  his  final  culmination.  The  main 
tendency  observable  in  later  instrumental  works 
is  to  develop  still  further  the  system  above  dis- 
cussed of  taking  one  key  as  central  in  a  group 
comprising  many  subsidiary  transitions.  Schu- 
mann's works  present  remarkable  instances  of 
this ;  Mendelssohn  adopts  the  same  practice,  but 
with  more  moderation ;  Brahms  again  is  ex- 
tremely free  in  the  same  direction ;  as  may  be 
observed,  for  instance,  in  the  first  section  of  the 
fiirst  movement  of  the  pianoforte  Quartet,  op.  25, 
which  is  nomiually  in  G  minor.  This  is  ap- 
parently a  recognition  of  the  hypothesis  above 
proposed,  that  the  mind  is  capable  of  being  more 
and  more  educated  to  recognise  the  principal  key 
in  a  chain  of  transitions  which  to  the  audiences 
of  Mozart's  day  would  have  been  quite  imin- 
telligible. 

It  is  now  time  to  return  to  the  consideration 
of  the  Rondo -form  as  found  in  the  works  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  in  which  it  was  frequently 
afiected  by  the  more  important  and  interesting 
First -movement -form.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
its  combination  with  that  form  does  not  ofier 
much  difficulty.  For  that  alternation  of  subject 
and  episode  which  is  the  very  basis  of  the  Rondo 
opens  the  way  to  the  adoption  of  a  second  sub- 
ject in  the  complementary  key  as  the  fittest 
antithesis  to  the  first  statement  of  the  principal 
subject ;  and  the  main  point  of  distinction  of  the 
Rondo-form  from  the  First-movement-form  pure 
and  simple,  is  that  the  first  subject  reappears 
after  the  second  in  the  original  key,  instead  of 
bringing  the  first  half  of  the  movement  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  complementary  key.  After  this 
deviation  the  form  again  follows  the  system  of 
the  first  movement ;  for — as  we  have  already 
sufficiently  pointed  out — no  fitter  place  is  found 
to  develop  the  figures  and  features  of  the  subjects 
and  to  modulate  freely.  In  the  simpler  system 
of  the  Rondo  this  again  takes  the  place  of  an 
episode ;  in  both  systems  the  first  subject  would 
here  recur,  and  nothing  could  more  fitly  follow  it 
than  the  recapitulation  of  that  subject  which 
occupied  the  place  of  the  first  episode.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  in  the  Rondo  of  the  Wald- 
Btein  Sonata,  Beethoven  has  in  this  place  repro- 
duced the  subject  which  opens  the  first  episode, 
though  the  movement  is  not  cast  on  the  system 
of  a  first  movement.  Finally,  the  subject  may 
reappear  yet  again  in  the  original  key  without 
deviating  strongly  from  that  system ;  so  that,  as 
just  mentioned,  the  only  marked  point  of  devia- 
tion is  the  return  to  the  principal  key  after  the 
appearance  of  the  second  subject.  This  complete 
adaptation  is  more  commonly  abbreviated  by 
replacing  the  *  Development '  by  a  short  episode 
(as  in  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  E,  op.  90) ;  and 
even  further  (as  in  the  Finale  of  Mozart's  Quar- 


tet in  Eb,  No.  4),  by  passing  immediately  from 

the  second  subject  to  the  recapitulation  of  both 
subjects  in  the  principal  key,  and  ending  with  one 
further  final  quotation  of  the  real  Rondo-subject. 
This  latter  in  point  of  fact  is  to  be  explained 
rather  as  a  simple  method  of  establishing  the 
balance  of  keys  by  giving  an  episode  in  a  com- 
plementary key,  than  as  based  on  any  precon- 
ceived notion  of  amalgamation  with  the  First- 
movement-form. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  features  in  the 
Rondos  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  is  the  frequent 
rigidity  of  the  subject.  It  is  common  to  meet 
with  a  complete  dance -tune  divided  into  two 
halves,  each  repeated  after  the  accepted  system, 
and  closing  formally  in  the  principal  key.  So 
that  it  is  in  fact  a  complete  piece  in  itself,  and 
stands  out  as  markedly  as  Couperin's  subjects 
do  with  fermatas  over  the  concluding  chords. 
In  these  cases  the  tune  is  not  given  in  extenso 
at  each  repetition,  but  is  generally  fined  and 
rounded  oflF  so  as  not  to  affect  the  continuity  of 
the  movement  so  conspicuously  as  in  its  first 
statement. 

The  angularity  and  obviousness  of  outline 
which  often  mark  the  Rondo  form  in  works 
prior  to  Beethoven,  were  to  a  certain  extent 
alleviated  by  the  use  of  ingenious  playful  treat- 
ment of  the  figures  of  the  chief  subject  by 
way  of  episode;  but  nevertheless  the  formality 
remains,  and  marks  the  Rondo  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart  as  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  not  to  be 
revived  in  their  particular  manner  in  the  present 
day  without  perpetrating  an  artistic  anachronism. 
Beethoven's  treatment  of  the  Rondo  ofi'ers  great 
differences,  but  they  are  chiefly  in  point  of  senti- 
ment, and  difficult  to  define.  Prior  to  his  day 
there  had  evidently  been  a  persistent  tradition 
that  final  Rondos  were  bound  to  be  gay,  jaimty, 
light,  or  even  flippant.  With  Beethoven  such  a 
dogma  was  impossible ;  and  he  therefore  took  the 
line  of  developing  the  opportunities  it  offered, 
either  for  humorous  purposes,  in  the  persistent 
repetition  of  a  quaint  phrase  (Sonata  in  D, 
op.  10,  No.  3),  or  in  the  natiiral  and  desirable 
recurrence  of  a  melody  of  great  beauty  (So- 
nata in  E,  op.  90,  and  Waldstein).  In  every 
case  the  system  is  taken  out  of  the  domain  of 
mere  observance  of  formula,  and  its  basis  vital- 
ised afresh  by  making  it  the  vehicle  of  thoughts 
which  can  appear  in  such  an  order  without 
losing  their  true  significance.  In  point  of  fact 
the  Rondo  form  is  elastic  enough  notwithstanding 
its  simplicity,  and  if  the  above  sketch  has  not 
sufficiently  indicated  that  fact,  the  study  of  the 
movements  mentioned,  and  those  in  Beethoven's 
Eb  and  G  Concertos  and  Bb  Trio,  will  lead  to 
the  perception  of  the  opportunities  it  offers  to 
the  composer  better  than  any  attempt  at  reducing 
the  various  features  to  a  formula. 

The  Minuet  and  Trio  survive  as  pure  and  un- 
developed examples  of  the  original  soiu'ce  of  the 
larger  movements,  in  immediate  contact  with 
their  wonderfully  transformed  descendants.  They 
offer  no  systematic  difference  whatever  from  the 
dances  in  the  Suitea  which  preceded  the  perfected 


FORM. 


FORM. 


653 


Sonata.  The  main  points  of  form  in  the  two  are 
similar.  The  first  half  of  each  generally  esta- 
blishes some  sort  of  balance  between  the  principal 
key  and  its  complementary  key,  and  is  then  re- 
peated. The  second  half  begins  with  a  passage 
in  which  harmonic  roots  vary  on  a  more  extended 
scale  than  they  do  in  the  first  half,  proceeding  not 
unfrequently,  if  the  dance  be  on  a  large  scale,  as 
far  as  transient  modulations ;  and  the  last  and 
clenching  section  is  a  repetition  of  some  notable 
feature  of  the  first  part.  Short  as  the  form  is,  it 
admits  of  a  great  amount  of  variety,  and  it  is  one 
of  Haydn's  triumphs  to  have  endowed  his  innu- 
merable specimens  with  ever-changing  freshness. 
The  alternation  of  Minuet  and  Trio  (which  are 
in  fact  two  minuets)  is  obviously  in  itself  an 
element  of  Form,  and  derives  some  force  from 
the  contrast  of  the  keys  in  which  the  two  are 
written,  as  well  as  from  the  contrast  of  their 
styles.  In  Haydn's  early  Quartets — in  which  he 
still  closely  followed  the  order  of  the  Suites — 
the  two  are  frequently  in  the  same  key,  or  in 
major  and  minor  of  the  same  key  ;  but  in  his 
later  works  he  takes  advantage  of  contrasts  of 
key  and  puts  his  Trio  in  the  Subdominant,  or 
even  in  the  third  below,  as  in  the  Quartet  in  G, 
op.  77.  The  system  of  alternating  dances  after 
this  manner,  probably  with  a  view  to  formal  com- 
pleteness, is  evidently  of  old  standing,  being 
found  even  in  Lully's  works,  and  later,  as  vnll 
be  more  generally  remembered  by  musicians,  in 
Gluck's  Iphigenie  in  Aulis,  and  in  Handel's 
Overture  to  Samson.  It  is  chiefly  in  this  respect 
that  we  can  still  trace  the  relation  of  the  Minuet 
and  Trio  to  the  modem  Scherzo,  which  is  its 
legitimate  successor,  though  in  other  respects  it 
has  not  only  changed  its  characteristic  rhjrthms 
and  time,  but  even  its  style  and  form. 

The  Scherzo  is  in  fact  the  most  free  and  inde- 
pendent of  all  the  movements  of  a  modem  instru- 
mental work,  being  characterised  rather  by  its 
sportive  and  playful  style  than  by  any  fixed  and 
systematic  distribution  of  subjects  and  keys. 
Occasionally  it  falls  into  the  same  order  of  dis- 
tribution as  a  first  movement,  but  there  is  no 
necessity  whatever  that  it  should  do  so,  and  its 
whole  character, — happiest  when  based  upon  the 
incessant  repetition  in  varying  lights  and  cir- 
cumstances of  a  strongly  rhythmic  figure, — is 
headlong  abandon  rather  than  the  premeditated 
design  of  the  serious  First  movement.  Beethoven 
was  the  real  creator  of  the  modem  Scherzo,  for 
all  that  a  few  examples  exist  prior  to  him ;  for 
these  are  essentially  in  unsophisticated  dance 
form,  and  belong  to  the  old  order  of  things, 
but  Beethoven's  infinitely  various  Scherzi  are  all 
marked  by  a  certain  intimate  quality  of  style, 
which  has  been  the  real  starting-point  of  his 
successors,  rather  than  any  definite  formal  basis. 
Mendelssohn  created  quite  a  new  order  of  Scherzi 
of  a  light,  happy,  fairylike  character,  in  which  his 
bright  genial  nature  spontaneously  expressed 
itself.  But  to  him  the  like  remark  applies,  for 
they  are  essentially  characterised  rather  by  spirit 
than  form.  Schumann  was  fond  of  putting  two 
Trios  in  his  Scherzi;  as  in  two  of  bis  Sym- 


phonies, and  in  the  very  popular  pianoforte 
Quintet  in  Eb.  This  was  prefigured  in  Beethoven 
by  the  repetition  of  the  Trio  in  the  Symphonies 
in  A  and  Bb. 

The  form  of  the  Slow  movement  in  Sonatas 
and  Symphonies  is  decidedly  variable.  It  is 
most  commonly  based  on  the  same  system  as 
a  first  movement,  but  owing  to  the  length  of 
time  necessary  to  go  through  the  whole  series 
of  sections  in  the  slow  tempo,  it  is  common  to 
abbreviate  it  in  some  way,  as  by  omitting  the 
portion  usually  devoted  to  'development'  and 
modulation,  and  passing  by  a  short  link  only 
from  the  presentation  of  the  subjects  to  their 
recapitulation — as  in  the  slow  movement  of  Bee- 
thoven's Sonata  in  Bb,  op.  106,  and  that  of 
Mozart's  Quartet  in  Bb,  No.  3.  There  are  a  few 
instances  of  Slow  movement  in  Rondo  form — as 
in  Mozart's  Sonatas  in  C  minor,  C  major  (1778), 
and  D  (1777);  Beethoven's  Sonata  pathetique, 
and  that  in  G  (op.  31,  No.  i) — and  several  in  the 
form  of  a  set  of  Variations.  Another  happy 
form  of  this  movement  is  a  species  of  aria  or 
melody,  cast  in  the  old  Rondo  form,  like  the 
example  of  Lully  quoted  at  the  commencement 
of  this  article.  Of  this  the  beautiful  Cavatina 
in  Beethoven's  Bb  Quartet  (op.  130)  is  a  very 
fine  example,  its  form  being  simply  a  section 
consisting  of  the  aria  or  melody  continuously 
developed,  followed  by  a  section  C(msisting  of 
impassioned  recitative,  and  concluding  with  a 
return  to  the  original  section  somewhat  abbre- 
viated. This  form  resolves  itself  practically  into 
the  same  formal  basis  as  the  Minuet  and  Trio  or 
Scherzo,  though  so  different  in  character;  for  it 
depends  almost  entirely  on  the  repetition  of  a 
long  complete  section  with  a  contrasting  section 
in  the  middle.  And  the  same  simple  basis  wUl 
be  found  to  predominate  very  largely  in  Music,* 
even  in  such  widely  different  classes  as  modern 
Nocturnes,  like  those  of  Field  and  Chopin,  and 
Arias  of  the  time  of  Handel,  of  which  his  *  Waft 
her.  Angels '  is  a  very  clear  example. 

The  idea  of  Variations  was  very  early  arrived 
at  by  musicians  ;  for  Dr.  Burney  points  out  that 
in  the  age  of  Queen  Elizabeth  there  was  a  perfect 
rage  for  this  kind  of  music,  which  consisted  '  in 
multiplying  notes,  and  disguising  the  melody  of 
an  easy,  and,  generally,  well-known  air,  by  every 
means  that  a  spacca  nota,  or  note-splitter,  saw 
possible.'  This  primitive  kind  of  variation  was 
still  a  form  of  some  sort,  and  is  based  upon  the 
same  principle  as  that  of  ground  basses,  such  as 
are  found  in  Purcell's  'Dido  and  ^neas,'  and 
were  very  popular  in  those  days ;  and  of  such 
forms  again  as  Bach's  Passacaglia,  or  Chopin's 
Berceuse  in  Db,  or  even  the  wonderful  continuous 
recitative  on  a  constant  repetition  of  a  short 
rhythmic  figure  in  the  bass,  in  Bach's  Italian 
Concerto.  In  all  these  cases  the  principle  is 
that  of  constant  and  continuous  repetition  as  a 
basis  for  superimposed  variety.  Into  Variations 
as  Variations  the  question  of  Form  does  not  enter, 

>  This  form  Is  often  called  the  Lied-form,  a  term  originated  by  Dr. 
Man ;  but  being  clearly  a  misnomer  It  has  not  been  adopted  by  tto« 
present  writer. 


554 


FOEM, 


FORM. 


or  at  least  only  in  such  a  special  way  that  its 
consideration  must  be  left  to  that  particular  head. 
But  as  a  form  in  itself  it  has  been  employed 
largely  and  to  a  degree  of  great  importance  by 
all  the  greatest  masters  in  the  department 
of  Instrumental  Music  ;  as  by  Handel,  Bach, 
Beethoven,  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann, 
and  Brahms.  In  most  cases  sets  of  Variations 
are  not  continuous,  but  each  Variation  is  detached 
from  its  fellow,  making  a  series  of  little  move- 
ments like  the  Theme,  each  in  the  same  key. 
But  this  is  not  invariable ;  for  on  the  one  hand, 
Beethoven  produced  a  veiy  remarkable  set  of 
Variations  on  a  Theme  in  F  (op.  34),  in  which 
the  key  changes  for  each  variation  ;  and  on  the 
other  hand  there  are  many  examples  of  Variations  , 
which  are  continuous,  that  is,  run  into  one 
another  consecutively,  without  pause,  as  in  the 
last  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  C  minor, 
op.  Ill,  and  (on  a  smaller  scale)  the  slow  move- 
ment of  Haydn's  Quartet  in  B  minor,  op.  64. 
It  is  very  common  for  sets  of  Variations  to  have 
a  grand  Coda — frequently  an  independent  move- 
ment, such  as  a  Fugue  or  free  Fantasia  based 
upon  some  conspicuous  figure  of  the  Theme ;  as 
in  Beethoven's  Prometheus  Variations,  op.  35, 
and  Schumann's  Etudes  Symphoniques.  There 
can  be  no  possible  reason  for  tying  down  com- 
posers by  any  rigid  dogmas  as  to  key  or  order 
of  succession  in  the  construction  of  a  work  in 
the  form  of  Variations.  Change  of  key  is  emi- 
nently desirable,  for  the  succession  of  a  number 
of  short  clauses  of  any  sort  with  a  cadence  to 
each,  runs  sufficient  risk  of  monotony  without 
the  additional  incubus  of  unvarying  tonality. 
Moreover  it  is  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion, 
based  on  the  development  of  the  great  variations 
in  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  C,  op.  iii, 
those  in  the  Sonata  in  G  (op.  14),  and  those  on  an 
original  theme  in  F  (op.  34),  that  the  occasional 
introduction  of  an  episode  or  continuation  be- 
tween two  variations  is  perfectly  legitimate,  pro- 
vided it  be  clearly  connected  with  the  series  by 
its  figures.  For  if  the  basis  of  form  which 
underlies  the  Variations  as  a  complete  whole 
be  kept  in  mind,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the 
system  of  incessant  repetition,  when  thoroughly 
established,  would  rather  gain  than  lose  by  a 
slight  deviation,  more  especially  if  that  which 
follows  the  deviation  is  a  clearer  and  more  ob- 
vious version  of  the  theme  than  has  appeared  in 
the  variations  immediately  preceding  it. 

It  will  be  best  to  refer  the  consideration  of 
the  general  construction  of  Symphonies,  Over- 
tures, Concertos,  Sonatas,  etc.,  to  their  respective 
heads,  merely  pointing  out  here  such  things  as 
really  belong  to  the  general  question. 

The  practice  of  prefacing  the  whole  by  an 
Introduction  probably  originated  in  a  few  pre- 
liminary chords  to  call  the  attention  of  the  audi- 
ence, as  is  typified  in  the  single  forte  chord  which 
opens  Haydn's  Quartet  in  Eb  (No.  33  in  Traut- 
wein).  Many  examples  of  more  extensive  and 
purely  musical  introductions  are  to  be  found  in 
Haydn's  and  Mozart's  works,  and  these  not 
unfrequently  contain  a  tune  or  figure  of  seme 


importance;  but  they  seldom  have  any  closer 
connection  with  the  movement  that  follows  than 
that  of  being  introductory,  and  whenever  there 
is  any  modulation  it  is  confined  within  very 
small  limits,  generally  to  a  simple  alternation 
of  Tonic  and  Domiaant.  Beethoven  has  occa- 
sionally made  very  important  use  of  the  intro- 
duction, employing  free  modulation  in  some 
instances,  and  producing  very  beautiful  tunes  in 
it,  as  in  the  Symphony  in  A.  The  most  im- 
portant feature  in  his  use  of  it  is  his  practice  of 
incorporating  it  with  the  succeeding  movement ; 
either  by  the  use  of  a  conspicuous  figure  taken  from 
it  as  a  motto  or  central  idea,  as  in  the  Sonata  in 
Eb,  op.  8ia;  or  by  interrupting  the  course  of 
the  succeeding  movement  to  reintroduce  frag- 
ments of  it,  as  in  the  Quartet  in  Bb,  op.  130; 
or  by  making  it  altogether  part  of  the  movement, 
as  in  the  9th  Symphony,  where  it  has  an  imme- 
diate and  very  remarkable  connection  with  the 
first  subject. 

The  order  of  succession,  and  the  relation  of  ' 
the  keys  of  the  diff'erent  movements  of  which 
each  complete  work  is  composed,  passed  through 
various  stages  of  change  similar  to  those  which 
characterised  the  development  of  the  form  of  the 
several  movements,  and  arrived  at  a  certain 
consistency  of  principle  in  Mozart's  time ;  but 
contrast  of  style  and  time  is  and  has  been,  since 
the  early  Suites,  the  guiding  principle  in  their 
distribution.  In  the  Suites  and  early  examples 
of  instrumental  music,  such  as  some  of  Haydn's 
early  Quartets,  all  the  movements  were  in  the 
same  key.  Later  it  became  customary  to  cast  at 
least  one  movement  in  another  key,  the  key  of 
the  Subdominant  predominating.  No  rigid  rule 
can  be  given,  except  that  the  key  of  the  Domi- 
nant of  the  principal  key  seems  undesirable, 
except  in  works  in  which  that  key  is  m-inor; 
and  the  use  of  very  extraneous  keys  should  be 
avoided.  In  Sonatas  prior  to  Beethoven  the 
interest  generally  seems  to  centre  in  the  earlier 
movements,  passing  to  the  lighter  refection  at 
the  conclusion.  Beethoven  changed  this,  in 
view  of  making  the  whole  of  imiform  interest 
and  equal  and  coherent  importance.  Prior  to 
him  the  movements  were  merely  a  succession  of 
detached  pieces,  hitched  together  chiefly  with 
consideration  of  their  mutual  contrasts  under  the 
name  of  Sonata  or  Symphony — such  as  is  typified 
even  in  Weber's  Ab  Sonata,  of  which  the  two 
last  movements  were  written  full  two  years 
before  the  two  first,  and  in  the  similar  history 
of  some  of  Mozart's  works.  With  Beethoven 
what  was  a  whole  in  name  must  be  also  a  whole 
in  fact.  The  movements  might  be  chapters,  and 
distinct  from  one  another,  but  stiU  consecutive 
chapters,  and  in  the  same  story.  Helmholtz 
points  out  the  scientific  aspect  of  a  connection  of 
this  kind  in  the  Sonata  in  E,  op.  90,  of  which  he 
says,  *  The  first  movement  is  an  example  of  the 
peculiar  depression  caused  by  repeated  "Doric" 
cadences,  whence  the  second  (major)  movement 
acquires  a  still  softer  expression.'  In  some  cases 
Beethoven  connected  the  movements  by  such 
subtle  devices  as  making  disguised  versions  of 


FORM. 


FORSTER. 


555 


an  identical  figure  reappear  in  the  different 
movements,  as  in  the  Sonatas  in  Bb,  op.  io6, 
and  in  Ab,  op.  109,  and  the  Quartet  in  Bb. 
Such  a  device  as  this  was  not  altogether  unknown 
to  Mozart,  who  connects  the  Minuet  and  Trio  of 
the  Quintet  in  G  minor,  by  making  a  little 
fi'^ure  which  appears  at  the  final  cadence  of  the 
Minuet  serve  as  the  basis  of  the  Trio — the 
Minuet  ending 


and  the  Trio  beginning 


In  a  little  Symphony  of  Haydn's  in  B  major 
part  of  the  Minuet  reappears  in  the  Finale ;  and  the 
same  thing  is  done  by  Beethoven  in  the  C  minor 
Symphony.  In  his  Sonata  called  *Les  Adieux, 
r Absence,  et  le  Retour'  (which  is  an  instance  of 
programme  music),  the  last  two  movements,  slow 
and  fast,  pass  into  one  another;  as  is  also  the 
case  in  the  Sonata  Appassionata.  In  his  Quartet 
in  Cj  minor  all  the  movements  are  continuous. 
The  same  device  is  adopted  by  Mendelssohn  in 
his  Scotch  Symphony  and  Concertos,  by  Schumann 
in  the  D  minor  Symphony — the  title  of  which 
expressly  states  the  fact — and  by  Liszt  in  Con- 
certos. Schumann  also  in  his  Symphonies  in  C 
and  D  minor  connects  his  movements  by  the 
recurrence  of  figures  or  phrases.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FORMES,  Karl,  bass  singer,  son  of  the 
sexton  at  Miihlheim  on  the  Rhine,  bom  Aug. 
7,  1 8 10.  What  musical  instruction  he  had  he 
seems  to  have  obtained  in  the  church  choir  ;  but 
he  first  attracted  attention  at  the  concerts  for  the 
benefit  of  the  cathedral  fund  at  Cologne  in  1841. 
So  ob\ious  was  his  talent  that  he  was  urged  to 
go  on  the  stage,  and  made  his  dehut  at  Cologne 
as  Sarastro  in  the  Zauberflote,  Jan.  6,  42,  with 
the  most  marked  success,  ending  in  an  engage- 
ment for  three  years.  His  next  appearance  was 
at  Vienna.  In  1849  he  came  to  London,  and 
sang  first  at  Drury  Lane  in  a  German  company 
as  Sarastro  on  May  30.  He  made  his  appearance 
on  the  Italian  stage  at  Co  vent  Garden,  March 
16,  1850,  as  Caspar  in  '  H  Franco  Arciero'  (Der 
Freischiitz).  At  the  Philharmonic  he  sang  first 
on  the  following  Monday,  March  18.  From  that 
time  for  some  years  he  was  a  regular  visitor  to 
London,  and  filled  the  parts  of  Bertram,  Marcel, 
Rocco,  Leporello,  Beltramo,  etc.  In  1857  he 
went  to  America,  since  which  he  has  led  a  wan- 
dering life  here  and  there. 

For  volume,  compass,  and  quality,  his  voice 
was  one  of  the  most  magnificent  ever  heard. 
He  had  a  handsome  presence  and  excellent  dis- 
positions for  the  stage,  and  with  self-restraint 
and  industry  might  have  taken  an  almost  unique 
position. 

His  brother  Theodore,  16  years  his  junior, 
bom  June  24,  1826,  the  possessor  of  a  splendid 
tenor  voice  and  great  intelligence,  made  his  debut 
at  Ofen  in  1846,  and  from  57  to  64  was  one  of 


the  most  noted  opera  singers  of  Germany.  He 
too  has  been  in  America,  and  is  now  singing 
second-rate  parts  at  small  German  theatres.  [G.] 

FORNASARI,  Luciano,  a  bass  singer,  who 
made  his  appearance  about  1828  on  second  and 
third-rate  stages  in  Italy.  In  1831  he  was  sing- 
ing at  Milan ;  the  next  three  years  he  passed  at 
New  York.  He  sang  at  the  Havana  in  1835, 
in  1836  in  Mexico.  Returning  to  Europe  he  ob- 
tained an  engagement  at  Lisbon  in  1840,  and 
remained  there  two  years.  After  this  he  made 
a  tour  in  liis  native  country,  singing  with  success 
at  Rome,  Modena,  Palermo,  Turin,  and  Trieste. 
In  1843  (Fetis  is  wrong  in  fixing  it  in  1845)  For- 
nasari  appeared  in  London.  Fetis  says  he  had 
a  good  voice  and  sang  with  method.  Mr.  Chorley 
writes,  'The  new  baritone — as  substitute  for 
Tamburini — was  a  tall  dashing  man  : — he  pos- 
sessed a  very  handsome  face,  a  sufficient  voice, 
though  its  quality  was  not  pleasant — and  pre- 
tension enough  and  to  spare.  He  sang  with  bad 
method  and  confidence.'  He  continued  to  sing 
in  London  until  1846,  after  which  he  did  not 
again  appear.  [J.  M.] 

FORSTER  &  ANDREWS  have  been  esta- 
blished at  Hull  as  organ-builders  since  1843. 
Amongst  many  instruments  from  their  factory 
may  be  quoted  the  organs  in  the  Kinnaird  Hall, 
Dundee;  St.  Mary's,  Leicester;  Holy  Trinity, 
Hull ;  and  the  *  City  Temple '  Congregational 
Chapel,  London.  [V.deP.] 

FORSTER,  William,  eminent  instrument 
maker,  born  May  4,  1739,  at  Brampton,  Cum- 
berland, was  son  of  William,  and  grandson  of 
John  Forster,  makers  of  spinning  wheels  and 
violins.  He  was  taught  both  trades  by  his 
father,  and  also  learned  to  play  on  the  violin. 
He  came  to  London  in  1759  and  took  up  his 
abode  in  Prescott  Street,  Goodman's  Fields,  and 
for  a  time  endured  much  privation  from  inability 
to  obtain  suitable  employment.  Ultimately  he 
was  engaged  by  a  music  seller  on  Tower  Hill 
named  Beck,  and  the  violins  made  by  him  being 
much  approved  and  quickly  sold,  he  started  in 
business  on  his  own  account  in  Duke's  Court, 
St.  Martin's  Lane,  whence  he  shortly  removed 
into  St.  Martin's  Lane,  and  speedily  attained 
great  reputation.  Forster  afterwards  added  to 
his  business  that  of  a  music  seller  and  publisher, 
and  in  that  capacity  in  1781  entered  into  an 
agreement  with  Haydn  for  S;he  purchase  and 
publication  in  England  of  that  master's  com- 
positions, and  between  that  date  and  1787  pub- 
lished 83  symphonies,  24  quartets,  24  solos,  duets 
and  trios,  and  the  '  Passione,'  or  '  Seven  Last 
Words.'  About  1785  he  removed  into  the  Strand 
(No.  348),  where  the  business  was  carried  on  until 
the  pulling  down  of  Exeter 'Change.  In  1795  he 
issued  a  copper  medal  or  token,  halfpenny  size, 
bearing — Obverse,  'Wm.  Forster,  Violin,  Tenor 
and  Violoncello  Maker,  No.  348,  Strand,  London.' 
Prince  of  Wales's  feathers  in  the  field.  Reverse. 
The  melody  of  *  God  save  the  King '  in  musical 
notation  in  the  key  of  G.  A  crown  in  the  field, 
above  it  *God  save  the  king,'  beneath  it  *  1795/ 


656 


FORSTER. 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL. 


William  Forster  died  at  tiie  house  of  his  son,  22, 
York  St.,  Westminster,  Dec.  14,  1808.  [W.H.H.] 

Forster,  William,  (No.  2),  son  of  the  above- 
mentioned,  and  generally  known  as  'Royal' 
Forster,  from  his  title  'Music  Seller  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales  and  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.' 
Bom  1764,  died  1824.  Like  his  father,  he  made 
large  numlDers  of  instruments,  which  once  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation.  By  making  the  bellies  of  their 
instruments  thin,  and  increasing  the  weight  of 
the  blocks  and  linings,  the  Forsters  obtained, 
while  the  instrument  was  still  new,  a  strong  and 
penetrating  tone,  which  found  high  favour  with 
Lindley  and  his  school.  Being  well  made  and 
finished,  and  covered  with  excellent  varnish, 
their  instruments  have  much  that  commends 
them  to  the  eye.  The  Forsters  copied  both 
Stainer  and  Amati.  'Royal'  Forster  had  two 
sons  :  William  Forster  (No.  3),  the  eldest, 
devoted  himself  to  other  pursuits,  and  made 
but  few  instruments ;  but  the  second,  Simon 
Andrew  Forster,  carried  on  the  business,  first 
in  Frith  Street,  afterwards  in  Macclesfield  Street, 
Soho.  Simon  Andrew  Forster  made  instruments 
of  high  model  and  no  great  merit.  He  is  best 
known  as  the  author  (jointly  with  W.  Sandys, 
F.S.A.)  of  'The  History  of  the  Violin  and  other 
Instruments  played  with  the  Bow,'  1864.  He 
died  Feb.  2,  1870.  [E.J. P.] 

FORTE,  loud  :  an  Italian  word,  usually  ab- 
breviated into  /.  A  lesser  degree  of  loudness  is 
expressed  by  mf — mezzoforte ;  a  greater  one  by 
piii  f  and  ff,  and  the  greatest  of  all  by  fff — 
fortissimo,  as  in  Beethoven's  7th  Symphony 
(Finale),  8th  ditto  (ist  movement).  Overture, 
op.  115  (at  end),  Leonore,  No,  2  (8vo  score,  pp. 
40,  76),  or  at  the  grand  climax  near  the  close  of 
the  Finale  of  Schubert's  Symphony  in  C,  at  the 
end  of  the  extraordinary  long  crescendo,  ffff 
has  been  occasionally  used  by  later  composers,  as 
in  the  Overture  to  '  Charlotte  Corday,'  by  Benoit. 

Fortepiano — afterwards  changed  to  Piano- 
forte— was  the  natural  ItaKan  name  for  the  new 
instrument  which  could  give  both  loud  and  soft 
sounds,  instead  of  loud  only,  as  was  the  case  with 
the  harpsichord. 

fp.  is  a  characteristic  sign  in  Beethoven,  and 
one  which  he  often  uses  ;  it  denotes  a  sudden 
forte  and  an  equally  sudden  piano.  He  wUl 
require  it  in  the  space  of  a  single  crotchet  or  even 
quaver,  as  in  the  Overture  to  Leonore,  No.  2 
(8vo  score,  pp.  31,  43,  51 — -fj^p).  Again,  he 
was  very  fond  of  a  foj'te  passage  succeeded 
suddenly,  without  any  diminuendo,  by  a  p,  as 
in  bars  64  to  66  of  the  Allegro  of  the  same  work, 
where  the  sudden  p  on  the  Fj  is  miraculous  ;  or 
in  the  reprise  of  the  subject  after  the  trumpet 
fanfares,  where  if  the  p  is  not  observed  the  flute 
Bolo  is  overwhelmed.  In  a  fine  performance  of 
his  works  half  the  battle  lies  in  the  exact  observ- 
ance of  these  nuances.  No  one  marked  them  before 
him,  and  no  one  has  excelled  them  since.  [G.] 

FORTI,  Anton,  distinguished  baritone  singer, 
Gom  at  Vienna  June  8,  1790.  He  made  his 
debut  at  Presburg  with  so  much  success  that 
towards  the  end  of  1 807  Prince  Esterhazy  engaged 


him  almost  at  the  same  time  as  the  tenor  Wild 
for  his  celebrated  band.  Forti  soon  forfeited  the 
favour  of  the  Prince,  who  suddenly  enrolled  him 
as  a  soldier,  and  only  released  him  at  the  in- 
tercession of  several  of  the  nobility.  He  next 
appeared  (June  29,  1811)  at  the  Theatre  'an 
der  Wien'  as  Don  Juan,  a  part  for  which  his 
very  sonorous  voice,  commanding  presence,  and 
elevated  refined  style  of  acting  eminently  fitted 
him.  In  April  181 3  he  was  engaged  at  the 
court  theatre,  and  speedily  became  a  favourite. 
Besides  Don  Juan  he  specially  excelled  in  Figaro 
(Mozart  and  Rossini),  Telasco  (Ferdinand  Cortez), 
etc.,  and  in  French  dialogue-operas.  He  sang 
Pizarro  at  the  revival  of  'Fidelio'  in  181 4;  and 
Lysiart  at  the  first  performance  of  '  Euryanthe' 
(1823).  When  Count  Gallenberg  imdertook  the 
direction  of  the  court  theatre  in  1829  Forti 
was  pensioned,  and  made  starring  tours  to 
Prague,  Hamburg,  and  Berlin,  where  he  also 
took  a  short  engagement.  On  his  return  to 
Vienna  his  voice  had  lost  its  charm,  and  his 
increasing  corpulence  spoiled  his  acting.  He 
retired  finally  from  the  stage  after  winning  the 
first  pi-ize  at  one  of  the  public  lotteries,  and  died 
July  16, 1859.  [C.F.P.] 

FORZA  DEL  DESTINO,  LA.  Tragic  Opera 
by  Verdi,  libretto  by  Piave  ;  in  4  acts.  Produced 
at  St.  Petersbm-g  30  Oct.  (11  Nov.)  1862,  and  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  June  22, 1867. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL.  The  connection 
of  Handel  with  this  charitable  institution  (founded 
by  Captain  Coram  in  1739)  forms  a  pleasant 
episode  in  the  composer's  life  in  England,  and 
gives  a  signal  illustration  of  his  benevolence. 
Following  the  example  of  the  masters  of  the 
sister  art  of  Painting,  who  organised  an  exhi- 
bition on  its  behalf,  and  of  Hogarth  and  others 
who  presented  paintings  for  its  decoration,  Handel 
on  May  4,  1749,  attended  a  committee  at  the 
Hospital,  and  offered  a  performance  of  vocal  and 
instrimaental  music  in  aid  of  the  fund  for  finishing 
the  chapel.  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  records 
that '  Saturday  2  7  th  [May]  the  Prince  and  Prin- 
cess of  Wales,  with  a  great  number  of  persons  of 
quality  and  distinction,  were  at  the  chapel  of  the 
Foundling  Hospital  to  hear  several  pieces  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  music,  composed  by  George 
Frederick  Handel,  Esq.,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
foundation  :  ist,  the  music  of  the  late  Fire  Works 
and  the  anthem  on  the  Peace  ;  2nd,  select  pieces 
from  the  oratorio  of  Solomon  relating  to  the  de- 
dication of  the  Temple ;  and  3rd,  several  pieces 
composed  for  the  occasion,  the  words  taken  from 
Scripture,  applicable  to  the  charity  and  its  bene- 
factors. There  was  no  collection,  but  the  tickets 
were  at  half-a  guinea,  and  the  audience  above  a 
thousand.'  For  this  act  Handel  was  at  once 
enrolled  as  one  of  the  governors  and  guardians 
of  the  Hospital,  and  during  every  subsequent 
year,  while  his  health  permitted,  he  directed 
the  performance  of  the  Messiah  in  the  chapel, 
which  yielded  to  the  charity  a  net  result  oi 
£7000  in  all.  The  governors,  under  a  misappre- 
hension, imagined  that  he  intended  to  presenl 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL. 


FRANZL. 


557 


them  with  the  copyright  of  the  oratorio,  and 
prepared  a  petition  to  parliament  praying  that  a 
bill  might  be  passed  to  secure  to  them  the 
right  in  perpetuity ;  but  Handel  indignantly-  re- 
pudiated any  such  intention,  and  the  petition 
never  reached  the  House.  On  the  completion  of 
the  chapel  Handel  presented  it  with  an  organ, 
which  he  opened  on  May  I,  1750,  when  the 
attendance  was  so  large  that  he  was  compelled 
to  repeat  the  performance.  The  composer  by  his 
will  bequeathed  '  a  fair  copy  of  the  score  and  all 
the  parts  of  the  Messiah '  to  the  Hospital, 
and  on  his  death  a  dirge  and  funeral  were  per- 
formed in  the  chapel  on  May  26, 1759,  under  the 
direction  of  his  amanuensis,  John  Christopher 
Smith,  who,  with  his  full  concurrence,  had  been 
appointed  the  first  organist.  In  July  1774  Dr. 
Bumey  proposed  to  the  governors  a  scheme  for 
forming  a  Public  Music  School  at  the  Hospital 
for  the  training  of  the  children  ;  but  strong  op- 
position was  raised  to  it,  and  it  was  never  pro- 
ceeded with.  The  chapel  services  are  still  note- 
worthy for  their  music,  in  which  the  professional 
choir  is  assisted  by  the  children,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  Willing,  the  organist.  (1878.)  [CM.] 

FOUENEAUX,  Napol£ox,  bom  May  21, 
1808,  at  Leard  (Ardennes),  originally  a  watch- 
maker, improved  the  Accordion.  In  1830  he 
settled  in  Paris  ;  in  36  bought  Chameroy's  organ- 
factory,  and  introduced  great  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  aU  reed  instnmients  blovm 
by  wind.  At  the  exhibition  of  1844  he  received 
a  silver  medal  for  his  'orgues  expressives.'  He 
originated  the  idea  of  the  percussion  action  in 
harmoniums.  He  died  at  Aubanton  (Aisne), 
July  19,  1846.  [M.C.C.] 

FOURNIER,  Pierre  Simon,  engraver  and 
type-founder,  bom  in  Paris  Sept.  15,  171 2,  died 
there  Oct.  8,  1768.  He  greatly  improved  the 
engraving  of  music  in  France,  which  up  to  his 
day  was  still  effected  by  punches  on  the  model 
of  those  cut  by  Hautin  in  1525.  He  replaced 
the  lozenge -shaped  notes  by  round  ones,  and 
made  music  altogether  easier  to  read,  although 
his  notes  were  still  thin  and  poor  compared  to 
those  of  later  times.  He  published  '  Essai  d'un 
nouveau  caract^re  de  fonte  pour  I'impression  de 
la  musique,  etc.'  (Paris  1756),  and  a  'Traits 
historique  et  critique  sur  I'origine  et  les  progr^s 
des  caractferes  de  fonte  pour  I'impression  de  la 
musique'  ( Paris  1 765),  which,  though  incomplete 
and  occasionally  incorrect,  contains  interesting 
information  on  music  printing  in  France.  Gia- 
como  Falconi  of  Venice  seems  to  have  attained 
a  similar  result  almost  simultaneously  with 
Foumier.  Falconi  published  at  Venice  in  1 765 
'Manifesto  d'uno  nuova  impresa  di  stampare  la 
musica,  etc.' ;  and  Paolucci's  '  Arte  pratica  di 
contrapunto'  (1765)  was  printed  in  the  new 
characters.  [M.C.C.] 

FOURTH  is  an  interval  comprising  two  whole 
tones  and  a  semitone.  It  is  called  a  fourth 
becavise  four  notes  are  passed  through  in  going 
from  one  extreme  of  the  interval  to  the  other, 
for  which  reason  the  Greeks  called  it  Si^  naaa- 


puv — Diatessaron.  The  ratio  of  the  vibrational 
numbers  of  its  limiting  sounds  is  3  :  4.  It  is  in 
fact  a  perfect  consonance,  though  regarded  as  a 
discord  in  the  old  Diatonic  style.  [C.H.H.P.] 

FRA  DIAVOLO,  OU  L'HOTELLERIE  DE 
TERRACINE.  Opdra  comique  in  3  acts  ;  words 
by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the 
Opera  comique  Jan.  28,  1830;  in  London — in 
English,  adapted  by  Rophino  Lacy — at  Drury 
Lane,  Nov.  3,  1831 ;  in  Italian,  at  the  Lyceum 
by  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  July  4-11,  1857. 

FRANZL,  Ferdinand,  eminent  violinist  and 
composer,  bom  in  1 7  70  at  Schwetzingen  in  the 
Palatinate.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
Ignaz  Franzl,  and  performed,  when  only  seven 
years  of  age,  a  concerto  at  a  court-concert  in 
Mannheim,  where  he  entered  the  band  of  the 
Elector  in  1782.  From  1785  he  began  to  travel 
with  his  father.  During  a  prolonged  stay  at 
Strassburg  he  studied  composition  under  Richter 
and  Pleyel,  and  later  under  Padre  Mattei  at 
Bologna.  He  appears  to  have  been  less  successful 
at  Paris  than  at  Rome,  Naples,  and  Palermo. 
Retumed  to  Mannheim  in  1792,  he  took  C. 
Cannabich's  place  as  leader  of  the  band,  but  in 
1802  again  started  for  a  tour  to  Russia.  At 
this  period  Franzl  was  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  one  of  the  best  of  living  violin-players, 
and  his  compositions  enjoyed  great  popularity. 
Spohr  heard  him  in  1802  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
gives  an  interesting  accoimt  of  him: — 'Franzl 
was  at  that  time  the  foremost  of  violin -players 
in  St.  Petersburg.  He  still  follows  the  old 
method  of  holding  the  violin  on  the  right  side 
of  the  tail-piece,  and  is  therefore  obliged  to  play 
with  his  head  bent  down.  [Violin.]  He  also 
lifts  the  right  arm  very  high,  and  has  a  bad 
habit  of  raising  his  eyebrows  whenever  he  plays 
something  expressive.  His  execution  is  neat  and 
clear.  In  the  slow  movements  he  performs  a 
great  many  runs,  shakes,  and  cadenzas,  with  rare 
precision  and  distinctness ;  but  as  soon  as  he 
plays  forte  his  tone  is  rough  and  unpleasant, 
owing  to  his  drawing  the  bow  too  slowly  and  too 
close  to  the  bridge,  and  pressing  it  too  much  on 
the  string.  Quick  passages  he  executes  with 
good  intonation  and  very  clearly,  but  invariably 
in  the  middle  of  the  bow,  and  consequently 
without  light  and  shade.'  On  a  later  occasion 
Spohr  comments  less  favourably  on  him,  and 
describes  both  his  style  and  his  compositions  as 
old-fashioned ;  but  this  only  shows  that  Franzl 
had  not  kept  pace  with  the  progress  made  in 
violin-playing  towards  the  end  of  the  last  and 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  could  not 
stand  comparison  vnth.  the  great  masters  of  the 
Paris  school,  still  less  with  Spohr  himself. 

In  1806  Franzl  returned  to  Munich,  and  was 
appointed  conductor  of  the  opera.  He  did  not 
however  give  up  travelling,  and  played  at  various 
times  in  Paris,  Amsterdam,  Vienna,  and  Leipzig. 
In  1823  he  made  a  second  joumey  to  Italy. 
He  then  retired  to  Geneva,  but  finally  settled 
at  Mannheim,  and  died  there  in  1833.  Franzl 
was  a  fertile  composer.  He  published  8  con- 
certos and  4  concertinos  for  the  violin,  i  concer- 


558 


FEANZL. 


FRANCISCELLO. 


tante  and  3  duos  for  2  violins,  9  quartets  for 
strings,  3  trios  for  2  violins  and  bass,  several 
overtures,  a  symphony,  and  a  number  of  songs. 
He  also  wrote  operas,  which  were  performed 
with  much  success  at  Munich  and  elsewhere. 
All  these  works  are  written  in  an  easy  and 
correct  style,  but,  being  without  higher  artistic 
value,  are  now  entirely  forgotten.  [P.  D.] 

FRAMERY,  Nicolas  £tienne,  author  and 
musician,  born  March  25,  1745  ;  when  quite 
young  was  appointed  '  Surintendant  de  la  mu- 
sique'  to  the  Comte  d'Artois.  He  wrote  both 
words  and  music  of  'La  Sorcifere  par  hasard' 
(1783),  a  comic  opera,  and  of  'Mddee,'  a  prize 
libretto,  which  was  to  have  been  set  by  Sacchini, 
had  not  his  death  intervened.  It  was  never  per- 
formed. Framery  was  a  skilful  adapter  of  French 
words  to  Italian  operas.  As  an  author  he  pub- 
lished— A  criticism  on  Gluck  in  the  *  Mercure ' 
for  Sept.  1776;  *Le  Musicien  pratique'  (Paris 
1786),  a  poor  translation  of  Azopardi's  'II  Mu- 
sico  prattico,'  rearranged  by  Choron  in  1824; 
articles  on  Haydn,  Delia- Maria,  etc. ;  besides 
editing  from  1771  to  78  the  'Journal  de  Musique,' 
founded  by  Mathon  -  de  -  la  -  Cour  in  1764;  the 
*  Calendrier  musical,'  1788-9,  a  continuation  of 
Mathon-de-la-Cour's  'Almanach  musical'  (1775); 
and  taking  part  with  Ginguend  and  Feytou  in 
the  musical  dictionary  of  '  I'Encyclop^die  m.6- 
thodique,'  after wai'ds  completed  by  Momigny ; 
and  in  the  * Dictionnaire  des  beaux-arts'  of  the 
Acad^mie.  He  was  a  Correspondant  of  the  In- 
stitut.  After  copyi-ights  had  been  recognised  by 
law  Framery  estal^lished  an  agency  for  enforcing 
the  rights  of  authors  throughout  France.  He 
died  in  Paris  Nov.  26,  1 8 10,  leaving  MS.  notices 
of  Gavini^s  and  various  other  musicians.  [M.C.C.] 

FRANCESINA,  LA,  Elisabeth  Duparc, 
DETTA,  a  French  singer,  who  sang  for  some  years 
in  Italy,  where  she  acquired  her  sobriquet.  In 
the  autumn  of  1736  she  came  to  London,  and 
*had  the  honour  to  sing  (with  Merighi  and 
Chimenti)  before  her  majesty,  the  duke,  the 
princesses,  at  Kensington,  and  met  with  a  most 
gracious  reception ;  after  which  the  Francesina 
performed  several  dances  to  the  entire  satisfaction 
of  the  court.'  (London  Daily  Post,  Nov.  18.) 
The  accomplishment  of  dancing,  however,  she 
does  not  seem  to  have  kept  up.  Her  name  as 
a  public  singer  is  not  found  until  Jan.  7,  1738, 
when  she  played  Clotilda  in  Handel's  'Fara- 
mondo'  on  its  first  representation,  the  first  part 
ever  written  for  her  by  the  great  German.  She 
seems  to  have  had  an  easy,  warbling,  style  of 
execution,  which  Burney  calls  'lark-like,'  and 
pleased  both  composer  and  public.  La  Francesina 
appeared  again  in  Pescetti's  '  Conquista  del  Velio 
d'Oro'  and  in  Handel's  'Serse'  that  same  year  ; 
and  in  1739  she  took  part  in  'Acis,'  'Saul,' 
•Israel,'  and  'Dryden's  Ode.'  In  1740  she  re- 
appeared in  'L' Allegro,'  and  in  'Imeneo'  by  the 
same  composer  ;  the  latter  '  advertised  for  Nov. 
29,  but  deferred  for  near  a  fortnight,  on  account 
of  the  indisposition  of  Francesina.'  (Burney.) 
On  January  10,  1741,  she  sang  in  Handel's  last 
opera  '  Deidamia,'  in  which,  according  to  Burney, 


'  Nascondi  Vusignol,  which  finishes  the  first  act 
is  a  light,  airy,  pleasing  movement,  suited  to 
the  active  throat  of  the  Francesina.'  In  1744 
and  45  she  took  part  in  Handel's  'Joseph,' 
' Belshazzar,'  and  'Hercules';  she  had  quitted 
the  stage,  '  but  constantly  attached  herself  to 
Handel,  and  was  first  woman  in  his  oratorios  for 
many  years.'  (Burney.)  She  enjoys  the  doubtful 
honour  of  having  sung  the  four  Italian  songs 
which  Handel  was  compelled  to  'intermix'  in 
'Israel  in  Egypt'  in  1739,  to  carry  it  over  a 
third  performance.  In  1737  her  portrait  was 
engraved  by  J.  Faber  in  mezzotint  from  a  paint- 
ing by  George  Knapton.  It  is  a  half-length,  and 
represents  a  pleasant,  intelligent  woman  ;  she 
holds  a  book,  on  a  page  of  which  are  the  words, 
'  Ua  sei  amabile  speranza,'  the  beginning,  pro- 
bably, of  one  of  her  favourite  songs.  [J.  M.] 

FRANCHOMME,  August,  bom  at  Lille 
April  10,  1808,  learned  the  rudiments  of  the 
Cello  from  a  player  named  Mas,  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  in  March  1 8  25,  at  once  attracted  the 
notice  of  Levasseur  and  Norblin  the  Professors, 
and  in  his  first  year  took  the  first  prize  for  his 
instrument.  He  then  joined  the  orchestra  of  the 
Ambigu-comique,  in  27  that  of  the  Opera,  and  in 
28  fixed  himself  at  the  Theatre  des  Italiens.  In 
conjunction  with  Alard  and  Ch.  Halle  he  formed 
an  annual  series  of  classical  quartets,  which  held 
the  highest  rank.  Franchomme  was  in  Paris  at 
the  time  of  Mendelssohn's  visit,  in  the  Avinter 
of  31,  and  is  mentioned  by  HiUer  (Mendelssohn, 
19)  as  one  of  the  artists  who  most  warmly 
appreciated  him.  They  were  just  of  an  age,  and 
knowing  Mendelssohn's  predilection  for  the  cello 
it  is  not  difiicult  to  believe  that  they  often 
'  made  music '  together.  He  was  very  intimate 
with  Chopin,  and  was  one  of  those  who  witnessed 
his  last  sufferings  and  received  his  latest  words. 
Franchomme  has  travelled  very  little,  and  a 
visit  to  England  in  1856,  when  he  played  at  the 
Musical  Union,  appears  to  be  almost  his  only 
journey.  He  has  been  Professor  at  the  Con- 
servatoire since  Jan.  i,  1846.  Franchomme's 
playing  is  remarkable  for  a  command  over 
technical  difficulties  of  all  kinds,  very  pure 
intonation,  and  a  beautiful  and  expressive  sing- 
ing tone.  He  is  the  possessor  of  the  cello  of 
Duport,  said  to  be  the  finest  Stradivarius  in 
existence,  for  which  he  gave  £1000.  His 
compositions  consist  chiefly  of  potpourris  and 
variations,  with  one  concerto.  He  has  also 
published  with  Chopin  a  Duo  on  airs  from  'Robert 
le  Diable,'  another  with  Bertini,  and  a  third 
with  our  own  Osborne.  His  Adagios  are  much 
esteemed.  [G.] 

FRANCISCELLO,  a  great  violoncellist  of  the 
early  part  of  last  century,  but  of  whom  neither 
the  date  nor  place  of  birth  or  death  are  known, 
and  who  in  fact  would  have  left  no  trace  of  his 
existence  but  for  the  fact  that  he  was  heard  by 
Quantz,  Benda,  and  Geminiani,  He  seems  to 
have  first  appeared  in  Rome  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Corelli  (1713).  He  was  at  Naples  in 
1725  ;  Quantz  heard  him  there,  and  Geminiani, 
there  or  in  Rome,  was  witness  to  the  rapture 


FKANCISCELLO. 


FRANZ. 


559 


with  which  the  great  Alessandro  Scarlatti  ac- 
companied him  on  the  harpsichord.  In  1730  he 
was  at  Vienna,  where  F.  Benda,  then  a  young 
man,  was  so  struck  by  his  style  as  to  say  that  it 
influenced  him  for  ever  after.  He  is  heard  of 
afterwards  at  Genoa,  where  he  may  have  died 
about  1750,  but  nothing  is  known.  [G.] 

FRANCCEUR,  FRAN901S,  violinist  and  com- 
poser, bom  at  Paris  in  1698.  He  entered  the 
band  of  the  Opera  in  1710,  was  for  many  years 
a  member  of  the  king's  private  band,  and  for 
some  time,  conjointly  with  Rebel,  manager  of 
the  Opera.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1787.  He 
published  two  sets  of  sonatas,  which,  according 
to  Wasielewsky,  show  considerable  progress  in 
form  and  in  treatment  of  the  instrument,  when 
compared  with  similar  works  by  R^bel  and  other 
French  composers  of  the  period.  It  is  worth 
mentioning  as  a  peculiarity  of  his,  that  he  occa- 
sionally employs  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  on 
the  fingerboard  for  taking  the  bass  note  of  a 
chord — a  proceeding  hardly  in  accordance  with 
legitimate  treatment.  He  also  composed  a  num- 
ber of  operas  conjointly  with  R«^hel,  which  how- 
ever do  not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  period. 

His  son,  Louis  Joseph,  an  eminent  violinist 
and  clever  conductor,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1738, 
and  died  in  1804.  He  was  first  leader  and  after- 
wards conductor  and  manager  of  the  Opera  and  of 
the  royal  band,  and  composed  a  number  of  operas. 
He  also  published  a  treatise  on  instrumentation, 
which  F^tis  considers  a  meritorious  work.  [P.D.] 

FRANK,  Melchior,  prolific  composer  of 
church  music  and  Lieder,  bom,  according  to 
Wetzler's  '  Lieder-Historie,'  at  Zittau  on  the 
borders  of  Saxony  and  Silesia,  lived  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1600,  and  was  Capellmeister  to  the  Duke 
of  Coburg  at  the  time  of  his  death,  June  1,  1639. 
Gerber  gives  in  his  'Lexicon'  a  list  of  44  works 
by  him,  now  become  very  scarce.  He  did  much 
to  improve  the  instrumental  accompaniment  of 
songs,  a  point  to  which  little  attention  was  paid 
before  his  day.  Doring  (' Choralkunde,'  p.  84) 
gives  a  list  of  1 3  of  his  Chorales  which  survived 
him,  among  which  'Jerusalem  du  hochgebaute 
Stadt'  and  'Wenn  ich  in  Todesnothen  bin'  are  still 
sung.  He  is  also  said  to  have  written  the  words 
of  several  hymns,  '  0  J esu  wie  ist  deine  Gestalt,' 
*  Der  Brautigam  wird  bald  rufen,'  etc.  [F.G.] 

FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  bom  1706  at  Bos- 
ton, U.  S.,  died  at  Philadelphia  1 790,  claims 
mention  here  for  his  connection  with  the  Har- 
monica, or  musical  glasses,  which  he  invented 
or  30  far  improved  as  to  make  the  instrument 
practically  available.  [Harmonica.]  The  in- 
vention is  described  by  him  in  a  letter  to  Beccaria 
dated  London,  July  13,  1762,  and  printed  in 
Sparks's  edition  of  his  works  (vi.  245).  That 
Franklin  had  considerable  musical  faculty  is 
evident  from  his  letters  on  Scotch  music  and  on 
the  defects  of  modern  music  (vi.  263,  269),  which 
are  also  full  of  his  happy  motlier-wit.  [M.CC] 

FRANZ,  Karl,  player  on  the  French  hom 
(TValdhorn)  and  the  Baryton ;  bom  in  1738 
at  Langeubielau  in  Silesia.    His  first  post  was 


under  the  Archbishop  of  Olmutz  in  1758;  his 
next  under  Prince  Nicholas  Esterhazy  at  Eisen- 
stadt,  where  he  remained  from  1763  to  the  end 
of  76.  His  adoption  of  so  difficult  an  instrument 
as  the  baryton  probably  arose  from  the  fact  that 
the  Prince  himself  played  it,  and  that  Haydn 
composed  much  for  it  for  his  use.  At  any  rate 
Franz  played  it  very  finely,  and  on  leaving  the 
Eisenstadt  band  made  several  tours,  in  which 
his  performance  on  it  excited  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. Like  Abel  with  the  gamba,  Franz  was 
accustomed  to  call  the  baryton  the  king  of 
instruments.  In  1787  we  find  him  established 
in  Munich  as  *  Kammermusikus,'  and  he  died 
there  in  1802.  That  he  was  greatly  esteemed 
by  Haydn  is  proved  by  a  cantata  for  voice  and 
baryton,  composed  by  that  master  for  him,  and 
which  he  performed  on  his  tours,  singing  and 
accompanying  himself.  The  cantata  was  written 
k  propos  to  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  begins  '  Er  ist  nicht  mehr  I  Ton'  trauemd, 
Baryton!'  [C.F.P.] 

FRANZ,  Robert,  bom  June  28,  18 15,  at 
Halle,  Handel's  birthplace,  is  the  most  important 
living  representative  of  the  German  Lied.  His 
reputation  has  been  of  tardy  growth,  and  has 
apparently  not  yet  reached  its  height.  It  can 
however  be  asserted,  without  fear  of  dissent  from 
any  competent  judge,  that  his  best  songs 
will  stand  their  ground  by  the  side  of  those  of 
Schubert  and  Schumann,  to  which  they  are 
closely  related.  Over  and  above  their  uniform 
and  elaborate  perfection  of  workmanship,  in 
which  it  is  difficult  to  equal  and  impossible  to 
surpass  them,  they  have  a  peculiar  physiognomy 
and  subtle  charm  of  their  own  that  is  sure  to 
endear  them  to  singers  and  players  able  to  deal 
with  them  at  all.  It  is  true  that  they  have 
hitherto  been  'caviare  to  the  general,'  and  are 
likely  to  remain  so  for  some  time,  and  that  '  the 
general,'  as  Franz  has  found  to  his  cost,  includes 
the  majority  of  professed  vocalists  and  pianists. 

Nearer  akin  to  the  warm  but  contemplative 
enthusiasm  of  Schumann  than  to  the  passionate 
spontaneity  of  Schubert,  Franz's  songs  are  any- 
thing but  cold,  nor  do  they  in  any  case  smell 
of  the  lamp ;  they  are  reticent  rather  than  out- 
spoken, timid  rather  than  bold,  pathetic  with- 
out conscious  pathos,  eloquent  without  studied 
rhetoric ;  always  true,  giving  more  than  they 
seem  to  give,  saying  more  than  they  seem  to  say ; 
frequently  naif  yet  far  from  trivial,  here  and 
there  profound,  rarely  ecstatic  or  voluptuous,  not 
once  perverse  or  dry  or  commonplace.  All  forms 
and  phases  of  lyrical  speech,  as  lar  as  the  German 
language,  peculiarly  rich  in  songs,  has  been  able 
to  furnish  the  groundwork — from  Luther's  sturdy 
hymns  to  the  love-ditties  of  Heine,  from  the 
primitive  weal  and  woe  of  huntsman  and  soldier, 
the  simple  sounds  of  forest  and  field,  to  the 
classic  finish  and  spring-like  grace  of  Goethe 
and  the  nocturnal  melancholy  of  Lenau — Robert 
Franz  has  set  and  sung.  Without  touching  the 
highest  heavens  or  deepest  depths,  he  has  illus- 
trated with  his  music  the  entire  world  of  German 
lyrical  poetry. 


560 


FRANZ. 


FRASCHINI. 


If  Schubert  at  his  best  grasps  a  poem  with  the 
intense  grip  of  a  dramatist,  and  sings  as  though 
he  struck  up  from  the  centre  of  some  dramatic 
situation  ;  if  Schumann  declaims  his  verse  like  a 
perfect  reader,  or  illuminates  it  as  an  imaginative 
draughtsman  might  grace  the  margin  of  some 
precious  book,  or  dreams  over  it  as  a  tender  and 
profound  musician  is  prone  to  dream  over  some 
inexpressible  sentiment, — Franz  pursues  a  path 
of  his  own ;  he  translates  the  poem  into  music, 
that  is  to  say,  he  depicts  in  musical  outlines  the 
exact  emotional  state  from  which  it  appears  to 
have  sprung  ;  and  contrives  to  reproduce  closely, 
with  photographic  truth,  the  very  essence  of  the 
poem,  following  strictly  in  the  wake  of  the  poet's 
form  and  diction.  Franz  never  repeats  a  word 
or  a  line,  never  garbles  the  sense  of  a  sentence, 
never  muddles  a  phrase  or  mars  any  rhythmical 
emphasis.  Without  Schubert's  dramatic  passion, 
or  Schumann's  concentrated  heat  or  ecstatic 
sentiment,  with  far  less  specifically  musical  in- 
vention— melodic,  harmonic,  or  rhythmic — than 
Schubert,  or  even  than  Schumann,  Franz  im- 
presses one  nevertheless  as  a  rare  master — a 
marked  individuality,  complete  and  perfect  in 
its  way. 

The  son  of  a  respectable  citizen  of  Halle, 
Robert  Franz  had  fair  opportunities  of  getting  a 
good  schooling,  and  might  have  gone  through  the 
regular  university  curriculum  if  it  had  not  been 
for  his  strong  musical  predilections.  He  had  to 
gratify  his  taste  for  music  on  the  sly,  and  it  was 
only  after  years  of  delay  and  much  against  the 
grain  that  his  parents  could  be  brought  to  see 
that  he  was  destined  to  be  a  musician.  As  a 
lad  he  had  contrived  to  play  the  pianoforte  and 
organ  enough  to  be  able  to  act  as  accompanyist 
in  the  choral  works  of  Handel,  Haydn  and 
Mozart.  In  1835  he  obtained  the  consent  of  his 
parents  to  make  a  trial  of  his  musical  gifts  as 
pupil  of  Schneider  at  Dessau.  There  he  continued 
for  two  years,  playing,  studying  harmony  and 
counterpoint,  and  making  ambitious  attempts  at 
composition,  all  of  which  he  afterwards  de- 
stroyed. 

On  his  return  to  Halle  as  the  black  sheep  of 
the  family,  with  whom  his  mother  alone  had 
any  sympathy,  Franz  vegetated  in  a  dreary 
manner  for  some  six  years,  unable  to  get  any 
sort  of  musical  emploj-ment,  yet  obstinately  unfit 
for  anything  else.  But  he  made  good  use  of  his 
time,  studying  Bach,  Beethoven  and  Schubert. 
In  1843  he  published  his  first  set  of  twelve 
songs,  which  at  once  attracted  the  attention  of 
Schumaim  (Neue  Zeitschrift,  July  31),  whose 
frankly  expressed  admiration  was  soon  shared 
by  Mendelssohn,  Gade,  Liszt,  and  other  eminent 
masters.  At  length  the  authorities  at  Halle 
thought  fit  to  appoint  Franz  organist  at  the 
Ulrichskirche,  and  conductor  of  the  '  Sing-acade- 
mie' ;  and  in  due  course  of  time  he  obtained 
the  titles  of  '  Koniglicher  Musikdirector '  and 
doctor  of  music,  which  latter  title  was  offered  by 
the  University  of  Halle,  on  his  lecturing  to  its 
students  on  musical  subjects.  Unfortunately  as 
early  as  1841  his  sense  of  hearing  began  to 


decline,  his  troubles  were  aggravated  by  serious 
nervous  disorders  in  1853,  and  became  so  grave 
that  in  1868  he  had  to  relinquish  his  employ- 
ments, and  give  up  writing  altogether.  The 
distressing  pecuniary  difficulties  which  arose  in 
consequence  were,  however,  eff"ectually  overcome 
by  the  generous  exertions  of  Liszt,  Joachim, 
Frau  Helene  Magnus,  and  others,  who  in  1872 
got  up  concerts  for  Franz's  benefit,  and  realised 
a  sum  of  £5000. 

In  his  latter  years  Franz  has  devoted  much 
time  to  editing  and  arranging  the  works  of  Bach 
and  Handel,  by  furnishing  proper  polj'phonic 
accompaniments  in  cases  where  the  composer's 
intentions  are  only  indicated  by  a  figured  bass, 
rewriting  the  part  sketched  for  the  organ  for  a 
group  of  wind  instruments,  so  as  to  facilitate 
performance  in  concert  rooms,  supplying  proper 
substitutes  for  parts  written  for  obsolete  instru- 
ments, etc.  Detailed  critical  essays  upon  and 
about  Robert  Franz's  songs  and  arrangements, 
have  been  published  by  Saran,  Schaff'er,  Ambros, 
Hueff'er  and  Liszt,  of  which  the  first  and  last  are 
the  most  important. 

Franz's  own  contributions  to  the  literature  of 
music  are  : — *  Mittheilungen  fiber  J.  S.  Bach's 
Magnificat'  (Halle  1863);  and  'OfiFener  Brief 
an  Eduard  Hanslick  fiber  Bearbeitungen  alterer 
Tonwerke,  namentlich  Bach'scher  and  Handel' s- 
cher  Vocalmusik'  (Leipzig  1871).  His  com- 
positions and  arrangements  consist  of  257  songs 
for  a  single  voice  with  pianoforte  accompaniment, 
in  45  sets ;  a  Kyrie,  k  capella,  for  four-part 
chorus  and  solo  voices  ;  the  1 1 7th  Psalm,  k 
capella,  for  double  choir  in  8  parts,  and  a  liturgy 
for  the  evangelical  service  ;  6  chorales  ;  four-part 
songs  for  mixed  voices,  and  6  ditto  for  male 
chorus.  His  arrangements  are  as  follows  : — 
Of  Sebastian  Bach — the  Passion  according  to 
St.  Matthew  ;  Magnificat  in  D  ;  Trauerode ;  10 
cantatas ;  6  duets  and  numerous  arias.  Of  Han- 
del— the  Jubilate ;  L' Allegro  il  Penseroso  ed  il 
Moderato ;  24  operatic  arias  and  1 2  duets ; 
Astorga's  Stabat  Mater;  and  Durante's  Mag- 
nificat. Of  Mendelssohn — a  Hebrew  melody  for 
piano  and  violin ;  6  two  andfour-part  songs  arranged 
for  one  voice  with  piano ;  Mozart's  quintets  in  C 
minor  and  maj  or,  and  Schubert's  quartet  in  D  minor, 
transcribed  for  piano  k  4  mains.  (1878.)  [E.D.] 

FRASCHINI,  Gaetano,  was  bom  at  Pavia 
in  1 81 5.  Originally  intended  for  the  study  of 
medicine,  he  soon  found  himself  possessed  of  a 
most  powerful  tenor  voice,  and  devoted  himself 
to  its  cultivation.  Having  received  some  in- 
struction from  a  master  named  Moretti,  he  made 
his  first  attempt  (1837)  in  the  cathedral  of  his 
native  city,  and  was  immediately  engaged  to  sing 
the  second  tenor  role  in  *  Belisario '  at  Pavia, 
and  Rodrigo  in  '  Otello  *  at  the  fair  at  Bergamo. 
In  1840  he  sang  at  Milan  ;  and  from  thence  went 
to  Naples,  where  he  remained  several  years 
attached  to  the  Opera.  Fe'tis  heard  him  there  in 
1 841,  and  admired  his  voice,  and  the  bold  style 
in  which  he  attacked  the  most  difficult  notes; 
nine  years  later  he  heard  him  again  at  Bergamo, 
and  found  to  his  surprise  not  only  that  hii 


FEASCHIXI. 


FREDERIC  THE  GREAT.  561 


energy  and  purity  of  tone  were  undiminished, 
in  spite  of  the  violence  of  the  music  which  he 
had  been  executing  during  that  period,  but 
that  he  had  learned  to  sing  better  than  before. 
Fraschini  visited  Bologna,  Venice,  Turin,  Padua, 
Vicenza,  London,  and  Vienna  ;  and  sang  fre-  | 
quently  at  the  later  place  down  to  1852  with 
constant  success.    In  1847  he  made  his  debut 
at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.    '  Though  originally 
I    gifted  with  greater  vocal  power'  than  another 
I    singer,  says  Mr.  Chorley,  '  Signor  Fraschini  was 
j    less  fortunate  ....  The  new-comer,  naturally 
1    anxious  to  recommend  himself  by  the  arts  which 
i    had  dehghted  his  own  people,  seemed  to  become 
]    more  and  more  violent  in  proportion  as  the  ''sen- 
j    Bation  "  failed  to  be  excited.    But  he    piled  up 
i    the  agony,"  forte  on  forte,  in  vain,'  Continued 
!    to  appear  till  a  recent  date,  and  now  (1878) 
lives  at  Pavia,  where  the  theatre  is  called  after 
{    him,  Teatro  Fraschini.  [J.  M.] 

FRASI,  GirLTA,  appeared  in  London  in  1743 
'    with  Galli,  and  remained  in  public  favour  for 
,    many  years.  *  She  was  young  and  interesting  in 
^    person,  with  a  sweet,  clear  voice  and  a  smooth 
,    and  chaste  style  of  singing,  which,  though  cold 
and  unimpassioned,  pleased  natural  ears  and 
1    escaped  the  censure  of  critics '  (Bumey).  She 
i    took  part  that  year  in  the  revival  of  Handel's 
i    *  Alessandro,'  and  in  the  first  performance  of 
Galuppi's  *  Enrico.'    Her  instructor  was  a  musi- 
;    cian  named  Brivio;  but  she  doubtless  owed  much 
I    more  of  the  formation  of  her  taste  and  style  to 
'    Handel  and  his  singers,  than  to  her  first  master, 
i    In  1 746  she  was  still  in  an  inferior  position,  but 
;    in  48  played  a  more  important  part  in  the 
pasticcio  '  Lucio  Vero,'  in  operas  by  Hasse,  and 
I   in  the  comic  operas  instituted  by  Croza.  Frasi, 
I   however,  now  entered  on  a  career  which  will 
\   do  more  to  render  her  memory  lasting  than  any 
3   small  successes  she  ever  achieved  in  opera.  In 
1749  she  sang  in  Handel's  Oratorios  for  the 
!•   first  time,  taking  part  m  'Solomon'  and  'Sus- 
;    anna';   she  sang  in  'Theodora'  in  1750,  in 
'Jephtha'  in  52,  in  'Joshua'  at  Oxford  in  56, 
\    and  in  the  'Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth'  in  57. 
■    She  did  not,  meanwhile,  sever  her  connection 
with  the  stage,  but  appeared  in  1750  in  Ciampi's 
'  Adriano  in  Siria '  and  Pergolesi's  '  Serva  Pa- 
!    drona.'     In  1755  Frasi  was  called  upon,  in 
!    consequence  of  the  indisposition  of  Mingotti,  to 
I   perform  her  part  in  Jomelli's  'Andromaca,'  as 
she  had  been  twice  in  *  Riccimero,'  the  preceding 
season.    Smith's  '  Fairies  '  in  this  year  owed  its 
success  principally  to  Guadagni  and  Frasi.  At 
her  house  Dr.  Bumey  at  that  time  '  attended 
her  as  her  master.'    In  1758  she  appeared  in 
•  Issipile '  by  G.  Cocchi.    She  sang  also  in  the 
City  at  both  the  Swan  and  Castle  concerts. 

Dr.  Bumey  relates  that  '  when  Frasi  told  him 
[Handel],  that  she  should  study  hard,  and  was 
going  to  leam  Thofough-Base,  in  order  to  ac- 
company herself :  Handel,  who  well  knew  how 
little  this  pleasing  singer  was  addicted  to  appli- 
cation and  diligence,  said,  '  Oh — vaat  may  we 
not  expect ! '  There  is  a  portrait  of  Frasi,  in 
mezzotint  (folio),  in  which  she  is  tumed  to  the 


left,  singing  from  a  sheet  of  music  held  in  both 
hands,  on  which  is  engraved  a  song  beginning 
with  the  words  '  Voi  amante  che  vedete.'  It  has 
neither  name  nor  date,  and  is  very  rare.  [J.  M.] 
FRATESAXTI,  Sigxora,  the  name  of  a  singer 
who  performed  the  part  of  Clito,  formerly  sung 
by  Boschi  or  Montagnana,  both  basses,  in  Han- 
del's '  Alessandro,'  re%i.ved  in  1743.  Nothing 
else  is  known  of  her.  [J.  M,] 

FREDERIC  THE  GREAT  (Friedrich  II.),  king 
of  Prussia,  a  distinguished  amateur,  bom  at 
Berlin,  Jan.  24,  1712,  died  at  Sans-Souci  near 
Potsdam,  Aug.  17, 1 786.  He  passionately  admired 
German  music  while  detesting  that  of  Italy  and 
especially  of  France,  which  was  the  more  re- 
markable from  his  well-known  love  of  French 
literature.  He  said  on  one  occasion,  '  la  musique 
franq-aise  ne  vaut  rien,'  His  first  musical  in- 
structor when  Crown  Prince  was  Gottlob  Hayne 
the  cathedral  organist,  for  whom  he  always 
retained  a  regard,  and  who  presented  him  with 
a  composition  every  year  on  his  birthday.  In 
1728  he  began  to  leam  the  flute  from  Quantz, 
who  was  a  strict  master,  while  Frederic  was  a 
docile  pupil.  [Quantz.]  He  was  afterwards, 
however,  compelled  to  study  in  secret,  as  his 
father,  Frederic  William  I,  considered  music  an 
effeminate  pastime,  and  declined  to  allow  him 
instructors  or  musicians  of  any  kind.  He  was 
therefore  driven  to  engage  musical  servants,  and 
often  played  duets  with  his  valet  Fredersdorf, 
until  he  was  able  in  1734  to  have  a  private  band 
at  his  own  castle  of  Reinsberg.  On  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  in  1740,  he  established  a 
court-band  at  Berlin,  and  sent  Graun  to  Italy 
to  engage  singers.  [Geaun.]  He  also  had 
designs  made  for  a  new  opera-house,  which  was 
opened  Dec.  7,  1742.  An  amusing  account  of 
his  diffictJties  with  Barberina  the  ballet  dancer 
wiU  be  found  in  Carlyle  (Bk.  xiv.  chap.  8). 
His  expenditure  on  music  was  lavish,  though  it 
has  been  exaggerated.  Quantz's  salary  amounted 
to  2000  thalers,  besides  25  ducats  for  each  of  his 
compositions  for  flute  solo,  and  100  ducats  for 
every  flute  he  made  for  the  king.  According 
to  Reichardt,  Frederic  practised  perseveringly, 
plajdng  the  flute  four  times  a  day.  It  is  in 
one  of  these  eager  practisings  that  G^rome 
has  represented  him  in  an  admirable  picture. 
Quantz  died  in  1773  while  composing  his  300th 
concerto  for  the  king,  who  completed  the  work. 
Frederic's  execution  of  an  Adagio  is  said  by 
Fasch  to  have  been  masterly,  but  in  quick 
movements  he  betrayed  a  want  of  practice,  and 
in  matter  of  time  his  playing  was  so  impulsive 
and  irregular,  that  to  accompany  him  was  an  art 
in  itself.  In  later  years  he  again  took  up  the 
clavier,  not  having  suflBicient  breath,  it  is  stated, 
for  the  flute.  He  invited  Sebastian  Bach  to 
Potsdam,  and  the  visit,  of  which  Forkel  gives 
an  account,  and  the  result  of  which  was  Bach's 
'  Musikalisches  Opfer,'  took  place  on  April  7, 
1747.  He  particularly  admired  Silbermann's 
I  pianofortes,  and  bought  all  he  could  hear  of,  to 
I  the  number,  according  to  Forkel,  of  15.  One  of 
'  these  is  perhaps  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Schloss  at 

O  o 


562        FEEDERIC  THE  GREAT. 


FRENCH  HORN. 


Potsdam.  Frederic  was  also  a  composer.  The 
Hohenfriedberg  March  was  nominally  by  him, 
as  well  as  a  march  inserted  in  Lessing's  play, 
'  Minna  von  Barnhelm.'  He  also  composed  a 
'Sinfonia'  for  'Galatea  ed  Acide'  and  one  for 
*  II  Rfe  pastore ' ;  an  Aria  for  *  II  trionfo  della 
fedeltk ' ;  another  for  Graun's  '  Coriolano '  (of 
which  he  wrote  the  libretto)  ;  and  added  fioriture 
for  Hubert  the  singer  to  an  air  in  Basse's  'Cleo- 
file.'  In  1835  a  search  was  instituted  by  King 
Frederic  William  III,  and  1 20  pieces  composed 
by  Frederic  the  Great  were  found,  but  they  were 
interesting  only  from  their  history,  and  not 
suited  for  publication.  He  had  an  eye  to  the 
improvement  of  the  singing  in  the  public  schools, 
and  an  oflScial  decree  of  his,  dated  Oct.  18, 1746, 
contains  the  following  passage :  '  Having  received 
many  complaints  of  the  decline  in  the  art  of 
singing,  and  the  neglect  of  it  in  our  gymnasiums 
and  schools.  His  Majesty  commands  that  the 
young  people  in  all  public  schools  and  gymna- 
siums shall  be  exercised  more  diligently  therein, 
and  to  that  end  shall  have  singing-lessons  three 
times  a  week ' — a  command  which  has  doubtless 
materially  contributed  to  the  prevalence  of  music 
in  Germany.    (See  'Friedrich  d.  G.  als  Kenner 

und  Dilettant'  by  C.  F.  Miiller,  Potsdam, 

1847.)  [F.G.] 

FREE  REED.  Organ  stops  of  the  Free-reed 
class  are  more  frequently  made  by  continental 
than  by  English  artists.  The  sound-producing 
part  of  a  pipe  of  this  species  is  formed  thus  : — A 
surface  of  metal  or  wood  has  a  vertical  opening 
made  through  it  as  a  passage  for  the  wind  :  in 
front  of  this  a  strip  or  tongue  of  metal — in  some 
large  examples  wood — is  adjusted,  fastened  at 
the  upper  end  and  left  at  liberty  at  the  lower, 
which  is  so  slightly  smaller  than  the  opening  as 
almost  exactly  to  fit  into  it.  This  tongue  is  by 
the  current  of  air  carried  a  short  way  through 
the  opening,  when  it  springs  back  from  its  own 
elasticity ;  and  the  sound  results  from  the 
periodical  and  regular  beats  which  the  tongue, 
vibrating  to  and  fro,  imparts  to  the  passing  air. 
The  'vibrators'  of  a  harmonium  are  really  free 
reeds ;  but  in  the  case  of  an  organ-pipe  the 
tongue  is  furnished  with  a  tube,  which,  upon  the 
principle  of  a  speaking-trumpet,  greatly  augments 
and  amplifies  the  sound  produced.  There  are 
some  free-reed  16-  and  32-feet  posaunes  in  the 
pedal  organ  of  Schulze's  fine  instrument  at  Don- 
caster  parish  church.  [E.J.H.] 

FREGE,  Madame  (nie  Livia  Gerhard),  was 
bom  at  Gera,  June  13,  181 8,  received  her  musi- 
cal education  at  Leipzig,  and  was  taught  to  sing 
by  Pohlenz.  She  made  her  first  appearance  in 
public  on  July  9,  1832,  when  just  entering  her 
15th  year,  at  a  concert  given  at  the  Gewandhaus 
by  the  still  more  juvenile  Clara  "Wieck,  then 
only  13.  She  had  at  that  time  a  cultivated 
voice  of  lovely  quality,  especially  in  the  upper 
register,  perfect  intonation,  and  good  style.  She 
was  engaged  for  the  next  series  of  Gewandhaus 
Concerts,  and  began  with  a  very  large  repertoire, 
as  is  evident  from  the  pieces  ascribed  to  her  in 


the  reports  of  the  concerts.  She  first  appeared 
on  the  stage  at  Leipzig,  in  Jessonda,  in  March 
1833.  A  residence  in  Dresden  enabled  her  to 
profit  by  the  example  and  advice  of  Schroder 
Devrient.  In  35  she  entered  the  regular  com- 
pany  of  the  theatre  royal  of  Berlin.  After 
delighting  the  public  by  a  large  range  of  charac- 
ters, in  which  her  acting  was  equal  to  her  singing, 
she  made  her  last  appearance  on  June  25,  1836 
(as  Elvira),  and  left  the  boards  to  be  married  to 
Dr.  Frege  of  Leipsic.  Since  that  time  she  has 
sung  only  at  concerts.  Her  house  has  always 
been  a  centre  of  the  best  music.  She  had  a 
singing  society  there  of  50  voices,  with  a  select 
band,  led  by  David,  and  conducted  by  Lange, 
at  which  the  best  and  least  known  music, 
old  and  new,  was  performed  in  perfection.  Men- 
delssohn was  her  intimate  friend,  often  con- 
sulted her  on  his  music,  and  took  her  his  songs 
to  try  before  making  them  public.  *  You  don't 
know  my  songs,'  said  he  to  a  friend  in  London; 
'come  to  Leipzig  and  hear  Mme.  Frege,  and  you 
will  understand  what  I  intended  them  to  be.' 
A  letter  to  the  'Frau  Doctorin  Frege,'  dated 
London,  Aug.  31,  1846,  and  describing  the  first 
performance  of  '  Elijah,'  is  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  Letters.  It  was  at  her  house,  on 
Oct.  9, 1847,  in  trying  over  the  songs  which  form 
op.  71,  that  he  was  struck  with  the  first  of  the 
attacks  which  ended  in  his  death  on  Nov.  4. 

Mme.  Frege's  characteristics  were  delicacy  and 
refinement — not  a  large  voice,  but  a  great  power 
of  expression  in  singing  her  words,  a  perfect  style, 
and  the  highest  musical  intelligence.  [G.] 

FREISCHUTZ,  ^  DER.  Romantic  opera  in 
3  acts,  words  by  Kind,  music  by  Weber  (his  8th 
opera) ;  completed,  as  *  Die  Jagersbraut,'  May 
13,  1820.  Produced  at  Berlin  June  18,  1821; 
at  Paris  as  '  Robin  des  Bois,'  with  new  libretto 
by  Castile  Blaze  and  Sauvage,  and  many  changes,'' 
at  Odeon,  Dec.  7,  1824,  but  with  accurate  trans- 
lation by  Pacini,  and  recitatives  by  Berlioz,  at 
Academic  royale,  June  7,  1841,  as  'Le  Franc 
Archer.'  In  London,  as  '  Der  Freischiitz,  or  the 
seventh  bullet,' by  Hawes,  at  English  Opera-house, 
with  many  ballads  inserted,  July  22,  1824;  in 
Italian  as  'II  Franco  arciero,'  at  Covent  Garden, 
March  16,  1850  (recitatives  by  Costa,  not  by 
Berlioz)  ;  in  German,  at  King's  Theatre,  May  9, 
1832. 

FRENCH  HORN.  The  designation  of 
*  French'  is  commonly  added  to  the  name  of 
the  orchestral  Horn,  from  the  fact  that  a  circular 
instrument  of  this  nature,  without  crooks  or 
other  appliances,  was,  and  still  is,  used  in  France 
for  hunting.  It  is  carried  over  one  shoulder, 
and  beneath  the  arm  of  the  other  side,  usually 
on  horseback.  The  great  length  of  tube  enables 
a  long  series  of  harmonic  sounds  to  be  obtained ; 

1  Frei-schiitz,  say  the  dictionaries,  =  free-marksman,  one  who  shoots 
with  charmed  bullets.   There  is  no  equivalent  Ent'lish  term. 

2  'Assassin^'  is  Berlioz's  word  for  this  outrageous  proceeding  (no 
singularity  in  France,  nor  indeed  in  London,  half  a  century  ago),  by 
which  he  states  that  Castile  Blaze  made  more  than  1(X),CW)  francs 
(M^moires  de  Berlioz,  57,  61).  There  were  Divertissements  made  up  of 
the  Dance  music  in  Preciosa  and  Oberon,  and  of  the  Invitation  to  the 
Waltz  scored  by  Berlioz  for  the  purpose. 


FRENCH  HORN. 


FRETS. 


563 


and  these,  organised  into  'calls'  or  signals,  serve 
to  direct  the  order  of  the  chase.  At  the  first 
introduction  of  the  Horn  into  the  Orchestra  it 
was  much  objected  to  on  this  account ;  and  its 
tones  were  considered  coarse  and  boisterous,  only 
fit  for  the  open  air  and  for  woodland  pastimes. 
[Horn.]  [W.H.S.] 

FREXCH  SIXTH.    The  name  formerly  used 
for  the  chord  of  the  Augmented  or  I 
extreme  sixth,  when  accompanied  by    -.j)  ^^S^n 
the  third  and  augmented  fourth  of    (^')      :  — 
its  bass.  [See  Sixth;  German  Sixth  ; 
Italian  Sixth.]         [C.H.H.P.]  I 

FRESCOBALDI,  Girolamo,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished organist  of  the  1 7th  century,  born  at 
Ferrara  15S7  or  S,  as  is  conjectured  from  the 
date  on  his  first  composition — 1608.  '  He  studied 
under  Alessandro  Milleville,  also  a  native  of 
Ferrara.    Quadrio  tells  us  that  he  possessed  a 
singularly  beautiful  voice  ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
while  stiil  a  youth  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation 
both  as  singer  and  organist.    In  1608  he  was  at 
Antwerp,  as  he  dates  from  there  the  preface  to 
his  first  book  of  5 -part  Madrigals  (Antwerp,  Pha- 
lesio")  dedicated  to  Guido  Bentivoglio,  Archbishop 
of  Rhodes ;  but  he  must  have  quickly  returned 
to  Italy,  as  his  second  book  was  published  at 
Milan  in  the  same  year.    In  161 4  he  was  in 
Rome,  and  by  the  following  year  was  regular 
organist  at  St.  Peter's.     His  first  performance 
there  attracted,  according  to  Baini,  an  audience 
'■^f  30,000  persons.  Froberger  was  his  pupil  from 
pt.  30,  1637,  to  April  1641,  and  thus  the  noble 
.  le  of  his  organ  playing  was  handed  on  to  other 
nools.    The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
Frescobaldi's  compositions  are  important,  and 
ve  us  a  high  idea  of  his  powers.    He  was  the 
to  play  tonal  fugues  on  the  organ,  if  we 
:  \oept  Samuel  Scheidt,  a  German  contemporary 
but  Uttlfi  known.    His  works  comprise,  besides 
the  two  named   above — '  Ricercari  e  canzoni 
frivncesi'  (Rome,  Borboni,  1615)  ;  'Toccate  .  . .  e 
partite  d'intavolatura'   (1613-27-37-57);  •  Se- 
condo  libro  di  toccate  etc.'  (^Rome  161 6);  'Prirno 
libro  delle  canzoni  a  i,  2,  3,  4  voci '  (Rome  162S)  ; 
'Primo  libro,  Arie  musicali'  (Florence  1630); 
'Fiori  musicali,'  op.  12  vRome  1635");  and  '  Ca- 
pri cci  sopra  diversi  sogetti'  (^Rome  1627,  Venice 
1626).    An  extract  book  of  Dr.  Bumey's  in  the 
British  iMusemn  (Add.  MSS.  11,588)  contains  a 
copy  of  the  first  of  these  works.    A  Canzona  for 
the  organ  will  be  found  in  Hawkins  (chap.  130^, 
Tui  many  other  pieces  in  Commer's  'Musica 
ora,'  and  '  Collection  des  compositions,'  etc..  and 
Riegl's  'Praxis  Organcedi'  (1869%  [F.G.] 
FRETS  (Fr.  Les  tons;  Ital.  Tasto;  Ger.  Bunde, 
Biinde,  Tonhtiude,  Bander,   Grinc,  BnmUteg). 
On  stringed  instruments  that  have  fingerboards, 
like  the  lute  or  guitar,  the  small  pieces  of  wood 
or  other  material  fixed  transversely  on  the  finger- 
board at  regular  intervals  are  called  frets.  The 
iect  they  serve  is  to  mark  off  the  length  of 
ring  required  to  produce  a  given  note.  Pressure 
..poB  a  string  immediately  above  a  fret  makes 
at  the  point  of  contact  of  string  and  fret  a 


I  temporary  'nut,'  and  the  string,  set  in  motion  as 
far  as  the  bridge  on  the  soundboard  by  plucking 
with  plectrum  or  finger,  or  bowing,  gives  a 
higher  note  in  proportion  to  the  shortening  of 
the  string.  Frets  therefore  correspond  in  their  use 
with  the  holes  in  the  tube  of  a  wind  instrument. 

The  use  of  frets  to  give  certainty  to  the  fingers 
in  stopping  the  notes  required  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, the  Chinese  in  a  remote  age  having  had 
moveable  frets  for  the  strings  of  their  Che.  The 
Hindu  Vina,  a  fingerboard  instrument  with  nine- 
teen frets,  is  of  divine  and  therefore  remote 
origin.  And  the  Egyptians,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum,  depicted  by  themselves 
about  the  time  of  Moses,  had  either  frets  or 
coloured  lines  serving  a  like  purpose  on  the 
fingerboards  of  their  lutes.  In  the  present  day 
the  Balaika  of  the  Russian  country  people  has 
coloured  lines  that  serve  for  frets.  It  is  most 
likely  that  the  use  of  frets  came  into  Europe 
through  Spain  and  Southern  France  from  the 
Arabs.  In  the  Middle  Ages  bow  instruments 
had  them,  as  well  as  those  played  with  plectrum 
or  finger.  The  Rebec,  the  Viols  da  gamba,  da 
I  braccio,  d'amore,  the  Italian  Lire,  Lirone,  all 
had  them.  But  the  French  Gique  of  the  1 2th- 
14th  centuries,  like  our  modem  fiddles,  had  none. 
In  the  modem  highly-developed  technic  they 
would  be  an  impediment,  and  the  feeling  for 
j  temperament  has  only  been  satisfied  by  their 
rejection.  In  lutes,  guitars,  and  zithers,  how- 
'  ever,  they  are  retained.  In  performance  the  end 
I  of  the  finger  must  be  placed  immediately  above 
the  fret,  and  not  upon  it,  as  %'ibration  would  be 
interfered  with ;  while  if  too  much  above,  the 
string  would  jar  upon  the  fret. 

The  fingerboard  has  been  differently  divided 
in  different  epochs  and  countries  according  to 
'■■  the  scale  -  system  prevailing.     In  Persia  and 
I  Ai-abia  there  would  be  smaller  division  than  our 
1  chromatic,  third  tones  as  well  as  half.    To  mark 
off  the  hemitonic  division,  the  eighteenth  part  of 
the  length  of  the  string  to  the  bridge  must  be 
measvu'tti  off  from  the  nut  or  ledge  at  the  top  of 
I  the  fingerboard  over  which  the  strings  pass — in 
I  Italian  capo  tasto,  'head  fret.'    [Capo  Tasto.] 
j  This  gives  the  place  to  fix  the  first  fret.  Another 
I  eighteenth  from  this  fret  to  the  bridge  gives  the 
place  of  the  second,  and  so  on  until  the  division 
,  is  complete.    The  method  implies  a  nearly  equal 
temperament  and  uniform  tension,  but  in  prac- 
tice there  is  room  for  some  modification  by  the 
'  finger.    High  frets  demand  a  greater  finger  pres- 
sure, and  slightly  sharpen  the  pitch  of  the  notes, 
i  To  correct  this  the  frets  must  be  shifted  towards 
j  the  nut.    The  Hindu  uses  finger  pressure,  or  in 
I  other  words,  greater  tension,  to  get  his  half-tones 
I  from  a  diatonic  fret  system.    To  the  instnmaent 
,  maker  the  disposition  of  the  frets  is  a  difficult 
task,  reqtiiring  nice  adjustment.     On  the  side 
that  the  strings  are  thicker  the  frets  should  be 
I  higher,  and  the  fingerboard  must  be  concave  in 
the  direction  of  its  length  to  allow  the  thicker 
strings  to  vibrate.     The  fret-s  are  gradually 
lowered  as  they  descend  towards  the  bridge,  the 
chanterelle,  or  melody -string,  having  often  a 
0  o2 


564 


FRETS. 


miTZ. 


longer  series  extending  only  partly  across  the 
fingerboard.  The  personal  peculiarity  of  the 
hand  or  touch  finally  modifies  the  adaptation  of 
the  frets. 

Xarrow  slips  of  wood  are  generally  glued  up 
the  sides  of  the  fingerboard  to  prevent  the  frets 
projecting.  The  convex  fingerboards  of  bow 
instruments  requiring  convex  frets,  fretted  viols 
had  catgut  bound  round  the  fingerboard  and 
neck  at  the  stopping  distances.  Hence  the 
German  'Bunde' — binds,  (See  the  cut  of  Gamba,) 
The  French  'ton'  indicates  the  note  produced; 
the  Italian  Hasto'  the  touch  producrag  it.  The 
English  'fret'  perhaps  implies  the  rubbing  or 
friction  of  the  string  at  the  point  of  contact,  but 
the  derivation  of  the  word  is  doubtful.  Some 
take  the  original  meaning  of  '  fret '  to  have  been 
a  note,  and  thence  the  stop  by  which  the  note 
was  produced,  Shakspeare  puns  upon  the  word 
in  Hamlet,  'though  you  can  fret  me  you 
cannot  play  upon  me,'  The  writer  has  been 
much  assisted  by  the  exhaustive  article  of 
Herr  Max  Albert  on  'Bunde'  in  Mendel's 
'Lexicon,'  [A.J,H,] 

FREZZOLIXI,  EE5IIXIA,  was  bom  at  Orvieto 
in  i8i8  ;  received  her  first  lessons  in  singing 
from  her  father,  a  buffo  cantante  ;  and  afterwards 
from  Xuncini  at  Florence.  She  had  further 
tostruction  from  the  elder  Ronconi  at  3Iilan, 
and  from  ]Manuel  Garcia ;  and  completed  her 
musical  education  under  Tacchinardi  at  Florence. 
In  this  town  she  made  her  debuts  in  1838,  in 
'Beatrice  di  Tenda'  and  in  the  'Marco  Visconti' 
of  Vaccaj.  She  sang  also  in  that  year  at  Siena 
and  Ferrara,  and  in  1839  at  Pisa,  Reggio,  Peru- 
gia, and  Bologna.  She  played  '  Lucrezia  Borgia' 
at  Milan  in  1840  with  brilliant  eclat,  and  then 
went  to  Vienna.  Returning  to  Turin,  she  mar- 
ried the  tenor,  Poggi ;  but  continued  to  be  known 
on  the  stage  as  Frezzolini,  In  1842  (not  1841, 
as  stated  by  Fetis)  she  came  with  her  husband 
to  London,  during  Grisi's  temporary  absence,  but 
did  not  succeed  in  seizing  the  popular  sympathy. 
*  She  was  an  elegant,  tall  woman,  bom  with  a 
lovely  voice,  and  bred  into  great  vocal  skill  (of  a 
certain  order) ;  but  she  was  the  first  who  arrived 
of  the  "  young  Italians" — of  those  who  fancy  that 
driving  the  voice  to  its  extremities  can  stand  in 
the  stead  of  passion.  But  she  was,  nevertheless, 
a  real  singer  ;  and  her  art  stood  her  in  stead  for 
some  years  after  nature  broke  down.  "VMien  she 
had  left  her  scarce  a  note  of  her  rich  and  real 
soprano  voice  to  scream  with,  Madame  Frezzolini 
was  still  charming'  (Chorley).  In  London,  how- 
ever, she  never  took  root.  She  returned  to  Italy, 
and  in  1848  was  engaged  for  St,  Petersburg. 
But  the  climate  drove  her  back  to  Italy  in  two 
years.  In  1850  she  reappeared  in  London  at 
Her  ^lajesty's  Theatre,  and  in  1853  was  at 
Madrid.  In  November  of  that  year  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  Paris,  in  the  '  Puritani ' ; 
but  notwithstanding  her  stage-beauty,  and  her 
nobility  of  style  and  action,  she  could  not  achieve 
any  success  ;  her  voice  had  suffered  too  much  from 
wear  and  tear,  and  showed  signs  of  fatigue.  She 
subsequently  met  with  the  usual  enthusiastic  re- 


'  ception  in  America ;  but  her  career  was  over,  and 
'  she  has  not  been  heard  again  in  Europe.  [J.M.] 

FRIBERTH,  Karl,  bom  1 736  at  WuUersdorf 
in  Lower  Austria,  where  his  father  was  school- 
master ;   came  early  to  Vienna,  and  studied 
singing  under  Bonno  and  composition  imder 
■  Gassmann.    He  had  a  fine  tenor  voice,  and  sang 
at  St.  Stephen's,  at  Prince  Hildburghausen's  con- 
certs, and  in  Italian  operas  at  court.   In  1 759  he 
was  engaged  by  Prince  Esterhazy,  and  while  in  his 
service  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  Haydn, 
in  whose  operas  he  sang.     He  himself  wrote 
several  librettos.    In  1768  he  married  Maria 
i  Magdalena  Spangler,  a  singer  in  the  Prince's 
I  company,  and  removed  with  her  in  1776  to 
j  Vienna,  where  he  was  appointed  Capellmeister 
I  to  the  Jesuits  and  to  the  Minorites.    During  a 
:  visit  to  Italy,  Pope  Pius  VI,  '  on  account  of  his 
j  services  to  music,'  made  him  a  knight  of  the 
Golden  Spur — the  order  to  which  Gluck  and 
!  IMozart  also  belonged.    Friberth  was  an  active 
;  member  of  the  '  Tonkunstler-Societat,'  and  took 
j  Haydn's  part  warmly  in  the  discussions  there. 

As  a  composer  he  restricted  himself  almost 
j  entirely  to  church  music.    He  died  Aug.  6,  18 16, 
j  universally  respected  both  as  a  man  and  an 
!  artist.    In  the  museum  of  the  '  Gesellschaft  der 
Musikfreunde '  at  Vienna,  there  is  a  portrait  of 
him  in  oils,  showing  a  fine  head  and  expressive 
countenance.  [C.F.P.] 
FRICHOT,  a  Frenchman,  inventor  of  the  bass- 
hom  or  ophicleide,  settled  in  London  about  1790, 
published  there  in  1800  'A  complete  Scale  and 
Gamut  of  the  Bass-hom  ....  invented  by  Mr. 
Frichot.'    This  instrument  supplied  a  new  and 
powerful  bass  for  wind  instruments  in  aid  of  the 
bassoon,  which  was  too  weak,  and  the  serpent, 
which  was  very  imperfect.    It  is  now  generally 
superseded  by  the  Bombardon  and  Euphonium. 
[Ophicleide.]  [M.CC] 
FRICK,  or  FRIKE,  Philipp  Joseph,  bom 
near  Wiirzburg  May  2  7,  1 740,  originally  organist 
to  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  remarkable  performer 
on  the  Harmonica ;  travelled  much  from  1 769, 
I  spending  some  years  in  Russia.     He  came  to 
I  London  about  1780,  and  played  in  public  vdih. 
j  brilliant  success  both  on  the  pianoforte  and  har- 
monica.   His  health  obliged  him  to  give  up  the 
I  latter  instrument  in  1786,  and  he  then  main- 
tained himself  by  teaching,  until  his  death  June 
;  15,  1798.    He  published  various  treatises  and 
j  some  music,  none  of  which  is  of  any  permanent 
value  (see  Fetis).    The  harmonica  he  used  was 
one  on  Franklin's  system.    He  tried  in  vain  to 
adjust  a  key-board  to  the  instrument,  an  attempt 
I  in  which  Rollig  succeeded.  [M.CC] 
FRITZ,  Barthold,  celebrated  mechanician 
and  maker  of  instruments,  son  of  a  miller,  bom 
near  Brunswick  1697.    He  had  no  education, 
but  found  out  for  himself  the  principles  of  organ- 
building,  and  made  in  all  nearly  500  organs, 
j  clavecins,  and  clavichords,  beginning  in  1721 
:  with  a  cla%'ichord  of  4  octaves.    The  tone  of  all 
his  instruments  was  good,  especially  in  the  bass, 
j  He  died  at  Brunswick  July  1 7,  1 766.    He  pub- 


FEITZ. 


FEOHLICH. 


565 


lished  'Auweisung,  wie  man  Claviere  ...  in  alien 
zwolf  Tonen  gleich  rein  stimmen  konne,  etc' 
(^Leipzig  1756-7-80),  a  new  system  of  tuning 
keyed  instruments  by  means  of  fifths  and  octaves, 
wliich,  though  erroneous,  had  much  success, 
'ia\nng  gone  through  3  editions,  and  being  trans- 
ited into  Dutch  by  no  less  a  person  than 
■Lummel.  [M.C.C.] 
FROBERGER,*  Johann  Jacob,  eminent  or- 
_  nxist,  born,  according  to  Mattheson,  at  Halle  in 
-  ixony,  where  his  father  was  Cantor,  but  at  what 
ite  is  unknown.  On  the  accession  of  the  Emperor 
cniinand  III  (Feb.  15,  1637)  he  was  appointed 
urt  organist  at  Vienna.    There  are  entries  of 
iiis  salary  in  the  accounts  of  the  Hofcapelle,  from 
.Tan.  I  to  Sept.  30,  1637-,  from  April  i,  164I,  to 
Oct.  1645,  and  from  April  i,  1653,  to  June  30, 
1657.    The  interval  from  1637-41  was  occupied 
I'v  his  stay  in  Italy  as  Frescobaldi's  pupil,  and  a 
rant  of  200  florins  for  his  journey  is  entered  in  the 
..counts  under  June  22,  1637.    In  1657  he  left 
t  he  Emperor's  service.    In  1662  he  journeyed  to 
London,  where  he  was  twice  robbed  on  the 
ay,  and  arrived  in  so  destitute  a  condition, 
:;at  he  thankfully  accepted  the  post  of  organ- 
uower  at  Westminster  Abbey,  offered  him  by 
C  hristopher  Gibbons,  then  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Koyal  and  the  Abbey.   Gibbons  was  pla\-ing  be- 
fore the  Court  on  the  occasion  of  Charles  IPs 
marriage,  when  Froberger  overblew  the  bellows, 
Lud  thus  interrupted  the  performance,  on  which  ' 
e   enraged  organist  overwhelmed   him  with 
I'use  and  even  blows.    Fixtberger  seized  the  op- 
rtunity  &  few  minutes  after  to  sit  down  to  the 
ijtrument,  and  improvised  in  a  style  which  was  | 
at  once  recognised  by  a  foreign  Lady  who  had  , 
t'^rmerly  been  his  pupil  and  knew  his  touch.  She  ' 
resented  him  to  the  King,  who  received  him  1 
aciously,  and  made  him  play  on  the  harpsi- 
.  rd  to  the  astonishment  of  all.    This  curious 
necdote  is  not  mentioned  by  English  writers, 
;t  is  given  by  Mattheson  (Ehreupforte)  from  I 
robergers  own  MS.  notes,    Mattheson  states  ' 
.at  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic  during  his  visit 

Rome,  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  was  1 
1  ready  one  when  he  entered  the  Emperor's  ser- 
vice in  1637,  The  late  Anton  Schmidt,  Custos 
of  the  Imperial  library,  maintained  that  he  again 
became  a  Lutheran  after  his  visit  to  London,  and 
was  dismissed  from  his  post  of  Court  organist  on 
that  account.  The  contradiction  has  never  been 
explained,  but  that  he  cUed  a  Catholic  we  know, 
from  an  autograph  letter  of  SibyUa,  Duchess 
Dowager  of  Wurtemberg,  who  was  his  pupil, 
and  who  offered  him  an  asylum  in  her  house 
at  He'ricourt,  near  Montbelliard,  where  he  died  i 
May  7,  1667.  See  '  Zwei  Briefe  iiber  J.  J.  Fro- 
berger .  .  .  von  Dr.  Edmund  Schebek '  (Prague 
1874^  His  printed  works — here  first  given  ' 
accurately — are  i .  *  Diverse  ingegnosissime  e 
rarissime  Partite  di  Toccate,  Canzoui,  Ricercari 
.  .  .  Stampat«  da  Lodovico  Bourgeat .  .  .  Mogont. 
1693' — two  copies  in  possession  of  the  author, 

>  Sa  t-TiA  not  FTohberper,  is  the  nime  spelt  br  the  l*st  inresticwor. 
Pr.  E.  Schebek. 

3  This  Aloue  showi  that  the  receired  dat«  of  his  binh,  163S,  most  be 


one  with  Italian  title,  the  other  with  Italian  and 
German.  The  copies  quoted  in  other  works 
with  dates  1695,  1714,  are  printed  from  the 
same  plates,  but  with  different  titles.  2.  'Di- 
verse .  .  .  etc..  Prima  continuazione.  Mog.  1696.' 
3.  'Suites  de  Clavecin,  par  Giacomo  Froberger' 
2ud  edition,  Amsterdam,  Roger.  This  last  is  in 
the  library  at  Berlin,  where  are  also  several 
autograph  vols,  of  Froberger's  dated  1649  and 
1656,  containing,  amongst  others,  some  of  the 
pieces  in  the  above  collections.  The  Imperial 
Library  at  Vienna  also  contains  a  MS.  of  223 
sheets  of  Toccatas,  Caprices,  etc.  [F.  G.] 

FROHLICH.  There  were  four  sisters  of  this 
name,  all  natives  of  Vienna. 

1.  The  eldest,  Nanette  (Anna),  bom  Sept. 
19,  1 793,  a  pupil  of  Hummel  for  the  piano,  and 
of  Hauss  and  Siboni  for  singing,  became  an 
excellent  artist  in  both  branches.  From  1819-54 
she  was  teacher  of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire 
of  Vienna,  where  she  trained  many  dramatic  and 
concert  singers,  since  celebrated.  She  will  be 
always  gratefully  remembered  for  having  induced 
F.  Schubert  to  T^-rite  the  following  pieces  : — '  Gott 
ist  mein  Hirt'  (Psalm  xxiii),  op.  132  ;  and  'Gott 
in  der  Xatur,'  op.  133,  both  for  4  women's  voices  ; 
'  Nachthelle.'  op.  134,  for  tenor  solo  and  4  men's 
voices;  the  Serenade  ('Zogernd,  leise'),  op.  135, 
for  alto  solo  and  4  women's  voices ;  Miriam's 
Song,  op.  136  ;  and  Des  Tages  Weihe  (Schicksals- 
lenker'),  op.  146,  for  soprano  solo  and  chorus. 
GriUparzer  wrote  the  words  for  the  Serenade 
and  5liriam'3  Song  also  at  her  instigation. 

2.  Baebaea,  born  August  30,  1797,  excelled 
both  as  a  contralto  singer  and  a  painter  of  portraits 
and  flowers.  She  married  Ferdinand  Bogner,  a 
government  employe  and  eminent  flute -player, 
who  was  honorai-y  professor  at  the  Conservatoiie 
from  1 82 1  until  his  death  in  45. 

3.  JosEPHiXE,  bom  Dec.  12,  1803,  a  dis- 
tinguished singer,  pupil  of  her  sister  at  the 
Conservatoire  (1S19-21),  made  her  debut  at 
concerts  so  successfully  that  she  was  immediately 
eng-aged  for  the  court  theatre  (1S21-22').  Shortly 
afterwards,  however,  she  went  to  Copenhagen, 
and  completed  her  studies  imder  Siboni,  who  had 
settled  there.  As  a  concert  singer  she  was  very 
well  received  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden, 
and  was  appointed  private  singer  to  the  King 
of  Denmark,  Later  she  went  to  Italy,  and  sang 
in  the  operas  of  Venice  (1S29)  and  Milan  (31) 
with  brilliant  success.  The  Societa  Apollinea  of 
Venice  elected  her  an  honorary-  member.  After 
her  return  to  Vienna  she  seldom  appeared  at 
concerts,  and  turned  her  attention  almost  entirely 
to  teaching  singing.    She  died  May  7,  1S7S, 

4.  Kathaeixa,  bom  June  10, 1800,  though  not 
a  musician,  must  not  be  omitted  from  this  band  of 
sisters.  Her  cultivated  mind  and  sympathetic 
disposition  eminently  fitted  her  to  be  the  intimate 
friend  and  associate  of  the  great  Austrian  poet 
GriUparzer,  who  was  deeply  susceptible  to  music, 
and  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  the 
house  of  these  sisters  until  his  death  in  1872. 
It  was  '  Kathi '  especially,  with  her  quiet  un- 
assuming ways,  whom  the  poet  reverenced  a£  his 


566 


FROHLICH. 


FURSTENAU. 


purest  ideal,  and  who  inspired  him  with  many 
of  his  poems.    She  died  Mar.  3, 1879.  [C.F.P.] 

FROTTOLE,  early  Italian  songs,  of  which 
nine  books,  containing  each  on  an  average  64, 
were  published  by  Petrucci  at  Venice  between 
1504  and  1509.  Many  of  them  are  by  Trom- 
boncino,  who  so  far  may  be  called  the  Gordigiani 
of  his  day.  As  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the 
account  of  Ambros '  the  Frottola  was  essentially 
a  popular  melody,  or  street-song,  treated  with  a 
certain  amount  of  contrivance.  It  stood  midway 
between  the  strict  and  complicated  Madrigal, 
and  the  Villota  or  Vilanelle,  which  was  a  mere 
harmonisation  of  a  tune ;  and  in  fact  as  the  use 
of  counterpoint  increased  it  disappeared,  its 
better  elements  went  into  the  Madrigal,  its 
lower  into  the  Vilanella.  The  words  of  the 
Frottole  were  often  comic  (in  fact  the  word  is  a 
synonym  for  a  joke)  but  still  oftener  extremely 
sentimental.  Ambros  (478)  cites  some  in  which 
the  song  of  the  cicada  and  the  mewing  of  a  cat 
are  imitated.  The  poem  was  in  verses,  some- 
times very  numerous.  The  music  was  set  almost 
exclusively  for  4  voices.  Besides  those  printed 
at  Venice  a  book  of  22  was  published  at  Rome 
by  Junte  in  1526.  See  Ambros,  as  below,  and 
Eitner  'Bibliographic.'  [G.] 

FRUYTIERS,  Jan,  Flemish  poet  and  musi- 
cian of  the  1 6th  century,  was  living  at  Antwerp 
in  1 565.  He  was  a  Lutheran,  and  author  of  the 
words  and  music  of  '  Ecclesiasticus  oft  de  wijse 
sproken  Jesu  des  soons  Syrach,  etc'  (Antwerp, 
Selvius,  1565),  a  metrical  translation  of  the  book 
of  Ecclesiasticus.  The  music  is  printed  in  the 
fine  type  of  Plantin.  This  scarce  book  is  the 
more  remarkable  as  it  was  published  by  per- 
mission of  Margaret  of  Parma,  Governess  of  the 
Netherlands,  only  a  few  months  before  she  en- 
forced the  decrees  against  the  heretics  which 
brought  about  the  War  of  the  Gueux.  The 
melodies  are  chiefly  popular  Flemish  airs.  The 
35th  Cantique  (Ecclus.  xxiv)  is  set  to  a  French 
dance  of  the  15th  century,  called  'L'homme 
arm^,' — not  to  be  confounded  with  the  celebrated 
song  of  the  same  name,  so  often  used  as  a  theme 
for  entire  masses  by  composers  of  the  15  th  and 
1 6th  centuries.  The  song  is  in  3-2  time,  the 
dance  in  2-4,  and  in  the  form  of  a  round. 
[L'homme  akme.]  [M.C.C.] 

FUCHS,  Aloys,  bass-singer  in  the  Imperial 
chapel  since  1836,  and  government  employe  in  the 
war  department  at  Vienna,  bom  June  23,1 799, 
at  Raase  in  Austrian  Silesia,  remarkable  as  an 
ardent  collector  of  autographs.  His  collection 
of  music,  books,  portraits,  etc.,  purchased  out  of 
a  small  salary  by  dint  of  rigid  economy,  has 
often  been  described  in  detail.  It  contained 
specimens  from  all  nations,  though  the  Italian 
and  German  masters  were  most  fully  represented, 
and  especially  Mozart.  These  materials  were 
partly  used  by  Otto  Jahn  in  his  Life  of  that  Master. 
Fuchs  contributed  articles  to  several  musical 
periodicals,  and  took  a  keen  interest  in  every- 
thing connected  with  the  history  and  literature 

>  Geschlchte.  ill.  464-489. 


of  music.  Severe  illnesses  compelled  him  to  part 
with  his  treasures  one  by  one,  and  thus  his 
whole  collection  was  scattered.  Thalberg  bought 
the  remaining  autographs  ;  the  Mozarteum  a  foir 
copy  of  Mozart's  works ;  Grasnick  of  Berlin  the 
collection  of  portraits ;  the  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitution of  Gottweig  the  library ;  and  Putsch 
the  bookseller  of  Augsburg  the  rest  of  the  papers 
and  biographical  articles.  Fuchs  died  at  Vienna 
March  20,  1853.  [C.F.P.] 

FUHRER,  Robert,  bom  at  Prague,  1807; 
in  1840  succeeded  Wittasek  as  organist  to  the 
Cathedral  there.  His  irregular  life  however  lost 
him  the  post,  and  in  43  he  left  Prague.  In  57 
he  was  organist  at  Gmunden  and  Ischl  for  a 
short  time,  and  then  settled  in  Vienna,  where 
he  died  Nov.  28,  1861,  in  great  distress  in  a 
hospital.  His  compositions,  published  since  1830 
in  Prague  and  Vienna,  are  numerous  and  good. 
(For  list  see  Fdtis.)  They  comprise  masses, 
graduales,  offertories,  preludes,  fugues,  a  method 
for  the  pedal-organ,  a  handbook  for  choirmasters, 
a  '  Praktische  Anleitung  zu  Orgelcompositionen,' 
etc.  Whatever  his  merits  as  a  musician,  how- 
ever, he  was  a  dishonest  man,  for  he  actually 
published  Schubert's  Mass  in  G  under  his  own 
name  (Marco  Berra,  Prague  1846),  a  fact  which 
requires  no  comment.  [M.C.C.] 

FURSTENAU,  a  family  of  distinguished 
flutists  and  good  musicians. 

1.  Caspar,  born  Feb.  26,  1772,  at  Miinster, 
where  his  father  was  in  the  Bishop's  band  ;  was 
early  left  an  orphan  under  the  care  of  A.  Rom- 
berg, who  tried  to  force  him  to  learn  the  bassoon, 
as  well  as  the  oboe,  which  he  had  been  already 
taught ;  but  his  preference  for  the  flute  asserted 
itself,  and  he  shortly  became  so  proficient,  as  to 
support  his  family  by  playing  in  a  military  band, 
and  in  that  of  the  Bishop.  In  1793-4  he  made 
a  professional  tour  through  Germany,  and  set- 
tled at  Oldenburg,  where  he  entered  the  Court 
band,  and  gave  lessons  to  the  Duke.  In  181 1 
the  band  was  dispersed,  and  Caspar  again  tra- 
velled with  his  son.  He  died  at  Oldenburg  May 
II,  1819. 

2.  Anton  Bernhard,  a  finer  flutist  than  his 
brother,  bom  Oct.  20,  1792,  at  Miinster;  first 
appeared  at  a  Court  concert  in  Oldenburg  when 
only  7.  He  remained  with  his  father,  the  two 
taking  long  journeys  together.  In  181 7  he  was 
engaged  for  the  municipal  orchestra  of  Frank- 
fort, fi:om  whence  he  removed  in  1820  to  Dresden, 
where  he  remained  in  the  service  of  the  King  of 
Saxony  till  his  death,  Nov.  18,  1852.  In  1826 
he  accompanied  Weber  on  his  last  sad  journey 
to  London,  tended  him  with  anxious  care,  and 
assisted  him  to  undress  the  night  before  his  death. 
(See  Max  Maria  von  Weber's  Life  of  his  father, 
ii.  703.)  He  composed  several  pieces  and  two 
Methods  for  the  flute. 

3.  His  son  MoRiTZ,  bom  in  Dresden,  July  26, 
1824,  also  a  flutist,  at  17  entered  the  royal 
band,  in  which  he  has  remained  ever  since.  He 
has  made  some  valuable  contributions  to  the 
history  of  music,   such  as  '  Beitrage  zur  Ge- 


FURSTENAU. 

schichte  der  koniglichen  sachsischen  musikal- 
iHchen  Capelle'  (1849);  *Zur  Geschichte  des 
Theaters  und  der  Musik  in  Dresden,'  2  vols. 
(1861);  and  '  Die  Fabrication  musikalischer  In- 
strumente  im  Voigtlande'  (1876).  In  1852  he  was 
appointed  Gustos  of  the  royal  collections  of  music, 
and  received  the  order  of  Albert  of  Saxony.  [F.G.] 

FUGATO.  A  name  given  to  an  irregularly 
fugued  movement,  in  which  the  fugue-form  is  not 
strictly  followed  (especially  as  to  strefctos  and 
pedal-points),  though  the  structure  is  fugal  and 
contrapuntal.  Fugato  passages  are  often  intro- 
duced in  orchestral  music  with  the  happiest 
effect,  as  in  first  and  last  movements  of  the 
Eroica  Symphony,  in  the  Allegretto  of  No.  7, 
both  by  Beethoven,  and  in  the  first  movement 
of  Mendelssohn's  Italian  Symphony,  immediately 
after  the  double  bar,  etc.  [F.A.G.O.] 

FUGHETTA.  A  short  condensed  fugue— a 
miniature  fugue — correct  and  complete  as  to 
form,  but  with  all  its  dimensions  curtailed. 
No.  24  of  Beethoven's  33  Variations  (op.  120) 
is  entitled  Fughetta.  It  is  in  2  sections  of  16 
bars,  each  repeated.  [F.  A.  G.  0.] 

FUGUE,  or  FUGA,  from  the  Latin  fugave, 
to  put  to  flight,  because  one  part  after  another 
seems  as  it  were  to  chase  the  subject  or  motive 
throughout  the  piece.  (So  Milton,  Par.  Lost, 
xi.  563.)  It  has  been  technically  defined  as 
'  a  regular  piece  of  music,  developed  from 
given  subjects  according  to  strict  contrapuntal 
rules,  involving  the  various  artifices  of  imita- 
tion, canon,  and  double  counterpoint,  and  con- 
structed according  to  a  certain  fixed  plan.' 
The  necessary  parts  of  a  fugue  are  (i)  Subject 
(or  Dux,  or  Fuhrer),  (2)  Answer  (or  Comes,  or 
Gefdkrte),  (3)  Countersubject,  and  (4)  Stretbo; 
to  which  may  usually  be  added  (5)  Codetta  (or 
conduit,  or  copula),  (6)  Episode,  (7)  Pedal,  and 
(8)  Coda.  The  Subject  is  the  theme,  or  chief 
melody,  on  which  the  whole  fugue  is  based. 
The  Answer  is  the  correlative  of  the  subject. 
The  relation  of  the  answer  to  the  subject,  in  fact, 
determines  the  whole  character  of  the  fugue. 
Speaking  roughly,  the  answer  is  a  transposition 
of  the  subject  from  the  key  of  the  tonic  to  that 
of  the  dominant.  If  the  answer  can  be  thus 
simply  transposed  without  modulating  out  of  the 
key,  which  often  happens,  the  fugue  is  called 
a  'Beal  fugue,'  and  the  answer  a  'Real  answer.' 
But  in  most  cases  the  answer  has  to  be  modified 
according  to  certain  rules  to  avoid  modulating 
out  of  the  key.  These  modifications  are  called 
'mutations,'  and  an  answer  so  treated  is  called 
a '  tonal  answer,'  and  the  fugue  is  called  a  *  TonaP 
fugue.'    For  instance,  if  the  subject  were 


and  the  answer  were  a  simple  transposition 


'  This  is  the  modem  meaning.  In  the  early  days  of  couuterpoint  a 
Tonal  fugue  was  one  In  which  the  relations  of  the  subject  and  answer 
were  governed  by  the  old  Church  modes,  in  which  each  Authentic 
mode  had  its  related  Plagal  mode.  [See  Ke.u.  Fugue.] 


FUGUE. 


567 


it  is  obvious  that  we  should  have  left  the  original 
key  of  C  altogether,  and  modulated  towards  the 
supertonic  ;  to  avoid  this  the  answer  would  have 
to  be  modified  thus — 


so  as  to  keep  in  the  key  of  C,  and  the  change 
of  the  concluding  note  is  called  a  Mutation. 
Thus  the  dominant  answers  the  tonic,  and  the 
tonic  answers  the  dominant.    Example — 
Subject.  Answer. 

 ^— fl,  I   »  _ 


f 


=3F 


A  few  more  examples  of  mutations  will  ex- 
emplify the  principle  of  tonal  answers. 


I.  Subject. 


3.  Subject. 


m 


Answer. 


Rules  for  the  finding  of  correct  tonal  answers 
may  be  found  in  all  the  treatises  on  the  con- 
struction of  fugues.  Sometimes  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  find  the  proper  answer ;  and  there  are 
subjects  which  will  admit  of  more  than  one 
correct  answer. 

Into  these  details  it  is  impossible  to  go  in  such 
an  article  as  the  present.  But  the  following 
general  rules  may  be  useful: — (i)  Wherever  the 
subject  has  the  tonic,  the  answer  should  have 
the  dominant;  and  vice  versa.  (2)  Wherever 
the  subject  has  the  3rd  of  the  tonic,  the  answer 
should  have  the  3rd  of  the  dominant ;  and  vice 
versa.  (3)  Wherever  the  subject  has  the  6th  of 
the  tonic,  the  answer  shijuld  have  the  6th  of  the 
dominant ;  and  vice  vers^.  (4)  Wherever  the 
subject  has  the  4th  of  the  tonic,  the  answer  should 
have  the  4th  of  the  dominant ;  and  vice  versd.  (5 ) 
In  the  minor  mode,  if  the  subject  has  the  interval 
of  a  diminished  7th,  that  interval  is  unaltered  in 
the  answer.  (6)  If  the  subject,  in  either  mode, 
goes  from  the  dominant  up  to  the  subdominant  in 
the  upper  octave,  the  answer  constitutes  the  in- 
terval of  an  octave ;  thus — 

Subject.  Answer. 


568 


FUGUE. 


FUGUE. 


(7)  Every  mutation  should  be  made  in  approach- 
ing or  quitting  the  tonic  or  dominant. 

The  countersubject  is  primarily  to  be  regarded 
as  an  accompaniment  to  the  subject  or  answer. 
But  it  is  more  than  this,  for  it  ought  to  be  made 
so  melodious  as  to  be  an  available  foil  to  the 
subject  when  used  in  alternation  with  it,  or  with 
the  answer.  It  should  also  be,  in  most  cases,  so 
constructed  as  to  work  in  double  counterpoint 
with  the  subject.  It  usually  makes  its  first  appear- 
ance as  an  accompaniment  to  the  first  entry  of  the 
answer,  after  the  subject  has  been  duly  announced 
by  itself.  We  now  proceed  to  give  an  example  of 
the  commencement  of  a  fugue,  containing  subject, 
answer,  and  counter-subject.  Such  a  commence- 
ment is  called  '  the  Exposition.' 


Answer. 


Subject. 


Subject. 


'7  r 

f-^  hoc 

— ^ 

Countersubject. 


etc. 


When  the  countersubject  is  introduced  simul- 
taneously with  the  subject  at  the  beginning  of  a 
fugue,  it  should  be  looked  on  rather  as  a  second 
subject,  and  treated  strictly  as  such  throughout 
the  fugue.  In  such  a  case  the  piece  would  be 
properly  described  as  a  Double  fugue,  or  Fugue 
with  two  subjects.  Similarly  there  are  fugues 
with  three  or  more  subjects ;  the  only  limitation 
being  that  there  should  always  be  fewer  subjects 
than  parts ;  though  there  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  as  e.g.  'Let  old  Timotheus'  in  Handel's 
'Alexander's  Feast,'  where  there  are  four  sub- 
jects and  only  four  voice-parts. 

It  is  very  often  desirable  to  interpose  a  few 
notes  to  connect  the  subject  and  answer,  and  to 
facilitate  the  necessary  modulations  from  tonic 
to  dominant,  and  back  again.  Such  connecting 
notes  are  named  the  Codetta,  conduit,  or  copula, 
and  are  very  useful  in  rendering  the  fugue  less 
dry  and  cramped. 

The  following  is  the  exposition  of  a  two-part 
fugue,  including  a  codetta  : — 

J; 


*  p  1 — p- 

Codetta. 

Cou 

ntersubject. 

After  the  exposition  is  completed  by  the  succes- 
sive and  regular  entry  of  every  part,  it  is  well  to 
make  use  of  fragments  of  the  materials  already 
announced,  working  them  up  contrapuntally 
into  passages  of  imitation,  and  modulating  into 
nearly  related  keys  for  a  few  bars,  before 
returning  again  to  the  subject  and  answer. 
These  may  then  be  introduced  in  various  kindred 
keys,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  composer,  so 
as  to  secure  variety  and  contrast,  without  wan- 
dering too  far  from  the  original  key  of  the  piece. 
As  the  fugue  goes  on,  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
interest  of  it  from  flagging  by  the  introduction 
of  new  imitations,  formed  of  fragments  of  the 
original  materials.  These  passages  are  termed 
Episodes.  With  the  same  object  in  view  it  is 
customary  to  bring  the  subject  and  answer  nearer 
to  one  another  as  the  fugue  draws  towards  its 
conclusion.  The  way  to  effect  this  is  to  make 
the  entries  overlap  ;  and  this  is  called  the  Stretto 
(from  stringere,  *  to  bind').  Thus  the  above 
subject  would  furnish  a  stretto  as  follows  : — 


§5 


3e 


Some  subjects  will  furnish  more  than  one  stretto. 
In  such  cases  the  closest  should  be  reserved  for 
the  last.  [Stretto.] 

But  there  are  many  other  devices  by  which 
variety  can  be  secured  in  the  construction  of  a 
fugue.  For  the  subject  can  sometimes  be  hiverted, 
augmented,  or  diminished.  Or  recourse  may  be 
had  to  counterpoint  at  the  loth  or  12th.  The 
inversion  of  the  above  subject  would  be  us  fol- 
lows— 


FUGUE. 


FUNDAMENTAL  BASS.  569 


3^ 


 ^ 

and  this  might  be  treated  with  its  appropriate 
answer  and  countersubject,  if  desired.  Some 
subjects  will  furnish  a  stretto  in  strict  canon, 
and  this  should  be  always  reserved  for  the  con- 
cluding portion  of  the  fugue,  by  way  of  climax. 
If  the  fugue  ends  with  an  episode,  such  con- 
cluding episode  is  called  the  Coda  (or  tail-piece). 
It  is  also  customary,  in  fugues  of  more  than  two 
parts,  to  introduce  a  Pedal,  or  'point  dCorgue, 
towards  the  end,  which  is  a  long  note  held  out,  ! 
almost  always  in  the  bass  part,  on  which  many 
imitations  and  strettos  can  be  built  which  would 
often  be  otherwise  impracticable.  The  only  notes 
which  can  be  thus  held  out  as  pedals  are  the 
dominant  and  the  tonic.  The  tonic  pedal  can 
only  be  used  as  a  close  to  the  whole  piece.  The 
dominant  pedal  should  occur  just  before  the 
close.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  tonic  pedal  in 
every  fugue,  but  a  dominant  pedal  is  almost 
indispensable. 

Fugues  for  instruments  may  be  written  with 
more  freedom  than  those  for  voices,  but  in  all 
kinds  the  above  rules  and  principles  should  be 
maintained.  The  fugue-form  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  all  musical  forms,  and  all  the  great 
classical  composers  have  left  us  samples  of  their 
skill  in  this  department  of  the  art  of  music.  At 
the  same  time  it  must  be  observed  that  in  the 
early  days  of  contrapuntal  wi-iting  the  idea  of  a 
fugue  was  very  different  from  that  which  we  now 
understand  by  that  term.  In  Morley's  'Plaine 
and  easie  Introduction  to  practicall  Musicke,' 
published  in  1597,  at  p.  76,  we  find  the  following 
definition: — 'We  call  that  a  fugue,  when  one 
part  beginneth,  and  the  other  singeth  the  same, 
for  some  number  of  notes  (which  the  first  did 
sing),  as  thus  for  example  : 


This  we  should  now-a-days  call  a  specimen  of 
simple  imitation  at  the  octave,  in  two  parts  ;  yet 
it  is  from  such  a  small  germ  as  this  that  the 
subKme  structure  of  a  modern  fugue  has  been 
gradually  developed.  Orazio  Benevoli  (d.  1672) 
was  probably  the  first  of  the  Italian  composers 
who  wrote  fugues  containing  anything  like  formal 
development.  Later,  in  the  17th  century,  how- 
ever, every  Italian  composer  of  church  music 
produced  more  or  less  elaborated  fugues,  those 
of  Leo,  Clari,  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  Colonna, 
Durante,  and  Pergolesi  being  among  the  best. 

But  it  was  in  Germany  that  fugue- writing, 
both  vocal  and  instrumental,  reached  the  highest 
development  and  attained  the  greatest  perfection. 
It  would  fill  a  volume  to  enumerate  all  the  great 
fuguists  of  that  wonderfully  musical  nation  during 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Two  or  three 
names,  however,  stand  out  in  bright  relief,  and 


cannot  be  passed  over.  Sebastian  Bach  occupies 
the  very  pinnacle  among  fugue-composers,  and 
Handel  should  be  ranked  next  him.  The  student 
should  diligently  study  the  fugal  works  of  these 
great  masters,  and  make  them  his  model.  Bach 
has  even  devoted  a  special  work  to  the  subject, 
which  is  indispensable  to  the  student.  [See  Akt 
OF  Fugue.]  The  treatises  of  Mattheson,  Mar- 
purg,  Fux,  Albrechtsberger,  and  Andr^,  are  also 
valuable.  Among  more  modem  writers  may  be 
mentioned  Cherubini,  Fdtis,  and  Beicha.  We 
abstain  from  mentioning  the  works  of  living 
authors  who  have  contributed  much  valuable 
matter  to  the  literature  of  this  subject.  Mozart 
should  be  quoted  as  the  first  who  combined  the 
forms  of  the  sonata  and  the  fugue,  as  in  the 
overture  to  'Die  Zauberflote,'  and  in  the  last 
movement  of  his  '  Jupiter  S3niiphony.' 

It  is  perhaps  difficult  for  a  composer  at  the 
present  day  to  find  a  great  variety  of  original 
fugue-subjects.  But  the  possible  ways  of  treating 
them  are  so  inexhaustible  that  a  fugue  can 
always  be  made  to  appear  quite  new  even  though 
the  theme  on  which  it  is  based  be  trite  and 
hackneyed.  And  here  we  have  one  of  the  great 
advantages  of  this  form  of  composition — namely, 
that  it  does  not  so  absolutely  require  the  origina- 
tion of  really  new  melodies  as  every  other  form 
necessarily  does.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
does  require  a  command  of  all  the  resources  of 
harmony  and  counterpoint  to  produce  fugues 
which  shall  not  be  mere  imitations  of  what  has 
been  done  by  previous  composers ;  and  it  also 
needs  genius  of  a  high  order  to  apply  those 
resources  so  as  to  avoid  the  reproach  of  dryness 
and  lack  of  interest  so  often  oast  upon  the  fugal 
style  of  composition.  [F.A.G.O.] 

FULL  ORGAN.  This  term,  when  standing 
alone,  generally  signifies  that  the  chief  manual, 
or  Great  Organ,  is  to  be  used,  with  all  its  stops 
brought  into  requisition.  Sometimes  the  term 
is  employed  in  an  abbreviated  form,  and  with 
an  affix  indicating  that  a  portion  only  of  the  stops 
is  to  be  played  upon — as  '  Full  to  Fifteenth.'  In 
the  last  century  the  expressions  'Full  Organ,' 
'  Great  Organ, '  and  'Loud  Organ,'  were  severally 
used  to  indicate  the  chief  manual  organ.  [E.  J.  H.] 

FUNDAMENTAL  BASS  is  the  root  note 
of  a  chord,  or  the  root  notes  of  a  succession  of 
chords,  which  might  happen  to  be  the  actual 
bass  of  a  short  succession  of  chords  all  in  their 
first  positions,  but  is  more  likely  to  be  partly 
imaginary,  as  in  the  following  short  succession 
of  complete  chords,  which  has  its  fundamental 
bass  below  on  a  separate  stave  : — 


Fundamental  Bass. 


Rameau  was  the  first  to  develop  the  theory  of 
a  fundamental  bass,  and  held  that  it  might  '  aa 


570         FUNDAMENTAL  BASS. 


FUX. 


a  general  rule  proceed  only  in  perfect  Fourths  or 
Fifths  upwards  or  downwards.'  Helmholtz  de- 
fines it  as  'the  compound  tone  which  repre- 
sents the  chord,  as  distinguished  from  its  hass, 
that  is,  the  tone  which  belongs  to  the  lowest 
part;  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

FUX,  JoHANN  Joseph,  bom  1660  of  a  pea- 
sant family  in  the  hamlet  of  Hirtenfeld,  near 
Gratz  in  Styria.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early 
life  or  studies,  as  he  refused  to  give  information 
on  the  subject  even  to  Mattheson  for  his  'Grund- 
lage  einer  Ehrenpforte '  (Hamburg  1 740  ;  see 
p.  340,  letter  dated  1718).  From  1696,  how- 
ever, all  is  clear.  In  that  year  he  was  appointed 
organist  to  the  ecclesiastical  foundation  '  Zu  den 
Schotten'  in  Vienna;  and  married  a  Viennese, 
by  whom  he  had  no  children.  In  1698  he  be- 
came court  composer,  and  in  1705  Capellmeister 
to  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen.  He  was  also 
appointed  vice -Capellmeister  to  the  court,  and 
in  1713  Capellmeister  to  the  Dowager  Empress 
Wilhelmine  Amalie.  This  post  he  resigned  in 
1 718,  as  he  had  done  that  at  the  cathedral  in 
1 71 5  upon  his  promotion  to  be  head  Capell- 
meister to  the  court.  He  received  many  proofs 
of  court  favour.  To  the  King  of  the  Romans — 
Arch-duke,  afterwards  Emperor,  Joseph  I — he 
dedicated  his  first  opus  'Concenfcus  musico- 
instrumentalis,'  in  7  parts  (Felsecker,  Nuremberg 
1 701),  and  the  'Missa  Canonica'  (1718) ;  and  to 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI  his  most  important  work 
'Gradus  ad  Parnassum'  (1725).  In  1723,  when 
laid  up  with  gout,  the  Emperor  Charles  had  him 
conveyed  in  a  litter  to  Prague,  that  he  might  be 
present  at  the  performance  of  his  opera  '  Costanza 
e  Fortezza,'  written  for  the  coronation.  Fux 
died  at  Vienna  Feb.  13,  1741,  and  was  buried 
at  St.  Stephen's.  Among  his  best  pupils  were 
Zelenka,  Muff  at,  Tuma,  and  Wagenseil.  An 
oil-painting  of  him  in  the  costume  of  the  period 
is  in  the  museum  of  the  *  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde'  at  Vienna,  Fux  considered  his  art  in 
a  serious  light,  and  was  held  in  general  respect. 
He  was  courteous  to  aU,  and  eminently  kind  and 
just  in  his  dealings  with  the  musicians  under 
him.  As  a  composer  he  was  most  industrious; 
405  works  by  him  are  still  in  existence  —  50 
masses ;  3  requiems  ;  5  7  vespers  and  psalms  ; 
22  litanies  and  completoria;  12  graduals ;  14 
ofFertoriums  ;  22  motets ;  106  hymns  ;  2  Dies  ivee; 
I  Domine ;  i  Libera  (290  church- works  in  all) ; 
10  oratorios;  18  operas  (of  which  6  were  grand 
operas — 'dramme  per  musica' — and  the  other 
12  ' componimenti  per  camera'  and  'feste  teatrali 
per  musica');  29  partitas  and  overtures;  and 
8  pieces  for  clavier.  The  greater  part  of  these 
compositions,  either  copied  or  in  autograph,  are 
in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna;  and  the 
'  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde'  also  possesses  a 
considerable  number. 

Of  his  works  only  few  are  printed  :  his  '  Con- 
centus,'  already  mentioned,  'Elisa,'  festa  teatrale 
(Jeane  Roger,  Amsterdam,  1719),  and  the  'Missa 
canonica'  (see  below).  Proske's  'Musica  divina,' 
vol.  ii.  and  iii.,  contain  seven  church-works.  36 
Trios  for  2  violins  and  bass  (published  about 


I'joo)  are  lost.  His  dramatic  works  are  now 
valueless,  though  in  their  day  they  contributed 
much  to  the  lustre  of  the  court ;  while  his  ora- 
torios, written  for  Lent,  were  still  more  quickly 
forgotten.  Among  his  MSS.  are  38  sacred '  Senate 
a  tre,'  which  were  often  played  in  Divine  Service, 
and  are  masterpieces  of  freshness,  invention,  and 
variety.  It  is  evident  that  Fux  enjoyed  3 -part 
writing,  for  in  his  'Gradus'  he  says  '  the  master  s 
hand  may  always  be  detected  even  in  3 -part 
writing,'  and  'I  have  often  written  in  3  parts, 
and  not  unsuccessfully,'  a  statement  which  even 
Mattheson  endorses  ('Critica  Musica,'  i.  p.  131), 
though  as  a  rule  no  friend  to  Fux.  In  his  church 
music  he  was  always  reverent,  and  though  poly- 
phonic writing  was  second  nature  to  him,  he 
usually  abstained  from  unnecessary  subtleties  in 
sacred  music.  One  exception  to  this  must  how- 
ever be  made.  His  '  Missa  canonica,'  written 
throughout  'a  capella,'  a  masterpiece  containing 
every  species  of  canon,  is  unique  in  its  way. 
Here  Fux  displays  his  marvellous  knowledge  of 
counterpoint,  combined  with  the  richest  modu- 
lation ;  and,  as  Marpurg  says  ('  Abhandlung  von 
der  Fuge,'  p.  130),  speaking  specially  of  the 
double  canon  in  the  *  Christe  eleison,'  '  his 
harmony  is  gorgeous,  and  at  the  same  time 
thoroughly  in  keeping  with  the  sacredness  of  the 
occasion.'  The  mass  is  dedicated  to  the  Emperor 
as  a  proof  'that  classic  music,  far  from  being 
extinct,  has  here  gained  one  more  step  in  advance' 
(see  dedication  in  Italian).  The  Imperial  Library 
at  Vienna  contains  a  copy  of  it  by  Michael 
Haydn  (i  757),  and  the  Royal  Library  at  Dresden 
another  by  Zelenka,  Fux's  pupil.  It  has  been 
printed  at  Leipsic  by  Peters  and  Kiihnel.  The 
frequent  performances  of  this  mass  at  the  cathe- 
dral and  the  court  speak  well  for  the  efficiency 
of  the  singers.  The  most  convincing  proof  of 
Fux's  ability  as  a  teacher  is  his  'Gradus  ad  Par- 
nassum,' written  in  Latin  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  master  and  pupil,  and  consisting  of  two 
parts,  the  first  on  the  theory,  and  the  second 
on  the  practice,  of  composition.  It  has  passed 
through  innumerable  editions,  and  been  trans- 
lated into  four  languages.  The  dates  of  publi- 
cation are  as  follows  : — the  original,  in  Latin, 
Vienna  1725  ;  German  edition,  by  Lorenz  Mitz- 
ler,  Leipsic,  1742  ;  Italian,  by  Alessandro  Man- 
fredi,  Carpi,  1761  ;  French,  by  Sieur  Pietro 
Denis,  Paris,  1773;  and  English,  anonymous, 
London,  1791.  Its  usefulness  has  been  attested 
by  such  men  as  Piccinni,  Durante,  P.  Martini, 
the  Ahh6  Vogler,  Paolucci,  Gerbert,  Cherubini, 
and  in  our  own  day  by  Heinrich  Bellermann 
('Der  Contrapunct,'  etc.,  Berlin  1862).  Mozart 
used  it  in  his  contrapuntal  exercises,  and  Haydn 
repeatedly  studied  it,  and  founded  his  teaching 
upon  it.  An  exhaustive  biography  of  the  master, 
with  a  thematic  catalogue  of  his  compositions,  has 
been  drawn  up  with  his  usual  accuracy  by  Dr. 
von  Kochel  from  authentic  information,  with 
the  title  'J.  J.  Fux,  Hofcompositor  und  Hof- 
kapellmeister  der  Kaiser  Leopold  I,  Joseph  I, 
und  Karl  VI,  von  1698  bis  1740  (Holder,  Vienna 
1872).  [C.F.P.] 


rz. 

FZ.  The  abbreviation  of  the  Italian  word 
forzando,  meaning  that  the  note  or  chord  against 
which  it  is  played  should  be  forced  beyond  the 
normal  sound  of  the  passage.    It  is  always  pro- 


GABRIELI.  571 

portionate  ;  and  thus  a  /z  in  a  piano  passage 
will  be  far  less  loud  than  in  a  forte  passage. 
sfz  or  sf  (jsforzando)  is  more  commonly  used 
than  fz.  [G.] 


FAURE,  Jean-Baptiste,  son  of  a  singer  in 
the  church  at  Moulins,  where  he  was  bom  Jan. 
15,  1830.  When  he  was  3  the  family  removed 
to  Paris,  and  when  he  was  7  his  father  died.  In 
1843  he  entered  the  solfeggio  class  in  the  Con- 
servatoire, and  soon  after  the  maitrise  of  the 
Madeleine,  where  he  was  under  Trevaux,  an 
excellent  teacher,  to  whom  he  owes  his  sound 
knowledge  of  music.  After  the  breaking  of  his 
voice  he  took  up  the  piano  and  double  bass,  and 
was  for  some  time  a  member  of  the  band  at  the 
Odeon  theatre.  When  his  voice  had  recovered 
he  joined  the  chorus  of  the  Theatre  Italien,  and 
in  Nov.  1850  again  entered  the  Conservatoire, 
and  in  52  obtained  the  first  prizes  for  singing 
and  for  opdra  comique.  He  made  his  debut  Oct. 
20,  52,  at  the  Opera  Comique,  in  Masse's  'Gala- 
thee,'  after  which  he  advanced  steadily  through 
various  rdles  until  his  creation  of  the  parts  of 
Crevecoeur  in  Gevaert's  '  Quentin  Durward ' 
(March  58)  and  Hoel  in  Meyerbeer's  'Pardon 
de  Ploermel'  (April  59)  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank.  In  the  winter  of  1861  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  the  Grand  Opfera,  since  which 


time  he  has  been  regularly  retained  there.  In 
London  he  first  appeared  at  Covent  Garden, 
April  10,  i860,  as  Hoel  in  '  Dinorah,'  and  has  since 
that  time  been  a  regular  visitor  at  one  or  other 
of  the  Italian  Opera  houses.  At  Brussels  also 
he  is  often  heard,  and  in  1874,  during  the  war, 
he  undertook  the  first  class  of  singing  in  the 
Brussels  Conservatoire.  In  1861  he  appeared  in 
Berlin  at  Meyerbeer's  request,  but  the  tremolo 
in  his  voice  did  not  please  the  Germans,  and 
he  has  not  revisited  that  country. 

Faure  is  a  good  musician  and  a  fine  actor. 
He  is  also  a  collector  of  pictures  and  a  man  of 
great  culture.  His  voice  is  a  baritone  of  great 
extent  and  of  very  fine  quality.  His  characters 
comprise  Mephistopheles,  Hamlet,  Nelusco  (Afri- 
caine),  Posa  (Don  Carlos),  Don  Giovanni,  and 
many  more.  In  1857  he  was  for  a  short  time 
Professor  of  Singing  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire, 
and  in  1859  he  married  Mile.  Lefebvre  (born 
Dec,  2T,  1828),  the  chief  actress  of  Dugazon  roles 
at  the  Op^ra  Comique.  He  has  published  2  books 
of  songs  (Heugel).  [G.] 


GThe  fifth  note  of  the  natural  scale — the 
dominant  of  C,  the  relative  major  of  E 
*  minor.  It  is  sol  in  French  and  in  solfa- 
iug.  It  has  FJ  for  its  signature.  G  minor  has 
Bb  and  Eb  for  the  signature,  and  is  the  relative 
minor  of  B  flat  major.  G  gives  its  name  to  the 
treble  clef,  the  sign  for  which  is  nothing  but  a 
corruption  of  the  letter.  The  Greek  G  gives  its 
name  to  the  gamut  or  scale. 

As  to  its  use  in  composition — two  of  Haydn's 
12  Grand  Symphonies  are  in  G,  and  there  are 
several  others  of  note  in  the  same  key  ('Oxford,' 
'  Letter  V,'  etc.),  but  there  is  no  remarkable  one 
by  Mozart,  and  not  one  by  Beethoven,  nor  by 
Schubert,  Schumann,  or  Mendelssohn.  Of  Bee- 
thoven's 16  Quartets  one  (No.  2),  and  of  his  11 
Overtures  one  (Ruins  of  Athens),  the  Sonata  op. 
31,  No.  I,  two  Violin  Sonatas,  and  the  P.  F,  Con- 
certo No.  4,  do  something  to  restore  \he  balance, 
but  it  is  singular  how  much  he  avoids  the  key. 

G  minor  has  Mozart's  Symphony  and  Men- 
delssohn's Concerto  to  ennoble  it.  [G.] 
GABLER,  JoHANN,  of  Ulm,  built  the  cele- 
brated organ  in  the  abbey  of  Weingarten  in  1 750. 
It  has  4  manuals,  and  76  speaking  stops,  and  is 
credited  with  6666  pipes.  It  is  also  said  that 
the  monks  were  so  pleased  with  it  that  they  gave 
Gabler  a  florin  per  pipe  over  and  above  the  contract 
price.    He  died  about  the  year  1 784,  [V.deP.] 


GABRIEL,  Makt  Ann  Virginia,  of  Irish 
parentage,  born  at  Banstead,  Surrey,  Feb.  7, 1825, 
learned  the  piano  from  Pixis,  Dohler,  and  Thal- 
berg,  and  harmony  and  construction  from  Mo- 
lique.  Her  principal  work  was  a  Cantata  named 
'Evangeline,'  founded  on  Longfellow's  poem; 
she  wrote  many  operettas,  one  of  which,  '  Widows 
bewitched,'  was  performed  by  Mr,  German  Reed's 
company  in  67,  and  had  a  long  run.  Her  Can- 
tatas 'Dreamland'  and  'Evangeline'  were  per- 
formed at  Covent  Garden  in  1870  and  73.  Many 
of  her  songs  were  very  popular.  Miss  Gabriel 
married  Mr.  George  K  March  (author  of  most  of 
her  librettos)  in  Nov.  1874,  and  died  from  the 
effects  of  an  accident  on  Aug.  7,  1877.  [G.] 

GABRIELI,  a  family  of  great  Italian  musi- 
cians. 

I.  Andrea,  celebrated  contrapuntist,  born 
about  1 5 10,  in  the  quarter  of  Venice  called 
Canareggio,  He  was  a  pupil  of  Adrian  Willaert, 
maestro  di  capella  of  St.  Mark's  (1527-62).  In 
1536  he  entered  the  Doge's  choir;  in  66  suc- 
ceeded Claudio  Merulo  as  second  organist  of 
St,  Mark's;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  1586, 
was  first  organist.  His  fame  spread  not  only 
throughout  Italy,  but  also  to  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands.  His  three  best-known  pupils  were 
his  nephew  Giovanni,  Leo  Hassler,  and  Peter 
Sweelinck.    In  1574  the  Republic  commissioned 


572 


GABHIELI. 


GABRIELLE,  CHARMANTE. 


him  to  write  the  music  to  be  performed  at  the 
reception  of  Henry  III.  King  of  France ;  for 
which  occasion  he  composed  several  pieces,  one 
being  for  12  voices  in  2  choirs,  *Ecco  Vinegia 
bella,'  printed  in  the  'Gemma  Musicalis'  (Venice, 
Gardano,  1588).  Though  much  addicted  to 
counterpoint,  his  style  is  elevated  and  dignified. 
His  finest  work  is  'Psalmi  Davidici  poeniten- 
tiales,  turn  omnis  generis  instrumentorum,  turn 
ad  vocis  modulationum  accomodati,  sex  vocum  ' 
(Venice  1583).  Among  his  numerous  composi- 
tions may  be  mentioned — '  Sacrae  cantiones 
quinque  vocum,  liber  primus'  (1565);  *Mis- 
sarum  sex  vocum,  liber  primus'  (1570);  *Ma- 
di-igali  a  5  voci,  liber  primus,'  containing  24 
madrigals  and  6  canzoni  (1572) ;  'Libro  secondo 
di  Madrigali  a  5  e  6  voci,  con  un  dialogo  da  8 ' 
(1572);  'Canzoni  alia  francese  per  I'organo' 
(1571)  ;  and  'Canti  concerti  a  6,  7,  8,  10,  e  16 
voci'  (1587).  In  the  last  are  some  pieces  by 
his  nephew.  His  organ  music  was  printed  with 
his  nephew's  in  3  vols,  of  Ricercari.  Andrea 
seems  to  have  strongly  felt  the  necessity  of 
executing  vocal  music  by  instruments.  He  also 
composed  the  first  '  real  fugues,'  a  species  of  com- 
position for  which  his  nephew  showed  great 
facility.  Proske's  '  Musica  divina '  contains  a 
missa  brevis  and  no  fewer  than  10  motets  of 
his,  all  for  4  voices. 

2.  Giovanni,  bom  in  Venice  1557,  pupil  of 
his  uncle  Andrea,  by  1575  already  well  known 
as  a  composer,  succeeded  Claudio  Merulo  as  first 
organist  of  St.  Mark's,  Jan.  i,  1585.  He  died 
probably  in  161 2,  as  Gianpaolo  Savii  succeeded 
him  on  August  12  of  that  year,  but  his  monu- 
ment in  San  Stefano  gives  Aug.  12,  161 3,  as 
the  date  of  his  death.  Although  he  seems  never 
to  have  left  Venice  he  was  well  known  through- 
out the  civilised  world.  The  works  of  his  pupils, 
Heinrich  Schiitz,  Alois  Grani,  and  Michael  Prae- 
torius,  testify  to  the  deep  respect  they  all  enter- 
tained for  him.  His  contrapuntal  facility  was 
extraordinary;  his  'Sacrae  symphoniae'  (1597) 
contains  a  piece  for  3  choirs,  each  of  different  com- 
position. (This  or  a  similar  noble  work  is  printed 
by  Mr.  HuUah  in  his  *  Vocal  scores.')  The  first 
part  of  the  Symphoniae  is  dedicated  to  Count 
George  Fugger,  in  acknowledgment  of  hia 
having  invited  Gabrieli  to  his  wedding.  The 
necessity  for  the  orchestra  is  still  more  marked 
in  Giovanni  than  in  his  uncle  Andrea ;  his 
modulations  are  often  so  bold  and  difficult  that 
we  can  scarcely  believe  they  were  ever  intended 
for  voices.  In  this  respect  he  may  be  called  the 
father  of  the  chromatic  style.  For  particulars 
of  his  times  and  contemporaries  see  Winterfeld's 
'  Johann  Gabrieli  und  seine  Zeit,'  2  vols,  of  text 
and  I  vol.  of  examples,  containing  23  pieces  for 
voices  (from  4  to  16),  one  for  organ,  and  one 
for  quartet.  Others  will  be  found  in  Boden- 
schatz  ;  Rochlitz ;  in  Musica  sacra  (Schlesinger 
1834),  etc.  Rochlitz's  Collection  (Schott)  con- 
tains an  In  excelsis  of  his  for  Soprano  and  Tenor 
solo,  and  chorus  (h,  4),  with  violins,  3  horns, 
and  2  trombones ;  also  a  Benedictus  for  3  choirs. 

3.  DoMENico,  dramatic  composer  and  violon- 


cellist, known  as  '  il  Menghino  del  violoncello,' 
born  at  Bologna  1640;  first  in  the  band  of  San 
Petronio,  then  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  Pamfili, 
In  1676  he  became  a  member,  and  in  1683 
President,  of  the  Societa  Filarmonica  in  Bo- 
logna. He  appears  to  have  died  before  1691. 
Of  his  operas,  produced  in  Bologna,  Padua,  and 
Venice,  'Cleobulo'  was  the  most  successful.  His 
instrumental  compositions  'Balletti,  gighe,  cor- 
renti,  sarabande,  a  due  violini  e  violoncello  con 
basso  continuo,'  op.  i  (Bologna  1703),  are  in- 
teresting. [F.  G.] 
GABRIELLE,  CHARMANTE,  that  is,  Ga- 
brielle  d'Estr(^es,  mistress  of  Henri  IV.  The  reign 
of  Louis  XVIII.  revived  an  artless  little  romance, 
which,  like  the  song  'Vive  Henri  IV.'  [see 
Henei],  recalled  pleasant  memories  of  the  Bdar- 
nais.  '  Charmante  Gabrielle  '  was  not  only  sung 
far  and  wide  at  that  loyal  epoch,  but  the  author- 
ship of  both  words  and  music  was  attributed  to 
the  gallant  king,  and  the  mistake  is  still  often 
repeated.  True  Henri  suggested  the  song  to  one 
of  the  poets  of  his  court,  but  we  have  his  own 
authority  for  the  fact  that  he  did  not  himself 
write  the  stanzas.  The  letter  in  which  the  king 
sent  the  song  to  Gabrielle  is  in  the  '  Recueil  des 
Lettres  missives'  of  Berger  de  Xivrey  (iv.  998, 
9),  and  contains  these  words : — '  Ces  vers  vous 
reprdsenteront  mieulx  ma  condition  et  plus  agr^- 
ablement  que  ne  feroit  la  prose.  Je  les  ay 
dictez,  non  arrangez.'  The  only  date  on  the 
letter  is  May  21,  but  it  was  written  in  1597 
from  Paris,  where  Henri  was  collecting  money 
for  his  expedition  to  Amiens,  and  making  pre- 
parations to  leave  Gabrielle  for  the  campaign 
against  the  Spaniards.  It  was  probably  Bertaut, 
Bishop  of  Seez,  who,  at  the  king's  'dictation,' 
composed  the  four  couplets  of  the  romance,  of 
which  we  give  the  first,  with  the  music  in  its 
revived  form : — 

r 


mil   -  le     dards,  Quand  la    gloi  -  re  m'ap  -  pel-le  Dans 


vi  -  e.    Ou     sans  a     -  mour! 


The  refrain  is  not  original ;  it  is  to  be  found 
word  for  word  in  the  '  Thesaurus  harmonicus '  of 
Besard  (1603),  and  in  the  'Cabinet  ou  Trdsor 
des  nouvelles  chansons'  (1602);  and  as  at  that 
time  it  took  more  than  five  or  six  years  for  an 
air  to  travel  from  the  court  to  the  people,  we 
may  safely  conclude  that  it  was  no  novelty. 


GABFvIELLE,  CHARMANTE. 


GABUSSI. 


673 


Fetis  attributes  the  air  to  Eustache  Du  Caurroy, 
inaitre  de  cliapelle  to  Charies  IX,  Henri  III,  and 
Henri  IV;  but  the  music  of  that  'Prince  of 
musicians,'  as  Mersennus  calls  him,  is  so  imbued 
with  science,  not  to  say  pedantry,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  suppose  the  author  of  the  contra- 
puntal exercises  in  his  '  Melanges '  to  have  had 
anything  in  common  with  the  composer  of  so 
simple  and  natural  a  melody.  Its  origin  is  un- 
doubtedly secular ;  and  there  is  the  more  reason 
to  believe  it  to  have  been  borrowed  from  an  air 
already  popular  that  the  words  '  Cruelle  ddpartie, 
^Nlalheureux  jour'  occur  in  the  'Chansons  sur  les 
airs  mondains.'  In  the  book  of  cantiques  en- 
titled *La  pieuse  Alouette  avec  son  tirelire' 
(1619)  we  find  a  proof  that  the  church  bor- 
rowed the  air  and  prevailing  idea  of  this  song 
from  the  world,  rather  than  the  reverse,  for  the 
religious  refrain, 

Douce  vierge  INIarie, 

Secourez-moi ! 
Otez-nioi  ou  la  vie, 

Ou  bien  l^moi, 

is  obviously  founded  on  the  love-song  of  1597. 

Such  is  all  the  positive  information  we  have 
been  able  to  obtain  about  'Charmante  Gabrielle'; 
but  the  mystery  which  surrounds  its  origin  rather 
increases  than  dimioishes  the  attraction  of  this 
celebrated  song.  [G.  C] 

GABRIELLI,  Cattekina,  born  at  Eome 
Nov.  12,  1730,  daughter  of  Prince  Gabrielli's 
cook,  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  accomplished, 
and  capricious  singers  that  ever  lived.  At  the 
age  of  14,  the  Prince,  walking  in  his  garden, 
heard  her  singing  a  diflBcult  song  of  Galuppi, 
sent  for  her,  and  after  listening  to  her  perform- 
ance, promised  her  his  protection  and  a  musical 
education.  She  was  placed  first  under  Garcia, 
lo  Spagnoletto,  and  afterwards  under  Porpora. 
A  great  success  attended  her  ddbut  (1747)  as 
prima  donna,  at  Lucca,  in  Galuppi' s  '  Sofonisba.' 
Guadagni  gave  her  some  valuable  instruction  in 
the  style  in  which  he  himself  excelled, — the  pure 
and  correct  cantabile.  This  she  was  therefore 
now  enabled  to  add  to  her  own,  which  was  the 
perfection  of  brilliant  bravura,  with  a  marvellous 
power  of  rapid  execution  and  an  exquisitely 
delicate  quality  of  tone.  At  other  theatres  in 
Italy  she  met  with  equal  success,  singing  in 
1750,  at  Naples,  in  JomelH's  'Didone,'  after 
which  she  went  to  Vienna.  Here  she  finished 
her  declamatory  style  under  the  teaching  of 
Metastasio,  and  fascinated  Francis  I,  who  went 
to  the  Opera  only  on  her  nights.  Metastasio 
is  said  to  have  been  not  indifierent  to  the 
charms  of  this  extraordinary  singer,  still  known 
as  la  Cochetta  or  Cochettina,  in  memory  of  her 
origin ;  but  she  did  not  respond.  Her  capricious 
treatment  of  her  numerous  adorers  gave  rise  to 
hundreds  of  stories,  among  which  one  may  be 
quoted.  By  this  it  appears  that  the  ambassadors 
of  France  and  Portugal  were  both  desperately 
enamoured  of  her  at  Vienna.  The  former,  con- 
cealing himself  in  her  apartments,  saw  enough 
to  confirm  his  suspicions,  and  rushed  upon  her 
with  liis  sword,  with  which  he  would  doubtless 


have  transfixed  her,  had  not  the  busk  of  her 
boddice  turned  aside  the  point  of  the  blade. 
She  pardoned  the  Frenchman,  who  had  thrown 
himself  on  his  knees  before  her,  on  condition  of 
her  retaining  his  sword,  oa  which  she  determined 

to  have  the  words  engraved,  Epee  de  M  

qui  osa  frapper  la  Gabrielli,  &c. ;  but  Metastasio 
prevailed  upon  her  to  give  up  this  design.  In 
1765  she  quitted  Vienna,  laden  with  wealth, 
and  went  to  Sicily,  where  she  excited  the  same 
furore,  and  exhibited  the  same  caprices.  She 
was  imprisoned  by  the  King,  because  she  would 
not  sing  her  part  in  the  opera  above  a  whisper. 
During  the  twelve  days  of  her  imprisonment, 
she  gave  sumptuous  entertainments,  paid  the 
debts  of  poor  prisoners,  and  distributed  alms  in 
profusion.  Each  evening  she  assembled  the 
other  inmates  of  the  gaol,  to  whom  she  sang 
h^r  favourite  songs  in  the  most  painstaking 
manner.  The  King  was  obliged  to  set  her  free, 
and  her  reputation  with  the  public  stood  higher 
than  ever.  In  1767  she  went  to  Parma,  where 
the  Infant  Don  Philip  fell  madly  in  love  with 
her,  and  persecuted  her  so  far  as  sometimes  to 
shut  her  up  in  a  room  of  which  he  kept  the  key. 
Terrible  scenes  occm-red  between  them,  and  she 
called  him  on  one  occasion  gobbo  maledeito. 
Having  escaped  from  Parma  in  1768  she  went 
to  Russia,  where  she  astonished  Catherine  II. 
by  demanding  5000  ducats  as  salary,  a  sum,  as 
the  Empress  objected,  larger  than  the  pay  of 
a  field-marshal ;  to  which  Gabrielli  simply  re- 
plied, *  Then  let  your  field-marshals  sing  for 
you ' —  as  Caflfarelli  once  replied  in  similar 
circumstances.  She  appeared  in  London  in  the 
season  of  1775-6.  Burney  says  of  her  that  'she 
had  no  indications  of  low  birth  in  her  counten- 
ance or  deportment,  which  had  all  the  grace  and 
dignity  of  a  Roman  matron.'  The  public  here 
was  prejudiced  against  her  by  the  stories  current 
of  her  caprice ;  and  she  only  remained  during 
one  season  ^  Burney  extols  the  precision  and 
accuracy  of  her  execution  and  intonation,  and  the 
thrilling  quality  of  her  voice.  She  appeared  to 
him  '  the  most  intelligent  and  best  bred  virtuosa 
with  whom  he  had  ever  conversed,  not  only 
on  the  subject  of  music,  but  on  every  subject 
concerning  which  a  well-educated  female,  who 
had  seen  the  world,  might  be  expected  to  have 
information.'  She  sang  with  Pacchierotti  at 
Venice  in  1777,  and  at  Milan  in  1780  with 
Marchesi,  with  whom  she  divided  the  public 
into  two  parties.  After  this,  Gabrielli  retired 
to  Rome  with  her  sister  Francesca,  who  had 
followed  her  everywhere  as  seconda  donna,  and 
lived  upon  her  savings,  which  amounted  to  no 
more  than  12,000  francs  per  annum.  She  died 
in  April  1796  of  a  neglected  cold.  A  beautiful 
little  portrait  of  her  in  mezzotint,  now  very  rare, 
was  engraved  by  D.  Martin  in  1766  from  a 
painting  by  Pompeo  Battoni.  [J.M.] 
GABUSSI,  ViKCENZO,  composer  and  teacher 
of  singing,  bom  at  Bologna  early  in  the  present 

*  F^tis  Is  mistaken  In  saying  that  she  never  came  to  England,  and 
In  the  whole  of  his  explanation  of  her  reasons  for  refusing  engaKementS 
in  London.  He  also  erroneously  calls  her  sister  Anna. 


674 


GABUSSI. 


GANSBACHER. 


century,  studied  counterpoint  under  Padre  Mattei. 
He  brought  out  his  first  opera  at  Modena  in  1825 
and  then  came  to  London,  and  remained  there  for 
about  1 5  years  teaching  singing  and  accompani- 
ment. After  this  he  retired  to  Bologna.  In  1834 
he  produced  '  Ernani '  at  the  Theatre  des  Italiens, 
Paris,  and  in  41  'Clemenza  di  Valois'  at  the 
Eenice  in  Venice,  without  success.  He  composed 
chamber  music  for  instruments,  but  is  best  known 
by  his  vocal  duets,  which  are  still  sung  in  England. 
He  died  in  London  Sept.  1 2,  1 846.       [M.  C.  C] 

GADE,  Niels  W.,  one  of  the  most  gifted  and 
accomplished  of  living  composers  and  conductors, 
was  born  Oct.  22,  181 7,  at  Copenhagen,  the  son 
of  a  maker  of  musical  instruments.  His  first 
instruction  in  music  was  obtained  from  a  teacher 
who  esteemed  mechanical  industry  beyond  talent, 
and  it  seems  was  not  very  well  satisfied  with 
the  progress  of  his  pupil.  Gade  learned  a  little 
about  guitar,  violin,  and  pianoforte,  without 
accomplishing  much  on  either  instrument.  Later 
on  he  met  with  more  able  masters  in  Wershall, 
Berggreen,  and  Weyse.  Various  compositions 
were  the  result,  of  which  their  author  now  thinks 
little.  He  afterwards  entered  the  royal  orchestra 
at  Copenhagen  as  violinist,  and  in  that  practical 
school  attained  that  rare  degree  of  mastery  in  in- 
strimientation  which  his  publications  show  from 
the  first.  Through  his  'Ossian'  overt;ire,  which,  on 
the  approval  of  Spohr  and  Schneider,  was  crowned 
in  1 84 1  with  the  prize  awarded  by  the  Copen- 
hagen Musical  Union,  he  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  music- loving  king,  and  at  once 
received,  like  many  other  men  of  talent  in 
Denmark,  a  royal  stipend,  intended  to  assist 
him  in  a  foreign  journey.  Thus  equipped,  Gade 
turned  towards  Leipzig,  where  by  Mendelssohn 
he  was  introduced  to  the  musical  public  at  large. 
(See  Mendelssohn's  letters  Jan.  13,  March  3,  43.) 

After  the  production  of  his  fii-st  symphony 
(March  2,  1843)  and  the  cantata  '  Comala'  at 
Leipzig  (March  3,  46),  Gade  travelled  in  Italy, 
and  on  his  return  in  1 844,  Mendelssohn,  who  was 
then  staying  at  Berlin  and  Frankfort,  entrusted 
him  with  the  conducting  of  the  Gewandhaus 
concerts.  In  the  winter  of  1845-46  he  acted 
as  sub-conductor  to  Mendelssohn  at  Leipzig,  and 
after  the  death  of  the  latter  conducted  alone  till 
the  spring  of  1848,  when  he  returned  to  Copen- 
hagen for  good,  to  occupy  a  post  as  organist  and 
to  conduct  the  concerts  of  the  Musikverein.  In 
1 86 1,  at  the  death  of  Glaeser,  he  was  appointed 
Hof-capellmeister,  and  received  the  title  of  Pro- 
fessor of  Music;  and  he  is  still  busy  composing, 
teaching,  and  conducting.  He  visited  England 
for  the  first  time  in  1876,  to  conduct  his  *Zion' 
and  'The  Crusaders'  at  the  Birmingham  Festival. 

The  intimate  friend  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schu- 
mann, Gade  is-  in  some  sense  their  disciple ;  his 
earlier  works  showing  faint  traces  of  the  influence 
of  the  former  as  his  later  works  do  that  of  the 
latter.  Still  Gade's  distinguished  and  amiable 
musical  physiognomy  is  far  from  a  mere  reflex 
of  theirs ;  he  has  always  had  something  to  say 
for  himself,  and  has  from  the  first  contrived  to 
Bay  it  in  a  manner  of  his  own.     His  musical 


speech  is  tinged  with  the  cadences  of  Scandinavian 
folk-song,  and  almost  invariably  breathes  the 
spirit  of  northern  scenery.  All  his  works  show 
the  same  refined  sense  for  symmetry,  for  harmo- 
nious colouring  and  delicate  sentiment.  His 
themes,  if  rarely  vigorous  or  passionate,  are 
always  spontaneous  as  far  as  they  go,  and  never 
without  some  charm  of  line  or  colour.  As  with 
a  landscape  painter  the  fascination  of  his  pieces 
lies  in  the  peculiar  poetical  impression  conveyed 
by  the  entire  picture  rather  than  by  any  pro- 
minent details ;  and  as  in  a  landscape  this 
fascinating  total  impression  is  always  the  result 
of  perfect  harmony  of  colour,  so  in  Gade's 
works  it  is  traceable  to  the  gentle  repose  and 
proportion  of  his  themes  and  the  suave  perfection 
of  his  instrumentation. 

Gade  has  published  7  symphonies,  ops.  5, 10, 15, 
20,  25,  32,  45,  in  C  minor,  E,  A  minor,  B  flat,  D 
minor  (with  Piano),  G  minor,  and  F  respectively; 
five  overtures — '  Nachklange  aus  Ossian '  (op.  i ), 
'Im  Hochland'  (op.  7),  in  C  (op.  14),  'Hamlet' 
(op.  37),  '  Michael  Angelo '  (op.  39) ;  the  cantatas 
'Comala  '  (op.  12),  ' Friihlingsfantaisie '  (op.  23), 
'  Erlkonigs  Tochter '  (op.  30),  *  Die  heilige  Nacht ' 
(op.  40),  ' Frfihlingsbotschaft '  (op.  35),  'Die 
Kreuzfahrer '  (op.  50),  and  Zion ;  an  octet  (op. 
17),  sestet  (op.  17),  and  quintet  (op.  8)  for  strings  ; 
a  trio  called  'Novelletten'  for  pianoforte  and 
strings  ;  two  sonatas  for  pianoforte  and  violin  in 
A  and  D  minor,  of  which  the  second  is  particu- 
larly good ;  many  choral  songs  for  mixed  and  for 
male  voices  ;  songs  for  one  voice  with  pianoforte, 
and  a  number  of  solo  pieces  for  the  pianoforte  for 
two  and  four  hands,  of  which  the  sonata  (in  E 
minor,  op.  28)  the  sketches  called  *  Aquarellen,' 
and  the  Volkstanze  (op.  31)  are  the  best.  [E.  D.] 

GADSBY,  Henry,  son  of  a  musician,  bom  at 
Hackney  Dec.  15,  1842,  entered  St.  Paul's  choir 
in  49,  at  the  same  time  with  Dr.  Stainer,  and 
remained  till  58.  The  instruction  in  harmony 
which  he  and  Stainer,  as  an  exception  due  to 
their  musical  faculty,  received  from  Mr.  W. 
Bayley,  the  then  master  of  the  boys,  is  virtually 
the  only  teaching  that  Mr.  Gadsby  ever  received, 
the  rest  is  due  to  his  own  perseverance. 

Mr.  Gadsby's  published  works  are  the  130th 
Psalm;  a  Cantata  (1862);  'Alice  Brand,'  Can- 
tata (1870) ;  Festival  Service  for  8  voices  (1872) ; 
Concert  overture,  'Andromeda'  (1873);  String 
Quartet  (1875);  Andante  and  Eondo  piacevole, 
P.  F.  and  Flute  (1875);  music  to  Alcestis  (1876). 
In  addition  to  these  he  has  (1878)  in  MS.  3 
Symphonies,  in  C,  in  A — portions  of  which  have 
been  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace — and  in  D ; 
Overtures  to  the  Golden  Legend '  and  '  Witches' 
Frolic,'  and  an  Intermezzo  and  Scherzo  (all  per- 
formed at  the  Crystal  Palace),  as  well  as  many 
Songs,  Part-songs,  Anthems,  and  Services.  [G.] 

GANSBACHER,  Johann,  Capellmeister  of 
the  Cathedral  at  Vienna,  born  May  8,  1778,  at 
Sterzing  in  the  Tyrol.  At  6  years  old  he  was  a 
chorister  in  the  village  church  of  which  his  father 
was  choirmaster.  Later  he  learnt  the  organ, 
piano,  cello,  and  harmony  at  Innspruck,  Halle, 


GAXSBACHER. 


GALIMATHIAS.  575 


and  Botzen.    In  1795  he  entered  the  University 
of  Innspruck,  but  on  the  formation  of  the  Land- 
sturm  in  96  served  as  a  volunteer,  and  won  the 
gold  '  Tapferkeits-medaille.'    In  1801  he  was  in 
Vienna,  studied  under  Vogler  and  Albrechts- 
berger,  and  was  recommended  as  a  teacher  by 
Haydn,  Gyrowetz,  and  distinguished  patrons. 
He  next  accompanied  Count  Firmian  to  Prague, 
and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  composition.    In  j 
1809  he  was  at  Dresden  and  Leipzig,  revisited  | 
his  home,  and  in  the  following  year  settled  for  a 
time  in  Darmstadt  to  renew  his  studies  under  j 
Vogler.    Weber  and  Meyerbeer  were  his  fellow-  ' 
pupils,  and  the  three  formed  a  lasting  friendship,  j 
Weber  especially  retained  a  sincere  affection  for  | 
him,  took  him  to  Mannheim  and  Heidelberg, 
where  Gansbacher  assisted  in  his  concerts,  and 
at  a  later  time  proposed  to  him  to  compete  for  the  j 
vacant  post  of  Court  Capellmeister  in  Dresden.  | 
Meantime  Gansbacher  lived  alternately  in  Vienna,  : 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Beethoven,  j 
and  Prague,  where  he  assisted  Weber  with  his 
*Kampf  und  Sieg.'    He  also  served  in  the  war  j 
of  181 3,  went  to  Italy  as  captain  in  military  . 
service,  and  was  even  employed  as  a  courier.  This  | 
imsettled  life  at  length  came  to  a  satisfactory  I 
end.    At  the  time  that  Weber  was  suggesting  j 
his  settling  at  Dresden,  the  Capellmeistership  of 
the  cathedral  at  Vienna  feU  vacant  by  the  death 
ofPreindl  (Oct.  1823);  Gansbacher  applied  for 
it,  was  appointed,  and  remained  there  for  life. 
He  died  July  13,  1844,  universEdly  respected 
both  as  a  man  and  an  artist.    As  a  composer  he 
belongs  to  the  old  school ;  his  works  are  pleasing 
but  betray  by  their  solidity  the  pupil  of  Vogler 
and  Albrechtsberger,    His  compositions  number 
216  in  aU,  of  which  the  greater  part  are  sacred, 
— 17  masses,  4  requiems,  2  Te  Deimis,  offertories 
etc.    He  wTote  also  a  s\-mphony,  several  seren- 
ades, marches,  and  concerted  pieces  ;  pianoforte 
pieces  with  and  without  accompaniment;  songs 
accompanied  by  various  instruments  ;  music  to 
Kotzebue's  'Die  Kreuzfahrer' ;  a  Liederspiel,  etc. 
Two  requiems,  2  masses,  and  several  smaller 
church  works  were  published  by  Spina  and  Has- 
linger ;  3  terzettos  for  2  soprani  and  tenor  (op.  4) 
by  Schlesinger ;  Schiller's  '  Erwartung '  by  Sim- 
rock  ;  and  sonatas  and  trios  by  various  publishers. 
A  song  of  his  is  given  in  Ayrton's  '  Sacred  Min- 
strelsy.' 

His  son  Dr.  Joseph,  bom  1829,  is  now  a  valued 
teacher  of  singing  in  Vienna,  and  professor  at  the 
Conservatoire.  [C.  F.  P.] 

GAFOEI,  Fraxchixo,  or  Fraxchincs  Gafu- 
Rius,  bom  at  Lodi  Jan.  14,  1451,  a  priest  and 
a  writer  on  music.  His  first  instructor  was 
Goodendag,  or,  as  he  latinised  his  name,  Bona- 
dies.  Circumstances  led  him  to  Mantua,  Verona, 
Genoa,  and  in  1478,  in  company  with  the  fugi- 
tive doge  Adomo,  to  Xaples.  There  he  found 
Tinctor  and  two  other  great  Belgian  musicians, 
Gamier  and  Hycart ;  and  there  he  remained  for 
more  than  two  years  till  driven  back  to  Lodi  by 
war  and  the  plague.  He  passed  a  short  time  as 
maestro  di  capeUa  at  Monticello  and  Bergamo, 
and  in  1484  became  attached  to  the  cathedral  at 


Milan,  where  he  died  June  24,  1522,  stiU  in  full 
vigour.  His  works  are  as  follow  : — '  Theoricum 
opus  armonice  discipline'  (Xaples  1480)  ;  'Prac- 
tica  musicae'  (Milan  I496) ;  « Angelicum  et  divi- 
num  opus  musice'  (Milan  1508,  in  Italian); 
'De  harmonica  musicorum  instrumentorum  opus ' 
(Milan  15 18);  'Apologia  adversus  Spatarium' 
(Turin  1520).  Works  with  other  titles  are  but 
editions  or  abridgments  of  the  above.  Though 
a  man  of  much  learning  and  research,  and  in 
some  respects  a  pedant — witness  the  headings  of 
his  chapters  and  the  terms  he  coined — Gafori 
was  no  mere  archceologist.  He  addressed  himself 
to  the  wants  of  his  time,  and  in  consequence 
enjoyed  for  long  a  wide  and  special  authority. 
His  great  drawback  was  his  overweening  conceit, 
often  displayed  in  the  very  titles  of  his  books. 
Hawkins  has  devoted  chapters  72,  73,  74,  and 
75,  of  his  History  to  him,  and  has  given  copious 
extracts  from  the  '  Practica  musicse,'  his  most 
important  work,  and  the  'Apologia.*  [G.] 
GAGLIAXO,  a  celebrated  family  of  violin- 
makers  at  Naples.  Alessaxdro,  the  first,  worked 
from  about  1695  to  1725.  His  work,  like  that 
of  his  sons,  is  good  and  substantial,  but  it  exhibits 
the  same  unattractive  greyish -yellow  varnish 
which  was  used  by  the  sons.  Alexander  calls 
himself  '  alumnus '  of  Stradivarius,  and  all  the 
Gaglianos  worked  more  or  less  on  the  Stradivari 
model.  His  sons,  Xicolo  (1700-40)  and  Gen- 
NARO  (1710-50),  made  a  large  number  of  good 
instruments.  His  grandson,  Ferdixando  (i  736- 
81),  son  of  Nicholas,  like  all  his  Italian  con- 
temporaries, exhibits  a  marked  decline.  The 
later  Gaglianos  established  a  manufactory  of 
violin-strings,  which  to  this  day  enjoys  a  world- 
wide reputation. 

GALEAZZI,  Francesco,  a  violin-player,  bom 
at  Turin  in  1738  (Fetis  says  1758)  and  for  many 
years  leader  of  the  band  at  the  Teatro  Valle  at 
Rome.  He  deserves  special  notice,  not  so  much 
as  a  composer  of  nimierous  instrumental  works, 
as  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest  methodical 
instruction-books  for  the  violin,  which  bears  the 
title  of  '  Elementi  teoretico-practici  di  musica, 
con  un  saggio  sopra  I'arte  di  suonare  il  violino, 
I  analizzata,'  Eoma  1791  e  1796.  He  died,  accord- 
ing to  Fetis,  in  1 819.  [I*-!^-] 
GALERATTI,  Catterixa,  a  contralto  singer, 
who  appeared  in  the  early  times  of  Italian 
Opera  in  London.  In  1714  she  made  her  d^ut, 
Jan.  9,  in  the  pasticcio  '  Dorinda.'  She  sang 
also  in  'Creso,'  in  a  revival  of  'Rinaldo,'  and  in 
'Arminio,'  and  had  a  benefit, '  by  command,'  that 
year.  In  171 3,  Mar.  16,  she  signed  a  petition 
(in  the  possession  of  the  writer>,  together  with 
Mrs.  Barbier,  Margherita  de  Tfipine,  T.  Robinson, 
and  Valentino  Urbani,  for  the  better  regulation 
of  their  benefits.  Six  years  later,  we  find  her 
again  singing  in  'Astarto,'  'Radamisto,'  and 
'  Xuniitor.'  In  the  next  year,  1721,  she  took 
prominent  parts  in  '  Muzio  Scevola,'  *  Arsinoe,' 
and  'L'Odio  e  L'Amore,'  after  which  her  name 
does  not  occur  again.  [J.M.] 

GALIMATHIAS.    A  French  term  of  very 


576  GALIMATHIAS. 


GALITZIN. 


doubtful  derivation  (Littre),  meaning  a  confused 
unintelligible  affair.  '  Galimathias  musicum'  is  a 
comic  piece  of  music  for  Orchestra  with  Clavier 
and  other  instruments  obligate,  composed  by 
Mozart  in  1766  at  the  Hague,  for  the  festivities 
at  the  coming  of  age  of  William  of  Orange  the 
Fifth  (March  8).  Mozart,  then  on  his  road 
from  London,  was  just  10  years  old.  The  piece 
is  in  1 3  short  numbers,  ending  with  a  variation 
on  the  Dutch  national  air  of  'Wilhelmus  von 
Nassau.'  (Kochel,  No.  32  ;  O.  Jahn,  2nd  ed. 
i.  44.)  In  a  letter  of  Feb.  5,  1 783,  Mozart  speaks 
of  a  galimathias  opera — '  Gallus  cantans,  in  ar- 
bore  sedens,  gigirigi  faciens.'  [G.] 

GALITZIN,  Nicolas  Bokissowitsch,  a  Rus- 
sian Prince  who  is  immortalised  by  the  dedication 
to  him  by  Beethoven  of  an  overture  (op.  124) 
and  3  quartets  (ops.  127,  130,  132).  ^  Of  his 
birth  nothing  is  known ;  he  died  on  his  estates 
in  the  province  Kurski  in  1866.  In  1804-6 
he  was  in  Vienna,  and  doubtless  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Beethoven  and  his  music  at 
the  house  of  Count  Rasomowsky,  the  Russian 
ambassador,  for  whom  at  that  very  date 
Beethoven  wrote  the  3  quartets  (op.  59)  and  at 
that  of  the  Count  von  Browne,  an  officer  in  the 
Russian  service,  for  whom  Beethoven  had  written 
several  works  (ops.  9,  10,  22,  etc.).  In  1816 
Moscheles  met  him  at  Carlsbad,  and  speaks  of 
him  as  a  practical  musician  (Leben,  i.  27).  In 
1822  he  was  married  and  living  in  Petersburg 
in  very  musical  society,  his  wife  an  accomplished 
pianoforte-player  and  he  himself  a  cellist  and 
an  enthusiastic  amateur.  At  this  time,  Nov.  9, 
1822,  he  ^writes  to  Beethoven  a  letter  full  of 
devotion,  proposing  that  he  shall  compose  3  new 
quartets  at  his  own  price,  to  be  dedicated  to  the 
Prince.  Beethoven  accepts  the  offer  (by  letter, 
Jan.  25,  23),  and  fixes  50  ducats  (say  £23)  per 
quartet  as  the  price.  Feb.  19  the  Prince  replies, 
that  he  has  '  given  an  order'  for  50  ducats  to  his 
banker,  and  will  iramediately  remit  100  more  for 
the  two  others.  May  5,  23,  he  writes  again, 
*  you  ought  to  have  received  the  50  ducats  fixed 
for  the  first  quartet.  As  soon  as  it  is  complete 
you  can  sell  it  to  any  publisher  you  choose — all 
I  ask  is  the  dedication  and  a  MS.  copy.  Pray 
begin  the  second,  and  when  you  inform  me  you 
have  done  so  I  will  forward  another  50  ducats.' 

From  this  time  the  correspondence  continues 
till  Beethoven's  death,  Galitzin's  further  letters — 
in  French,  14  in  number — are  full  of  enthusiasm 
for  Beethoven,  pressing  money  and  services  upon 
him,  offering  to  subscribe  for  mass,  symphony, 
and  overture,  and  volunteering  his  willingness  to 
wait  for  'the  moments  of  inspiration.'  In  fact 
he  had  to  wait  a  long  time.  The  first  quartet 
(in  Eb,  op.  127)  was  first  played  at  Vienna, 
March  6,  1825,  and  is  acknowledged  by  the 
Prince  on  April  29.  The  second  (in  A  minor, 
op.  132)  was  first  played  Nov.  6,  25,  and  the 
third  (in  Bb,  op.  130)  on  March  21,  26.  These 
were  received  by  the  Prince  together,  and  were 

1  The  letters  quoted  and  referred  to  tlirougliout  this  notice  are 
almost  all  in  MS.,  and  will  be  printed  in  the  forthcoming  volumes  of 
Thaver's  '  Life  of  Beethoven.' 


acknowledged  by  him  Nov.  22,  26.  He  also 
received  a  MS.  copy  of  the  Mass  in  D  and 
printed  copies  of  the  9th  Symphony  and  of  the 
two  overtures  in  C,  the  one  (op.  1 24)  dedicated 
to  him,  the  other  (op.  115)  dedicated  to  Count 
Radzivill,  Thus  the  whole  claim  against  him 
was — Quartets,  150  ducats;  Overture  (op,  115), 
25  ducats;  Mass,  50  ducats;  loss  on  exchange, 
4  ducats  ;  total,  229  ducats',  not  including  various 
other  pieces  of  music  sent.  On  the  other  hand 
he  appears,  notwithstanding  all  his  promises,  to 
have  paid,  up  to  the  time  of  Beethoven's  death, 
only  104  ducats.  It  should  be  said  that  in  1826 
war  and  insurrections  had  broken  out  in  Russia, 
which  occupied  the  Prince  and  obliged  him  to 
live  away  from  Petersburg,  and  also  put  him  to 
embarrassing  expenses.  After  the  peace  of 
Adrianople  (Sept.  14,  29),  when  Beethoven  had 
been  dead  some  years,  a  correspondence  was 
opened  with  him  by  Hotschevar,  Carl  van  Bee- 
thoven's guardian,  which  resulted  in  1832  in  a 
further  payment  of  50  ducats,  making  a  total  of 
154.  Carl  still  urges  his  claim  for  75  more  to 
make  up  the  150  for  the  quai'tets,  which  Galitzin 
in  1835  promises  to  pay,  but  never  does.  In 
1852,  roused  by  Schindler's  statement  of  the 
affair  (ed.  i.,  pp.  162,  3),  he  writes  to  the 
Gazette  Musicale  of  July  21,  1852  a  letter 
stating  correctly  the  sum  paid,  but  incorrectly 
laying  it  all  to  the  account  of  the  quartets. 
Other  letters  passed  between  him  and  Carl 
Beethoven,  but  they  are  not  essential  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  transactions. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Galitzin's  intentions 
were  excellent,  that  the  world  owes  to  him  the 
existence  of  the  three  Quartets,  and  that  he  was 
lavish  of  admiration  and  promises  to  pay.  No 
doubt,  too,  he  had  to  wait  a  long  whUe,  and  to 
undergo  a  great  deal  of  disappointment,  but  this 
he  ought  to  have  known  was  inevitable  in  dealing 
•with,  a  man  of  Beethoven's  temperament,  whose 
mode  of  production  has  been  elsewhere  shown  to 
have  been  so  slow  and  uncertain.  [See  p,  174.] 
For  the  payments  of  50  and  25  ducats  he  had 
more  than  ample  compensation  in  the  copies  of 
the  Mass  and  the  Ovei-ture,  the  pleasure  he  de- 
rived from  them,  and  the  credit  and  importance 
they  must  have  given  him  in  the  musical  circles 
of  Russia.  For  the  copies  of  Sonatas,  Overture 
(op,  115),  Terzet,  and  other  works  sent  him  by 
jbeethoven,  he  appears  to  have  paid  nothing,  nor 
can  he  justly  demur  to  Beethoven's  having  sold 
the  quartets  to  publishers,  or  performed  them  in 
public,  after  the  carte  blanche  which  he  gives 
him  in  his  third  letter,  where  all  he  stipulated 
for  was  the  dedication  and  a  MS.  copy. 

The  son  of  the  preceding.  Prince  Geokge  Ga- 
litzin, was  bom  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1823,  and 
died  in  Sept.  1872.  He  was  not  only  a  great 
lover  of  music,  like  his  father,  but  was  a  com- 
poser of  various  works  for  orchestra,  chamber, 
and  voices,  and  an  able  conductor.  In  1842  he 
founded  in  Moscow  a  choir  of  70  boys,  w^hom 
he  fed,  clothed,  and  educated.  It  was  for 
long  one  of  the  sights  of  the  city.  He  also 
maintained  an  orchestra,  with  which  he  gave 


GALITZIN. 


GALLI, 


577 


public  concerts,  visited  England  and  France  in 
iS6o.  [A.W.T.] 

GALLENBEKG,  Wenzel  Robebt,  Graf  von, 
of  an  old  Carinthian  family,  born  at  Vienna 
Dec.  28,  1783,  died  at  Rome  Marcb  13,  1839, 
has  his  place  in  musical  history  as  a  prolific 
composer  and  in  virtue  of  his  indirect  connexion 
with  Beethoven. 

His  passion  for  music,  manifested  at  a  very 
early  age,  led  him  to  forego  the  advantages  of  an 
ofl&cial  career  and  to  devote  himself  to  the  art. 
His  master  in  the  science  was  Albrechtsberger. 
On  November  3,  1803,  being  then  not  quite 
twenty,  he  married  the  Countess  Julie  Guicciardi, 
who  had  been  the  object  of  one  of  Beethoven's 
transient  but  violent  passions.  [Guicciardi.] 

During  the  winter  following,  young  Gallenberg 
made  his  appearance  in  Wlirth's  Sunday  Con- 
certs as  author  of  several  overtures,  which  made 
no  impression.  In  1805  we  find  the  youthful 
couple  in  Naples,  where  at  the  great  festival  of 
May  31,  1805,  in  honour  of  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
Gallenberg  prepared  the  music,  which  was  mostly 
of  his  own  composition — 3  overtures,  8  pieces  for 
wind  band,  and  dances  for  full  orchestra.  It 
was  greatly  applauded,  and  was  doubtless  one 
cause  of  his  being  appointed  a  year  or  two  later  | 
to  the  charge  of  the  music  in  the  court  theatre. 
The  ballet  troupe  was  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe, 
and  Gallenberg  embraced  the  opportunity  of  im- 
proving the  Neapolitan  school  of  instrumental 
music  by  giving  frequent  adaptations  of  the  best 
German  productions — complete  movements  from 
Mozart,  Haydn,  Cherubini,  and  others,  which 
opened  new  sources  of  delight,  and  afi'orded  young 
composers  new  standards  of  excellence.  Thus 
what  the  Neapolitan  school  had  done  for  opera 
in  Germany  during  the  last  century,  was  in  some 
degree  repaid  by  Gallenberg  in  this. 

When  Barbaja  xmdertook  the  management  of 
the  court  theatre  at  Vienna  (Dec.  21,  1821),  he 
introduced  Gallenberg  to  assist  in  the  manage- 
ment— an  arrangement  which,  however,  existed 
but  two  years.    In  Jan.  1829  Gallenberg  himself 

;ame  lessee  of  this  theatre  on  a  contract  for  10 

itrs,  which,  though  at  first  successful,  soon 
came  to  an  end  from  want  of  capital.  From  the 
autumn  of  1816  to  the  spring  of  1838  we  again 
*^vid  him  in  Naples  employed  by  Barbaja  as 

Uet  composer  and  director;   and  in  March, 
^  :;9,  we  read  of  his  death  at  Rome  at  the  age  ' 
of  56. 

Gallenberg  wrote  from  forty  to  fifty  ballets, 
but  the  local  records  alone  retain  even  the  names 
of  most.  We  add  the  titles  of  a  few  which  in 
their  day  were  reported  as  of  some  interest  to 
the  general  musical  public. 

'  Samson'  (Naples  and  Vienna,  1811)  ;  'Arsinoe 
and  Telemaco'  (Milan,  1813) ;  'I  Riti  Indiani' 
(Do.  1814);  'Amleto'  (Do.  1815) ;  'Alfred  der 
Grosse'  (Vienna,  1820) ;  '  Joan d' Arc'  (Do.  182 1) ; 
'Margereta'  (Do.  1822);  'Ismaans  Grab'  (Do. 
1823)  ;  'La  Caravana  del  Cairo'  (Naples,  1824)  ; 
'Otta\-io  Pinelli'  (Vienna,  1828) ;  'Das  befreite 
Jerusalem'  (Do.  Do.)  ;  *  Cse.~ar  in  Egypten'  (Do. 
1829);  'Theodosia'  (Do.  1831);  'Orpheus  und 
(c.) 


'  Eurydice'  (Do.  Do.)  ;  'Agnes  und  Fitz  Henri' 
(Do.  1833);  'Biancas  Wahl'  (Do.  1835);  'La- 
tona's  Rache'  (Do.  1838).  [A.  W.  T.] 

GALLI,  CoRXELio,  a  native  of  Lucca,  one  of 
the  Gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  to  Queen  Catharine 
in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  Mr.  Berenclow  told 
Humfrey  Wanley,  that  he  was  a  great  master 
of  the  finest  manner  of  singing,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  who  introduced  it  into  England.  [J.M.] 

GALLI,  FiLiPPO,  was  bom  at  Rome  in  1783. 
Though  destined  for  the  clerical  profession, 
young  Galli's  strong  taste  for  music  proved 
insurmountable.  When  only  ten,  he  had  deve- 
loped a  musical  talent  beyond  his  age,  and  was 
remarked  as  a  player  and  accompanyist.  His 
voice,  when  formed,  was  a  fine  tenor.  At  the 
age  of  18  he  married.  Compelled  by  circum- 
stances to  choose  a  career,  he  selected  that  of 
Opera,  and  made  his  debut,  in  the  carnival 
of  1804,  at  Bologna.  He  met  with  a  brilliant 
success,  and  became  one  of  the  first  of  Italian 
tenors  ;  but  six  years  afterwards  a  serious  illness 
changed  his  voice  completely,  and  made  it  a 
bass.  Paisiello  persuaded  him  to  cultivate  his 
new  voice,  and  profit  by  the  change.  This  he 
did,  and  became  one  of  the  greatest  bassi  cantanti 
that  his  country  has  produced.  His  first  appear- 
ance in  his  new  quality  was  in  the  carnival  of 
181 2  at  S.  Mose  in  Venice,  in  the  'Inganno 
Felice '  of  Rossini.  He  sang  next  at  Milan,  and 
then  at  Barcelona.  Rossini  wrote  for  him  the 
parts  of  Fernando  in  'La  Gazza  Ladra '  and  of 
'Maometto.'  Galli  appeared  for  the  first  time 
at  Paris,  Sept.  18,  1821,  in  the  former,  and, 
though  singing  out  of  tune  in  the  first  act, 
achieved  a  considerable  success  on  the  whole. 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1825,  and  made  a  great 
sensation  :  but  his  vocalisation  had  become  rather 
slow  and  heavy.  This  defect  was  noticed  when 
he  came  to  London.  Ebers  engaged  him  with 
Zuchelli  for  the  season  of  1827,  and  his  salary- 
was  fixed  at  £870.  He  made  his  first  appearance, 
as  usual,  in  '  La  Gazza  Ladra.'  His  voice  was 
less  flexible  than  Zuchelli's,  but  its  tone  was 
deep  and  full,  and,  according  to  Rossini,  he  was 
the  only  singer  who  ever  filled  the  part  of  Assur 
satisfactorily.  In  1828  Galli  went  to  Spain; 
thence  to  Rome  and  ^lilan  in  1830.  In  the 
following  year  he  went  to  Mexico,  and  remained 
I  attached  to  the  Opera  in  that  city  from  1832  to 
1836.  In  1839  and  40  he  was  singing  at  Barce- 
lona and  Milan,  but  was  at  length  obliged  to 
accept  the  place  of  chorus-master  at  Madrid  and 
Lisbon.  Amiable  and  cultivated,  Galli  had  but 
one  fault,  that  of  boundless  extravagance.  At 
the  end  of  1842  he  arrived  at  Paris  in  the 
greatest  want,  and,  as  a  charity,  obtained  a 
professor  s  place  at  the  Conservatoire.  His  chief 
income  was  derived  from  a  yearly  benefit  concert, 
at  which  the  Italian  singers  performed.  Of  this 
he  was  deprived  in  1848;  He  then  fell  into 
great  misery,  and  died  June  3, 1853.  [J.M.] 

GALLI,  SiGKORA,  a  mezzo-soprano,  who  made 
her  d^ut  in  Galuppi's  '  Enrico,'  Jan.  i,  1743,  in 
London.    She  and  Frasi,  'after  transplantation 


578 


GALLI. 


GALLIAKD. 


from  Italy,  took  root  in  this  country,  and 
remained  here  in  great  public  favour,  for  many 
years'  (Burney).  Galli  was  frequently  em- 
ployed in  male  parts  on  the  stage.  Though  her 
manner  was  spirited  and  interesting,  she  was 
little  noticed  by  the  public  till  she  sung  in 
Handel's  'Judas,'  1746,  when  she  gained  such 
applause  in  the  air  *  'Tis  Liberty,'  that  she  -^as 
encored  in  it  every  night,  and  became  an 
important  personage  among  singers.  She  had 
already  sung  in  'Joseph,'  1744,  and  she  sub- 
sequently performed  principal  parts  in  '  J oshua,' 
'Solomon,'  'Susanna,'  'Theodora,'  'Jephtha,' 
&c.  She  is  said  to  have  been  a  favourite  pupil 
of  Handel  (Cradock).  Twenty  years  later  she 
sang  in  Sacchini's  'Perseo'  (i774)  and  'Mote- 
zuma'  (1775).  She  became  the  companion  of 
the  celebrated  Miss  Eay,  and  was  with  her 
when  she  was  assassinated  by  Hackman,  April  7, 
1779.  She  afterwards  fell  into  extreme  poverty, 
and,  about  the  age  of  seventy,  was  induced  to 
sing  again  in  oratorios.  She  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden  as  late  as  1797.  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe 
had  the  curiosity  to  go,  and  heard  her  sing 
*  He  was  despised.'  Her  voice  was  cracked  and 
trembling,  but  it  was  easy  to  perceive  that  her 
school  was  good.  She  died  in  1 804.  [J.M.] 
GALLIA.  A  'Motet'  for  Soprano  solo. 
Chorus,  and  Orchestra ;  the  words  from  the 
Lamentations,  music  by  Gounod  :  first  performed 
at  the  Opening  of  the  International  Exhibition, 
Albert  Hall,  London,  May  i,  1871.  [G.] 

GALLIA,  Makia,  incorrectly  called  Mabia 
Mabgherita  by  Burney,  was  a  sister  of  Mar- 
gherita  de  I'^pine,  and  pupil  of  Nicolo  Haym. 
She  appeared  for  the  first  time  at  the  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  Theatre  in  1703.  She  sang  in  1706 
and  8  in  'Camilla,'  in  the  libretti  of  which  she 
is  called  Joanxa  Maeia.  In  the  former  year 
she  also  performed  the  principal  role  in  the 
'  Temple  of  Love '  by  Saggione  ^  to  whom  she 
was  then  married.  Documents  (in  the  possession 
of  the  present  writer),  signed  by  this  composer, 
and  by  his  wife  as  Maria  Gallia  Saggione,  show 
that  they  received  respectively  £150  and  £700 
for  a  season  of  nine  months, — large  sums  at  that 
early  date.  Gallia  appeared  in  Clayton's  '  Eosa- 
mond'  at  its  production  in  1707.  She  sang 
songs  also  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre  '  in  Italian 
and  English,'  to  strengthen  the  attraction  (Daily 
Courant).  At  this  time  she  must  have  been 
very  young,  for  we  find  her  singing  in  'Alexander 
Balus,'  'Joshua,'  &c.  in  1748  ;  unless,  indeed,  her 
name  is  incorrectly  put  for  that  of  Galli.  [J.M.] 

GALLI AED  (Ital.  Gagliarda;  Fr.  GaiUarde). 
An  old  dance,  as  its  name  implies,  of  a  merry 
character.  *  I  did  think,'  says  Shakspeare,  '  by 
the  excellent  constitution  of  thy  leg  that  it  was 
formed  under  the  star  of  a  galliard.'  It  was  gen- 
erally in  3-4,  but  sometimes  in  common  time.  It 
was  described  by  Praetorius  as  'an  invention  of 
the  devil,'  and  'full  of  shameful  and  obscene  ges- 
tures, and  immodest  movements,'  From  the  fact 
of  its  coming  from  Eome  it  was  also  called 
'  Erroneously  attributed  to  Greber  by  Burney, 


Eomanesca.  Its  rhythms  were  strongly  marked. 
The  following  quotation  gives  the  opening  bars  of 
a  gagliarda  of  the  1 7th  century  : — 


[E.  P.] 

GALLIAED,  John  Ernest,  son  of  a  per- 
ruquier  of  Zell,  in  Hanover,  where  he  was  born 
about  1687.  He  studied  composition  under  Fari- 
nelli — uncle  of  the  singer,  and  director  of  the 
concerts  at  Hanover — and  StefFani.  He  soon 
attained  distinction  as  a  performer  on  the  oboe, 
and  coming  to  England  about  1 706  was  appointed 
chamber  musician  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark. 
On  the  death  of  Draghi,  the  then  sinecure  ap- 
pointment of  organist  at  Somerset  House  was 
bestowed  upon  him.  He  speedily  learned  English, 
and  composed  a  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  and  three 
anthems  (*I  will  magnify  Thee,  0  Lord,'  'O 
Lord  God  of  Hosts,'  and  'I  am  well  pleased'), 
which  were  performed  at  St.  Paul's  and  the  Chapel 
Eoyal  on  occasions  of  thanksgiving  for  victories. 
In  171 2  he  composed  the  music  for  Hughes's 
opera  'Cah^so  and  Telemachus,'  which  was  per- 
formed at  the  Queen's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket. 
From  about  171 7  he  was  employed  by  Eich  to 
furnish  the  music  for  the  curious  admixtures  of 
masque  and  harlequinade  which  he  exhibited 
under  the  name  of  pantomime,  and  produced 
several  excellent  compositions  for  pieces  of  that 
description.  In  1728  he  set  for  two  voices,  can- 
tata-wise, the  Morning  Hymn  of  Adam  and  Eve 
from  Milton's  '  Paradise  Lost.'  This  admirable 
composition  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  Dr. 
Benjamin  Cooke  by  the  addition  of  orchestral 
accompaniments  and  the  expansion  of  some  of 
the  movements  into  choruses.  In  1742  GaUiard 
published  a  translation  of  Pier  Francesco  Tosi's 
'  Opinioni  di  Cantori  Antichi  e  Modemi,  o  sieno 
Osservazioni  sopra  il  Canto  Figurato,'  under  the 
title  of  'Observations  on  the  Florid  Song;  or, 
Sentiments  on  the  Ancient  and  Modem  Singers.' 
In  1745  he  had  a  benefit  concert  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  Theatre,  at  which  were  performed 
his  music  for  the  choruses  in  the  tragedy  of 
'Julius  Caesar,'  by  John  SheSield,  Duke  of 
Buckinghamshire,  and  a  piece  for  24  bassoons 
and  4  double  basses.  Galliard  died  early  in  1 749, 
leaving  a  small  but  curious  collection  of  music, 
which  was  dispersed  by  auction  after  his  de- 
cease. Besides  the  pieces  mentioned  he  com- 
posed music  for  'Pan  and  Syrinx,'  opera,  I7i7» 
'Jupiter  and  Europa,'  pantomime,  1723;  'The 
Necromancer ;  or,  Harlequin  Dr.  Faustus,'  panto- 
mime, 1723;  'Harlequin  Sorcerer,  with  The 
Loves  of  Pluto  and  Prosei-pine'  (the  second  title 
afterwards  changed  to  'The  Eape  of  Proserpine'), 
pantomime,  1725  ;  'Apollo  and  Daphne  ;  or,  The 
Burgomaster  tricked,'  pantomime,  1726;  'The 
Eoyal  Chace ;  or.  Merlin's  Cave,'  a  musical 
entertainment,  1736,  in  which  occurred  the 
famous  hunting  song  '  With  early  horn/  which 


GALLIARD. 


GAMBA,  VIOLA  DA.  579 


the  singing  of  Beard  rendered  so  extremely 
popular;  music  for  Lee's  tragedy  'CEdipus'; 
several  cantatas,  songs,  solos  for  violin,  bassoon, 
etc.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  nearly 
completed  the  composition  of  an  Italian  opera, 

*  Oreste  e  Pilade,  overa  la  Forza  dell'  Amicizia.' 
Sir  John  Hawkins  conjectured,  from  internal 
evidence,  that  Galliard  made  the  translation  of 
the  Abbe'  Raguenet's  'Parallel,'  published  in 
1 709  under  the  title  of  *  A  comparison  between 
the  French  and  Italian  Musick  and  Operas,  with 
Remarks,'  and  was  the  author  of  'A  Critical 
Discourse  upon  Operas  in  England,  and  a  means 
proposed  for  their  improvement,'  printed  at  the 
end  of  that  translation ;  whilst  Dr.  Bumey, 
judging  from  the  same  evidence,  was  of  a  contrary 
opinion.  [W.H.H.] 

GALLUS,  Jacob,  whose  real  name  was 
*Handl,  bom  about  1550,  a  native  of  Krain 
(or  Camiola) ;  Capellmeister  first  to  Stanislas 
Pawlowski,  Bishop  of  Olmiitz,  and  afterwards 
to  the  imperial  chapel  at  Prague,  where  he  died 
much  respected  and  bewailed  July  4,  1591.  He 
had  a  special  privilege  from  the  Emperor  to 
publish  his  great  work  'Handl  Jac.  Musici 
operis,  harmoniarum  4,  5,  6,  8,  et  plurium  vo- 
cum'  (Prague,  4  vols.  1586,  7,  90),  a  collection 
of  the  greatest  value.  Gallus  wrote  in  the  old 
Church  tones,  before  the  modern  distinction  be- 
tween major  and  minor  came  into  existence. 
His  well-known  motet  (a  4)  *Ecce  quomodo 
moritur  justus '  (which  Handel  borrowed  for  his 
Funeral  Anthem),  is  contained  in  the  collection 
just  named,  and  is  also  printed  (with  18  others  ' 
by  him  for  5,  6,  and  8  voices)  in  Bodenschatz's 

•  Florilegium  Portense.'  Proske's  '  Musica  divina ' 
contains  11  motets,  3  Responsoria,  a  Miserere,  a 
Christus  factus  est,  and  a  Te  Deum,  all  by 
him.  [F.G.] 

GALOP.  A  very  spirited  quick  round  dance 
in  2-crotchet  time.  The  following  bars  from  the 
opening  of  Schulhofi"s  Galop  di  bravura — now 
almost  a  classical  composition — will  give  an  idea 
of  its  rh3rthm : — 


5 


■etc. 


Galops  have  one  and  sometimes  two  Trios,  and 
are  often  written  witli  an  Introduction  and  Coda. 

The  dance  is  of  German  origin,  and  its  old 
name  was  Hopser  or  Rutscher — describing  the 
step.  It  appears  to  have  received  that  of  Galop 
on  its  introduction  into  France  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century,  where  it  soon  took  root.  [G.] 

GALUPPI,  Bald  ASS  ARE,  bom  Oct.  18,  1706, 
on  the  island  of  Burano  near  Venice — whence  he 
"was  known  as  II  Buranello — was  first  taught  by 
his  father,  a  barber,  who  played  the  violin  at  the 
theatre.    At  16  he  came  to  Venice,  and  earned 

•  The  sobriquet  of '  Gallus '  is  a  pun  on  Handl,  as  if  Hahn.  Another 
of  his  name  Tvas  called  Le  Cucq. 


his  bread  by  organ  playing.  Through  the  inter- 
vention of  Marcello  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Conservatorio  degli  Incurabili,  where  he  studied 
under  Lotti.  His  first  dramatic  attempt,  '  Gli 
amici  rivali,'  was  hissed  ofi"  the  stage,  but  he 
was  more  fortunate  with  'Dorinda'  (1729)  for 
which  MarceUo  wrote  the  libretto.  From  this 
time  his  operas  were  performed  throughout  Italy. 
On  April  8,  1762,  he  was  appointed  maestro  di 
capella  of  St.  Mark's  and  director  of  the  In- 
curabili ;  but  he  shortly  gave  up  these  posts 
in  order  to  go  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  had 
been  invited  by  the  Empress  Catherine  II. 
Having  first  improved  the  orchestra,  no  easy 
task,  he  produced  his  'Didone  abbandonata' 
with  extraordinary  success.  He  returned  in 
1768  to  Venice,  where  Dr.  Bumey  found  him 
in  1770  prosperous  and  respected,  and  maestro  of 
the  Incurabili.  Bumey  speaks  of  his  '  fire  and 
imagination,'  and  of  the  'novelty,  spirit,  and 
delicacy'  of  his  music.  (Present  State,  155,  174, 
184.)  His  fecundity  must  have  been  remarkable ; 
Fetis  gives  a  list  of  54  operas,  5  of  which  were 
written  in  one  year.  Though  written  with  taste, 
and  never  overloaded,  none  of  them  have  sur- 
vived the  Revolution  of  Rossini,  fatal  to  so  many 
of  Galuppi's  contemporaries.  The  autograph  of 
the  opera  '  II  vilano  Geloso,'  which  he  composed 
conjointly  with  Gassmann,  Marcello,  Scarlatti, 
Franchi,  Sacchini,  Monfe,  and  Venti,  is  now 
in  Vienna;  also  a  grand  'Credo,'  'Gloria,'  and 
other  church  works.  His  church  works  are  stiU 
occasionally  performed  in  Venice.  He  also  wrote 
for  the  Harpsichord,  and  a  sonata  of  his  of  great 
beauty  is  printed  in  the  'Alte  Clavier  musik' 
of  Pauer.    He  died  Jan.  3,  1785.  [F.  G.] 

GAMBA,  VIOLA  DA  {gamha,  Ital.  for  leg), 
— a  knee -violin,  as  distinguished  from  viola  da 


braccio  Q)racc\o,  Ital.  for  arm),  or  the  viola  to 
be  played  on  the  arm — ^is  an  obsolete  stringed 
Pp2 


580  GAMBA,  VIOLA  DA. 


GANDO. 


instrument,  played  with  a  bow  and  held  between 
the  knees :  a  predecessor  of  the  violoncello.  It 
is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  violoncello,  but  has 
a  flat  back,  like  a  double-bass  ;  the  openings  in 
the  belly  have  not  the  /-shape,  but  are  variously 
cut,  generally  in  a  thin  crescent.  The  finger- 
board was  originally  provided  with  frets,  which 
were  afterwards  discontinued ;  it  was  mounted 
with  6  catgut  strings,  which  were  ultimately  in- 
creased to  7,  the  3  lowest  covered  with  vtdre. 
The  two  kinds  were  thus  tuned  : — 


The  Gamba  was  for  a  long  period  the  most 
popular  of  all  bowed  instruments,  and,  especially 
in  England  (which  by  some  is  believed  to  be  its 
original  home),  Holland,  and  Germany,  appears 
to  have  been  the  favourite  instrument  of  society. 
Shakespeare,  in  'Twelfth  Night,'  mentions  as  a 
special  accomplishment  of  Sir  Andrew  Aguecheek 
that  'he  plays  o'  the  viol-de-gamboys.'  In  the 
pictures  of  Gerard  Dow,  Terburg,  and  other 
great  Dutch  masters  of  the  17th  century  we  see 
again  and  again  richly  dressed  ladies  and  gentle- 
men playing  the  gamba.  At  one  time  few  noble- 
men's or  gentlemen's  houses  were  without  a  'chest,' 
containing  a  set  of  four  or  more  gambas  of  dif- 
ferent size,  often  expensively  got  up,  carved  and 
inlaid  with  ivory  or  tortoise-shell.  This  popu- 
larity of  the  gamba  lasted  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  century,  when  the  violoncello  began  gra- 
dually to  supersede  it.  Burney,  who  heard  it 
played  by  Abel,  the  last  great  performer  upon  it 
in  London,  describes  its  tone  as  '  radically  crude 
and  nasal,'  and  adds  that  '  a  human  voice  of  the 
same  quality  would  be  considered  intolerable.' 
This  is  certainly  a  somewhat  strong  statement. 
In  tone  and  character  the  gamba  does  not  mate- 
rially differ  from  the  tenor  of  our  own  days  ;  and 
its  banishment  from  the  modem  orchestra  is  easily 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  its  higher  notes 
are  equally  well  and  more  easily  produced  on  the 
tenor,  while  the  effect  of  the  lower  strings  is 
much  finer  on  the  violoncello.  The  gamba  was 
handled  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  cello, 
except  that  some  virtuosi  had  additional  strings 
attached  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  on  which  they 
played  a  pizzicato  accompaniment  with  the  thumb 
of  the  left  hand.  Sebastian  Bach  was  the  last 
great  composer  who  wrote  for  the  gamba,  and 
he  appears  to  have  had  a  special  predilection 
for  it.  We  have  from  his  pen  three  Sonatas  for 
Clavier  and  Gamba  (BachgeseUschaft,  vol.  ix.) 
and  a  number  of  obligate  accompaniments  for 
airs  in  his  Cantatas  and  the  Passion  Music.  He 
also  employs  it  in  a  Concerto  grosso  for  2  viole 
da  braccio,  2  viole  da  gamba,  violoncello,  violone, 
and  harpsichord,  and  on  other  occasions  uses  it 
to  attain  special  orchestral  effects.  A  striking 
instance  is  the  exquisitely  beautiful  introduction 
to  the  Cantata  'Gottes  Zeit'  (BachgeseUschaft, 
vol.  xxiii.)  where  we  find  three  separate  gamba- 
parts  combined  with  violins  and  flutes,  which 
must  have  produced  a  very  peculiar  effect.  But 


while  in  little  Leipzig  the  gamba  was  still  a 
favourite,  it  was  already  out  of  fashion  in  Lon- 
don, and  we  look  in  vain  for  it  in  the  more 
forcible  and  practical  scores  of  Handel.  By  the 
end  of  the  i8th  century  most  gambas  were  con- 
verted into  violoncellos,  and  for  that  reason  are 
but  rarely  met  with  now-a-days. 

Michael  Praetorius  in  his  *  Syntagma  musi- 
cum'  (published  161 9)  distinguishes  between  the 
*  viola  di  gamba  and  the  '  gross  viola  di  gamba,* 
which  he  also  calls  'violono'  or  'contrabasso  di 
gamba.'  This  latter  one  we  must  suppose  to 
have  been  the  earlier  form  of  the  double-bass, 
which,  as  a  fact,  does  belong  to  the  gamba  tribe, 
and  not  to  that  of  the  violm,  as  is  shewn  by  its 
flat  back. 

C.  JF.  Abel  (died  1787),  a  pupil  of  Bach,  and 
Lidl,  an  Englishman  (died  1789),  were  the  last 
virtuosi  on  the  gamba.  Burney,  and  Mozart  in 
his  letters,  both  speak  of  the  Elector  Maximilian 
III.  of  Bavaria  as  an  accomplished  gambist.  A 
Mrs.  Ottey  (1723)  and  a  Miss  Ford  (1760)  are 
recorded  among  English  players  of  reputation. 

The  Italian  instrument-makers  made  gambas 
only  down  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
when  after  the  general  adoption  of  the  violin, 
they  seem  at  once  to  have  supplanted  it  by  the 
violoncello.  In  England,  France,  and  Germany 
they  were  made  up  to  the  middle  of  last  century. 
Joachim  Tielke  of  Hamburg  (1660-1730)  had  a 
great  reputation  as  a  maker.  [P.D.] 

GAMBARINI,  Signora,  sang  the  part  of  ist 
Israelitish  v?^oman  in  'Judas'  April  i,  1747. 
She  was  a  soprano,  but  her  name  does  not  occur 
again.  [J.  M.] 

GAMBLE,  John,  a  violinist  in  the  1 7th  cen- 
tury, was  a  pupil  of  Ambrose  Beyland,  one  of  the 
violins  to  Charles  I.  He  afterwards  performed 
at  one  of  the  theatres  and  was  a  cornet  player  in 
the  Chapel  Royal.  In  1657  he  published  'Ayres 
and  Dialogues  to  be  sung  to  the  Theorbo  Lute 
or  Bass  Viol,'  the  words  by  Stanley,  author  of 
the  History  of  Philosophy.  In  1659  he  published 
a  second  book  entitled  'Ayres  and  Dialogues 
for  One,  Two,  and  Three  Voyces.'  A  few  years 
later  he  became  one  of  the  band  of  violins  to 
Charles  II,  and  a  composer  for  the  theatre.  His 
compositions  are  not  of  a  high  order.  [W.H.H.] 

GAMUT.  A  word  fast  becoming  obsolete  in 
England,  and  meaning  the  Scale.  It  is  derived 
from  gamma,  the  Greek  name  of  the  letter  G, 
which  was  adopted  by  Guide  dArezzo  as  the 
lowest  note  of  his  system,  and  thence  became 
employed  for  the  entire  compass  of  a  voice  or 
instrument.  The  French  word  gamme  means 
strictly  the  scale.    [See  Hexachord.] 

In  the  old  English  Church  writers  'Gamut' 
signifies  the  key  of  G  ;  '  Blow  in  Gamut',  for  in- 
stance, being  Blow's  service  in  G.  [G.] 

GANDO,  Nicolas,  type  founder,  born  at 
Geneva  early  in  the  i8th  century,  resided  first 
in  Berne  and  then  in  Paris,  where  he  established 
a  foundry  for  a  new  musical  type.  His  son, 
Pierre  Fran9ois,  bom  at  Geneva  1733,  was  his 
assistant  and  successor.     They  published  'Ob- 


GANDO. 


GARCIA. 


581 


servations  sur  le  traite  historique  et  critique  de 
M.  Fournier,  etc'  (Paris  1766),  with  the  view  of 
showing  that  Ballard's  process  was  an  imitation 
if  Breitkopf 's.  It  contained,  amongst  others, 
specimens  of  6  pieces  of  ancient  music  printed  by 
Llallard,  and  a  Psalm  b}*  Eoussier  in  Gando's 
ow-n  characters,  and  printed  by  his  process,  the 
notes  and  the  lines  requiring  a  separate  im- 
pression, and  the  effect  resembling  copper  plate. 
Founder  replied  (see  his  '  Manuel  typographique,' 
pp.  289-306),  criticising  the  Gandos  and  their 
type,  which  was  however  superior  to  his  own, 
though  inferior  to  those  of  Breitkopf  in  their 
o\vn  day,  and  still  more  to  those  of  Duverger 
and  others  since.  Tlie  father  died  in  1767,  the 
son  in  iSoo,  both  in  Paris.  [M.C  C] 

GAXZ.    A  mu&ical  family  of  Mayence. 

1.  Adolf,  bom  Oct.  14,  1796,  a  violinist, 
studied  harmony  under  Hollbusch  ;  conductor  at 
Mayence  (1819),  CapeUmeister  to  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Hesse  Darmstadt  (1825);  composed  a 
melodrama,  overtures,  marches,  Lieder,  and 
choruses  for  men's  voices. 

2.  His  brother,  MoRiTZ,  a  cellist  of  the  old 
school,  bom  1804,  was  first  cello  under  Adolph 
at  Mayence,  and  (1826)  in  the  royal  band  at 
Berlin,  where  he  succeeded  Duport  and  Romberg. 
In  1833  ^6  visited  Paris  and  London,  returning 
to  the  latter  in  37,  when  he  and  his  brother 
Leopold  played  at  the  Philharmonic  on  May  I. 
In  1845  he  led  the  violoncellos  at  the  Beethoven 
Festival  at  Bonn.  His  tone  is  full  and  mellow, 
and  his  execution  brilliant,  though  his  style  is 
of  the  old  school.  His  compositions  for  his 
instrument  are  numerous,  but  few  only  have 
appeared  in  print. 

3.  The  third  brother,  LEOPOLD,  violinist,  was 
bora  at  Mayence  1 806,  played  much  with  Moritz 
in  the  style  of  the  brothers  Bohrer,  whom  they 
succeeded  in  the  royal  band  at  Berlin  (1S26). 
Leopold  was  well  received  at  the  Hague,  Rotter- 
dam, and  Amsterdam,  and  in  1837  visited  England 
with  his  brother.  They  published  the  duets  in 
which  their  polished  and  brilliant  execution  had 
excited  so  much  admiration.  Leopold  died  in 
Berlin  in  1S69.  Two  sons  of  Adolf  are  known 
in  the  musical  world — Edward,  bom  at  Mayence 
April  29,  a  pianoforte-player  and  pupil  of  Thal- 
berg,  died  Xov.  26,  1S69;  and  William  (bom 
1 830%  who  is  well  known  in  London  as  a  teacher 
and  accompanyist.  [M.C.C.] 

GAR  AT.  Pierre  Jeax.  bora  at  Ustaritz,  April 
25,  176^,  died  in  Paris  March  i,  1823,  the  most 
extraordinary  French  singer  of  his  time.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  avocat,  and  destined  for  the 
bar,  but  early  manifested  a  passion  for  music, 
which  he  studied  under  Franz  Beck,  composer 
and  conductor  at  Bourdeaux.  He  seems  however 
never  to  have  gone  deeply  into  the  subject,  for 
he  was  a  poor  reader,  and  owed  his  success  to 
his  natural  gifts  and  the  opportunity  he  enjoyed 
of  hearing  Gluck's  works  and  of  comparing  the 
artists  at  the  French  and  Italian  operas  in  Paris. 
He  possessed  a  fine -toned  expressive  voice  of 
unusual  compass,  including  both  baritone  and 
tenor  registers,  an  astonishing  memory,  and  a 


prodigious  power  of  imitation,  and  may  fairly 
be  said  to  have  excelled  in  all  styles ;  but  his 
great  predilection  throughout  his  life  was  for 
Gluck's  music.  Having  been  the  favourite 
singer  of  Marie  Antoinette,  who  twice  paid  his 
debts,  he  fled  from  Paris  during  the  Terror,  and 
with  Rode  took  refuge  at  Hamburg,  where  the 
two  gave  very  successful  concerts.  On  his  re- 
turn to  France  he  appeared  at  the  '  Concert 
Feydeau'  (1795)  and  the  'Concert  de  la  rue 
Clery'  with  such  brilliant  success  that  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  singing  at  the  Conserva- 
toire in  1799.  Among  his  pupils  were  Roland, 
Xourrit,  Desperamons,  Ponchard,  Levasseur, 
Mmes.  Bar  bier -Walbonne,  Chevalier -Branchu, 
Duret,  Boulanger,  Rigaut,  and  Mile.  Duchamp, 
,  whom  he  married  when  he  was  55.  He  retained 
his  voice  till  he  was  50,  and  when  that  failed 
him  tried  to  attract  the  public  by  eccentricities 
of  dress  and  beha%'iour.  He  composed  several 
'  romances,  'Belisaire,'  *Le  Menestrel,'  '  Je  t'aime 
tant,'  etc.,  extremely  popular  in  their  day,  but 
j  now  so  monotonous  and  uninteresting  as  to  make 
it  evident  that  the  style  in  which  Garat  sang 
^  them  alone  ensured  their  success.  [G. C] 

I     GARCLA.,  a  Spanish  family  of  musicians,  who 
have  been  well  characterised  as  'representative 
artists,  whose  power,  genius,  and  originality  have 
,  impressed  a  permanent  trace  on  the  record  of  the 
]  methods  of  vocal  execution  and  omament'  (Chor- 
,  ley).    The  founder  of  the  family,  Manuel  del- 
:  Popolo-Ticexte,  was  bom  at  Seville  Jan.  22, 
1  1775.    Beginning  as  a  chorister  in  the  Cathedral 
at  the  age  of  6,  at  1 7  he  was  already  well  known 
I  as  composer,  singer,  actor,  and  conductor.  By 
1805  he  had  established  his  reputation  at  home, 
and  his  pieces — chiefly  short  comic  operas — were 
performed  all  over  Spain.    He  made  his  debut 
j  in  Paris,  Feb.  11,  180S,  in  Paer's  'Griselda,' 
■  singing  in  Italian  for  the  first  time.    Within  a 
:  month  he  had  become  the  chief  singer  at  that 
•theatre.    In  1809  he  produced  his  'Poeta  calcu- 
lista,'  originally  brought  out  at  Madrid  in  1805. 
[  In  181 1  he  set  out  for  Italy.    At  Naples  Murat 
I  appointed  him  (18 12)  first  tenor  in  his  chapel. 
I  There  he  met  Anzani,  one  of  the  best  tenors  of 
the  old  Italian  school,  by  whose  hints  he  profited 
largely.    There  also,  still  combining  the  roles  of 
singer  and  composer,  he  produced  his  '  Califo  di 
j  Bagdad,'  which  obtained  an  immense  success. 
I  In  1 8 1 5  Rossini  wrote  for  him  one  of  the  principal 
!  roles  in '  Elisabetta, '  and  in  1 8 1 6  that  of  Almaviva. 
^  About  the  end  of  18 16  he  returned  from  Xaples 
j  to  England,  and  thence  to  Paris,  where  he  revived 
I  his  '  Califo,'  and  produced  '  Le  Prince  d'occasion,' 
I  and  sang  in  Catalani's  troupe,  where  he  made 
I  a  great  hit  as  Paolino   in  the  'Matriraonio 
Segreto.'    Annoyed  by  Catalani's  management, 
he  left  Paris  for  London  about  the  end  of  181 7. 
!  In  the  ensuing  season  he  sang  in  the  'Barbiere' 
with  Mme.  Fodor,  and  in  other  operas,  with 
j  much  ^clat.    In  1 819  he  retumed  to  Paris,  and 
'  sang  in  the  'Barbiere,'  not  till  then  heard  there. 

There  he  remained  till  1823,  performing  in 
j  *  OteUo,'  '  Don  Giovanni,'  etc.,  and  composing 
!  *La  mort  du  Tasse'  and  'Florestan'  for  the 


582 


GARCIA. 


GARDINEK. 


Grand  Opera,  besides  'Fazzoletto'  at  the  Itallens,  ! 
'  La  Meuniere '  at  the  Gymnase,  and  3  others 
which  never  reached  the  stage.     In  the  spring 
of  1823  he  re-appeared  in  London,  where  he  was 
still  a  most  effective  singer  (Ebers).     Here  he 
founded  his  famous  school  of  singing.    He  sang 
in   London  again  in  1824  in  *Zelmira'  and 
'  Ricciardo  e  Zoraide.'     In  the  same  year  his 
'  Deux  contrats'  was  given  at  the  Opera  Comique. 
In  1825  he  was  here  again,  his  salary  having 
risen  from  £260  (1823)  to  £1250.  He  continued 
to  gain  still  greater  fame  by  teaching  than  by 
singing,  and  his  fertility  as  a  composer  was  , 
shewn  by  at  least  2  Italian  operas,  'Astuzia  e  ' 
prudenza' and  '  Un  Avertimento.'  The  education  j 
of  his  illustrious  daughter  Marie,  subsequently 
Mme.  Malibran,  was  now  completed,  and  under  j 
his  care  she  made  her  debut.    [See  Malibran.] 
He  then  realised  the  project  he  had  long  enter-  ! 
tained  of  founding  an  opera  at  New  York,  and  j 
set  out  with  that  object  from  Liverpool,  taking  1 
with  him  an  Italian  company,  which  included 
the  young  Crivelli  as  tenor,  his  own  son  Manuel  | 
and  Angrisani,  De  Rosich,  Mme.  Barbieri,  Mme.  | 
Garcia,  and  his  daughter.     At  New  York  he  1 
produced  no  less  than  11  new  Italian  operas  in  | 
a  single  year.  In  1827  he  went  to  Mexico,  where  [ 
he  brought  out  8  operas,  all  apparently  new.  j 
After  18  months'  stay,  he  set  out  to  return  with  | 
the  produce  of  this  hard  toil ;  but  the  party  was  ; 
stopped  by  brigands,  and  he  was  denuded  of  I 
everything,  including  nearly  £6000  in  gold.  I 

Garcia  now  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  re- 
appeared at  the  Italiens.     He  then  devoted 
himself  to  teaching;  and  died  June  2,  1832. 
Garcia  was  a  truly  extraordinary  person.  His 
energy,  resource,  and  accomplishments  may  be 
gathered   from   the  foregoing  brief  narrative,  j 
His  singing  and  acting  were  remarkable  for  verve  j 
and  intelligence.    He  was  a  good  musician,  and 
wrote  with  facility  and  effect,  as  the  list  of  his  ' 
works  sufficiently  shows.    F^tis  enumerates  no  ' 
less  than  17  Spanish,  19  Italian,  and  7  French 
operas.    Words  and  music  seem  to  have  been  | 
alike  easy  to  him.    His  most  celebrated  pupils 
were  his  daughters  Marie — Mme.  Malibran,  and 
Pauline — Mme.  Viardot,  Mmes.  Rimbault,  Ruiz-  \ 
Garcia,  Meric-Lalande,  Favelli,  Comtesse  Merlin ;  j 
Adolphe  Nourrit,  Gdraldy,  and  his  son  Manuel 
Garcia. 

Manuel  Gaecia  was  born  at  Madrid,  March 
17,  1805.  His  education  began  early,  and  at  15 
he  received  instruction  in  harmony  from  Fetis, 
and  in  singing  from  his  father.  In  1825  he 
accompanied  his  father  to  America.  Once  more 
in  Paris  (1829)  he  quitted  the  stage,  and  devoted 
himself  to  teaching.  A  little  later  he  undertook 
a  serious  scientific  enquiry  into  the  conformation 
of  the  vocal  organs,  the  limits  of  registers,  and 
the  mechanism  of  singing;  of  which  the  results 
were  two — (i)  his  application  of  the  Laryngo- 
scope, the  value  of  which  is  now  universally 
recognised  by  physicians  and  artists,  and  (2)  his 
*M«^moire  sur  la  voix  humaine,'  presented  to  the 
French  Institut  in  1840,  which  obtained  for  him 
the  congratulations  of  the  Academy,  and  may  be 


said  to  be  the  foundation  of  all  subsequent 
investigations  into  the  voice.  Appointed  pro- 
fessor of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire,  he  published 
in  1847  his  'Traite  complet  de  Tart  du  chant, 
en  2  parties,'  4to,  which  has  be^n  translated  into 
Italian,  German,  and  Enghsh,  and  has  gained  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Among  his  pupils  may 
be  mentioned  Mmes.  Jenny  Lind,  Catherine 
Hayes,  and  Henriette  Nissen  (afterwards  Mme. 
Saloman),  and  M.  Bataille.  In  1850  Garcia 
resigned  his  position  at  the  Conservatoire,  and 
came  to  London.  He  is  still  a  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  and  one  of  the  leading 
teachers  of  singing  in  London.  [See  also  Mali- 
bran, and  Viardot.]  [J.M.] 

GARDANE,  Antonio,  a  composer,  printer 
and  publisher  of  music  in  Venice  from  1538  to 
1569.  From  and  after  1557  his  name  is  given  as 
Gardano.  After  his  removal  his  sons  Cipriano 
and  Annibale  published  a  few  works,  and  an 
Angelo  Gardano,  whose  relationship  does  not 
appear,  many  more.  There  was  an  Alessandro 
in  a  small  way  at  Rome.  The  Venice  house 
lasted  till  161 9.  Thefr  publications  consist  of 
the  Masses,  Psalms,  Motets,  Madrigals,  Canzoni, 
and  other  compositions,  of  Archadelt,  Jacket, 
Lasso,  Prore,  Nannino,  and  other  great  Flemish 
and  Italian  writers,  and  fill  many  voliimes.  See 
Eitner,  Bibliog.  der  Sammelwerke,  etc.  [G.] 

GARDINER,  William,  the  son  of  a  stocking 
manufacturer  at  Leicester,  was  born  in  that  town 
March  1 5,  1 7  70.  He  became  an  assistant  to  his 
father  in  his  business,  to  which  he  afterwards 
succeeded,  and  which  he  carried  on  during  the 
rest  of  his  life.  But  the  taste  for  music  never 
forsook  him.  His  business  occasionally  required 
him  to  visit  the  continent,  and  he  availed  himi^elf 
of  such  opportunities  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  the  best  foreign  composers,  par- 
ticularly of  the  great  German  masters,  so  that 
for  a  long  period  he  knew  more  about  their 
productions,  especially  those  of  Beethoven,  than 
the  majority  of  English  professors.  (See  Thayer, 
Beethoven,  i.  441.)  Both  at  home  and  abroad  he 
sought  and  obtained  the  acquaintance  of  the  best 
musicians  of  all  ranks,  both  professors  and  ama- 
teurs. In  his  youth  he  composed  some  songs  and 
duets,  which  were  published  as  the  productions  of 
'  W.  G.  Leicester.'  He  next  produced,  under  the 
title  of  '  Sacred  Melodies,'  a  selection  of  pieces 
by  the  best  masters,  chiefly  foreign,  adapted  to 
English  words,  which  he  hoped  might  be  adopted 
in  our  churches  to  the  exclusion  of  the  clumsy 
verses  of  Stemhold  and  Hopkins,  and  Brady  and 
Tate.  Six  volumes  of  this  work  appeared  at 
distant  intervals,  and  it  included  a  volume  of 
selections  from  the  works  of  English  cathedral 
composers.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the  Pro- 
crustean plan  was  followed  with  the  music  in  order 
to  fit  it  to  the  words ;  yet,  notwithstanding,  the 
work  had  the  merit  of  introducing  to  the  notice 
of  the  English  public  many  fine  compositions. 
In  181 7  Gardiner  added  notes  to  the  translation 
of  Beyle's  *  Life  of  Haydn '  by  Robert  Brewin, 
his  fellow  townsman,  published  in  conjunction 


GARDINER. 


GASSMANN. 


583 


with  translations  of  SchlictegroU's  '  Life  of  Mo- 
zart,' and  other  pieces.    He  next  compiled  an 
oratorio,  entitled  'Judah,'  by  adapting  English 
words  to  music  selected  principally  from  the 
masses  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and 
connected  by  compositions  of  his  own.    He  wrote 
to  Beethoven  oSering  him  loo  guineas  for  an 
overture  to  this  work,  but  received  no  reply, 
owing,  as  he  supposed,  to  the  miscarriage  of  his 
letter.    In  1830  he  published  a  work,  entitled 
*  The  Music  of  Nature  ;  or,  an  attempt  to  prove 
that  what  is  passionate  and  pleasing  in  the  art  of 
singing,  speaking,  and  performing  upon  musical 
instnunents,  is  derived  from  the  sounds  of  the 
animated  world.'    The  musical  examples  were 
published  separately.    In  1838  he  published  two 
volumes  called  '  Music  and  Friends ;  or,  Pleasant 
Recollections  of  a  Dilettante,' — the  utility  of 
which  is  much  impaired  by  its  frequent  inac- 
curacy,— with  a  third  volume  in  1853.    In  1840 
he  adapted  Pope's  'Universal  Prayer'  to  music 
by  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven.    *  Sights  in 
Italy,  with  some  Account  of  the  present  state  of 
music  and  the  sister  arts  in  that  country '  appeared 
in  1847.  Besides  these  works  Gardiner  composed 
a  few  anthems.    He  died  Nov.  16,  1853,  in  the 
84th  year  of  his  age.  [W.H.H.] 
GARDONI,  Italo,  born  at  Parma  late  in 
18 2 1,  studied  singing  under  De'  Cesari.  He 
made  his  debut  at  Viadana  in  1840  in  'Roberto 
Devereux.'    In  the  same  year  he  was  engaged 
by  Ronzani,  with  whom  he  went  to  Turin  and 
Berlin,  where  he  sang  the  role  of  Rodrigo,  with 
Rubini  as  Otello.    Rubini  took  a  great  fancy 
for  the  young  artist,  and  predicted  for  him 
a  brilliant  career.     Gardoni  sang  during  two 
seasons  at  Milan,  and  afterwards  at  Brescia. 
Thence  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  sang,  in  company 
with  Viardot,  Alboni,  and  Tadolini,  in  the  '  Bar- 
biere,' '  Linda,'  etc.  In  1 844-5      appeared  at  the 
Academic  Royale,  creating  the  tenor  parts  in 
*Marie  Stuart,'  'L'Anie  en  peine,'  etc.    In  Paris 
Gardoni  remained  for  three  years,  singing  the 
principal  rdles  in  the  '  Favorite,'  '  Robert  le  Dia- 
ble,'  '  Charles  Six,'  etc.    In  1847  he  went  to  the 
The&tre  des  Italiens,  and  in  the  same  spring  made 
his  first  appearance  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  and 
*  by  his  charm  of  person  and  of  voice  (somewhat 
slight  though  the  latter  has  proved)  did  more  to 
reconcile  the  public  to  the  loss  of  Signer  Mario 
than  could  have  been  expected.    A  word  is  his 
due — as  the  due  of  a  real  artist,  who  has  finished 
every  phrase  that  he  has  sung,  and  has  pointed 
every  word  that  he  has  said.    There  has  always 
been  the  real  Italian  elegance — and  that  more  uni- 
versal elegance  which  belongs  to  no  country — in 
Signer  Gardoni'  (Chorley).   Here  he  created  the 
tenor  r6le  in  Verdi's  '  Masnadieri.'    Since  then, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  seasons  spent  at 
St.  Petersburg,  Madrid,  Amsterdam,  and  Rome, 
Gardoni  has  come  every  spring  to  London,  and 
returned  to  Paris  (Italiens)  for  the  winter. 

Gardoni  belonged  to  the  mezzo  caratterc  class 
of  tenors.  His  repertoire  was  rather  exception- 
ally large ;  for  he  sung  in  the  '  Barbiere,'  '  L'lta- 
liana  in  Algieri,'  and  *Le  Comte  Ory,'  as  well 


as  in  the  'Puritani,'  ' Sonnambula,'  'Robert  le 
Diable,'  '  Masaniello,'  and  Gounod's  '  Faust.' 
He  is  a  member  of  the  '  Soci^te  de  Bienfaisance 
Italienne'  of  Paris,  and  a  chevalier  of  the  'Co- 
rona d'ltalia.'  He  married  a  daughter  of  Tam- 
burini  Aug.  14,  1847 ;  and  in  1874  retired  from 
the  stage.  [J.  M.] 

GASPARINI,  Francesco,  bom  at  Lucca  in 
1665,  according  to  Fetis,  but  the  date  is  possibly 
somewhat  too  early.  He  was  a  pupil,  first  of 
Corelli  and  afterwards  of  Bernardo  Pasquini, 
was  Maestro  di  Coro  at  the  Ospedale  di  Pieta 
in  Venice,  and  a  member  of  the  Accademia 
Filarmonica.  In  1725  he  was  elected  maestro 
by  the  Chapter  of  St.  John  Lateran,  but  he  was 
already  in  broken  health  at  the  time  of  his 
appointment,  and  retired  upon  half  pay  in  August 
of  the  following  year.  He  retained  his  post 
nominally,  with  Girolamo  Chiti  for  a  coadjutor, 
until  April  1727,  when  he  died.  The  celebrated 
Benedetto  Marcello  was  his  pupil  for  many  years 
both  at  Venice  and  at  Rome,  and  a  correspond- 
ence between  them,  continued  up  to  a  few  weeks 
before  the  death  of  Gasparini,  testifies  to  the 
esteem  in  which  the  great  scholar  held  his 
master.  A  professional  conflict  between  Gas- 
parini and  A.  Scarlatti,  the  origin  of  which  was 
unknown  to  Baini,  took  the  form  of  an  exchange 
of  cantatas,  by  no  means  a  regretable  method  of 
retort  between  rival  and  disputative  artists. 

Gasparini  wrote  equally  well  for  the  church 
and  for  the  stage,  and  Fetis  gives  a  list  of  no 
less  than  thirty-two  of  his  operas.    Several  of 
[  them  were  favourites  in  London  in  the  early 
!  part  of  the  century.    He  also  composed  several 
'  cantatas.    But  the  work  by  which  he  is  now 
best  remembered  is  his  treatise  upon  accompani- 
ment intituled  '  L'  Armonico  prattico  al  cembalo, 
ovvero  regole,  osservazioni  ed  avertimenti  per  ben 
suonare  il  basso  e  accompagnare  sopra  il  cembalo, 
spinetta  ed  organo.'    This  work  was  republished 
so  lately  as  1802  at  Venice,  and  has  maintained 
its  position  in  Italy  even  since  the  appearance 
of  the  clearer  and  better  arranged  treatise  of 
Fenaroli.  [E.H.P.] 
GASSMANN.  Florian  Leopold,  born  May  4, 
1723,  at-Briix  in  Bohemia :  in  i  736  ran  away  from 
his  father  who  wished  to  educate  him  as  a  mer- 
chant.   By  playing  the  harp  he  worked  his  way 
to  Bologna,  where  he  studied  for  two  years  under 
Padre  Martini.    He  then  entered  the  service  of 
Count  Leonardi  Veneri  at  Venice,  and  his  com- 
positions were  soon  in  general  request.    In  1762 
he  was  invited  to  Vienna  as  a  ballet-composer. 
On  the  death  of  Reutter  in  1771,  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  appointed  him  Court  Capellmeister 
with  a  salary  of  800  ducats.    Very  soon  after 
entering  on  his  new  office  he   suggested  the 
formation  of  the  '  Tonkunstler  Societat,'  a  Fund 
for  the  Widows  and  Orphans  of  Vienna  musi- 
cians, a  society  which  in  i(S62  was  reorganised 
under  the  name  of  the  'Haydn.'    See  Pohl's 
'  Denkschrift,'  etc.  (Vienna  1871).  Gassmann 
died  Jan.  21,  1774,  owing  to  a  fall  from  his 
carriage.    He  composed  23  Italian  operas,  of 
which  two  were  translated  into  German,  '  L' Amof 


584 


GASSMANN. 


GAUNTLETT. 


artigiana '  by  Xeefe,  and '  La  Contessina '  by  Hiller. 
He  also  composed  much  church  music,  which 
Mozart  thought  more  of  than  of  his  operas 
(Letter,  Feb.  5,  1783).  When  at  Leipsic,  he 
said  to  Doles,  who  could  not  quite  join  in  his 
praises,  '  Papa,  if  you  only  knew  all  we  have  of 
his  in  Vienna !  As  soon  as  I  get  back  I  shall 
study  him  in  earnest,  and  hope  to  learn  a  great 
deal.'  Gassmann  cannot  be  said  to  have  exer- 
cised any  special  influence  on  the  developement 
of  musical  form  effected  during  his  time  by 
Emanuel  Bach,  Haydn,  and  Mozart.  His  best 
pupil  was  Salieri,  who  after  their  father's 
death  educated  Gassmann's  daughters  as  opera- 
singers.  [F.  G.] 

GASTOLDI,  Giovanni  Giacomo,  bom  at 
Caravaggio  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury ;  maestro  di  capella  in  Mautua,  and  later 
in  Milan  (1592).  He  was  the  author  of  '  Bal- 
letti  da  suonare,  cantare,  e  ballare '  (Venice 
1591-5  ;  Antwerp  1596),  which  are  said  to  have 
served  ]\Iorley  as  models  for  his  '  Ballets  or 
Fal  las.'  Two  of  them  are  well  known  to  Eng- 
lish amateurs  under  the  names  of  '  Maidens  fair 
of  Mantua's  city, '  and  '  Soldiers  brave  and 
gallant  be.'  Two  others,  '  Viver  lieto  voglio,' 
and  'A  lieta  vita,'  are  given  by  Bumey  in  his 
History  of  Music.  These  were  adopted  as  Hymn 
tunes  by  Lindemann  in  1597  to  the  words 
'  Jesu,  wollst  uns  weisen,'  and  '  In  dir  ist  Freude ' 
respectively  (Doring,  Choralkunde,  45).    [F.  G.] 

GATES,  Beenard.  Second  son  of  Bernard 
Gates  of  Westminster,  Gent.  Bom  probably  in 
1685  ;  is  mentioned  in  1702  as  one  of  the  Chil- 
dren of  the  Chapel  Eoyal ;  was  made  a  Gentle- 
man of  the  same  in  1 708  in  place  of  John  Howell, 
who  died  July  15,  and  Master  of  the  Choristers, 
Michaelmas  1740,  vice  J.  Church;  resided  in 
James  Street,  Westminster.  Li  1758  he  retired 
to  North  Aston,  Oxon,  where  he  died,  Nov.  15, 
1773,  aged  88.  He  was  buried  in  the  North 
Cloister  at  Westminster,  *  near  his  wife  and 
daughter.'  He  held  the  sinecure  ofl&ce,  now 
abolished,  of  Tuner  of  the  Eegals  in  the  King's 
household — see  his  epitaph  at  Aston. 

His  chief  claim  to  mention  is  his  connexion 
with  Handel,  whose  '  Esther '  was  acted  under 
Gates's  care  by  the  Children  of  the  Chapel  Eoyal 
at  his  house  Feb.  23,  1732,  and  afterwards  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  Haymarket.  He  also  sang 
one  of  the  airs  in  the  Dettingen  Te  Deum  on 
its  first  performance.  [G.] 

GAUNTLETT,  Henry  John,  eldest  son  of 
the  Eev.  Henry  Gauntlett,  was  bom  in  1806  at 
Wellington,  Salop.  He  was  educated  by  his 
father,  and  at  an  early  age  evinced  an  aptitude 
for  music,  especially  for  playing  on  the  organ. 
His  father  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of 
Olney,  Bucks,  and  there,  at  the  age  of  nine, 
young  Gauntlett  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  first 
organist  appointment.  In  1826  he  was  articled 
to  a  solicitor.  During  his  clerkship  he  pursued 
the  study  of  law  and  music  with  equal  assiduity, 
and  in  1827  obtained  the  post  of  organist  of 


St.  Olave's,  Southwark,  which  he  held  for  upwards 
of  20  years.  In  183 1  he  was  admitted  a  solicitor, 
and  commenced  practice  in  the  City  of  London 
in  partnership  with  a  brother.  About  1836, 
having  attained  a  high  reputation  as  an  organist, 
he  commenced  his  advocacy  of  a  reform  in  organ 
building  by  the  adoption  of  the  C  organ  in  the 
place  of  the  old  F  and  G  instruments.  He  met 
with  the  strongest  opposition,  but  finding  a  valu- 
able auxiliary  in  William  Hill,  the  organ  builder 
(who,  under  his  superintendence  constructed  the 
organs  in  St.  Luke's,  Cheetham,  Manchester  ; 
St.  Peter's,  Corahill ;  Ashton-under-L\Tie  church  ; 
Dr.  Eaffles'  chapel,  Liverpool ;  and  St.  John's, 
Calcutta  ;  and  reconstructed  the  large  organs  in 
Birmingham  Town  HaU,  and  Chnst  Church, 
Newgate  Street),  he  attained  his  aim,  and 
through  his  exertions  the  C  organ  was  firmly 
settled  in  England.  In  1836  he  became  organist 
of  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street.  In  1842  Dr. 
Howley,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music.  About 
the  same  time  he  gave  up  the  law  and  devoted 
himself  wholly  to  music.  In  the  year  1 844  Gaunt- 
lett, in  conjunction  with  Charles  Child  Spencer, 
drew  attention  to  the  subject  of  Gregorian  music 
by  the  publication  of  the  Hymnal  for  Matins  and 
Evensong  (Bell  &  Daldy).  He  took  an  active 
part  in  promoting  the  extension  of  choral  worship, 
and  composed  many  chants  and  anthems.  With 
equal  ardour  he  laboured  to  increase  the  study 
of  the  works  of  Handel,  Bach,  Beethoven,  Spolu" 
and  Mendelssohn,  publishing  arrangements  of 
the  choral  and  instrumental  fugues  of  Bach; 
Beethoven's  choral  works ;  Cherubini's  ditto ; 
the  Overtures  and  Choruses  in  Spohr's  '  Cruci- 
fixion,' etc.,  for  the  organ,  with  pedals.  But  it 
is  as  a  composer  and  editor  of  psalm  and  hymn 
tunes  that  he  wiU  be  best  remembered.  For 
upwards  of  40  years  he  worked  in  that  field 
with  unwearied  enthusiasm,  and  there  was 
scarcely  a  publication  of  any  note  issued  during 
that  period  in  which  he  was  not  engaged  as 
editor,  assistant,  or  contributor.  Gauntlett  also 
appeared  as  a  lecturer  on  music  and  as  a 
critic  and  reviewer,  and  able  articles  from  his 
pen,  abounding  in  learning  and  spirit  (the 
opinions  confidently  expressed),  will  be  found 
in  the  first  6  volumes  of  '  The  Musical  World,' 
in  '  The  Morning  Post,'  '  The  Orchestra,'  and 
'  The  Church  Musician.'  After  quitting  St. 
Olave's  and  Christ  Church,  Gauntlett  was  suc- 
cessively organist  of  a  church  at  Kensington 
Park,  of  Union  Chapel,  Islington  (for  13  years), 
and  of  St.  Bartholomew  the  Great,  Smithfield. 
He  was  chosen  by  Mendelssohn  to  play  the 
organ  part  in  his  oratorio,  'Elijah,'  on  its  pro- 
duction at  Biraiingham,  Aug.  26,  1846.  He 
died  suddenly,  from  heart  disease,  Feb.  21,  1876. 

Gauntlett's  principal  publications,  besides 
those  mentioned,  were  '  The  Church  Hymn  and 
Tune  Book '  (with  Eev.  W.  J.  Blew),  1844-51  ; 
Cantus  Melodici,  1845;  'The  Comprehensive 
Tune  Book'  (with  Keams),  1846-7;  'The 
Hallelujah  '  (with  Eev.  J.  J.  Waite),  1848-55  ; 
'  The  Congregational  Psalmist '  (with  Dr.  Allon), 


GAUNTLETT. 


GAVOTTE. 


585 


1 85 1  ;  Carlyle's  'Manual  of  Psalmody,'  i860; 
•Tunes,  New  and  Old,'  and  Harland's  'Church 
Psalter  and  Hymnal,'  1868;  'Specimens  of  a 
Cathedral  Psalter '  ;  '  The  Encyclopaedia  of  the 
Chant';  'Hymns  and  Glorias';  'St.  Mark's 
Tune  Book';  'Hymns  for  Little  Children,' 
and  several  collections  of  Christmas  Carols, 
Anthems,  Songs,  etc.,  and  some  organ  arrange- 
ments. [W.H.H.] 

GAYEAUX,  Pierre,  bom  at  Beziers  Aug. 
1 761;  died  insane  at  Charenton  Feb.  5,  1825; 
studied  composition  under  Beck,  conductor  of  the 
theatre  at  Bourdeaux.    There  he  made  his  debut 
as  tenor  with  a  success  which  decided  his  future 
career.    His  voice  was  warm  and  flexible,  he 
sang  with  great  expression,  and  during  an  eu- 
j    gagement  in  Paris  in  1789  created  many  im- 
j    portant  parts.     As  a  composer  he  produced 
i    between  1792  and  1S18  no  less  than  35  operas, 
(    written  in  an  easy  and  essentially  dramatic  style, 
i    natural  and  simple  in  melody,  but  not  charac- 
j    terised  by  depth  or  originality.     Among  these 
j    may  be  specified  '  Les  deux  Suisses'  (1792); 
3    *Le  petit  Matelot'  (1795");  '  Leonore  ou  I'amour 
;    conjugal'  (1798),  the  same  subject  which  Bee- 
j    thoven  afterwards  set  as  'Fidelio';  'Le  Bouffe 
j    et  le  Tailleur*  (1S04),  simg  by  Ponchard  and 
,    Cinti-Damoreau  as  late  as  1S35,  and  played  in 
1    London  in  1 849  ;  and  •  Monsieur  Deschalumeaux' 
]    (1806),  afterwards  played  as  a  pantomime.  He 
I    also  published  a  book  of  Italian  'Canzonette' 
^    dedicated  to  Garat,  and  another  of  French 
1    'Romances.'    These  are  forgotten,  but  some  of 
(    his  opera  airs  have  maintained  their  popularity, 
(    and  occupy  an  honourable  place  in  *  La  Cle  du 
■    Caveau.'  [G.C.] 

\  GAVIXl£s,  Pierre,  an  eminent  French 
violin-player.    According  to  some  authorities  he 

»  was  bom  at  Bourdeaux  in  1728,  while  others 
give  Paris  and  the  year  1726.  His  instructors 
are  equally  unknown,  but  it  is  assumed  that  he 
was  self-taught,  forming  his  style  chiefly  after 
the  great  Italian  violinists,  who  were  then  much 
in  the  habit  of  travelling  in  France.  He  was 
still  a  boy  when  he  made  his  first  successful 
appearance  at  the  Concert  spirituel  in  1741,  and 
after  this  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  but  rarely  left 

'1    Paris,  where  he  soon  came  to  be  considered  as 

I  the  best  living  violinist,  and  was  a  great  favourite 
in  fashionable  circles.     Contemporary  writers 

I  attribute  to  him  all  the  qualities  of  a  really  great 
performer — wonderful  execution,  a  great  tone, 
spirit  and  feeling.  His  fiery  temperament  at 
one  tune  got  him  into  considerable  trouble  :  he 
became  involved  in  a  liaisori  with  a  lady  of  the 
court,  and  on  being  detected  had  to  fly  from 
Paris,  but  was  captured  and  imprisoned  for  a 
year.  This  experience  eff'ectually  sobered  him, 
and  we  are  assured  that  later  in  life  he  was  as 
much  esteemed  for  his  social  virtues  as  for  his 
artistic  gifts.  During  his  imprisonment  he  com- 
posed a  piece  which,  under  the  name  of  'Romance 
de  Gavinies,'for  a  long  time  enjoyed  considerable 
popularity  in  France,  and,  according  to  F^tis, 
used  to  move  the  hearers  to  tears,  when  per- 


formed by  the  composer.  On  the  foundation  of 
the  Conservatoire  in  1794,  Gavinids  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  professorship  of  the  violin.  He  died 
at  Paris  in  1800. 

In  France  Gavinids  is  generally  considered  the 
founder  of  the  great  French  school  of  violinists. 
This  is  true  in  one  sense,  as  he  was  the  first  pro- 
fessor of  the  violin  at  the  Conservatoire,  but  with 
I  such  a  predecessor  as  Leclair,  the  title  appears 
I  at  least  disputable.  Viotti  is  said  to  have  spoken 
I  of  him  as  the  French  Tartini.     But,  although 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Gavinies  did  more 
!  than  any  one  before  him  towards  transplanting 
into  France  the  true  and  earnest  style  of  the 
I  great  Italian  school  of  violin-playing,  it  is  im- 
i  possible  to  rank  him  in  any  way  with  Tartini  as 
!  a  composer  for  the  violin  or  even  as  a  performer, 
i  His  works,  while  not  devoid  of  a  certain  pathetic 
j  dignity,  do  not  shew  an  indi\ndual  original  style, 
and  are  in  every  respect  inferior  to  Tartini's 
I  masterpieces.    They  are  on  the  whole  rather  dry 
i  and  laboured.    On  the  other  hand  it  must  be 
.  granted  that  they  indicate  considerable  advance 
I  in  technical  execution.     His  most  celebrated 
I  work,  '  Les  vingt-quatres  Matinees,'  surpasses  in 
!  difficulty  anything  ever  written  by  Tartini,  and 
i  as  we  are  assured  that  Ga^-inies  used  to  play  them 
j  even  in  his  old  age  -with  the  greatest  perfection, 
I  we  must  assume  him  to  have  possessed  an  eminent 
I  execution.    But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  his  man- 
i  ner  of  writing  for  the  violin,  and  the  peculiar 
I  class  of  difficulties  which  his  studies  contain, 
show  a  tendency  to  go  beyond  the  natural 
'  resources  of  the  instrument — in  fact,  a  tendency 
'  to  exaggeration,  such  as  invariably  makes  its 
I  appearance  after  a  classical  period  in  any  art, 
and  such  as,  in  the  art  of  kaolin  playing  in  par- 
ticular, is  represented  towards  the  end  of  the  last 
century  by  the  masters  who  lived  after  Tartini 
and  before  Viotti.     It  is  for  this  reason  that 
Gavinies'  '  Matinees '  cannot  be  ranked  vrlth  the 
classical  studies  of  Rode,  Kreutzer,  and  Fiorillo. 
This  however  does  not  preclude  their  being  both 
of  interest  and  use  to  advanced  students. 
I     Capron,  Robineau,  and  Le  Duo  atne,  are  the 
j  best  known  of  Gavinies'  numerous  pupils.  Besides 
the  '  Matinees '  he  published  6  Concertos  for  the 
:  Violin,  2  sets  of  Sonatas  for  Violin  and  Bass 
(some  of  which  have  been  recentlj'  republished 
i  by  Alard  and  Da\-id\  3  Sonatas  for  Violin  Solo 
i  (one  of  them  entitled  '  Le  Tombeau  de  Gavinies'). 
He  also  composed  an  opera  which  was  played  at 
the  Comedie-Itallenne  in  1760.  [-P-I^-] 
GAVOTTE.    A  French  dance,  the  name  of 
:  which  Is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Gavots,  or 
;  people  of  the  pays  de  Gap  in  Dauphlne.  Its 
original  peculiarity  as  a  danse  grave  was  that  the 
dancers  lifted  their  feet  from  the  ground,  while 
in  former  danses  graves  they  walked  or  shuffled 
— (Littre).    It  is  in  common  time,  of  moderately 
quick  movement,  and  in  two  parts,  each  of  which 
is,  as  usual  with  the  older  dances,  repeated.  In 
the  original  form  of  the  dance  the  first  part  con- 
sisted of  four  and  the  second  of  eight  bars  ;  when 
introduced  as  one  of  the  movements  of  a  suite,  it 
has  no  fixed  number  of  bars.    The  following  ia 


586 


GAVOTTE. 


GEIGEN-PRINCIPAL. 


The  gavotte  should  always  begin  on  the  third 
beat  of  the  bar,  each  part  finishing,  therefore,  | 
with  a  half-bar,  which  must  contain  a  minim, 
and  not  two  crotchets.     Occasional  exceptions 
may  be  found  to  the  rule  that  the  gavotte  is  to  i 
begin  on  the  third  crotchet,  as,  for  instance,  in  j 
that  of  No.  3  of  Bach's  '  Suites  rran9aises,'  which  | 
commences  on  the  first  crotchet,  of  which,  how-  ; 
ever,  it  should  be  noticed  that  in  some  editions 
it  is  termed  an  '  Anglaise.'    In  any  case  it  is  not 
strictly  a  gavotte.    The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
'gavotte'  in  Gluck's  'Orphee,'  which  begins  on 
the  fourth  beat  of  the  bar,  and  should  therefore 
rather  have  been  marked  '  Tempo  di  Gavotta .' 
A  second  gavotte  frequently  succeeds  the  first 
as  a  'trio,'  in  the  modern  sense  of  that  term. 
This  second  gavotte  is  either  similar  in  construc- 
tion to  the  first,  as  in  Bach's  Suite  in  B  minor 
(' Franzosische  Ouverture'),  or  is  a  Musette, 
i  e.  founded  on  a  'drone-bass,'  as  in  the  third 
and  sixth  of  Bach's  '  Suites  Anglaises.'   The  posi- 
tion of  the  gavotte  in  the  suite  is  not  invariable, 
but  it  usually  follows  the   sarabande,  though 
occasionally  (as  in  Bach's  Suite  in  B  minor  above 
referred  to),  it  precedes  it.  [E.  P.]  j 

GAWLEE,,  an  organist  in  London  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  published  a  collection 
of  psalm  tunes  with  interludes,  under  the  title  of 
'  Harmonia  Sacra ' ;  '  Dr.  Watts's  Divine  Psalms ' ; 
'Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord,'  and  two  sets  of 
*  Voluntaries  for  the  Organ.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

GAWTHORN,  Nathaniel,  clerk  at  the  Friday 
Lecture  in  East  Cheap,  published  in  1730  a 
collection  of  psalm  tunes  in  4  parts  under  the 
title  of  'Harmonia  Perfecta,'  containing  also 
some  hymns  and  anthems,  and  an  Introduction 
to  Psalmody.  [W.H.H.] 
GAZZA  LADE  A,  LA  (the  thieving  magpie). 
A  comic  opera  in  two  acts  ;  libretto  by  Gherardini ; 
music  by  Rossini ;  produced  at  La  Scala,  Milan, 
in  the  Spring  of  181 7,  in  London  at  the  King's 
Theatre  March  10,  T821,  and  in  Paris  Sept.  18. 
In  English  (adapted  by  Bishop)  as  '  Ninetta,  or, 
the  Maid  of  Palaiseau,'  at  Covent  Garden,  Feb.  4, 
1830.  [G.] 
GAZZANIGA,  Giuseppe,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  opera  composers  of  his  time,  bom  at 
Verona,  Oct.  1 743  ;  pupil  of  Porpora,  both  in 
Venice  and  at  San  Onofrio  in  Naples.  He  also 
studied  under  Piccinni.  Through  Sacchini's  in- 
fluence his  first  opera  *  II  finto  cieco '  was  per- 
formed in  Vienna  (1770).  Among  his  many 
operaa  may  be  mentioned   '11  convietato  di 


pietro,'  the  forerunner  of  'Don  Giovanni,'  which 
had  an  extraordinary  success  in  Venice  (1787), 
Ferrara,  Rome,  Bergamo,  and  London,  where  it 
was  performed  repeatedly.  Gazzaniga  was  after- 
wards maestro  di  capella  at  Cremona,  where  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  church  music.  [E.G.] 

GEBAUER,  Franz  Xaver,  bom  in  1784  at 
Eckersdorf,  Glatz,  Prussian  Silesia,  received  his 
early  musical  education  from  his  father,  the  vil- 
lage schoolmaster.  In  1 804  he  became  organist 
at  Frankenstein;  and  in  18 10  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  soon  became  known  for  his  extraor- 
[  dinary  execution  on  the  Jews-harp,  and  lived  by 
giving  excellent  pianoforte  lessons,  and  playing 
the  cello.  In  18 16  he  was  appointed  Chor- 
^  director  of  the  church  of  St.  Augustin,  and  there, 
j  thanks  to  his  indefatigable  efforts,  the  larger 
works  of  the  great  masters  were  satisfactorily 
performed.  He  was  also  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  active  members  of  the  'GeseUschaft  der 
ISIusikfreunde, '  founded  in  1813,  IniSiQ, through 
his  endeavours,  were  started  the  Spirituel-Concerte 
which  continued  in  existence  until  1848,  and 
into  the  programmes  of  which  none  but  sterling 
works  were  admitted.  [See  Spirituel  Concerte.] 
Gebauer  was  the  first  conductor,  but  did  not  long 
enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  labours.  In  Oct.  1822  he 
returned  from  a  journey  to  Switzerland  seriously 
ill,  and  died  in  Vienna  on  the  1 3th  Dec,  sincerely 
regretted  as  a  sterling  musician  and  an  upright 
man.  He  published  a  few  Lieder,  and  left  a  small 
number  of  choral  compositions  in  MS.  He  was 
intimate  with  Beethoven,  who  in  a  note  preser\^ed 
by  Seyfried  ('Beethovens  Studien,'  Anh.  36,  and 
Nohl's  Briefe,  No.  234),  puns  upon  his  name  in 
I  his  favourite  style,  calling  him  'G eh' Bauer'  and 
'der  Bauer.'  [C.F.P."> 

GEDACKT-WORK  (i.e.  gedecH).  All  the 
Flue-stops  of  an  Organ  composed  of  pipes  that 
are  entirely  covered  or  closed  in  at  the  top  are 
members  of  the  '  Gedackt '  or  Covered- work.  To 
this  class  therefore  belong  the  Sub-Bourdon,  32  ; 
Bourdon,  16 ;  Stopped  Diapason,  8  ;  and  Stopped 
Flute,  4  feet -tone.  When  made  to  a  'small 
scale,'  and  voiced  so  as  to  produce  a  sweet  tone, 
the  adjective  'Lieblich'  is  prefixed,  as  Lieblich 
Bourdon,  16,  Lieblich  Gedackt,  8,  Lieblich  Flote, 
4  feet-tone.  Large  stopped  pipes  are  generally 
made  of  wood ;  the  smaller  ones  either  of  wood  or 
metal.  Covered  Stops  were  first  made  in  Germany, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century.    [E.  J.H.] 

GEIGEN-PRINCIPAL,  i.e.  Violin  Diapason. 
An  organ  stop  of  8  feet  or  unison  pitch  ;  crisp  in 
tone,  and  much  resembling  the  violin  in  quality. 
A  '  violl  and  violin'  stop  originally  foraied  one 
of  the  features  in  the  choir  organ  of  the  instru- 
ment in  the  Temple  Church,  built  by  Father 
Smith  in  1688  ;  but  seems  to  have  been  removed 
shortly  afterwards  to  make  room  for  an  ad- 
ditional reed  stop.  The  Geigen-principal  was 
first  brought  under  notice  in  England  in  recent 
times  by  Herr  Schulze,  who  introduced  two,  one 
of  8  feet  and  another  of  4,  into  the  admirable 
little  organ  he  sent  to  the  Great  Exhibition  of 


GEIGEX-PRDsXEPAL. 


GEMIXIAXI. 


5S7 


1851.  The  stop  was  subsequently  adopted  by 
the  English  organ- builder,  Mr.  Lewis,  who  has 
made  several  excellent  specimens  of  it.  [E.J.H.] 

GELIXEK,  Joseph,  secular  priest,  composer 
of  variations  for  pianoforte,  bom  Dec.  3,  1758, 
at  Selcz  in  Bohemia,  where  his  fether  was  school- 
master. He  was  well-grounded  in  music  at 
home,  and  on  going  to  Prague  to  complete  his 
philosophical  studies  took  lessons  from  Segert  in 
composition  and  organ-plapng.  In  1783  he  be- 
came a  divinity  student  at  the  General -Seminar, 
the  orchestra  of  which  at  that  time  executed 
standard  works  so  weU  as  to  elicit  praise  from 
Mozart  himself  when  in  Prague.  Mozart  also 
applauded  Gelinek's  pianoforte  playing,  and 
encouraged  him  to  persevere.  In  1786  he 
was  ordained  priest,  and  became  domestic  chap- 
lain and  pianoforte  teacher  to  Prince  Joseph 
Kinsky,  who  settled  an  income  upon  him  for 
life,  and  took  him  to  Vienna,  where  he  studied 
with  Albrechtsberger.  He  then  accompanied 
Prince  Poniatowsky  to  Rome,  with  the  view  to 
obtain  further  instruction,  but  iUness  obliged 
h\m  to  return  to  Vienna.  There  he  became  the 
favourite  pianoforte  teacher  of  the  nobility,  and  > 
was  liberally  paid.  In  1795  he  entered  Prince 
Esterhazy's  household  as  chaplain  and  music 
master,  and  remained  there  till  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  Vienna  April  13,  1825.  For 
Gelinek's  relations  with  Beethoven  see  p.  1 68a  ; 
and  Czemy  in  Pohl's  '  Jahresbericht  des  Conser- 
vatoriums  in  Wien,'  1869-70. 

Gelinek  composed  with  ease  and  rapidity; 
both  he  and  his  publisliers  made  large  profits 
from  his  works,  the  variations  in  the  fashionable 
8t}-le  of  the  day  especially  having  a  ready  sale. 
Of  these  alone  there  is  a  thematic  catalogue 
(Offenbach,  Andre)  containing  98,  with  spaces 
for  more.  The  monotony  which  was  one  of  their 
weak  points  is  well  hit  in  Weber's  epigram  : — 

'  An  den  berlihmten  Variationen-Schmidt  Gelinek. 

Kein  Thema  in  der  Welt  Terschonte  dein  Genie, 
Daa  simpelste  allein— Dich  selbst— variirst  Du  nie.' 

Although  at  that  time  the  rage,  they  are  shallow 
and  superficial ;  and  like  his  fantasias,  rondos, 
marches,  dance-music  and  arrangements,  his  few 
sonatas,  songs,  etc.  are  aU  now  forgotten.  Not- 
withstanding considerable  losses,  Gelinek  left 
42,000  gulden  (about  £4000)  among  his  poor 
relations.  [C.F.P.] 
GEMIXIAXI,  Fbaxcesco,  an  eminent  violin- 
player  and  composer,  was  bom  at  Lucca  in  1680. 
His  first  teacher  on  the  violin  was  Carlo  Ambro- 
gio  Lonati,  sumaraed  'il  Gobbo,'  at  Milan.  He 
afterwards  studied  under  Corelli  at  Rome,  and 
is  said  to  have  had  instruction  in  composition 
from  Alessandro  Scarlatti.  Geminiani  must  be 
considered  one  of  the  foremost  representatives  of 
the  school  of  Corelli,  however  diflPerent,  owing 
to  the  peculiarity  of  his  character  and  talent,  he 
proved  himself  to  be  as  a  performer  and  com- 
poser from  his  great  master.  While  classical 
beauty  and  imperturbable  dignity  were  the  main 
characteristics  of  Corelli's  style,  Geminiani's  un- 
bounded vivacity  of  temperament  shewed  itself 


in  his  performances,  which  contemporary  critics 
invariably  describe  as  eccentric.    Tartini  is  said 
to  have  spoken  of  him  as  '  il  furibundo  Gemi- 
niani.'   This  easily  accounts  for  the  fact  that, 
■  however  great  his  success  as  a  Solo-player,  he 
1  failed  as  a  leader  and  conductor,  from  want 
'  of  the  necessary  calmness  and  control.  Bumey 
relates,  on  the  authority  of  BarbeUa,  that  he  lost 
,  the  post  of  leader  of  the  opera-band  at  Naples 
because  'none  of  the  performers  were  able  to 
follow  him  in  his  tempo  rubato  and  other  un- 
expected accelerations  and  relaxations  of  mea- 
i  sure,'  and  that  '  after  this  discovery  he  was  never 
'  trusted  with  a  better  part  than  tenor  during  his 
residence  in  that  city.' 

In  1 7 1 4  he  came  to  England,  and  quickly  gained 
a  great  reputation  as  a  virtuoso,  although  he 
appears  to  have  but  rarely  played  in  public,  and 
to  have  supported  himself  by  teaching  and  play- 
ing in  the  houses  of  the  nobUity.  When  invited 
to  play  at  a  court-concert,  he  only  consented  under 
'  the  condition  that  Handel  should  accompany  him. 
i  If  nevertheless  he  failed  to  gain  an  established 
and  secure  position  in  life,  this  again  is  attri- 
butable to  the  peculiarity  and  eccentricity  of  his 
character,  which  did  not  allow  him  to  make  the 
best  of  his  opportunities  or  to  pursue  any  definite 
plan  of  life.  While  he  made  but  rare  use  of  his 
really  great  talent  as  a  performer,  he  spent  much 
time  in  writing  theoretical  works  of  but  doubtful 
value.  He  also  indulged  in  a  foolish  passion  for 
dealing  in  pictures,  without,  we  are  assured, 
having  much  knowledge  of  the  subject.  This  at 
one  time  involved  him  in  difficulties  and  brought 
him  even  into  prison,  from  which  he  was  only 
extricated  by  Lord  Essex,  his  friend  and  pupil. 
This  same  nobleman  procured  for  him  the  post 
of  conductor  of  the  Viceroy "s  band  at  Dublin.  It 
is  supposed  that  Horace  Walpole  objected  to  this 
appointment  on  account  of  Geminiani  being  a 
Roman  Catholic.  At  all  events  it  was  not  Gemi- 
niani, but  Dubourg,  his  pupil,  who  went  to  Dublin. 
In  1748  he  made  a  journey  to  Paris,  where  he 
I  remained  till  1755.  Nothing  however  is  known 
about  his  doings  there,  except  that  he  brought  out 
a  new  edition  of  his  Solo-Sonatas.  From  Paris 
he  returned  to  Loudon,  and  he  died  in  176 1  at 
Dublin,  where  he  was  visiting  Dubourg. 
'  Geminiani  and  Veracini  (see  that  name),  com- 
ing at  about  the  same  time  to  England,  found 
the  art  of  violin-playing  in  every  respect  in  its 
infancy.  Corelli's  Solos  were  considered  to  aflFord 
almost  insurmoimtable  difficulties  of  execution. 
Now  Geminiani  not  only  played  these,  but  in  his 
own  compositions  shows  considerable  progress  in 
the  technique  of  the  violin,  by  freely  employing 
i  the  shift,  and  by  frequent  use  of  double-stops. 
I  Bumey  naively  enough  assures  his  readers  that 
'  some  of  Geminiani's  Sonatas  were  too  difficult  to 
be  played  by  any  one.  His  published  compositions 
— Sonatas  and  Concertos  for  the  violin — show 
him  to  have  been  a  clever  musician,  but,  with  all 
his  impetuosity,  wanting  in  originality  and  indi\-i- 
duality.  His  slow  movements  are  more  modem 
in  feeling  than  most  of  CorelH's,  bearing  a  certain 
likeness  to  Tartini's  style,  though  without  ever 


588 


GEMINIANI. 


GENET. 


equalling  the  best  works  of  that  great  master. 
His  Allegros  have  a  more  developed  and  freer 
form  than  those  of  Corelli,  but  it  is  gross 
exaggeration  of  Bumey,  to  describe  them  as 
eocentric  and  rhapsodic. 

The  most  valuable  contribution  however  which 
he  has  made  to  the  literature  of  the  instrument 
is  his  '  Art  of  Playing  the  Violin.  London,  1 740.' 
This  book,  written  in  English,  was  the  very  first 
of  its  kind  ever  published  in  any  country ;  six 
years  earlier  than  Leopold  Mozart's  Violin- 
School.  It  has  the  great  merit  of  handing  down 
to  posterity  the  principles  of  the  art  of  playing 
the  violin,  as  they  were  finally  established  by 
CoreUi.  The  rules  which  Geminiani  gives  for 
holding  the  violin  and  bow,  the  management  of 
the  left  hand  and  the  right  arm,  are  the  same  as 
are  recognized  in  our  days.  In  one  particular 
point  he  even  appears  to  have  been  in  advance 
of  his  time,  since  he  recommends  the  holding 
of  the  violin  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  tail- 
piece— a  practice  now  universally  accepted  and 
indispensable  for  a  higher  development  of  the 
technique — but,  strange  as  it  seems,  not  adopted 
either  by  Leopold  Mozart  or  by  the  masters  of 
the  German  school  until  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century. 

His  other  theoretical  works — a  'Treatise  on 
Memory,'  a  *  Treatise  on  Good  Taste,'  *  The  Art 
of  Playing  the  Guitar,'  '  The  Art  of  Accompani- 
ment'— are  of  little  value,  although  they  ap- 
peared not  only  in  English,  but  in  Italian,  French, 
German,  and  Dutch. 

Of  original  compositions  he  published  the  fol- 
lowing: — XII  Solos,  op.  I.  London  1716;  Six 
Concertos  in  seven  parts,  op.  2.  London  1732, 
and  Paris  1755,  in  score;  6  Concertos,  op.  3, 
London  and  Paris  1775  ;  XII  Solos,  op.  4,  Lon- 
don 1739  5  ^  Solos  for  Violoncello,  op.  5  (these 
are  arrangements  from  the  violin-solos)  ;  6  Con- 
certos, op.  6.  London  1741  ;  Six  Concertos  in  8 
parts,  op.  7;  XII  Sonatas  for  Violin,  op.  11, 
London  1758;  XTI  Trios  and  VI  Trios,  the 
latter  arrangements  of  op.  i ;  Lessons  for  the 
Harpsichord,  London.  He  also  made  and  pub- 
lished in  London  an  arrangement  of  Corelli's 
Solos,  op.  5,  as  'Concert!  grossi.'  [P-I^-] 

GEMSHORN  (i.  e.  Chamois  horn),  an  organ- 
stop  8,  4,  or  2  feet  in  length,  the  pipes  of  which, 
generally  of  metal,  are  taper  shaped,  being  only 
about  one-third  the  size  at  the  top  that  they  are 
at  the  mouth,  with  a  tone  somewhat  lighter  than 
that  of  a  cylindrical  stop  of  the  same  scale  at  the 
mouth  ;  and  very  musical.  It  was  first  intro- 
duced here  by  Father  Smith,  who  placed  one  in 
the  choir  organ  at  the  Temple,  It  passed  out  of 
sight  for  many  years ;  but  was  reintroduced  by 
the  late  Mr.  William  Hill,  and  has  remained  in 
great  favour  ever  since.  [E.  J.H.] 

GENERALI,  Pietro,  bom  Oct.  4,  1783,  at 
Masserano,  near  Vercelli.  His  real  name  was 
Mercandetti,  but  his  father  becoming  bankrupt 
changed  his  name  and  removed  to  Rome.  Pietro 
studied  music  under  Giovanni  Massi,  a  pupil  of 
Durante,  and  soon  wrote  masses  and  church 
music.    In  1800  he  produced  his  first  opera,  'Gli 


Amanti  ridicoli,'  after  which  he  travelled  to 
Southern  Italy,  and  coming  back  to  Rome  in 
1801  composed  a  cantata,  'Roma  Liberata,'  and 
two  operas,  '  II  Duca  Nottolone'  and  '  La  Villana 
al  cimento.'  These  were  followed  by  '  Le  Gelosie 
di  Giorgio'  (Bologna  1802) ;  'Pamela  nubile'  and 
'La  Calzolaja'  (Venice  1803);  'Misantropia  e 
pentimento,'  after  a  play  of  Kotzebue's ;  '  Gli 
EfFetti  della  somiglianza'  (ibid  1805) ;  and  'Don 
Chisciotto'  (Milan  1805).  These  are  for  the 
most  part  opere  bitffe ;  and  an  attempt  at  opera 
semi-seria,  'Orgoglio  e  Umiliazione'  (Venice), 
was  a  failure.  In  1807  he  wrote  '  L'Idolo  Cinese' 
for  San  Carlo,  and  '  Lo  Sposo  in  Bersaglio '  for 
Florence.  Many  other  comic  operas  were  well 
received  in  Venice,  especially  '  Adelina,'  a  farce, 
'La  Moglie  di  tre  mariti,'  and  his  chef-d'cemre 
'I  Baccanali  di  Roma'  (Venice  1815).  In  the 
meantime  Rossini  had  come  to  the  front,  and 
Generali's  popularity  suffered.  After  several 
doubtful  successes  he  withdrew  to  Novara,  and 
accepted  the  post  of  maestro  di  capella  to  the 
cathedral.  In  his  retirement  he  studied  Rossini's 
style,  appropriating  as  much  of  it  as  he  could ; 
and  in  1827  reappeared,  first  at  Trieste  and  then 
at  Venice,  where  his  '  Francesca  di  Rimini '  (Dec. 
26,  1829)  was  a  total  failure.  He  returned  to 
Novara,  and  died  there  Nov.  3,  1832.  His 
operas  number  in  all  more  than  45.  Generali's 
reputation,  says  Fetis,  rests  on  his  having  been 
the  first  to  employ  certain  harmonies  and  modu- 
lations of  which  Rossini  took  advantage.  In 
fact  ■  he  was  the  true  precursor  of  Rossini,  but 
the  latter  possessed  genius,  while  Generali  had 
only  talent.  An  '  Elogio '  of  him  by  C.  Piccoli 
was  published  at  Novara  in  1833.  [F.  G.] 

GENET,  Eleazar,  also  called  Cabpenteas, 
after  the  Frencli  town  in  which  he  was  bom, 
was  priest,  singer,  and  composer,  attached  to  the 
papal  court  in  the  time  of  Leo  X.  He  was  made 
a  bishop  in  1 518,  and  was  soon  afterwards  sent  by 
the  Pope  on  a  mission  to  Avignon,  where  he  seems 
to  have  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  once 
revisited  Rome,  and  during  his  stay  there  his 
'Lamentations'  for  Holy  Week  were  performed 
by  his  former  colleagues.  Struck  by  many  defects, 
he  made  considerable  alterations  in  his  work, 
had  a  magnificent  copy  made,  which  is  still 
preserved  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  and  wrote 
a  dedication  to  Clement  VII,  who  was  Pope  at 
the  time.  Of  detached  pieces  by  Genet  in  the 
various  collections  of  the  time,  we  know  very 
few.  Two  motets  from  the  1st  and  3rd  books  of 
the  'Motetti  della  Corona'  (Petrucci,  Fossora- 
brone,  1514),  2  psalms  fx'om  the  'Psalmorum 
Selectorum  Tom. II.'  (Petreius,  Nuremberg  1539), 
and  a  few  two-part  motets  printed  by  Gardane 
in  1543,  a  slender  legacy,  if  in  truth  these  had 
been  all  the  works — and  they  were  very  nearly 
being  all — that  were  to  come  to  us ;  for  Genet's 
position  and  the  powerful  patronage  he  enjoyed 
made  him  independent  of  the  usual  collections 
and  publishers,  and  enabled  him  to  bring  out  his 
works  in  an  exceptional  way,  which  almost 
resulted  in  their  being  lost  to  posterity.  It  was 
only  a  few  years  ago  that  a  copy,  the  only  one 


/ 


GENET. 


GERBERT. 


589 


known  at  present,  of  4  splendid  volumes,  printed 
by  De  Channay  for  Genet  at  Avignon,  was  found 
in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna.  These  books 
are  remarkable  for  being  the  first  to  introduce 
Briard's  new  types,  in  which  the  notes  are  round 
instead  of  square  and  diamond  shaped,  and,  what 
is  much  more  important,  ligatures  are  abandoned, 
and  the  complicated  system  in  which  the  same 
notes  have  different  meanings  at  different  times 
gives  place  to  a  simple  method,  such  as  we  use 
at  present,  in  which  the  notes  bear  at  all  times 
a  fixed  ratio  to  each  other.  This  improvement, 
first  introduced  in  the  publication  of  Genet's 
works,  may,  we  think,  be  fairly  attributed  to 
his  suggestion.  Of  the  4  volumes  the  ist  contains 
5  Masses — 'Se  mieulx  ne  vient,'  'A  1' ombre  d'un 
buissonet,'  'Le  coeur  fut  mien,'  '  Forseulement,' 
and  'Encore  iray  je  jouer.'  The  2nd  volume 
contains  Hjmins  for  the  principal  church  festivals 
of  the  year,  the  3rd,  Lamentations,  and  the  4th 
a  collection  of  Magnificats.  The  composer,  who 
cared  so  little  for  a  wide  popularity  in  his  life- 
time, and  wrote  with  the  learned  musicians  of 
the  Papal  Chapel  in  his  mind's  eye  rather  than 
the  general  public,  who  scorned  the  popular 
editions  and  published  his  works  for  a  chosen 
few,  does  not  belie  his  character  in  the  works 
themselves.  We  have  in  them  music  that 
appeals  to  serious  and  learned  musicians  alone. 
Solemn  and  dignified,  the  bishop-musician  writes 
as  if  from  his  episcopal  throne,  unbending  and 
severe  in  style,  but  appealing  not  in  vain  to  the 
sympathy  of  his  Roman  colleagues,  who  indeed 
valued  so  highly  and  cherished  so  long  the  works 
he  gave  them,  that  50  years  after  his  death 
nothing  less  than  the  special  command  of  Po])e 
Sixtus  IV  could  shake  their  firm  adherence  to 
the  'Lamentations'  of  Genet  or  cause  them  to 
recognise  in  place  of  them  those  of  the  popular 
Palestrina.  Much  of  Genet's  music  was  written 
in  the  short  intervals  of  comparative  health 
allowed  him  by  an  agonising  complaint  which 
attacked  him  in  the  ears  and  brain,  was  beyond 
the  experience  of  his  physicians,  and  embittered 
the  last  years  of  his  life.  [J.R.  S.  B.] 

GERBER,  Heinrich  Nicolaus,  born  1702  in 
the  principality  of  Schwarzburg  ;  son  of  a  peasant, 
studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  where  his 
love  of  music  found  encouragement  in  the  teaching 
and  conversation  of  Sebastian  Bach  ;  in  1728  he 
was  organist  at  Heringen,  and  1 73 1  court  organist 
at  Sondershausen.  Here  for  the  first  time  he 
felt  himself  safe,  as,  on  account  of  his  extra- 
ordinary height,  he  had  been  constantly  pursued 
by  the  recruiting  officers  of  Frederic  William  I. 
He  composed  much  for  clavier,  organ,  and  harp  ; 
a  complete  Choralbuch,  with  figured  basses  ;  and 
variations  on  chorales,  long  and  widely  used. 
He  also  made  musical  instruments,  and  planned 
many  improvements  and  new  inventions.  Among 
others  a  kind  of  rebeck,  harpsichord-shape,  with  a 
compass  of  4  octaves  ;  the  keys  liberated  wooden 
balls  which  struck  on  bars  of  wood,  and  thus 
produced  the  notes.  From  1 749  Gerber  was  also 
court-secretary.    He  died  Aug.  6,  1775. 

His  son  Ernst  Ludwig,  was  born  at  Sonders- 


hausen Sept.  29,  1746;  learned  singing  and 
clavier  from  his  father,  and  studied  music  from 
an  early  age.  In  1765  he  went  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leipzig,  but  returned  home  in  order 
to  assist  his  father  in  his  office,  and  .succeeded 
him  on  his  death.  He  then  entered  on^  those 
labours  which  finally  conducted  him  to  an  end 
he  himself  scarcely  contemplated,  and  by  which 
he  has  earned  the  gratitude  of  all  lovers  of  music. 
His  love  of  musical  literature  suggested  to  him 
the  idea  of  making  a  collection  of  portraits  of 
musicians,  for  which  he  ■wrote  biographies, 
mainly  on  the  authority  of  W^alther's  Lexicon 
(1732).  As  Walther  was  at  that  time  out  of 
date,  he  procured  the  necessary  additions,  ob- 
tained biographical  sketches  of  living  musicians, 
took  journeys,  and  tried  to  fill  up  the  gaps  by 
consulting  all  the  books  then  in  existence  on 
the  subject.  Thus  the  idea  suggested  itself  of 
adapting  Walther' s  work  to  the  wants  of  the 
time,  and  of  writing  a  completely  new  work  of 
his  own,  which  eventually  became  the  *  Historisch 
biographische  Lexikon  der  Tonkiinstler'  (2  vols, 
Leipzig,  Breitkopf,  1790  &  92)  translated  into 
French  by  Choron  (181  o,  ii).  While  writing 
musical  articles  and  reviews  for  various  period- 
icals (Erfurter  Gelehrten  Zeitung ;  Leipziger 
Allg.  Musik,  Zeitung  from  1 798,  etc. ;  Becker's 
*  Litcratur  der  Musik '  contains  a  list  of  his 
scattered  articles)  he  received  from  all  quarters 
corrections  and  information  of  all  kinds,  which 
enabled  him,  or  rather  made  it  his  duty,  to 
prepare  an  enlarged  edition.  Accordingly  hia 
'  Neues  hist,  biogr.  Lexicon  der  Tonkiinstler  * 
appeared  in  4  vols,  with  5  appendices  (Leipzig, 
Kiihnel,  181 2,  14).  This  new  edition  did  not 
supersede  the  former  one,  to  which  it  often 
refers  the  reader ;  but  rather  completed  it. 
Gerber  took  pains  to  keep  up  with  the  times, 
recorded  events  for  after  use,  was  continually 
making  additions  to  his  collection  of  books  and 
music,  and  composed  industriously  pianoforte 
sonatas  and  organ  preludes.  Hoping  to  keep 
together  the  collection  he  had  made  at  the  cost 
of  so  much  labour  and  pains,  he  offered  it  for 
sale  to  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  in 
Vienna,  with  the  solitary  stipulation  that  he 
should  retain  it  during  his  own  life.  The  price 
was  fixed,  and  the  negotiation  completed  in 
January  181 5,  but  he  still  continued  his  ad- 
ditions, encouraged  doubtless  by  the  knowledge 
fchat  his  treasures  would  be  in  safe  keeping,  in 
a  city  so  famed  for  its  musical  tastes.  He  was 
still  court  secretary  at  Sondershausen  when  he 
died,  June  30, 18 19,  in  universal  respect ;  leaving 
behind  him  the  reputation  of  one  who,  with 
singular  disinterestedness  and  out  of  a  true  love 
for  music,  had  devoted  the  energies  of  his  whole 
life  to  a  single  end.  His  Lexicon  forms  the 
foundation  of  all  future  undertakings  of  the  same 
kind  ;  and  if  new  Dictionaries  are  to  satisfy  the 
wants  of  the  age  to  the  same  extent  that  his  did, 
their  authors  must  possess  industry  as  persevering, 
knowledge  as  eclectic,  and  a  love  of  music  as  de- 
voted, as  that  which  inspired  Gerber.  [C.  F.  P.] 
GERBERT  von  Hornau,  Martin,  an  emi- 


590 


GERBERT. 


GERNSHEIM. 


nent  writer  on  the  history  of  music,  born 
Aug.  12,  1720,  at  Horb  on  the  Neckar.  He 
received  a  thorough  literary  education,  in- 
cluding music,  at  Ludwigsburg.  In  1736  he 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Blaise 
in  the  Black  Forest,  was  ordained  priest  in 
1744,  and  appointed  Prince- Abbot  Oct.  15, 
1 764.  Historical  research,  especially  in  music, 
was  his  favourite  pursuit,  and  a  taste  for  this 
he  endeavoured  to  infuse  into  the  convent.  The 
library  afforded  him  ample  materials,  and  much 
valuable  matter  hitherto  unused.  But  this  was 
not  enough.  Between  the  years  1759-65  he 
travelled  through  Germany,  France,  and  Italy, 
making  important  discoveries,  and  establishing 
relations  with  various  learned  societies.  His 
acquaintance  with  Padre  Martini  at  Bologna 
was  of  special  service  to  him.  Their  objects 
were  closely  connected — Gerbert's  work  being 
a  history  of  Church  music,  Martini's  one  of 
music  in  general.  In  1762  Gerbert  published 
his  prospectus,  and  invited  contributions,  which 
were  furnished  him  in  abundance.  The  first 
volume  was  nearly  complete  when  a  fire  at  the 
monastery  in  1768  destroyed  all  the  materials 
which  had  been  collected;  in  1774,  however, 
the  complete  work  appeared  at  St.  Blaise,  in  2 
vols.  4to,  with  40  engravings,  under  the  title 
'  De  cantu  et  musica  sacra  a  prima  ecclesiae 
aetate  usque  ad  praesens  tempus'j  a  book  which 
has  ever  since  formed  the  foundation  of  all 
musical  scholarship,  although  naturally  requiring 
much  correction  at  the  present  day.  A  descrip- 
tion of  it  appears  in  Forkel's  'Geschichte  der 
Musik,'  which  without  Gerbert's  work  would 
possibly  never  have  been  written,  or  would  at 
any  rate  have  been  published  later  and  in  a  far 
less  complete  form.  Ten  years  after,  in  1784, 
appeared  Gerbert's  second  great  work  'Scrip tores 
ecclesiastici  de  musica  sacra  potissimum,'  3  vols, 
also  printed  at  St.  Blaise ;  a  collection  of 
treatises  by  the  most  important  writers  on  music, 
recently  continued  by  Coussemaker.  Three  more 
works,  also  printed  at  St.  Blaise,  deserve  special 
mention,  *  Iter  alemannicum,  accedit  italicum  et 
gallicum '  (1765  ;  2nd  ed.  1773  ;  German  ed.  by 
Kochler,  Ulm  1767),  which  contains  the  account 
of  his  travels,  and  abounds  in  interesting  par- 
ticulars;  'Vetus  liturgia  alemannica'  (2  vols, 
1776);  and  'Monumenta  veteris  liturgiae  ale- 
mannica' (2  vols,  1777).  He  also  made  the 
Latin  translation  of  '  Opusculum  theodiseum  de 
Musica,'  a  treatise  in  4  chapters  written  in  old 
German  by  Notker  (Labes)  a  monk  of  St.  Gall 
in  the  loth  century  (see  Becker's  'Lifceratur  der 
Musik,'  p.  68).  His  other  writings  are  mainly 
theological.  Some  offertories  of  his  composition 
were  published  at  Augsburg. 

Gerbert  died  May  13,  1793.  He  realised  the 
ideal  of  virtue  and  industry  in  his  illustrious 
order ;  his  gentle  character  and  engaging  man- 
ners secured  the  friendship  of  all  who  came  in 
contact  with  him.  Bonndorf  (4  leagues  from 
St.  Blaise,  and  the  chief  town  of  the  principality) 
is  indebted  to  him  for  a  hospital  and  house  of 
correction,  over  the  entrance  of  which  is  the 


inscription  'Dedicated  by  Martin  II.  to  the 
poor,  and  to  the  improvement  of  mankind.'  He 
also  built  the  fine  church  of  the  Convent 
(after  the  model  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome),  and 
founded  and  endowed  an  orphanage  for  the 
5  surrounding  districts.  The  peasants  of  the 
neighbourhood,  of  their  own  accord,  erected  his 
statue  in  the  market-place  of  Bonndorf,  a  most 
unusual  tribute  of  respect.  His  memory  still 
lives  in  the  district.  Carl  Ferdinand  Schmalholz, 
the  able  musical  director  of  the  Cathedral  at 
Constance,  possesses  an  excellent  half-length  oil 
picture  of  Gerbert.  [C.  F.  P.] 

GERMAN  SIXTH.    The  third  of  the  three 
varieties  of  sixth  called  in  the  old  | 
books  French,  Italian,  and  German  — g:— : 
sixths.    It  is  the  chord  of  the  Aug-  TO^^^ — ; 
mented    or  Extreme   Sixth   when    «^  ^ 
accompanied  by  the  major  third  and  ' 
fifth  of  its  bass.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

GERO,  Jhan,  commonly  known  as  Maistre  Jan, 
Jhan,  or  Jehan,  and  styled  'Joannes  G alius'  in 
the  title  of  one  of  his  publications,  was  prol)ably 
a  native  of  France  or  Belgium.  His  earliest 
known  work  is  a  motet,  *  Benignissime  Domine 
Jesu,'  in  the  'Motetti  della  Corona'  (Petrucci, 
Fossombrone  15 19),  so  we  may  assume  that  he 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  1 5th  century. 
He  was  chapel -master  of  the  cathedral  at  Orvieto, 
and  afterwards  held  a  similar  position  at  the 
court  of  Hercules  II,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  his 
successor  Alfonso.  Gero  was  a  most  voluminous 
composer  of  motets  and  madrigals.  For  the 
former,  like  Josquin  and  Lassus,  he  made  choice 
of  most  important  subjects,  setting  to  music  the 
ten  commandments,  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul, 
and  parables  from  the  New  Testament.  As  a 
madrigal  composer  he  was  very  successful,  and 
enjoyed  a  lasting  popularity.  In  a  collection  of 
madrigals  for  3  voices  printed  by  Gardane  in 
^597  (of  which  the  bass  part  is  in  the  British 
Museum)  20  numbers,  more  than  a  third  of  the 
whole,  are  by  Gero.  Eitner's  '  Bibliographie  der 
Musik-Sammelwerke'  (Berlin,  1877)  gives  a  list 
of  more  than  100  of  Gero's  motets  and  madrigals. 
Of  these  32  appear  in  the  '  Trium  vocum  cantiones 
centum'  (Nuremburg,  Petreius,  1541),  14  in  the 
Second  Book  of  Madrigals  (Venice,  Gardane, 
1543),  and  9  in  the  'Madrigals  for  3  Voices' 
(Venice,  Gardane,  1561).  The  rest  appear  in 
smaller  numbers  in  various  collections  printed 
between  1519  and  1590.  [J.R.S.B.] 

GERNSHEIM,  Friedrich,  eminent  player, 
composer,  and  conductor,  born  of  Hebrew  parents 
at  Worms  July  17,  1839.  He  received  his  first 
instruction  in  music  from  his  mother,  an  able 
pianiste,  and  was  then  put  successively  into  the 
hands  of  Liebe,  Pauer,  and  Rozenheim.  He  also 
learned  the  violin,  and  under  Hauff  the  theory 
of  music.  His  ability  might  have  tempted  him 
to  become  a  virtuoso,  but  he  fortunately  preferred 
a  different  path,  and  at  the  Conservatorium  of 
Leipsic,  under  Moscheles,  Hauptmann,  Rietz, 
and  Richter,  during  the  years  1852-5  under- 
went  a  thorough  musical  education.  He  followed 


GERNSHEIM. 


geva£:rt. 


591 


this  up  by  a  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  was 
much  esteemed  as  a  teacher  and  player.  Since 
then  he  has  been  successively  at  Saarbruck  i 
(1861) ;  Cologne,  as  Professor  of  Pianoforte, 
Counterpoint,  and  Fugue  (1865)  ;  Eotterdam,  as 
conductor  of  the  *Eruditio  Musica,'  and  of  the 
Theatre  (1874).  His  works  consist  of  a  Sym- 
phony, an  Overture,  a  P.F.  Concerto,  3  String 
Quartets,  2  P.  F.  ditto,  several  small  works  for 
Chorus  and  Orchestra,  Songs,  etc.  His  name  is 
now  well  known  in  England,  his  trio  for  P.  F. 
and  Strings  in  F  (op.  28)  having  been  repeatedly 
given  at  the  Popular  Concerts,  and  a  Quartet 
for  ditto  (op,  6)  once,  and  other  works  at  Chas. 
Halle's  and  other  concerts.  [G.] 

GESELLSCHAFT  DER  MUSIKFREUNDE 
at  Vienna.  This  institution,  now  of  world-wide 
celebrity,  was  suggested  in  181 2,  and  founded  in 
1 81 3,  mainly  through  Dr.  Joseph  von  Sonnleith- 
ner,  after  two  great  performances  of  Handel's 
'Alexander's  Feast,'  by  all  the  first  artists  of 
Vienna,  in  the  Imperial  Riding-school,  on  Nov. 
29  and  Dec.  3,  1812.  In  1814  the  statutes  re- 
ceived the  Imperial  sanction,  a  president  (Count 
Apponyi)  and  board  of  directors  were  appointed, 
the  formation  of  a  musical  library  and  museum 
decided  upon,  and  four  annual  subscription -con- 
certs announced.  These  took  place  in  the  Re- 
doutensaal — the  first  (Dec.  3,  181 5)  in  the  Small 
Hall,  the  others  in  the  large  one.  The  '  Musik- 
feste'  (oratorios  only,  with  1000  performers) 
were  repeated  in  the  Riding-school  every  year 
until  1847,  when  Mendelssohn  would  have  con- 
ducted his  '  Elijah,'  but  for  his  death  a  few  days 
before  the  date  fixed  for  the  performance.  Since 
1859  two  extra  concerts  have  been  given  every 
year,  besides  the  original  four.  For  some  years 
past  the  number  of  performers  has  been  about  80 
in  the  orchestra,  and  300  to  350  in  the  chorus ; 
the  latter  form  the  '  Singverein,'  founded  in  1858. 
The  *  Orchesterverein,'  established  in  i860,  gives 
a  few  soirees  annually.  Soirees,  with  miscella- 
neous programmes,  were  held  regularly  from  1818 
to  1840.  At  the  four  general  concerts  all  masters 
worthy  of  note  have  been  and  are  still  represented. 
Beethoven  himself  was  invited  to  write  an  ora- 
torio for  the  Society,  but  was  unfortunately  at 
the  time  too  busy  with  other  works  (the  Mass  in 
D,  etc.)  to  comply  with  the  request.  The  Society 
has  twice  had  a  well-known  patron  of  music  at 
its  head — the  Archduke  and  Cardinal  Archbishop 
Rudolf  from  1814  to  1831,  and  the  Archduke 
Anton  from  1831  to  1835.  Down  to  1848  the 
concerts  were  conducted  by  the  best  musicians 
among  the  members  in  turn ;  but  in  1 85 1  Hellmes- 
berger  was  appointed  as  professional  conductor. 
His  successors  were — Herbeck  in  1859,  Rubin- 
stein in  1871,  Brahms  in  1872,  and  Herbeck 
again  in  1875.  Herbeck  died  Oct.  28,  1877, 
and  Hellmesberger  is  discliai'ging  the  duties  of 
the  office  in  the  interim  (1878).  The  formation  of 
the  'Singverein'  under  Herbeck  added  greatly 
to  the  interest  of  the  concerts.  Besides  such 
works  as  Beethoven's  Mass  in  D,  and  Bach's 
Passion-music  (both  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John) 
several  of  Schubert's  works  — '  Der  hausliche 


Krieg,' '  Lazarus,'  the  B-minor  Symphony,  etc. — 
have  been  produced. 

The  possessions  of  the  Society  in  works  of  art 
have  gradually  increased,  and  are  now  of  enor- 
mous extent.  The  library,  the  foundation  of 
which  was  formed  by  Gerber's  valuable  collec- 
tion, acquired  in  18 19,  now  contains  nearly 
4000  printed  vols,  and  about  40,000  numbers  of 
music,  printed  or  manuscript.  [Gerber.]  Among 
the  latter  are  many  valuable  autographs  and 
literary  curiosities,  including  Mozart's  P.  F.  con- 
certo in  D  minor,  a  quintet  (1768),  his  last 
cantata  (Nov.  1791) ;  Schubert's  9th  Symphony, 
Masses  in  A  flat  and  G,  the  opera  *  Alfons  und 
Estrella,'  the  Singspiele  'die  Zwillingsbriider,' 
and  '  der  vierjahrige  Posten,'  4  stringed  quatuors, 
and  many  songs  ;  Haydn's  '  Ten  Commandments,' 
Mass  in  B  flat,  a  great  cantata  (1768),  six 
stringed  quatuors  ( 1 7  7 1 ) ;  Beethoven's  first  violin 
concerto  (a  fragment),  many  songs,  the  sonata 
op.  8r  (first  part),  a  quantity  of  sketches,  the 
Eroica  (a  copy,  revised  by  Beethoven)  ;  choruses 
by  Gluck  and  Handel,  and  other  treasures.  The 
museum  includes  a  large  collection  of  pictures 
and  engravings  of  celebrated  musicians,  and  a 
collection  of  ancient  musical  instruments,  medals, 
busts,  etc.  In  1830  the  Society  built  a  house  of 
its  own  (Tuchlauben),  but  having  far  outgrown 
the  accommodation  there,  removed  in  1870  to 
the  present  large  building  '  an  der  Wien,'  where 
the  concerts  are  now  held. 

The  '  Conservatorium,'  founded  by  the  Society 
in  1817,  and  still  in  connection  with  it,  has 
grown  to  great  importance  from  very  small 
beginnings.  It  includes  instruction  in  every 
branch  which  a  pupil  can  possibly  require.  In 
1870  an  opera  school  was  opened,  which  holds 
operatic  performances.  To  this  was  added  in 
1874  a  dramatic  school,  which  gives  theatrical 
representations.  At  present  (1878)  the  Institu- 
tion is  attended  by  over  700  pupils,  who  receive 
instruction  from  56  professors.  Hellmesberger 
was  appointed  professional  director  in  1851,  and 
has  continued  at  the  post  ever  since.  Amongst 
the  innumerable  artists  who  have  been  educated 
there  we  may  mention  Ernst,  Joachim,  Goldmark, 
Staudigl,  and  Hans  Richter,  as  representatives  of 
a  number  too  large  for  our  space.         [C.  F.  P.] 

GEVAERT,  FRAN901S  AuGUSTE,  Director  of 
the  Brussels  Conservatoire,  born  July  31,  1828, 
at  Huysse,  a  village  near  Oudenarde.  His  father, 
a  baker,  wished  to  bring  him  up  to  his  own 
trade,  but  his  great  musical  ability  becoming 
apparent,  he  was  sent  in  184 1  to  the  Conservatoire 
at  Ghent,  where  he  studied  under  Sommfere  and 
Mengal.  He  was  then  appointed  organist  of  the 
Jesuits'  Church,  and  in  1846  a  Christmas  cantata 
of  his  composition  was  performed  in  Ghent.  In 
June  1847  his  Psalm  'Super  flumina'  was  per- 
formed at  the  festival  of  the  '  Zangverband ' ; 
and  Spohr,  who  was  present,  congratulated  the 
young  composer.  In  the  May  previous  he  had 
won  the  first  prize  for  composition  at  the  national 
competition  in  Brussels,  but  was  allowed  to 
postpone  his  foreign  tour  for  two  years,  during 
which  he  produced  in  Ghent  his  first  opera, 


692 


GEVAERT. 


GEWANDHAUS  CONCERTS. 


'Hughes  de  Somerghem '  (March  23,  1848), 
followed  by  *La  Comedie  k  la  ville,'  a  decided 
step  in  advance.  In  1849  he  started  on  his  tour, 
and.  after  a  short  stay  in  Paris  proceeded  to  Spain, 
where  he  composed  an  orchestral  fantasia  '  Sobre 
motives  espanoles,'  which  is  said  to  be  still 
popular  there.  His  reports  on  Spanish  music, 
regularly  forwarded  to  the  'Ministre  de  I'lnte- 
rieur,'  were  printed  in  the  bulletin  of  the  Aca- 
demic of  Brussels  for  1851.  From  Spain  he 
went  to  Italy,  and  returning  through  Germany 
reached  Ghent  in  the  spring  of  1852.  On  Nov. 
27  of  that  year  he  produced  'Georgette'  (i  act) 
at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  in  Paris;  and  in  Oct. 
1854  '  Le  Billet  de  Marguerite,'  in  3  acts,  libretto 
by  Leuven  and  Brunswick — both  with  extra- 
ordinary success.  'La  Lavandi^re  de  Santarem' 
(Oct.  28,  1855),  however,  was  a  fiasco.  Gevaert 
received  the  order  of  Leopold  for  his  cantata  '  De 
nationale  verjaerdag,'  composed  in  honour  of  the 
25th  anniversary  of  King  Leopold's  reign.  '  Quen- 
tin  Durward'  (March  25,  1858),  •  Chateau  Trom- 
pette'  (i860),  and'Le Capitaine  Henriot'(Dec.  29, 
1864),  were  all  successes  at  the  Opera  Comique  in 
Paris.  So  also  was  'Les  Deux  Amours,'  op^ra 
comique  at  the  Theatre  of  Baden-Baden,  1861. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  'Chef  de  chant'  at 
the  Academic  de  Musique,  Paris,  a  post  re- 
signed by  Halevy  in  1845.  This  post  Gevaert 
retained  till  the  Opera  in  the  Rue  Le  Peletier 
was  closed  (Sept.  1870)  on  account  of  the  war. 
From  that  time  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
the  history  of  music,  and  in  1875  brought  out 
the  first  part  of  his  'Histoire  et  Theorie  de  la 
musique  dans  I'Antiquit^'  (Henzel,  Paris,  I  vol. 
8vo.),  a  work  remarkable  for  much  new  matter, 
the  result  of  careful  and  original  research.  This 
had  been  preceded  by  his  'Leerboek  van  den 
Gregoriaenschen  zang'  (Ghent  1856),  his  'Traite 
d'instrumentation '  (1863),  and  'Les  Gloires 
d'ltalie'  (Paris  1868),  a  collection  of  secular 
vocal  music  by  Italian  composers  of  the  1 7th  and 
18th  centuries,  with  introduction  and  biographies, 
etc.  In  187 1  he  succeeded  Fdtis  as  director  of 
the  Conservatoire  at  Brussels ;  a  post  which  gave 
scope  for  his  remarkable  powers  of  organisation. 
One  of  his  reforms  consisted  in  placing  the 
singing- classes  under  the  annual  inspection  of 
some  celebrated  singer.  Faure  was  the  first 
engaged.  In  1873  Gevaert  was  elected  a  mem- 
oer  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux  Arts  in  place  of 
Mercadante  ;  an  appointment  hailed  with  satis- 
faction in  France.  Gevaert  is  incontestably  a 
musician  of  a  very  high  order ;  and  his  fame 
rests  on  the  solid  foundation  of  a  thoroughly 
good  early  education. 

We  embrace  the  opportunity  of  giving  some 
notice  of  the  Brussels  Conservatoire  which  was 
omitted  before. 

The  Conservatoire  de  Musique  et  de  De- 
clamation, established  Feb.  13,  1832,  by  an 
order  in  council,  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Ecole 
royale  de  Musique  founded  in  1823.  By  another 
order  in  Council,  April  15,  1833,  the  directorship 
of  the  new  institution  was  conferred  on  Mons, 
F.  J.  F^tis,  who  continued  in  office  till  his  death 


(March  25,  1871),  and  was  succeeded  by  M. 
Gevaert.  Under  his  direction  the  institution 
steadily  increased  in  importance.  Its  annual 
income,  which  amounted  at  first  to  only  8000 
francs,  has  been  augmented  by  endowments  from 
the  government,  city,  and  province,  to  108,040 
francs  (£4320)  in  1870,  and  it  has  now  three 
times  outgrown  its  accommodation.  In  1835 
removed  to  an  hotel  in  the  Rue  de  Bodenbroeck, 
in  1847  to  the  ancient  Hotel  de  Croy  in  the 
Petit  Sablon,  and  on  Feb.  12,  1876,  to  the 
present  Conservatoire,  in  the  continuation  of  the 
Rue  de  la  Rdgence,  which  was  inaugurated  by 
the  King  and  Queen.  The  last  enlargement  is 
a  proof  of  the  popularity  and  influence  of  the 
present  director.  There  are  about  350  pupils  in 
attendance,  distributed  as  follows  :  —  solfeggio 
proper,  3  superior  classes  and  4  preparatory ; 
singing,  3  classes ;  organ  and  canto  fermo,  i  ; 
pianoforte,  3  preparatory  and  2  supei-ior ;  violin, 
3  ;  viola ;  violoncello  ;  double  bass  ;  flute  ;  oboe  ; 
clarinet ;  bassoon  ;  saxophone  ;  horn  ;  trumpet 
and  comet  a  pistons ;  trombone ;  bugle  and 
comet  k  pistons ;  orchestral  ensemble ;  string 
quartet ;  chamber  music  ;  composition  ;  counter- 
point ;  harmony,  theoretical  and  practical — I 
class  each ;  declamation,  2  classes ;  Italian  de- 
clamation, and  dancing  and  deportment,  1  class 
each.  Among  the  professors  we  will  mention  by 
name — MM.  Gevaert  (composition),  J.  Dupont 
(harmony),  Kufferath  (counterpoint),  Mailly 
(organ),  Auguste  Dupont  and  Brassin  (piano- 
forte), Colyns  and  Wieniawski  (violin),  Warnots 
(singing),  Joseph  Servais  (cello),  Dumon  (flute), 
Poncelet  (clarinet),  Merck  (horn),  Duhem  (trum- 
pet), and  Van  Hoesen  (bugle).  Further  details 
may  be  obtained  from  the  'Annuaire  du  Con- 
servatoire royal  de  Musique  de  Bruxelles,'  of 
which  the  first  number  was  published  in  1877. 
We  need  only  add  that,  like  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire, on  which  it  was  modelled,  the  in- 
stitution has  a  library  and  museum,  to  which 
the  upper  storey  of  the  building  is  devoted. 
According  to  the  catalogue  of  1870  the  library 
then  contained  nearly  5000  volumes ;  M.  Victor 
Mahillon  is  preparing  a  catalogue  of  the  instru- 
ments in  the  museum.  [G.C.] 
GEWANDHAUS  CONCERTS.  So  called 
from  their  being  held  in  the  Hall  of  the  Gewand- 
haus,  the  ancient  armoury  of  the  city  of  Leipzig. 
They  date  from  the  time  when  Bach  was  Cantor 
of  the  Thomas-schule  (1 723-50),  and  the  original 
title  was  '  das  grosse  Concert.'  The  first  per- 
formances were  held  in  a  private  house  in  1743  5 
the  conductor  was  Doles,  afterwards  Cantor  of 
the  Thomas-schule  (1756-89),  and  the  orchestra 
consistedof  16  performers.  They  were  interrupted 
by  the  Seven  Years  War,  but  resumed  on  its 
termination  in  1763,  under  the  direction  of  J. 
A.  Hiller,  who  conducted  them  at  his  own  risk, 
and  gave  them  the  title  of  '  Liebhaberconcerte.' 
The  orchestra  was  increased  to  30,  and  regular 
performances  held  down  to  Easter  1778.  After 
a  pause  of  three  years  the  concerts  were  resumed, 
and  located  in  the  Gewandhaus,  to  which  a  hall 
for  balls  and  concerts  had  lately  been  added. 


GEWANDHAUS  CONCERTS. 


GIARDINI. 


593 


Tlie  credit  of  this  change  is  due  to  Biirgermeister 
Karl  Wilhelm  Miiller,  who  has  a  right  to  be 
considered  as  the  founder  of  the  institution  in 
its  present  form.  He  and  eleven  of  his  friends 
constituted  themselves  a  board  of  directors,  ap- 
pointed J.  A.  Hiller  as  conductor,  and  opened 
a  subscription  list  for  24  concerts.  The  first 
concert  in  the  new  rooms  took  place  on  Sept.  29, 
1781  ;  the  first  regular  subscription  concert  on 
Nov.  25.  At  present  there  are  20  winter- 
concerts  and  2  benefit  -  concerts,  one  for  the 
orchestra  pension-fund,  the  other  for  the  poor. 
The  programmes  are  miscellaneous — orchestral  \ 
pieces,  instrumental  and  vocal  solos,  and  choruses. 
Since  1809  eight  soirees  devoted  to  chamber- 
music  have  also  been  given.  The  orchestra  now 
numbers  about  70  performers ;  Karl  Reinecke  is 
the  conductor ;  and  there  are  1 2  directors.  The 
most  brilliant  period  of  the  Gewandhaus  Con- 
certs was  during  Mendelssohn's  conductorship. 

The  names  of  the  conductors  are  as  follows  : — 
Johann  Friedrich  Doles  (1743-44);  Johann 
Adam  Hiller  (1763-85)  ;  Johann  Gottfi-ied 
Schicht  (i  785-1810) ;  Johann  Philipp  Christian 
Schulz  (1810-27);  Christian  August  Pohlenz 
(1827-35)  ;  Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  (1835- 
43);  Ferdinand  Hiller  (1843-44);  Niels  W. 
Gade  (1844-48) ;  Julius  Rietz  (1848-60)  ;  Karl 
Eeinecke  (i860).  [C.  F.  P.] 

GHAZEL.  A  short  form  of  Persian  poetry 
in  which  the  rhyme  of  the  two  first  lines  is 
repeated  in  every  alternate  line  throughout  the 
piece.  The  name  has  been  adopted  by  F.  HiUer 
for  a  Pianoforte  piece  (Op.  54,  130)  in  which  a 
phrase  recurs  occasionally  as  a  refrain.  [G.] 

GHEYN,  VAN  DEN.  A  Flemish  family  of 
bell  founders,  who  originally  belonged  to  the  towm 
of  Malines,  and  afterwards  spread  to  Saint  Trond, 
Tirlemont,  Nivelles,  and  Louvain.  Their  names 
are  found  on  bells  in  the  chimes  of  INIalines  and 
Louvain  with  various  dates  ranging  from  15 16 
to  1757,  that  of  the  second  great  bell  of  the 
church  of  St.  Rombaud  at  Malines.  The  present 
representative  of  the  house  is  Andre  Louis  van 
Aerschot,  aind.  Rue  de  Namur,  Louvain. 

The  ornament  of  the  family,  Matthias  van 
DEN  Ghetx,  son  of  Andrd  Francois,  was  bom 
April  7, 1 721,  at  Tirlemont,  removed  to  Louvain, 
was  appointed  organist  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter 
1 741,  and  on  July  I,  1745,  became  by  public 
competition  carilloneur  to  the  town  of  Louvain, 
which  two  posts  he  retained  till  his  death,  June 
22,  1785.  As  carilloneur  his  duties  were  to 
play  on  all  market  days,  fete  days,  and  other 
public  occasions,  to  keep  the  chimes  in  tune  and  I 
to  set  fresh  tunes  for  hours  and  half-hours  on 
the  drum  of  the  carillon,  whenever  so  required  by 
the  authorities ;  for  this  the  salary  was  100 
'  pattacons '  a  year.  For  private  festivities  extra 
fees  were  paid.  His  habit  was,  in  addition  to 
his  regular  duties,  to  extemporise  on  the  carillon 
for  half  an  hour  every  Sunday.  ^Matthias  mar- 
ried Feb.  24,  1745,  and  had  seventeen  children, 
one  of  whom,  Josse  Thomas  (born  1752),  suc- 
ceeded him  as  organist  after  his  death. 
ic.) 


I  Chev.  van  Elewj'ck,  from  whose  pamphlet 
I  ('Matthias  van  den  Gheyn,'  Louvain,  Peeters, 
I  1862)  the  foregoing  account  has  been  condensed.^ 
has  collected  51  compositions  by  Matthias.  Of 
these  three  were  printed — *  Fondements  de  la 
basse  continue,'  etc.  (Louvain,  Wyberechts) ; 
*  1 2  petites  senates  pour  I'orgue  ou  le  clavecin  et 
violon '  in  continuation  of  the  foregoing ;  *  Six 
Divertiments  pour  clavecin '  (London,  Welcker, 
Gerrard-street,  Soho).  The  rest  remained  in 
MS.  during  his  lifetime ;  they  consist  of  a  second 
treatise  on  harmony  and  composition,  Preludes 
!  and  Fugues  for  the  organ.  Sonatas  for  Clavecin, 
and  Airs,  Rondos,  Marches,  Menuets,  Fugues  for 
3  and  4  parts,  etc.  for  the  carillons.  Dr.  Elewyck 
has  published  a  volume  selected  from  these 
(Schott,  1863),  forming  vol.  i.  of  his  'Anciens 
Clavecinistes  Flamandes.'  [G.] 
GIARDINI,  Felice  de,  an  eminent  violinist, 
was  born  at  Turin  in  1716.  He  entered  the  choir 
of  Milan  Cathedral  as  a  boy,  and  became  a  pupil 
of  Paladini  in  singing,  composition,  and  the 
harpsichord.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Turin, 
and  studied  the  violin  under  Somis.  He  was 
still  very  young  when  he  entered  the  opera-band 
at  Rome,  and  soon  afterwards  that  of  S.  Carlo 
at  Naples.  In  possession  of  a  brilliant  execution, 
he  appears  to  have  been  fond  of  displapng  it  by 
interpolating  in  the  accompaniments  of  the  airs 
all  sorts  of  runs,  shakes,  and  cadenzas,  and  thereby 
eliciting  the  applause  of  the  house.  Of  this  habit, 
however,  he  was  cured  in  an  emphatic  manner. 
During  the  performance  of  an  opera  of  Jomelli's, 
the  composer  came  into  the  orchestra  and  seated 
himself  close  to  young  Giardini.  Giardini,  am- 
bitious to  give  the  maestro  a  proof  of  his  clever- 
ness, introduced  into  the  ritorneU  of  a  pathetic 
air  a  brilliant  cadenza  of  great  length,  at  the  end 
of  which  Jomelli  rewarded  him  with  a  sound 
box  on  the  ear.  Giardini  in  after  years  was  fond 
of  relating  this  incident,  and  used  to  add  that 
he  never  had  a  better  lesson  in  his  life.  He 
certainly  proved  himself  not  only  an  eminent  vir- 
tuoso, but  an  equally  good  leader  and  conductor. 

From  Naples  he  started  for  a  tour  through 
Germany  and  thence  to  London.  The  date  of 
his  first  public  appearance  here  is  variously 
given.  According  to  Bumey  it  took  place  in 
1750,  at  a  concert  of  Cuzzoni's.  His  success  was 
immense,  and  Bumey  affirms  that  no  artist,  Gar- 
rick  alone  excepted,  was  ever  so  much  applauded 
as  Giardini.  His  powerful  yet  mellow  tone,  the 
brilliancy  and  boldness  of  his  execution,  the  spi- 
rited and  expressive  style  in  which  he  played  the 
grand  works  of  Tartini,  as  well  as  his  own  lighter 
but  pleasing  compositions,  created  a  perfect 
furore,  and  he  became  at  once  the  declared 
favourite  of  the  London  public.  We  may  form 
an  idea  of  the  peculiarity  of  his  style  from  the 
fact  that  when  De  Beriot  came  to  England,  the 
old  musicians,  who  still  remembered  Giardini, 
were  greatly  struck  by  the  similarity  of  De 
Beriot's  stj^e  to  his.  After  Festing's  death  in 
1752,  Giai-dini  took  the  place  of  leader  at  the 

1  See  an  interesting  account  In  the  chapter  on  Carillons,  in  '  Music 
and  Morals'  by  Rey.  U.  R.  Haweis  (Strahan,  1871). 

Qq 


594 


GIABDINI. 


GIBBONS. 


Italian  Opera,  and  appears  to  have  infused  new 
life  and  spirit  into  the  band,  which  had  much 
deteriorated  under  Festing's  languid  leadership. 

In  1756  he  undertook  the  management  of  the 
Italian  Opera,  but  thereby  suffered  great  losses. 
Nevertheless  we  find  him  as  impressario  in  1763, 
64,  and  65.  After  this  he  devoted  himself  once 
more  to  playing  and  teaching  the  violin,  and 
leading  at  concerts  and  musical  festivals.  At 
this  period  F.  Cramer  became  his  formidable 
rival,  though  the  two  remained  on  most  fi-iendly 
terms.  From  1774  to  80  he  was  leader  at  the 
Pantheon  Concerts,  and  in  1782  and  83  once 
more  at  the  Italian  Opera.  In  84  he  left  England, 
apparently  resolved  to  retire  from  public  activity 
and  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Italy.  But  his 
restless  spirit  brought  him  back  to  London  in 
1790,  when  he  started  a  Comic  Opera  at  the 
Haymarket.  This  proving  a  failure,  he  went 
with  his  troupe  to  Russia,  and  died  at  Moscow 
Dec.  17th,  1796. 

Giardini's  immense  success  on  his  first  appear- 
ance in  London  was  no  doubt  greatly  due  to  the 
fact  that  he  really  was  the  first  violin-virtuoso 
of  eminence  that  had  been  heard  there,  and  his 
star  went  down  as  soon  as  Salomon  and  Cramer 
became  his  rivals  ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  his 
influence  on  musical  and  operatic  life  in  England 
was  considerable.  He  brought  out  a  nimiber  of 
operas,  though  with  little  success.  His  oratorio 
of '  Ruth '  was  several  times  performed  in  Lon- 
don, His  numerous  compositions  for  the  chamber 
include,  according  to  F^tis,  Four  sets  of  6 
Violin  Solos  (op.  i,  7,  8,  16)  ;  Twelve  Solos  (op. 
19) ;  Six  Violin  Duets  (op.  2)  ;  Six  Sonatas  for 
Piano  and  Violin  (op.  3) ;  Twelve  Violin  Con- 
certos (op.  4,  5,  15);  Three  sets  of  Trios  for 
Stringed  Instruments  (op.  6,  14,  20) ;  Six  Quin- 
tets for  Piano  and  Stringed  Instruments  (op. 
11) ;  Twelve  Quartets  for  Stringed  Instruments 
(op.  20  and  29). 

GIBBONS.  The  name  of  a  noted  family  of 
English  musicians. 

I.  The  Rev.  Edwaed  Gibbons,  Mus.  Bac,  bom 
about  1 5  70,  was  probably  son  of  WiUiam  Gibbons, 
one  of  the  Waits  of  the  town  of  Cambridge.  He 
graduated  as  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Cambridge, 
and  on  July  7,  1592,  was  incorporated  at  Oxford. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  Bristol  Cathedral  and  also  priest-vicar,  sub- 
chanter,  and  master  of  the  choristers  there.  He 
resigned  these  appointments  in  161 1  on  receiving 
those  of  organist  and  custos  of  the  college  of 
priest-vicars  in  Exeter  Cathedral,  which  he  re- 
tained until  the  silencing  of  the  organ  and  choir 
in  1644.  Hawkins  says  he  was  sworn  a  gentle- 
man of  the  Chapel  Royal  March  21,  1604  ;  but 
that  is  a  mistake,  as  his  name  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  cheque  book  of  the  Chapel,  and  the  date 
given  is  that  of  the  admission  of  his  younger 
brother,  Orlando,  as  organist.  Some  composi- 
tions of  his  are  preserved  in  the  Music  School  at 
Oxford  ;  and  an  anthem,  '  How  hath  the  city  sate 
solitary ! '  with  a  prelude  for  the  organ  and  accom- 
paniments for  viols  is  contained  in  the  Tudway 
collection,  British  Museum  (Harl.  MS.  7340). 


He  is  said  to  have  advanced  £1000  to  Charles  I. 
during  the  civil  war,  for  doing  which  his  estate 
was  confiscated,  and  himself  and  three  grand- 
children compelled  to  quit  his  house  when  he  was 
upwards  of  80  years  of  age.  Matthew  Locke 
was  his  pupil  at  Exeter. 

2 .  Ellis,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  organ- 
ist of  Salisbury  Cathedral  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
1 6th  century.  He  contributed  two  madrigals — 
'Long  live  fair  Oriana,'  and  'Round  about  her 
chariot'— to  'The  Triumphs  of  Oriana,'  1601. 
About  the  same  time  he  ceased  to  be  organist 
of  Salisbury,  but  whether  by  death  or  resignation 
does  not  appear. 

3.  Orlando  Gibbons,  Mus.  Doc.,  younger 
brother  of  the  two  preceding,  b()m  at  Cambridge 
1583,  was  one  of  the  finest  organists  and  com- 
posers of  his  time,  and  indeed  one  of  the  greatest 
musical  geniuses  of  our  country.  It  is  probable 
that  he  received  his  early  musical  education 
in  the  choirs  of  some  of  the  college  chapels  at 
Cambridge.  On  March  21,  1604,  he  was  admit- 
ted to  the  place  of  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
in  the  room  of  Arthur  Cock,  deceased.  About 
1 610  he  published  'Fantasies  in  three  parts,' 
composed  for  viols,  '  cut  in  copper,  the  like  not 
heretofore  extant,'  being  the  first  music  printed 
in  England  from  engraved  plates.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  joined  with  Byrd  and  Dr.  Bull  in  the 
production  of  the  collection  of  music  for  the  vir- 
ginals published  under  the  title  of  'Parthenia.' 
(Both  these  works  were  republished  by  the 
Musical  Antiq.  Society  in  1843  and  4.)  In  161 2 
he  published '  The  first  set  of  madrigals  and  motets 
of  5  parts.'  In  1614  he  contributed  two  pieces  to 
Leigh  ton's  'Teares  or  Lamentacions  of  a  Sorrow- 
full  Soule.'  He  also  composed  some  tunes  in  two 
parts  for  George  Wither's  *  Hymns  and  Songs 
of  the  Church.'  In  May,  1622,  he  accumulated 
the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Doctor  of  Music 
at  Oxford,  a  distinction  conferred  at  the  request 
of  his  friend  Camden,  the  historian.  His  exer- 
cise on  the  occasion  was  the  eight-part  anthem, 
'O  clap  your  hands,'  printed  in  Boyce's  Cathedral 
Music.  It  has  been  asserted  that  this  anthem 
was  also  allowed  to  serve  as  the  exercise  of 
William  Heyther,  who  was  admitted  to  the  same 
degrees  at  the  same  time,  but  it  is  highly  impro- 
bable that  such  an  absurdity  was  perpetrated. 
The  probability  is  that  Heyther,  being  at  the  time 
the  bearer  to  the  University  of  the  deed  of  en- 
dowment of  the  professorship  of  history  founded 
by  Camden,  had  his  degrees  conferred  on  him 
'honoris  causa,'  and  was  not  called  upon  to 
produce  an  exercise.  In  1623  Gibbons  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  in  suc- 
cession to  John  Parsons.  In  1625  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Canterbury  to  attend  the  marriage  of 
Charles  I,  for  which  he  had  composed  an  ode  and 
some  instrumental  music,  and  whilst  there  was 
attacked  by  the  smallpox,  which  terminated  his 
existence  on  Whitsunday,  June  5,  1625.  He 
was  buried  in  the  cathedral,  where  a  monument 
to  his  memory  is  placed  against  the  wall  of  the 
north  aisle  of  the  nave.  Gibbons  had  by  his  wife, 
Elizabeth  Patten,  seven  children,  six  of  whom 


GIBBONS. 


GILES. 


595 


(two  sons  and  four  daughters)  survived  him. 
Both  his  surviving  sons,  Christopher  and  Orlando, 
became  musicians.  Besides  the  before-named 
compositions  Gibbons  wrote  some  '  Fancies  & 
Songs  made  at  K.  James  first's  being  in 
Scotland,'  '  A  Song  for  Prince  Charles  for  5  voices 
to  be  sung  with  wind  instruments,'  and  some 
'  Toys  in  five  parts,'  and  canons.  A  MS.  Ma- 
drigal 'The  Cry  of  London'  in  3  parts  for  5 
voices,  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  No.  18S1.  But  Gibbons's  reputation  as 
a  composer  will  ever  rest  on  his  magnificent 
church  music,  which  for  fine  harmony  and 
simple  solemn  grandeur  stands  unexcelled,  and 
has  gained  for  its  composer  the  title  of  '  The 
English  Palestrina.'  Much  of  it  was  printed 
in  Barnard's  Church  Music  (1641),  and  in 
Boyce's  Cathedral  Music.  The  remainder  was 
published  in  1873  in  a  volume  edited  by  the 
Rev.  Sir  F.  A.  G.  Ouseley.  His  Madrigak  (re- 
published by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society  in 
1841^,  are  among  the  best  of  the  English  school. 

A  portrait  of  Orlando  Gibbons  is  preserved  in 
the  Music  School,  Oxford.  His  printed  works 
are  as  follows  : — 


First  Precea.  5  TOices,  in  F. 
Second  Do.  Do.  G. 
Homing  and  ETcning  Service.  4  v. 

F,  including  Venite  (Ousele.v). 
Te  Deum  and  Jubilate,  Magnificat 

and  Xunc  Dimlttis.  5  v..  with 

verses  and  organ  part.  D  minor. 
Full  Anihem,  0  clap  your  hands, 

Sv. 

Do.  (2nd  pt.)  God  is  gone  up. 
Do.  Hosanna.  6  v. 
Do.  Lift  up  your  heads.  6  v. 
Do.  0  Lord  in  Thee.  5  v. 
Do.  Almif  hty  and  everlasting.  4  v. 
Do.  Why  art  thou  so  heavy.  4  v. 
Do.  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God.  4  v. 
Do.  O  Lord,  increase  my  faith.  4  v. 
Do.  Deliver  us,  O  Lord.  4  v. 
Do.  (2nd  pt,)  Blessed  be  the  Lord 
God. 

Verse  .\nth..  Behold  Thou  hast 

made.  5  v. 
Do.  This  is  the  record  of  John.  5  v. 
Do.  Behold  I  bring  you  glad  tidings, 

5t. 

Do.  If  ye  be  risen  again.  5 
Do.  We  praise  Thee,  0  Father.  5  v. 
Do.  Lord,  grant  grace.  5  v. 
Do.  Glorious  and  powerful  God.  5v. 
Do.  See,  see,  the  Word  is  incarnate. 
6v. 

Do.  Sing  unto  the  Lord.  5  v. 
Do.  Blessed  are  all  they.  5  r. 
Do.  Great  King  of  Gods.  5  v.,  with 

viols. 

Do.  0  ail  true  faithful  hearts.  5  t. 

with  Tiots. 
Hymn.  O  Lord,  how  do.  4  t. 


Hymn,  O  Lord.  I  lift.  5  v. 

Psalm  to  1st  Preces,  Thou  openest. 

4  Hymn  tunes. 


Madrigals  and  Motets.  5  y. 
The  Silver  Swan. 

0  that  the  learned  poets. 

1  weigh  not  fortune's  frown. 
(2nd  pt.)  I  tremble  not, 
(3rd  pt.)  I  see  ambition. 

(4th  pt.)  I  feign  not  friendship. 
How  are  those  thrall'd. 

(•2nd  pt,)  Farewell  all  joys. 
Dainty  fine  bird. 
Fair  ladies  that  to  love. 

(2nd  pt.)  'Mongst  tboos&nds 
good. 

Kow  each  flow'ry  bank. 
Lais  now  old. 
What  is  our  life  ? 
Ah '.  dear  heart. 
Fair  is  the  rose. 
Kay,  let  me  weep. 

(2nd  pt.)  Ke'erlet  the  sun. 

t3rd  pt.)  Tet  if  that  age. 
Trust  not  too  much. 


Fantasies  in  3  parts,  for  strings,  9  in 

number. 

6  Pieces  (^rvi-ixi)  for  the  Virginals 
in  '  Parthenia,'  above  men- 
tioned : — 

Galiardo. 

Fantazia  of  4  pts. 

The  Lord  of  Salisbury  his  Pavin- 

Galiardo. 

The  (Jueene's  Command. 
Preludium. 


Christopheb  Gibbons,  Mus.  Doc.,  second 
son  of  the  celebrated  Orlando  Gibbons,  was  bom 
in  1 615.  He  was  educated  in  the  choir  of 
Exeter  Cathedral  under  his  uncle,  Edward. 
About  1640  he  succeeded  Eandal  Jewitt  as 
organist  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  which  appoint- 
ment he  was  compelled  to  quit  in  1644,  when  he 
joined  the  Royalist  army.  In  1660  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  private 
organist  to  Charles  II,  and  organist  of  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  On  July  7,  1664,  the  University  of 
Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
]Music,  'per  literas  regias,'  on  which  occasion  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  of  Westminster  made  him  a 
present  of         He  died  Oct.  20,  1676,  and  was 


buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
Some  anthems  of  his  composition  are  ext-ant  in 
MS.,  and  some  of  his  hymns  are  printed  in  the 
second  set  of  Dering's  'Cantica  Sacra,'  1674,  but  he 
excelled  more  as  a  performer  than  a  composer. 
A  portrait  of  him  is  preserved  in  the  Music 
School  at  Oxford.  [W.  H.  H.] 

GIGUE  or  GIGA  is  an  old  Italian  dance 
which  derives  its  name  (or  vice  versa)  from  the 
Giga,  Gigue,  Geige.  or  early  fiddle.  It  was 
written  indiscriminately  in  3-8,  6-8,  3-4,  6-4, 
and  12-8  time,  and  was  in  two  strains  or  sections, 
each  of  which  was  repeated.  The  time  was 
lively,  and  it  was  usually  employed  to  finish  up 
a  Suite.  A  good  example  is  that  which  N^nnd^ 
up  Xo.  8  of  CoreUi's  1 2  solos. 


i 


Bach  also  employs  them  to  close  his  Suites, 
and  has  left  an  immense  variety,  not  a  few  of 
which  are  in  common  time,  as  well  as  ()-i6  and 
12-16,  The  well-known  one  in  the  Partita  in 
Bb  is  in  4-4,  and  that  in  the  last  Partita  of  the 
same  set  in  S-4.  Handel's  16  Suites  contain 
13  Gigues,  one  of  which  fills  6|  pages.  Mozart 
has  left  a  very  fine  little  specimen  (Kochel 
574)  which  he  wrote  in  an  album  at  Leipsic 
after  a  surfeit  of  Bach. 

English  Jigs  seem  to  have  no  special  character- 
istics. The  word  came  to  be  synonymous  with 
any  light  irreverent  rhythm,  giving  the  point  to 
Pope's  line 

'  Make  the  soul  dance  upon  a  jig  to  heaven.' 

[G.] 

GILES,  Nathaniel,  Mus.  Doc,  was  bom  in 
or  near  Worcester  about  the  middle  of  the  1 6th 
century.  In  1559  he  was  admitted  a  chorister 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  which  oflSce  he 
resigned  in  1561.  In  1577  he  was  appointed 
a  clerk  in  the  same  chapeL,  but  retained  the  place 
only  until  the  next  year.  He  graduated  at 
Oxford  as  Bachelor  of  Music  Jime  26,  1585. 
On  Oct.  I,  1595,  he  received  the  appointments 
of  clerk,  organist,  and  master  of  the  choristers 
of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor.  On  the  death 
of  William  Hunnis  in  June,  1597,  he  was  ap- 
pointed gentleman  and  master  of  the  children 
of  the  Chapel  Royal.  Having  supplicated  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  in  1607,  but  from 
some  unknown  reason  not  having  performed  the 
exercise  for  it,  he  proceeded  to  it  July  5,  1622. 
It  has  been  asserted  that  on  the  accession  of 
Charles  I.  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  but  there  is  no  record  of  such 
an  appointment  in  the  CHieque  Book.  Giles 
contributed  to  Leighton's  'Teares  or  Lamen- 
tacions  of  a  Sorrowfull  Soule,'  1614;  a  ser\-ice 
and  an  anthem  by  him  were  printed  in  Barnard's 
Church  Music,  1641,  and  other  anthems  are 
extant  in  MS.  A  curious  'Lesson  of  Descant 
of  thirtie  eighte  Proportions  of  sundrie  kindes  * 
by  him  is  printed  in  the  appendix  to  Hawkins's 
History  of  Music.  Giles  died  Jan.  24,  1633, 
and  was  buried  in  one  of  the  aisles  of  St.  George's 
Qq2 


596 


GILES. 


GIRELLI  AGUILAR. 


Chapel,  Windsor,  where  an  inscription  was 
placed  over  his  grave  which  stated  him  to 
have  been  master  of  the  children  there  49  years, 
master  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Eoyal 
38  years,  and  to  have  been  75  years  of  age. 
A  comparison  with  the  dates  given  above, 
which  are  all  derived  from  authentic  records, 
will  show  that  all  three  statements  on  the  grave- 
stone were  erroneous.  [W.  H.  H.] 
GIORDANI.  An  Italian  musical  family  of 
the  1 8th  century,  consisting  of  a  father,  three 
sisters,  and  two  brothers,  who  played  little  comic 
operas  in  one  of  the  Neapolitan  theatres  till 
1 762,  when  the  whole  troupe  migrated  to  London, 
with  the  exception  of  the  younger  brother, 
Giuseppe,  then  but  nine,  who  remained  behind 
to  learn  composition  in  the  Conservatorio  di 
Loreto,  where  he  had  Cimarosa  and  Zingarelli 
for  his  fellow  students.  The  Giordani  family 
came  out  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  and  made 
a  great  success.  In  1772  they  were  joined  by 
their  brother,  who  had  by  that  time  obtained  the 
sobriquet  of  Giordanello,  and  who  became  composer 
to  the  troupe.  His  best-known  opera  was  *I1 
Baccio,'  which  seems  to  have  kept  the  boards 
from  1774  to  79.  In  addition  to  composing  he 
was  much  in  vogue  as  a  teacher,  and  Fetis  gives 
a  list  of  6  P.  F.  quintets,  3  ditto  quartets,  12 
ditto  trios,  6  string  quartets,  3  Concertos  for 
Viol  and  Orchesti'a,  besides  preludes,  sonatas, 
and  lessons  for  the  harpsichord,  all  which  he 
published  in  London  between  1776  and  1782. 
In  the  latter  year  he  returned  to  Italy,  and 
remained  there  for  10  years,  producing  in  that 
time  no  less  than  24  operas  and  oratorios,  besides 
other  compositions  for  the  chamber,  some  pub- 
lished in  London  and  some  in  Berlin.  He  died 
at  Lisbon  in  May  94,  having  gone  there  to 
conduct  the  Italian  Opera. 

His  elder  brother  ToMASSO,  who  is  not  clearly 
distinguishable  from  Giuseppe,  remained  in 
England,  acted,  taught,  played,  and  composed. 
In  1779,  however,  he  went  to  Dublin,  and  in 
partnership  with  Leoni  the  singer  took  the 
theatre  in  Chapel  Street  as  an  opera  house. 
At  the  end  of  four  years  they  were  bankrupt. 
Giordani  however  had  plenty  of  teaching,  he 
married,  and  composed  an  opera  '  Perseverance' 
and  an  oratorio  '  Isaac,'  both  of  which  appear  to 
have  been  successful,  as  well  as  pianoforte  pieces 
and  songs,  Italian  and  English,  which  last  had  a 
great  sale.  An  air  by  one  of  the  brothers,  *  Caro 
mio  ben,'  is  still  sung  at  concerts.  [G.] 

GIORGL  SeeBANTi. 

GIOVANELLI,  Ruggiero,  bom  1560  at 
VeUetri,  near  Rome,  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
circumstances  or  early  studies.  In  1587  we  find 
him  maestro  di  capella  to  San  liuigi  de'  Francesi 
on  the  Corso  in  Rome  ;  from  thence  he  passed  to 
the  Chiesa  dell'  Anima,  belonging  to  the  German 
College;  and,  March  12,  1594,  was  appointed 
Palestrina's  successor  at  St.  Peter's,  entering  on 
his  duties  three  days  later.  On  April  7,  1599, 
he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Sistine  choir.  He 
was  living  in  16 15,  as  in  that  year  he  pub- 


lished the  second  volume  of  his  new  edition 
of  the  '  Graduale,'  undertaken  at  the  request 
of  Pope  Paul  V,  and  magnificently  printed  at 
the  Medici  press,  but  disfigured  by  many 
arbitrary  alterations  of  the  text.  Proske  has 
inserted  a  'Dixit'  of  Giovanelli's,  in  his  *Mu- 
sica  Divina'  (Tom.  iii.)  and  speaks  of  his 
works  as  'graceful,  pure  in  style,  and  very 
pleasing  in  harmony,  and  able  to  bear  comparison 
with  those  of  the  greatest  masters.'  Baini's 
*  Palestrina '  also  contains  many  allusions  to 
Giovanelli.  Amongst  his  works  preserved  in 
the  Pontifical  Chapel  at  Rome,  Baini  specially 
mentions  a  '  Miserere '  for  4  and  8  voices,  and 
a  Mass,  k  8,  on  Palestrina's  madrigal  *  Vestiva 
i  colli';  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  known 
of  a  particularly  fine  Mass  k  12,  characterised 
by  Proske  as  full  of  beauty  and  imagination. 
Giovanelli  was  a  great  composer  of  madrigals, 
even  in  that  fertile  age.  He  published  5  books 
of  them,  with  2  of  Canzonette  and  Vilanelle, 
between  the  years  1586  and  92.  Others  are  to 
be  found  in  the  collections  of  Scotto  and  Phalese 
(Eitner,  '  Sammelwerke ').  The  date  of  his  death 
is  unknown.  [F.G.] 

GIPSY'S  WARNING,  THE.  An  opera  in 
3  acts  ;  words  by  Linley  and  Peake ;  music  by 
Jules  Benedict.  Produced  at  Drury  Lane  April 
19,  1838.  It  was  much  acted  in  Germany. 
'  Rage,  rage,  thou  angry  storm,'  and  '  Blest  be 
the  home,'  were  long  favourites  in  concert 
rooms.  [G.] 

GIRARDEAU,  Isabella,  detta  LA  ISA- 
BELLA, an  Italian  singer,  married  to  a  French- 
man, who  performed  in  the  early  Italian  Operas 
in  London.  She  is,  perhaps,  the  same  as 
the  Isabella  Calliari  mentioned  in  Quadrio's  list 
among  the  female  singers  who  flourished  from 
1700-20.  She  succeeded  'the  Baroness'  at  the 
Haymarket,  and  appeared  first  in  'Almahide.' 
She  sang  in  the  first  and  succeeding  perform- 
ances of  Handel's  '  Rinaldo.'  In  this,  one  of  her 
songs,  'Bel  piacer,'  was  wholly  unaccompanied 
even  by  a  bass, — a  severe  trial  for  any  voice. 
On  Dec.  12  of  the  same  year,  Gasparini's  'Antio- 
chus'  was  produced,  in  which  La  Isabella  took 
a  part,  as  she  did  also  in  the  following  January 
in  his  '  Ambleto.'  In  the  latter  she  had  '  a  noisy 
song  for  trumpets  and  hautbois  obligati'  (Bumey), 
from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  her  voice 
was  very  strong.  [J.  M.] 

GIRELLI  AGUILAR,  SiGNOKA,"an  Italian 
prima  donna,  who  took  part  in  the  'grand 
dramatic  serenata'  composed  by  Mozart  (1771) 
in  honour  of  the  nuptials  of  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand,  celebrated  at  Milan  on  Oct.  17  of 
that  year.  '  The  archduke  and  his  bride,  not 
only  frequently  inclined  their  heads  from  their 
box  and  applauded  the  maestro,  but  encored  two 
airs  sung  by  Manzuoli  and  Girelli'  (Holmes, 
p.  79).  After  this,  Girelli  married  a  Frenchman 
named  Aguilar,  and  visited  London,  succeeding 
Grassi,  and  singing  the  principal  role  in  Vento's 
'Sophonisba'  (i  772-3) ;  after  which  her  name  is 
not  found  again  in  London.  [J.M.J 


GISELLE. 


GIZZIELLO. 


597 


GISELLE,  ou  LES  Wilis.  A  Ballet  by 
Adolphe  Adam  on  a  plot  adapted  from  Heine 
by  Theophile  Gautier  ;  produced  at  the  Grand 
Opera  July  4,  1841,  at  Her  Majesty's  March  12, 
1842,  It  contained  one  of  Carlotta  Grisi's  great- 
est parts. 

The  subject  was  employed  by  Loder  in  his 
opera  of  'The  Wilis,  or  The  Night  Dancers.' 

GISMONDI,  Celeste,  a  mezzo-soprano  en- 
gaged at  the  opera  in  London  from  1732-34. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  (Dec.  1732)  as 
Lisaura  in  Handel's  '  Alessandro.'  She  played 
a  small  part  in  the  '  Orlando  '  (1733),  one  of  her 
songs  in  which  ('Amor  qual  vento')  contains 
Handel's  first  venture  at  a  *  diminished  seventh.' 
Parts  were  assigned  to  her  (1733)  also  in 
'Deborah,'  'Tolomeo,'  and  '  Ottone,'  but,  after 
this,  she  is  said  by  M.  Schcelcher  to  have  assisted 
in  setting  up  the  rival  theatre  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields.  The  newspapers  of  the  day  (Nov.  3, 
1735),  however,  give  another  account  of  her 
secession,  by  announcing  the  death  of  *  Signora 
Celeste  Gismondi  .  .  .  Wife  to  Mr.  Hempson  an 
English  Gentleman,  on  Tuesday  [Oct.  28],  after 
a  lingering  Illness.  She  perform'd  in  Mr,  Han- 
del's Operas  for  several  Winters  with  great 
Applause,  but  did  not  sing  this  season  on  any 
stage,  on  Account  of  her  Indisposition.'  [J.M.] 

GIUGLINI,  Antonio,  appeared  here  first  in 
1857  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  He  possessed  a 
sweet  and  high  tenor  voice,  which  was  'a  wel- 
come variety  after  the  stentorian  exhibitions  of 
recent  singers  before  him  ;  and  an  elegance  of 
style  of  which  some  critics,  nevertheless,  com- 
plained as  cold,  languid,  and  over  drawn-out ' 
(Chorley).  He  was  the  best  that  had  been  heard 
since  the  arrival  of  Tamberlik,  and  remained 
singing  here  for  some  years.  His  career  was  not 
long,  and  terminated  in  a  very  melancholy  man- 
ner ;  in  1 86  2  he  became  insane,  and  he  died 
at  Pesaro,  Oct.  12,  1865.  [J.M.] 

GIULIANI,  Cecilia,  ne'e  Bianchi,  a  some- 
what distinguished  prima  donna  in  the  latter 
years  of  the  i8th  century.  She  appeared  in 
London  (April  5,  1788)  in  'Giulio  Sabino '  with 
the  great  Marchesi.  With  a  good  figure,  face,  and 
style,  she  had  a  voice  too  thin  and  small  for  the 
theatre  ;  and  this  caused  her  to  force  its  tones  so 
much  that  she  sang  out  of  tune.  Bumey  says  she 
had  '  a  bad  shake,  and  aflfectation.'  She  con- 
tinued to  sing  during  another  season,  after  which 
her  place  was  taken  by  Mara.  In  1 790  she  was 
at  Milan;  and  in  91  at  Vienna,  where  she  re- 
mained till  96.  Fe'tis  speaks  of  her  as  a  brilliant 
singer,  a  judgment  differing  widely  from  that  of 
Bumey  and  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe.  [J.M.] 

GIURAMENTO,  IL.  A  Dramma  serio  ;  li- 
bretto by  Rossi  from  V.  Hugo's  '  Angelo ' ;  music 
by  Mercadante.  Produced  at  La  Scala,  Milan, 
in  the  spring  of  1837  ;  at  Her  Majesty's,  London, 
1840;  and  at  the  Th^atre-italien,  Paris,  Nov. 
22,  58.  [G.] 

GITJSQUINO.  The  form  which  the  name  of 
J OSQUIN  sometimes  takes  in  Italian  ;  see  for  ex- 
ample one  of  the  chants  from  the  'Studij  di 


Palestrina,'  in  Burney's  Extracts,  Brit.  Mus. 
Add.  MSS.  11,589.  [G.] 
GIUSTO,  correct,  suitable  —  'Tempo  giusto,' 
in  suitable  time;  as  the  fugues  in  Israel  in 
^oyP^j  '  Egypt  was  glad,'  'He  led  them  through 
the  deep ' ;  and  also  '  Thy  right  hand,  O  Lord,' 
and  '  The  horse  and  his  rider.'  Also  used  in  the 
sense  of '  strict,'  to  restore  the  time  after  a  tempo 
rubato.  [G.] 
GIZZIELLO,  GiOACCHiNO  Conti,  detto,  so- 
called  after  his  master,  D.  Gizzi,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  singers  of  the  i8th  century.  Born  Feb. 
28,  1 7 14,  at  Arpino  (Naples),  he  early  under- 
went the  preparation  for  the  career  of  a  sopranist. 
He  gained  a  round,  full,  sweet  voice  of  great 
extent  and  penetrating  quality,  which  was  united 
I  to  a  strong  natural  taste  and  feeling  in  music. 
At  the  age  of  15  he  made  his  d^but  at  Rome, 
with  immense  success.  In  1731  he  excited  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  there  by  his  singing  in 
Vinci's  'Didone'  and  'Artaserse.'  An  anecdote 
is  related  of  this  occasion,  showing  how  much 
1  other  singers  were  already  afiected  by  his  fame. 
[See  Farinelli.]  He  sang  at  Naples  in  1732 
and  33  with  the  same  success.  Three  years  later 
(April  13,  36),  he  is  announced  in  the  London 
Newspapers  as  'expected  here  in  a  few  days.' 
I  This  was  the  critical  moment  at  which  the  split 
;  occurred  in  Handel's  company,  and  the  great 
I  master  was  at  a  loss  for  artists  to  replace  those 
\  who  had  seceded.  On  May  5,  he  began  with 
'  Ariodante,'  and  Gizzi ello,  who  then  made  his 
first  appearance  in  London,  'met  with  an  un- 
common reception ;  in  justice  to  his  voice  and 
I  judgment,  he  may  be  truly  esteemed  one  of  the 
j  best  performers  in  this  kingdom  '  (Daily  Post). 
In  presence  of  Farinelli,  no  more  could  be  said 
of  the  young  singer,  who  was  stiU  'so  modest 
and  diffident,  that  when  he  first  heard  Farinelli, 
at  a  private  rehearsal,  he  burst  into  tears,  and 
fainted  away  with  despondency'  (Bumey).  'Ata- 
lanta'  was  brought  out  May  12,  Gizziello  again 
singing  the  principal  man's  part,  as  he  did,  a 
little  later,  in  'Poro.*  In  1737  he  appeared  in 
'Arminio,'  'Berenice,'  'Giustino,'  and  'Parte- 
nope.'  In  1743  he  went  to  Lisbon,  where  the 
improvement  in  his  style,  due  to  the  example  of 
Farinelli,  was  at  once  perceived.  Charles  III, 
King  of  Naples,  engaged  both  him  and  Caffarelli 
to  sing  in  the  '  Acchille  in  Scire '  of  Pergolesi. 
CafiareUi  came  from  Poland,  and  Gizziello  from 
Portugal,  and  met  for  the  first  time.  The  former 
sang  the  first  song  with  splendid  effect,  and 
Gizziello  thought  himself  lost,  as  he  listened  to 
the  continued  applause ;  but  he  sang  his  own 
song,  which  followed,  with  such  pathos  and 
expression  that  he  divided  the  honours  of  the 
performance.  In  1 749  he  was  invited  by  Farin- 
elli to  sing  at  Macbid  with  Mingotti ;  and 
stayed  there  three  years.  He  then  retumed  to 
Portugal.  About  the  end  of  1753  he  quitted  the 
stage,  and  settled  at  his  native  place.  He  died 
at  Rome  Oct.  25,  1761.  An  excellent  mezzotint 
portrait  of  him  was  scraped  by  Alex.  Van 
Haecken,  after  a  picture  by  C.  Lucy,  in  1736, 
folio.   A  good  impression  of  it  is  scarce.    [J.  M.] 


598 


GLAREANUS. 


GLEE. 


GLAREANUS,  Henricus,  so  called  because 
he  was  born,  1488,  in  the  Canton  of  Glarus,  his 
real  name  being  LoRis  or,  Latinised,  Loritus; 
a  celebrated  teacher  of  music.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  shepherd-boy  in  his  youth;  but 
he  studied  music  under  Cochlaus  at  Cologne, 
where  he  was  crowned  poet-laureate  in  15 12  for 
a  poem  in  honour  of  the  Emperor,  which  he 
composed  and  sang  to  his  own  accompaniment. 
In  1 5 1 5  he  was  teaching  mathematics  at  Basle, 
and  in  1 5 1 7  was  appointed,  at  the  recommendation 
of  Erasmus,  professor  of  philosophy  and  'artes 
liberales'  in  Paris.  He  soon  however  returned 
to  Basle,  where  he  is  said  to  have  set  up  a  school, 
and  from  whence  he  removed  to  Freiburg  im 
Breisgau.  Heinrich  Schreiber,  in  an  excellent 
monograph  onGlareanus  (Freiburg  1857),  proves 
that  it  was  not  at  the  University  of  either  Paris, 
Basle,  or  Freiburg,  that  he  was  professor.  He 
died  May  28,  1563,  at  Freiburg.  His  friends, 
Erasmus,  Justus  Lipsius,  and  Vossius,  wrote 
panegyrics  on  him.  His  principal  works  on  the 
theory  of  music  are  '  Isagoge  in  musicen  Henrici 
Glareani,'  etc.  (the  dedication  '  ad  Falconem 
Consulem  urbis  Aventinensis,'  Avignon,  is  headed 
'Basileae,  anno  Christi  1516,  4to,  ad  idus  Mar- 
tias'),  now  extremely  scarce,  containing  chapters 
on  solmisation,  the  intervals,  modes,  tones,  and 
their  treatment;  and  AojScKaxopdov  (1547?  fol.), 
a  still  more  important  work,  the  aim  of  which 
is  to  prove  that  there  are  12  church  modes, 
corresponding  to  the  ancient  Greek  modes,  and 
not  8,  as  many  writers  have  maintained.  The 
third  part  contains  numerous  examples  from  the 
works  of  Ockenheim,  Obrecht,  Josquin  de  Pres, 
and  other  musicians  of  the  15th  and  i6th 
centuries,  valuable  also  as  specimens  of  early 
music-printing.  Woneggar  of  Lithuania  pub- 
lished an  abstract  of  the  '  Dodecachordon'  (Frei- 
burg 1557),  the  second  edition  of  which  (59) 
contains  a  poem  by  Glareanus  in  praise  of  the 
1 3  Federal  cities  of  Switzerland,  set  to  music  by 
Manfred  Barbarin.  The  catalogue  of  Draudius 
mentions  a  third  treatise,  '  De  musices  divisione 
ac  definitione'  (Basle  1549);  headings 
of  the  chapters  are  identical  with  those  in  the 
*  Dodecachordon,'  it  can  scarcely  be  a  separate 
work.  His  theory  of  the  12  church  modes,  as 
parallel  to  the  ancient  Greek  modes,  will  assure 
for  Glareanus  a  lasting  place  among  writers  on 
the  science  of  music.  [E.G.] 

GLEE.  A  piece  of  unaccompanied  vocal  music 
in  at  least  three  parts,  and  for  solo  voices, 
usually  those  of  men.  The  glee,  though  possibly 
suggested  by  the  madrigal,  to  which  this  descrip- 
tion also  applies,  is  separated  from  it,  so  far  as 
its  origin  is  concerned,  by  a  long  interval  of  time. 
The  production  of  madrigals  ceased  altogether, 
both  on  the  Continent  and  in  England,  in  the 
course  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  first  glees  are  due  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 8th  century,  and  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  them  to  the  seventy-five  years  between 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  and  the  end  of 
the  first  quarter  of  this.  Vocal  compositions  by 
masters  of  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 


tury are  sometimes  found,  in  collections  printed 
after  their  decease,  to  which  the  word  Glee  is 
appended.  These  are  not  glees,  in  the  now  ac- 
cepted sense  of  the  word,  but  simply  airs  by  those 
masters,  harmonised  subsequently  for  three  or 
four  voices ;  or  choruses,  mostly  from  operas,  from 
which  the  original  orchestral  parts  are  simply 
omitted.  Two  eminent  English  composers,  Ame 
and  Boyce,  wrote  each  a  few  pieces  which  they  or 
their  subsequent  editors  called  glees ;  but  their 
productions  in  other  styles  altogether  surpassed 
these,  both  in  excellence  and  number.  The  ear- 
liest, possibly  the  greatest,  master  of  the  glee 
proper  is  Samuel  Webbe,  during  whose  long  life 
(1740 — 1816)  the  best  specimens  of  this  class 
of  composition  were  produced.  Webbe  actually 
outlived  many  of  the  most  eminent  practitioners 
in  the  school  of  which  he  was  the  founder. 

The  word  '  glee '  in  no  way  describes  or  cha- 
racterises the  kind  of  composition  to  which  it 
gives  a  name.  It  is  simply  the  Anglo-Saxon 
gligg — music.  A  glee  is  not  therefore  necessarily 
of  a  cheerful  character,  as  the  name  inight  seem 
to  imply.  That  music  was  in  early  times  com- 
monly associated  with  cheerfulness  is  possibly 
true.  The  'Gliggman,'  according  to  Warton, 
was  identical  with  the  '  Joculator.'  But  the 
words  of  a  glee  may  be  mournful  or  sprightly, 
and  the  music  such  as  will  express  them  becom- 
ingly. The  'serious  glee'  is  no  more  a  misnomer 
than  the  '  cheerful.'  Both  terms  have  been  used 
by  glee  composers  again  and  again. 

The  glee  differs  from  the  madrigal,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  distance  apart  of  their 
epochs,  in  its  tonality,  which  is  uniformly  modern. 
Not  only  so.  Whereas  the  'subjects'  of  the 
madrigal  are  generally  few,  always  contrapunt- 
ally  treated,  and  this  often  at  considerable  length, 
those  of  the  glee  are  generally  many,  and  only 
rarely  at  all  developed.  Masses  of  harmony, 
rare  in  the  madrigal,  are  common  in  the  glee, 
and  indeed  give  it  some  of  its  best  effects.  The 
characteristic  figure  of  modern  tonality,  the 
*  perfect  cadence,'  rarely  and  timidly  introduced 
in  the  former,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
latter — sometimes  indeed  of  such  frequent  occur- 
rence as  to  give  to  many  of  these  compositions 
a  halting  and  disconnected  character,  as  though 
they  were  continually  about  to  come  to  an  end. 
Indeed  the  short  phrases,  incessant  cadences,  fre- 
quent changes  of  rhythm  and  pace  of  the  average 
glee,  contrast  unfavourably  with  the  'long  re- 
sounding *  phrases  of  the  madrigal,  never  brought 
to  an  end  in  one  part  till  they  are  begun  in 
another,  overlapping  one  another,  bearing  one 
another  up,  and  never  allowing  the  hearer  to 
anticipate  a  close  till  everything  that  can  be 
done  with  every  subject  has  been  done,  and  the 
movement  comes  to  a  natural  end. 

In  so  far  as  the  glee  com]ioser  exhibits  this 
power  of  sustentation,  this  strength  of  wing— 
the  highest  and  the  rarest  qualification  for  every 
kind  of  polyphonic  composition — his  productions 
will  be  lasting  in  their  attraction.  Every  one  of 
the  best  glee  writers,  such  as  Webbe,  Stevens, 
Callcott,  Horsley — has  exhibited  it  frequently 


GLEE. 


GLINKA. 


599 


and  in  very  high  perfection;  and  this  together 
with  a  constructive  power  which  we  should  seek 
in  vain  in  the  musical  compositions  of  the  madri- 
galian  era.  Stevens's  glee,  '  Ye  spotted  Snakes,' 
is  a  model  of  construction,  and  if  not  the  earliest, 
is  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  pure  vocal 
music  in  the  *  sonata  form.' 

The  glee  proper  is  wholly  independent  of  in- 
strumental accompaniment.  The  name,  however, 
is  occasionally  given  to  compositions  like  'The 
Chough  and  Crow,'  by  Sir  Henry  Bishop.  These 
w^ould  be  better  entitled  accompanied  trios,  quar- 
tets, or  choruses.  The  principal  glee  composers, 
over  and  above  those  already  named — without 
exception  Englishmen — are  Attwood,  Battishill, 
Cooke,  Danby,  Hindle,  Lord  Mornington,  Paxton, 
andSpofforth.  [Madkigal  ;  Paet-song.]  [J.H.] 

GLEE  CLUB,  The.  This  club  originated  in 
some  meetings  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Robert  Smith 
in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  commenced  in  1783, 
at  which  motets,  madrigals,  glees,  canons,  and 
catches,  were  sung  after  dinner.  The  meetings 
were  subsequently  held  at  Dr.  Beever's  and  other 
houses  until,  in  1787,  it  was  resolved  to  establish 
a  society  to  be  called  '  The  Glee  Club,'  the  first 
public  meeting  of  which  took  place  at  the  New- 
castle Coffee  House  on  Saturday,  Dec.  22,  1787. 
The  original  members  were,  R.  Smith,  Dr. 
Arnold,  Dr.  Beever,  Pev.  J.  Hinckes,  T.  S. 
(afterwards  Dr.)  Dupuis,  J.  Roberts,  J.  Heseltine, 
T.  Aylward,  C.  Wright.  T.  Gregory,  H.  Desdier, 
L.  Atterbury,  and  T.  Linley.  The  professional 
members  were,  S.  Webbe,  J.  Dyne,  P.  Hobler, 
J.  W.  (afterwards  Dr.)  Callcott,  J.  Hindle,  J. 
Bartleman,  S.  Webbe,  jun.,  and  S.  Harrison. 
In  1788  the  Club  removed  to  the  Freemasons' 
Tavern,  thence  to  the  Crown  and  Anchor  until 
Feb.  1 790,  when  it  returned  to  the  Freemasons' 
Tavern,  but  removed  once  more,  on  July  6,  1791, 
to  the  Crown  and  Anchor,  and  again  returned 
to  the  Freemasons'  Tavern.  In  1790  Mr.  S. 
Webbe  composed  for  the  Club  his  'Glorious 
Apollo,'  which  was  ever  after  sung  at  the 
meetings  as  the  opening  glee,  while  Byrd's  canon 
'Non  Nobis'  was  sung  immediately  after  dinner, 
often  followed  by  Dr.  Cooke's  canon  'Amen.' 
After  'Glorious  Apollo'  (first  sung  with  three 
voices  to  a  part  and  then  full)  the  chairman, 
vice  -  chainnan,  conductor,  sub  -  conductor,  and 
secretary,  each  named  a  glee,  and  then  the 
members  according  to  seniority.  Among  the 
eminent  visitors  who  have  contributed  to  the 
music  of  the  meetings  were  Samuel  Wesley 
(who  played  Bach's  fugues  upon  the  pianoforte, 
or  an  extemporaneous  effusion  on  some  con- 
spicuous passage  in  a  glee  recently  sung),  Mos- 
cheles,  and  Mendelssohn.  The  Club  was  dissolved 
in  1857  and  the  Library  sold.  The  Club  must 
be  distinguished  from  another  Glee  Club  formed 
in  1793,  original  members  of  which  were 
Shield,  Johnstone,  Charles  Bannister,  Incledon, 
Dignum,  C.  Ashley,  and  W.  T.  Parke,  the  last 
of  whom  ('Musical  Memoirs,'  ii.  175)  states 
that  'it  was  held  on  Sunday  evenings  at  the 
Garrick's  Head  Coffee  House  in  Bow  Street, 
Covent  Garden,  once  a  fortnight,  when  we 


amused  ourselves  by  singing  the  works  of  the 
old  and  modern  masters,  after  which  we  sat  down 
to  supper.'  [C.M.'J 

GLEN.  An  eminent  Scotch  firm  of  musical 
instrument  makers.  Thomas  Glen,  the  founder, 
was  born  at  Inverkei thing,  Fifeshire,  in  1804; 
commenced  business  in  the  Cowgate,  Edinburgh, 
in  1826  ;  in  1836  removed  to  North  Bank  Street, 
and  died  July  12,  1873.  Amongst  the  instru- 
ments invented  by  him  was  a  wooden  Ophicleide, 
of  which  a  large  number  were  made,  and  known 
as  '  Serpentcleides.'  The  business  is  still  carried 
on  by  his  sons  John  and  Robert.  The  Glens 
are  now  chiefly  noted  for  their  Bagpipes,  of 
which  they  are  the  recognised  best  makers.  [G.] 

GLINKA,  Michael  Ivanovitch,  born  1803 
near  Novospaskoi  in  Russia,  died  Feb.  1 5,  1857,  at 
Berlin.  Of  late  years  several  northern  composers, 
not  German  by  birth  but  German  as  far  as  their 
musical  method  goes — like  Gade  the  Dane,  Grieg 
and  Svendsen  the  Norwegians,  Glinka,  Anton 
Rubinstein,  and  Peter  Tschaikoffsky  the  Russians 
— have  made  their  mark  more  or  less  strongly. 
Glinka  is  the  earliest  of  the  Russians,  as  gifted 
as  any,  perhaps,  but  not  so  accomplished  ;  there 
has  always  been  a  dash  of  dilettantism  about  his 
productions,  spite  of  his  obvious  talents,  his  gift 
of  spontaneous,  and  (to  those  who  do  not  know 
much  of  Russian  folk-songs  and  dances)  original 
melody,  and  his  undeniable  cleverness  in  the 
manipulation  of  the  voice  and  of  orchestral 
instruments.  Glinka's  two  Russian  operas  are 
held  to  be  of  national  importance  by  his  country- 
men. They  were  among  the  first  musical  works 
in  Russian,  and  for  a  long  time  the  best  of  their 
kind,  though  their  value  has  undoubtedly  been 
exaggerated  from  patriotic  motives. 

In  early  youth  Glinka  enjoyed  the  advantage 
of  lessons  in  pianoforte  playing  from  John  Field. 
In  1830  he  visited  Italy,  and  made  a  close 
study  of  Italian  singing  and  of  the  Italian 
method  of  composition  for  the  voice  ;  but,  feeling 
himself  helpless  as  regards  harmony  and  counter- 
point, he  went,  in  1833,  to  Berlin  for  some 
months,  and  worked  hard  as  the  pupil  of  S.  W. 
Dehn.  Thence  he  returned  to  Russia,  and  became 
court  conductor,  and  director  of  the  opera  and 
the  choral  performances  at  the  imperial  churches. 
From  1840  to  50  he  again  led  an  itinerant  life, 
the  centre  of  which  was  Paris,  and  the  extent 
the  confines  of  Spain.  In  the  autumn  of  1856  he 
came  back  to  Berlin,  had  much  intercourse  with 
his  old  master  Dehn  upon  the  subject  of  ancient 
church  tunes  connected  with  the  Eastern  Church, 
and  died  there,  unexpectedly,  early  in  1857. 

Glinka's  name  is  associated  with  the  titles  of 
two  Russian  operas,  'La  Vie  pour  le  Czar'  and 
'  Russian  et  Ludmilla,'  neither  of  which,  spite 
of  repeated  trials,  have  been  able  to  gain  a  firm 
footing  outside  their  native  land.  A  number  of 
orchestral  arrangements  or  transcriptions,  such 
as  'La  Jota  Aragonese,'  etc.,  as  well  as  many 
romances  and  songs,  complete  the  list  of  his  pro- 
ductions. Of  these  a  catalogue  is  given  by 
Gustav  Bertrand  in  the  Supplement  to  Fetis. 
He  left  his  own  memoir  in  Russian;  and  sketches 


600 


GLDs'KA. 


GLUCK. 


of  his  life,  also  in  Russian,  have  been  published 
by  Stanoff  and  Solovieff.  [E,  D.] 

GLORIA  is  the  name  which  is  generally 
applied  in  England  to  the  short  hymn  Gloria 
Patri,  and  in  the  Roman  Church  to  the  longer 
hvmn  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  "which  is  also  called  the 
'Great  Doxology,'  or  'Angelical  Hymn,'  because 
its  first  words  are  those  of  the  angels  who  ap- 
peared to  the  shepherds.  The  former  is  of  im- 
known  origin,  and  was  in  use  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
offices.  The  custom  of  singing  it  after  each  psalm 
is  peculiar  to  the  Western  Church. 

The  Gloria  in  Excelsis  is  probably  of  Eastern 
origin.  In  the  Western  Church  it  was  formerly 
used  at  the  beginning  of  the  Liturgy  when  the 
Te  Deum  was  used  at  the  end.  In  the  Mass  it 
follows  the  Kyrie.  It  now  comes  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Communion  Service  in  the  English 
Church,  immediately  before  the  blessing.  It 
appears  in  the  Common  Prayer  Xoted  of  1550 
with  an  adaptation  of  the  old  church  melodies 
by  Marbeck,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  sung  in  the  early  days  after  the  Reformation 
in  England,  and  received  little  attention  from 
English  composers.  At  the  present  day  it  is  set 
equally  with  the  other  portions  of  the  Commu- 
Dion  Service.  [C.H.H.P.] 

GLOVER,  Chables  W.,  bom  February  1806, 
was  a  pupn  of  T.  Cooke.  He  became  a  violin 
player  in  the  orchestras  of  Drury  Lane  and 
Covent  Garden  Theatres.  In  1832  he  was  ap- 
pointed musical  director  at  the  Queen's  Theatre, 
Tottenham  Street,  and  continued  so  for  some 
years.  He  was  the  composer  of  numerous  songs 
and  duets,  some  of  which  were  very  popular,  as 
'  Jeannette  and  Jeannot,'  'Sing  not  that  song  to 
me,  sweet  bird,'  '  Of  love,  pretty  maidens,  beware.' 
He  died  in  London,  March  22,  1863.  [W,  H.  H.] 

GLO^'ER,  William,  was  bom  in  London  in 
1822.  In  1829  he  became  a  chorister  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  remained  until 
1838.  He  then  became  a  pupil  of  Professor 
Walmisley,  and  in  1841  obtained  the  organist- 
ship  of  the  newly  erected  Christ  Church,  Cam- 
bridge. This  post  he  vacated  in  the  next  year 
on  beiag  appointed  organist  of  St.  Matthew's, 
Manchester.  In  1846  he  was  chosen  organist  of 
St.  Luke's,  Cheetham,  which  appointment  he  still 
holds  in  conjimction  with  that  at  St.  Matthew's. 
Glover  attained  to  much  distinction  in  the  higher 
style  of  organ  playing,  and  in  April  1847,  when 
Mendelssohn  went  to  ;>Ianchester  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  a  performance  of  his  '  Elijah ' 
there,  he  received  a  visit  from  the  great  composer 
(with  whom  he  had  formerly  corresponded),  who 
performed  before  a  select  audience  on  the  organ 
at  St.  Luke's — a  fine  instriunent  by  Hill  on  the 
German  CC  scale — being,  in  all  probability,  the 
last  time  he  touched  an  organ  in  England.  In 
1847  Glover  composed  an  oratorio  entitled  '  Jem- 
salem,'  which  was  produced  at  the  Manchester 
Mechanics  Institution  on  Feb.  12,  1848.  In 
1850  he  composed  another  called  'Emmanuel,' 
which  was  performed  at  the  Free  Trade  Hall  in 
1 85 1.    He  is  also  the  composer  of  'The  Corsair,' 


a  cantata,  written  in  1849  published  in  1856 
but  never  performed,  and  of  a  third  oratorio, 
quartets  and  quintets  for  stringed  instruments, 
pianoforte  trios,  etc.,  all  still  in  MS.  In  1847 
he  published  a  collection  of  'Psalm  Tunes  and 
Chants,'  and  'The  Complete  Daily  Ser\ice  of 
the  Church,  as  chanted  at  St.  Matthew's,  Man- 
chester.' Glover  established  at  St.  Matthew's  the 
first  surpliced  choir  seen  in  Manchester  except 
that  of  the  cathedral.  He  has  lately  devoted 
much  of  his  attention  to  mechanical  inventions 
connected  with  weaving.  [W.H.H,] 

GLOVER,  William  Howard,  bom  at  Kil- 
bum  Jime  6,  1819,  was  a  son  of  Mrs.  Glover, 
the  celebrated  actress.    He  learned  the  violin 
under  Wagstaff,  leader  of  the  Lyceum  band, 
and  began  life  by  a  long  tour  on  the  continent, 
after  which  he  returned  to  England  and  led 
a  desultory  career  for  some  years  in  London  and 
the  provinces  —  teaching,  playing,  conducting, 
composing,  and  even  appearing  on  the  stage  in 
opera.    He  was  for  many  years  musical  critic  to 
the  Morning  Post.    His  chief  works  were  '  Tarn 
O'Shanter,'  a  cantata  produced  by  the  New 
Philharmonic  Society,  July  4,  1855,  and  per- 
formed at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  the  same 
year,  the  operas  of  'Ruy  Bias,'  produced  at 
Covent  Garden,  Oct.  31,  1861,  and  'Aminta,' 
at  the  Haymarket  Theatre ;  '  Once  too  often,' 
I  operetta  at  Drury  Lane  ;  '  The  Coquette ' ;  Over- 
I  ture  to  'Manfred';  nimaerous  songs,  romances, 
!  etc.    In  1868  Glover  quitted  England  for  the 
I  United  States,  and  died  at  Xew  York,  Oct.  28, 
I  1875.  [W.H.H.] 

I     GLUCK,  Chbistoph  Willibald,  Ritteb^ 
I  VON,  bom  July  2,  17 14,  baptised  July  4,  at 
j  Weidenwang,   near   Xeumarkt,  in  the  Upper 
Palatinate.     His  father,  Alexander,  and  his 
j  mother,  Walburga,  belonged  to  the  household 
j  of  Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  it  was  at  his  castle 
of  Eisenberg  that  the  future  reformer  of  the 
lyric  drama  passed  his  early  days.    At  12  he 
I  was  sent  for  six  years  to  the  Jesuit  school  at 
j  Komotow  or  Chamutow  in  Bohemia,  where  he 
j  studied  classics,  and  had  his  first  lessons  in 
I  singing,  the  violin,  clavecin,  and  organ.  In 
j  1732  he  went  to  Prague,  where  he  continued  his 
!  musical  education  under  Czemhorsky,  and  also 
learned  the  cello  ;  maintaining  himself  in  the 
meanwhile  by  singing  in  church,  playing  the 
violin  at  the  peasants'  dances  in  the  neighbouring 
villages,  and  giving  concerts  in  the  larger  towns 
near  Prague.    In  1736  he  went  to  Vienna,  and 
at  the  house  of  Prince  Lobkowitz  was  fortunate 
enough  to  meet  Prince  Melzi,  a  distinguished 
amateur,  who  engaged  him  for  his  private  band, 
took  hiTTi  to  Milan,  and  placed  him  with  G.  B. 
Sammartini  to  complete  his  studies  in  harmony. 
Gluck  soon  began  to  write  operas — 'Artaserse' 
(^lilan)  1 741 ;  'Demofoonte'  (Milan),  'Cleonice' 
or  'Demetrio,'  and  '  Ipennnestra '  (Venice)  in 
1742;    'Artamene'   (Cremona)    and  'Sifkce' 
(Milan)  in  1743;   'Fedra'  (Milan)  in  1744; 

•  The  date  of  his  kuighthood  is  unknown,  but  it  w»s  before  he  went 
to  Paris. 


GLUCK. 


GLUCK. 


601 


and  in  the  spring  of  1745  '  Poro'  or  '  Alessandro 
neir  Indie'  (Turin).  All  these  were  well  re- 
ceived, and  in  consequence  of  their  success  he 
was  invited  in  1745  to  London  as  composer  for 
the  opera  at  the  Haymarket.  Here  he  produced 
'La  Caduta  de'  Giganti'  (Jan.  7,  1746),  'Arta- 
mene'  (re- written),  and  a  pasticcio,  'Piramo  e 
Tisbe,'  all  without  success,  Handel  declaring 
that  the  music  was  detestable,  and  that  the  com- 
poser knew  'no  more  counterpoint  than  his  cook' 
— Waltz,  who,  however,  was  a  fair  bass  singer. 
Counterpoint  was  never  Gluck's  strong  point, 
but  the  works  just  named  had  not  even  origin- 
ality to  recommend  them.  He  also  appeared 
on  April  23,  1746,  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre 
in  the  unexpected  character  of  a  performer 
on  the  musical  glasses,  accompanied  by  the 
orchestra  (see  the '  General  Advertiser,'  March  31, 
and  H.  Walpole's  letter  to  Mann,  March  28). 
[Harmonica.]  But  his  journey  to  England, 
mortifying  as  it  was  to  his  vanity,  exercised  an 
important  influence  on  Gluck's  career,  for  it 
forced  him  to  reflect  on  the  nature  of  his  gifts, 
and  eventually  led  him  to  change  his  style. 
The  pasticcio  taught  him  that  an  air,  though 
effective  in  the  opera  for  which  it  was  wi'itten, 
may  fail  to  make  any  impression  when  transferred 
to  a  different  situation  and  set  to  different  words. 
A  visit  to  Paris  shortly  after  gave  him  the  opportu- 
nity of  hearing  Kameau's  operas  ;  and  in  listening 
to  the  French  composer's  admirably  appropriate 
recitatives,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
Italian  opera  of  that  time  was  but  a  concert, 
for  which,  as  the  Abbe  Arnaud  happily  expressed 
it,  the  drama  furnished  the  pretext.  Returning 
to  Vienna  by  way  of  Hamburg  and  Dresden 
towards  the  end  of  1746,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  aesthetics  as  connected  with  music, 
and  of  the  language  and  literature  of  various 
countries,  taking  care  at  the  same  time  to  frequent 
the  most  intellectual  society  within  his  reach. 
'Semiramide  riconosciuta'  (Vienna  1748)  is  a 
decided  step  in  advance,  and  in  it  may  be 
detected  the  germ  of  Gluck's  distinctive  qualities. 
His  next  work  was  'Filide'  (1749),  a  serenade, 
or  more  properly  cantata,  in  2  acts,  written  at 
Copenhagen  for  the  birthday  of  Christian  VII. 
It  is  now  in  the  library  at  Berlin,  but  being 
a  mere  piece  de  circonstance  scarcely  deserves  a 
place  in  the  list  of  his  works.  Far  otherwise  is 
it  with  'Telemacco'  (Rome  1750)  and  *La 
Clemenza  di  Tito'  (Naples  1751),  which  deserve 
special  attention,  as  from  them  Gluck  borrowed 
many  a  page  for  his  French  operas  'Armide'  and 
'Iphigdnie  en  Tauride';  from  which  fact  it  is 
evident  that  when  they  were  written  his  style 
had  already  changed.  These  operas  were  followed 
in  1754  by  'L'Eroe  Cinese,'  first  performed  at 
Schonbrunn,  'II  Trionfo  di  Camillo'  (Rome), 
and  'Antigone'  (ibid.).  From  1755-61  Gluck 
was  stationary  in  Vienna,  and  to  all  appearance 
failing  ;  he  wrote  divertissements  for  the  palaces 
of  Laxenburg  and  Schonbrunn;  composed  airs 
for  the  comedies  or  comic  operettas  performed 
at  the  court  theatre  ;  and  produced  only  one 
opera  in  3  acts,  *  Tetide'  (1760),  of  which  nothing 


has  survived.  These  six  years  however,  far  from 
being  wasted,  were  probably  most  useful  to  him, 
for  by  these  apparently  insignificant  works  he 
was  acquiring  flexibility  of  style,  and  securing 
powerful  patrons,  without  losing  sight  of  his 
ultimate  aim.  His  opera  '  Orfeo  ed  Euridice  ' 
(Vienna  Oct.  5, 1762) — the  libretto  not  as  hereto- 
fore by  Metastasio,  but  by  Calzabigi — showed  to 
all  capable  of  forming  a  judg-ment  what  the  aims 
of  the  reformer  of  the  lyric  stage  were.  After 
the  production  of  this  fine  work,  however,  he 
returned  to  Metastasio  and  to  pieces  de  circon- 
stance for  the  court  theatre — 'Ezio'  (1763) ;  'La 
Rencontre  imprevue,'  afterwards  produced  in 
German  as 'Die  Pilgrimevon  Mekka'  (1764);  'II 
Parnasso  confuse,' '  La  Corona,'  and  'Telemacco,' 
partly  re-written  (1765);  in  fact  he  was  obliged 
to  bend  to  circumstances,  and  before  all  things  to 
please  the  princes  who  protected  him  and  sang  his 
music.  '  II  Parnasso '  was  played  by  four  arch- 
duchesses, the  archduke  Leopold  accompanying 
them  on  the  clavecin.  It  was  probably  between 
this  date  and  the  departure  of  Marie  Antoinette 
for  France  (May,  1770)  that  Gluck  acted  as 
singing  master  to  that  princess. 

At  length,  thinking  the  time  had  come  for 
bringing  his  ideas  before  the  public,  and  finding 
in  Calzabigi  a  poet  who  shared  his  taste  for  strong 
dramatic  situations,  he  produced  in  Vienna 
'Alceste'  (Dec.  16,  1767)  and  'Paride  ed  Elena' 
(1769).  The  scores  of  these  operas  were  pub- 
lished in  Vienna  (1769-70),^  and  dedicated 
respectively  to  the  Archduchess  Leopold  and 
the  Duke  of  Braganza.  Each  contains  a  dedi- 
catory epistle,  briefly  explaining  Gluck's  views 
on  dramatic  music.  As  far  as  theory  went,  his 
system  was  not  new,  as  it  rested  on  the  outlines 
abeady  sketched  by  Benedetto  Marcello  in  his 
'Teatro  alia  Moda'  (1720);  but  theory  and 
practice  are  two  different  things,  and  Gluck 
has  the  rare  merit  of  showing  in  his  'Alceste' 
and  '  Paride '  that  he  was  both  composer  and 
critic,  and  could  not  only  imagine  but  produce 
an  opera  in  which  all  is  consecutive,  where 
the  music  faithfully  interprets  each  situation, 
and  the  interest  arises  from  the  perfect  adapta- 
tion of  the  ensemble  of  the  music  to  the  whole 
of  the  drama.  The  composition  of  these  two 
great  works  did  not  prevent  his  writing  the 
intermezzi  of  'Le  Feste  d' A  polio,'  '  Bauci  e 
Filemone,'  and  '  Aristeo,'  produced  at  the  court 
theatre  of  Parma  in  1 769,  but  not  published. 

In  spite  of  the  favour  he  enjoyed  at  the  court 
of  Vienna,  and  of  the  incontestable  beauties 
contained  in  'Orfeo,'  'Alceste,'  and  'Paride  ed 
Elena,'  Gluck's  countrymen  criticised  his  new 
style  in  a  manner  so  galling,  that,  conscious 
of  his  own  power,  and  by  no  means  devoid  of 
vanity,  he  resolved  to  carry  out  elsewhere  the 
revolution  he  had  determined  to  effect  in  dramatic 
music.  In  the  Bailli  du  Rollet,  an  attache  of 
the  French  embassy  in  Vienna,  he  found  an 
enthusiastic  partisan  and  a  valuable  auxiliary ; 
they  consulted  as  to  a  di-ama  in  which  music 

1  Printed  in  17G4  in  Paris  at  the  expense  of  Count  Durazzo. 
'  Printed  in  folio  by  G.  T.  Trattneru  with  moveable  types. 


602 


GLUCK. 


GLUCK. 


might  be  employed  for  enhancing  the  expression 
of  the  words  and  the  pathos  of  the  situations ; 
and  their  choice  fell  upon  Racine's  'Iphigenie.' 
This  opera,  'Iphigdnie  en  Aulide,'  was  written 
in  French  in  1772,  partially  rehearsed  at  the 
theatre  in  Vienna  towards  the  end  of  the  same 
year,  and  produced  at  the  Opera  in  Paris, 
April  19,  1774.  Gluck  left  no  means  untried 
to  ensure  success  —  statements  of  his  views, 
public  announcements  ('Mercure  de  France,' 
Oct.  1772  and  Feb.  73),  public  tributes  of  respect 
to  J.  J.  Rousseau,  letters  to  authors  whose  good 
will  it  was  desirable  to  propitiate  —  in  short 
everything  that  ability  and  experience  in  such 
matters  could  '  suggest.  And  yet  if  it  had 
not  been  for  the  all-powerful  protection  of  his 
former  pupil,  Marie  Antoinette,  he  would  in  all 
probability  have  failed  in  getting  his  work 
performed,  so  strong  was  the  opposition  which 
his  arrival  in  France  had  roused,  especially 
amongst  those  interested  in  keeping  him  out  of 
the  'Academic  de  Musique.'  The  Dauphiness 
seems  to  have  been  really  attached  to  her  old 
singing  master.  In  a  letter  to  her  sister  Marie 
Christina  (May  3,  1777)  she  calls  him  'notre 
cher  Gluck,'  and  after  the  success  of  *  Orpht^e ' 
she  granted  him  a  pension  of  6000  francs,  and 
the  same  sum  for  every  fresh  work  he  should 
produce  on  the  French  stage. 

The  appearance  of  'Iphigdnie  en  Aulide'  marks 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  French  opera.  This 
severe  and  deeply  conceived  work  transports  us 
bodily  into  Greece  ;  it  is  pervaded  throughout  by 
an  antique  atmosphere,  of  the  days  of  Sophocles 
rather  than  of  Euripides.  What  a  bold  innova- 
tion is  the  overture,  with  the  inexorable  voice  of 
the  oracle  making  itself  heard,  and  with  the 
striking  unison  passage,  which  at  once  forces  the 
ruling  thought  of  the  drama  into  notice,  while  it 
closely  connects  the  symphony  with  the  action  on 
the  stage  !  Then  again,  how  grand,  how  just, 
how  pathetic  is  the  declamation  of  all  the  airs  ! 
These  airs,  it  must  be  confessed,  succeed  each 
other  too  rapidly,  and  one  cannot  but  regret  that 
the  librettist  did  not  perceive  how  much  the 
action  is  retarded  by  making  three  airs  follow 
each  other  in  one  act,  a  mistake  which  might 
easily  have  been  avoided.  But  how  ingenious 
are  the  artifices  to  which  Gluck  resorts  in  order 
to  give  variety  to  the  recitative  and  the  decla- 
matory passages  !  How  skilfully  he  brings  in  his 
short  incisive  symphonies,  and  how  much  effect 
he  produces  by  syncopation  !  How  appropriately 
he  introduces  the  orchestra  to  emphasise  a  word, 
or  to  point  a  dramatic  antithesis  !  How  graceful 
is  the  chorus  *  Que  d'attraits ' !  and  how  startling 
and  attractive  are  the  brilliancy,  force,  and  bold- 
ness of  the  harmony  in  the  hymn  of  triumph 
'  Chantons,  celebrons  notre  reine  ' !  While  listen- 
ing to  the  air  of  Agamemnon,  *Au  faite  des 
grandeurs,'  the  enthusiastic  Abb^  Amaud  ex- 
claimed, 'With  that  air  one  might  found  a 
religion.'  What  a  depth  of  expression  is  con- 
tained in  the  air  'Par  un  pfere  cruel  k  la  mort 

•  In  thlj,  as  in  other  more  important  points,  how  like  Is  Gluclc  to 
Wagner  I 


condamn^e' !  and  what  heart-rending  emotion  in 
the  recitative 

*  J'entends  retentir  dans  mon  sein 
Le  cri  plaintif  de  la  nature '  1 

not  to  speak  of  the  scene  in  which  Clytemnestra 
faints,  the  duet  between  Achille  and  Iphigenie 
which  gave  rise  to  so  many  discussions,  the 
quartet,  or  the  dance  music  ! 

Owing  to  the  support  of  the  court  and  the 
pains  taken  by  Gluck  to  obtain  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory  ^ performance,  'Iphigenie'  was  most 
favourably  received.  Its  success  gave  the  finish- 
ing stroke  to  the  antiquated  works  of  Lully  and 
Rameau,  and  introduced  into  grand  opera  the 
revolution  already  effected  in  op^ra  comique  by 
Philidor,  Monsigny,  and  Gretry. 

'  Iphigenie'  was  speedily  followed  by  *  Orphde 
et  Eurydice,'  adapted  from  the  'Orfeo'  already 
mentioned,  and  produced  at  the  Academic,  Aug. 
2,  1 774.  This  opera  made  a  profound  impression, 
although  Gluck  was  compelled  to  transpose  the 
music  of  Orpheus  to  suit  Legros,  as  there  was 
no  contralto  capable  of  taking  the  part.  The 
second  act  is  still  accounted  a  masterpiece. 

In  accordance  with  a  desire  expressed  by 
Marie  Antoinette,  and  which  Gluck  was  too 
good  a  courtier  to  refuse,  '  Le  Poirier,'  a  comedy 
by  Vade,  which  he  had  composed  in  1762,  and 
'Cythfere  Assidg^e,'  a  piece  of  Favart's  which 
he  had  converted  into  an  opera  in  1759,  were 
performed  at  the  court  theatre  at  Versailles  in 
1775.  The  latter  work  was  also  produced  in 
Paris  (Aug.  i,  of  the  same  year)  with  a  diver- 
tissement by  P.  M.  Berton,  and  with  a  want  of 
success  which  compelled  Arnaud  to  admit  that 
'  Hercules  was  more  at  home  with  the  club  than 
the  distaff.' 

For  this  failure,  however,  Gluck  was  consoled 
by  the  brilliant  success  of  his  'Alceste,'  which 
he  rearranged  for  the  French  stage  (April  23, 
1776),  and  which  created  quite  as  much  enthu- 
siasm as  '  Orphee '  had  done,  notwithstanding 
a  want  of  variety  in  the  libretto.  It  is  in  this 
fine  work  that  the  oracle  of  Apollo  pronounces 
its  stern  decree  on  a  reiterated  note  which 
strikingly  pictures  the  immutability  of  the  in- 
fernal deities.  This  touch  of  deliberate  inspira- 
tion was  not  lost  on  Mozart  in  '  Don  Giovanni,' 
nor  on  Ambroise  Thomas  in  '  Hamlet.' 

In  order  to  prove  that  it  was  not  in  tragedy 
alone  he  excelled,  but  that  he  also  possessed  the 
descriptive  faculty,  and  could  depict  scenes  of 
luxury,  and  express  tender  and  graceful  senti- 
ments, Gluck  composed  'Armide'  (Sept.  23,1777). 
He  had  been  reproached  with  having  no  melody, 
and  with  making  his  singers  ^shriek  ;  this  work, 
which  contains  many  charming  passages,  and  a 
duet  magnificent  for  passion  and  tenderness,  was 
his  answer.  The  excitement  it  aroused  is  almost 
incredible.  Piccinni  had  recently  arrived  in 
Paris,  and,  under  Marmontel's  superintendence, 
was  composing  his  'Roland,'  to  be  produced 

2  Here  again  is  a  close  parallel  with  Wagner's  judicious  methods  of 
proceeding. 

3  The  same  accusation,  rightly  or  wrongly,  is  made  against  Wajmor. 


GLUCK. 


GLUCK. 


603 


four  months  after  'Armide.'  His  admirers, 
and  the  partisans  of  the  old  Italian  music,  were 
furious  at  Gluck's  success,  and  every  one  knows 
the  lengths  to  which  the  war  of  the  Gluckists 
and  Piccinnists  was  carried.  It  was  even  more 
violent  than  the  old  quarrel  of  the  Bouffons, 
since  the  combatants  were  encouraged  by  the 
bodily  presence  of  the  rival  masters.  Marmontel, 
La  Harpe,  Ginguene,  d'Alembert,  the  Chevalier 
de  Chastellux,  Framery,  and  Coqueau,  were 
among  the  attacking  party,  while  the  chief  de- 
fenders were  Suard  and  the  Abbe  Amaud. 
Not  content  with  disparaging  Gluck's  genius  in 
his  'Essai  sur  les  revolutions  de  la  Musique,' 
Marmontel  went  the  length  of  writing  an  entire 
poem,  'Polymnie,'  in  praise  of  the  Italian  school 
and  his  favourite  Piccinni.  Space  will  not 
permit  us  to  enumerate  the  pamphlets,  epi- 
grams, and  satires,  which  emanated  from  both 
sides  in  this  contest;  nearly  all  that  are  of 
any  importance  may  be  found  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Ahh6  Leblond  — '  Memoires  pour 
servir  k  I'histoire  de  la  revolution  operee  dans  la 
musique  par  M.  le  Chevalier  Gluck'  (Naples  and 
Paris  1 78 1,  with  a  portrait  of  Gluck  engraved 
by  Saint  Aubin).  The  champions  of  the  Italian 
school  accused  him  of  composing  operas  in  which 
there  was  '  little  melody,  little  nature,  and  little 
elegance  or  refinement.'  They  declared  that  the 
noise  of  his  orchestra*  was  necessary  to  drown  his 
clumsy  modulations ;  that  his  accompanied  reci- 
tative was  nothing  but  an  overloaded  imitation 
of  the  Italian  '  recitativo  obbligato ' ;  that  his 
choruses  were  less  dramatic  than  those  of  Ea- 
meau ;  and  that  his  duets  were  borrowed,  and 
badly  borrowed,  from  the  '  duetti  a  dialogo'  which 
he  had  heard  in  Italy.  They  could  not  forgive 
what  Marmontel  calls  his  'harsh  and  rugged 
harmony,  the  incoherent  modulations,  mutilations, 
and  incongruities  contained  in  his  airs,'  but  they 
were  most  offended  by  his  'want  of  care  in 
choosing  his  subjects,  in  carrying  out  his  designs, 
and  giving  completeness  and  finish  to  his  melo- 
dies.' In  short  they  denied  him  the  possession 
of  any  creative  genius  whatever.  They  might 
as  well  have  denied  the  existence  of  the  sun — 
but  passion  invariably  blinds  its  votaries. 

The  Abb^  Amaud,  on  the  other  hand,  met  the 
systematic  disparagement  of  Marmontel  and  La 
Harpe  with  his  '  Profession  de  foi  en  musique '  ; 
an  excellent  treatise  on  musical  aesthetics,  though 
little  more  than  a  paraphrase  of  the  celebrated 
dedication  which  Gluck  himself  had  prefixed  to 
the  score  of  'Alceste.'  This  statement  of  the 
great  reformer's  principles  is  well  worth  trans- 
cribing. 

'When  I  undertook  to  set  the  opera  of  Alceste  to 

music,"  he  begins,  'I  resolved  to  avoid  all  those  abuses 
which  had  crept  into  Italian  opera  through  the  mistaken 
vanity  of  singers  and  the  unwise  compliance  of  composers, 
and  which  had  rendered  it  wearisome  and  ridiculous, 
instead  of  being,  as  it  once  was,  the  grandest  and  most 
imposing  stage  of  modem  times.  I  endeavoured  to  reduce 
music  to  its  proper  function,  that  of  seconding  poetry  by 
enforcing  the  expression  of  the  sentiment,  and  the  interest 
of  the  situations,  without  interrupting  the  action,  or 

1  Gluck  w&s  the  first  to  Introdace  cymbals  and  the  '  Grosse  calsse* 
or  big  drum  into  the  orchestra.  Wagner  too  is  accused  of  multiplying 
noise  and  instruments. 


'  weakening  it  by  superfluous  ornament.    My  idea  was 
I  that  the  relation  of  music  to  poetry  was  much  the  same 
1  as  that  of  harmonious  colouring  and  well-disposed  light 
j  and  shade  to  an  accurate  drawing,  which  animates  the 
figures  without  altering  their  outlines.    I  have  therefore 
I  been  very  careful  never  to  interrupt  a  singer  in  the  heat 
'  of  a  dialogue  in  order  to  introduce  a  tedious  ritomelle, 
•  nor  to  stop  him  in  the  middle  of  a  piece  either  for  the 
purpose  of  displaying  the  flexibility  of  his  voice  on  some 
favourable  vowel,  or  that  the  orchestra  might  give  him 
j  time  to  take  breath  before  a  long-sustained  note. 

'Furthermore,  I  have  not  thought  it  right  to  hurry 
'  through  the  second  part  of  a  song  if  the  words  happened 
I  to  be  the  most  important  of  the  whole,  in  order  to  repeat 
i  the  first  part  regularly  four  times  over ;  or  to  finish  the 
j  air  where  the  sense  does  not  end  in  order  to  allow  the 
singer  to  exhibit  his  power  of  varying  the  passage  at 
'  pleasure.  In  fact,  my  object  was  to  put  an  end  to  abuses 
j  against  which  good  taste  and  good  sense  have  long  pro- 
tested in  vain. 

I     '  iVIy  idea  was  that  the  overture  ought  to  indicate  the 

I  subject  and  prepare  the  spectators  for  the  character  of  the 
piece  they  are  about  to  see ;  that  the  instruments  ought 
to  be  introduced  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  interest 
and  passion  in  the  words;  and  that  it  was  necessary 
above  all  to  avoid  making  too  great  a  disparity  between 
the  recitative  and  the  air  of  a  dialogite,  so  as  not  to  break 
the  sense  of  a  i)eriod  or  awkwardly  interrupt  the  move- 
ment and  animation  of  a  scene.   I  also  thought  that  my 

]  chief  endeavour  should  be  to  attain  a  grand  simplicity. 

!  and  consequently  I  have  avoided  making  a  parade  of 
difficulties  at  the  cost  of  clearness ;  I  have  set  no  value 
on  novelty  as  such,  unless  it  was  naturally  suggested  by 
the  situation  and  suited  to  the  expression ;  in  short 
there  was  no  rule  which  I  did  not  consider  myself  bound 

!  to  sacrifice  for  the  sake  of  effect.' 

I     It  can  never  be  out  of  place  to  recall  such 
precepts  as  these — precepts  which  will  be  worth 
following  to  the  end  of  time.     Gluck  himself 
bore  them  carefully  in  mind  in  composing  his 
j  *  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,'  produced  in  Paris  (in  4 
acts)  with  immense  success  May  18,  1779.    It  is 
the  highest  and  most  complete  expression  of  his 
genius.    Amongst  its  many  beauties  must  be 
specified  the  air  of  Thoas ;  the  airs  '  Je  t'implore 
!  et  je  tremble'  (borrowed  from  *  Telemacco '), 
j  'O  malheureuse  Iphigenie'  (originally  written 
for  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito'),  'Unis  des  la  plus 
tendre  enfance,'  sung  by  Pylades  ;  and,  beyond 
all,  the  sleep  of  Orestes  —  the  heart-breaking 
remorse  of  the  deceitful  parricide,  the  spirited 
choruses,  and  the  barbarous  Scythian  dances. 
I  These  passages  all  glow  with  colour,  though  the 
i  means  by  which  the  effect  is  produced  are  of  the 
I  simplest  kind.  By  this  chef-d'oeuvre  Gluck  amply 
vindicated  his  superiority  over  Piccinni,  whose 
'Iphigenie  en  Tauride'  (Jan.  23, 1781)  could  not 
make  way  against  that  of  his  rival. 

The  last  work  which  Gluck  composed  for  the 
!  Opera  in  Paris  was  '  Echo  et  Narcisse '  (Sept. 
j  21,  1779).    Though  not  very  successful  it  was 
I  revived  in  August  1 780,  and  one  of  the  airs,  and 
the  'hymne  a  I'Amom-,'  have  since  been  intro- 
j  duced  into  '  Oi-phee.'    It  was  however  with  '  Les 
Danaides '  that  Gluck  intended  to  close  his  labo- 
rious career  ;  but  an  apoplectic  seizure  compelled 
him  to  relinquish  the  task,  and  he  transferred 
I  the  libretto  to  his  pupil  Salieri.   He  then  retired 
!  to  Vienna,  where  he  passed  his  last  years  in  the 
!  enjojonent  of  the  position  secured  by  his  fame 
I  and  his  large  fortune,  until  a  second  stroke  of 
I  apoplexy  carried  him  off,  Nov.  15,  1787  (not 

the  25th,  as  Fetis  states), 
j     The  authorities  for  this  sketch  of  Gluck's  career, 
j  and  for  the  notices  of  the  most  remarkable 
1  passages  in  his  operas,  are  various  historical 


604 


GLUCK. 


GODDARD. 


documents,  and  the  biographies  and  critiques  of 
Leblond,  F.  J.  Riedel  ('Ueber  die  Musik  des 
Ritters  Christoph  von  Gluck,  versehiedene  Schrif- 
ten,'  Vienna  1775),  Siegmeyer  ('Ueber  den 
Ritter  Gluck  und  seine  Werke,'  BerHn  1825), 
Miel,  Solie,  Anton  Schmid  ('  Chr.  W.  Ritter  von 
Gluck,'  Leipzig  1854),  Fdtis,  Hector  Berlioz  ('A 
travers  chants'),  Ad.  Adam  ('Demiers  Souve- 
nirs'), Desnoiresterres  ('Gluck  et  Piccinni,'  Paris, 
1872),  etc.  For  more  minute  details  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Schmid's  work,  which  is  most  complete 
as  regards  the  catalogue  of  Gluck's  compositions. 
To  his  list  must  be  added  the  magnificent  edition 
of  Mile.  Pelletan,  evidently  the  work  of  an 
ardent  admirer ;  of  which  the  full  scores  of  the 
two  'Iphigenies,'  with  a  portrait,  and  preface  in 
three  languages,  are  all  that  have  appeared  at 
present.  For  those  who  wish  to  study  the 
physiognomy  of  this  diplomatic  composer,  im- 
petuous artist,  and  amusingly  vain  man,  there 
are  the  engravings  of  Miger^  and  Sichling  from 
the  portrait  painted  by  Duplessis  in  1775?  Saint 
Aubin's  engraving  from  Houdon's  celebrated 
bust,  and  Philippeaux's  from  the  picture  painted 
by  Houdeville.  There  is  a  full-length  statue  of 
Gluck  by  Cavelier  at  the  new  Opera  House  in 
Paris.  Under  Miger's  portrait  are  the  words  of 
Pythagoras,  'He  preferred  the  Muses  to  the 
Sirens,'  words  applied  to  him  by  Wieland,  and, 
as  such,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  many  bitter 
remarks  of  earlier  German  critics. 

Before  summing  up  our  opinion  of  Gluck's 
works  as  a  whole,  we  have  only  to  remark  that, 
according  to  Fetis,  he  failed  in  symphony  proper, 
and  was  by  no  means  distinguished  as  a  com- 
poser of  sacred  music.  He  wrote  indeed  but 
little  for  the  church  ;  the  psalm  '  Domine,  Domi- 
nus  noster'  for  choir  and  orchestra,  a  'De  pro- 
fundis'  for  the  same  (engraved),  and  a  part  of 
the  cantata  *Le  Jugement  dernier,'  completed  by 
Salieri,  being  all  his  known  works  in  this  style. 

Gluck's  fame  therefore  rests  entirely  on  his 
dramatic  compositions.  Padre  Martini  said  that 
he  combined  in  the  musical  drama  '  all  the  finest 
qualities  of  Italian,  and  many  of  those  of  French 
music,  with  the  great  beauties  of  the  German 
orchestra '  —  in  other  words,  he  created  cos- 
mopolitan music.  He  was  not  satisfied  with 
introducing  a  correct  style  of  declamation,  and 
banishing  false  and  useless  ornaments  from  the 
stage ;  and  yet  if  he  had  merely  carried  to  per- 
fection the  work  begun  by  Lully  and  Rameau  ; 
if  his  eflForts  had  been  limited  to  removing  the 
harpsichord  from  the  orchestra,  introducing  the 
harp  and  trombones,  employing  the  clarinets, 
scoring  with  skill  and  effect,  giving  more  im- 
portance and  interest  to  the  overture,  and  em- 
ploying with  such  magic  effect  the  artifice  of 
momentary  pauses  to  vary  or  emphasise  speech 
in  music, — if  he  had  done  no  more  than  this  he 
would  have  earned  our  gratitude,  but  he  would 
not  in  that  case  have  been  one  of  the  monarchs 
of  art.    What  then  did  he  accomplish  that  was 

'  An  etching  of  this  by  Le  Eat  forms  the  frontispiece  to  Part  IV  of 
Lajarte's  admirable  "Bibliotheque  musicale  du  Tli^atre  de  I'Op^ra,' 
lii7& 


so  extraordinary  ?  He  grasped  the  idea  that  the 
mission  of  music  was  not  merely  to  afford  grati- 
fication to  the  senses,  and  he  proved  that  the 
expression  of  moral  qualities  is  within  her  reach. 
He  disdained  all  such  tricks  of  the  trade  as  do 
not  appeal  to  the  heart, — in  fact  he  'preferred 
the  Muses  to  the  Sirens.'  He  aimed  at  depicting 
historic  or  legendary  characters  and  antique  social 
life,  and  in  this  work  of  genius  he  put  into  the 
mouth  of  each  of  his  heroes  accents  suited  to 
their  sentiments,  and  to  the  spirit  of  the  times 
in  which  they  lived.  He  made  use  of  the  or- 
chestra to  add  to  the  force  of  a  dramatic  situa- 
tion, or  (in  one  noble  instance)  to  contrast 
external  repose  with  the  internal  agitation  of  a 
remorseful  conscience.  In  a  word,  all  his  French 
operas  show  him  to  have  been  a  noble  musician, 
a  true  poet,  and  a  deep  thinker. 

Like  Corneille  he  has  endowed  France  with  a 
series  of  sublime  tragedies ;  and  if  the  author  of 
'Le  Cid,'  'Les  Horaces,'  'Cinna,'  'Polyeucte,' 
and  'Pompee'  may  be  justly  reproached  with 
too  great  a  preference  for  Lucan  and  Seneca, 
there  is  perhaps  also  cause  for  regret  that  Gluck 
was  too  much  influenced  by  the  declamatory 
school  then  prevalent  in  France.  But,  like  the 
father  of  French  tragedy,  how  nobly  has  he 
redeemed  an  occasional  inflation  or  monotony,  a 
few  awkward  phrases,  or  trifling  inaccuracies  of 
style !  There  is  another  point  of  resemblance 
between  these  two  men,  whose  manly  genius 
was  reflective  rather  than  spontaneous  ;  all  their 
works  have  in  common  the  element  of  grandeur, 
but  they  differ  from  one  another  in  physiognomy, 
form,  and  character.  The  influence  of  such  Art 
as  theirs  is  anything  but  enervating ;  on  the  con- 
trary it  elevates  and  strengthens  the  mind,  and 
is  thus  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  caprices 
of  fashion  or  the  attacks  of  time.  [G-C] 

GLYN  &  PARKER  were  organ  builders  at 
Salford,  near  Manchester.  Their  instrimients 
date  from  1730  to  1749.  Amongst  them  is  the 
organ  at  Poynton,  Lancashire,  which  so  pleased 
Handel  that  he  ordered  Parker  to  build  one  for 
the  Foundling  Hospital  (1749).  [V.deP.] 

GODDARD,  Arabella,  the  most  distinguished 
of  EngKsh  pianoforte-players,  of  an  old  Salisbury 
family,  was  born  at  S,  Servans,  St.  Malo,  Jan.  1 2, 
1838,  at  the  age  of  six  was  placed  under  Kalk- 
brenner  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  had  a  few 
lessons  from  Mrs.  Anderson  and  from  Thalberg 
in  England.  She  made  her  first  appearance  in 
public  at  the  Grand  National  Concerts  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  of  which  Balfe  was  conductor, 
on  Oct.  23,  1850,  where  her  style  and  mechanism 
at  once  made  a  great  impression.  On  Thalberg's 
recommendation,  she  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  J.  W.  Davison,  who  led  her  to  the  study 
of  those  great  compositions,  many  of  which  she 
played  in  England  for  the  first  time.  On  April 
14,  1853,  she  made  her  debut,  and  at  once  fixed 
her  position  as  a  classical  player,  at  the  concert 
of  the  Quartet  Association,  in  Beethoven'simmense 
solo  sonata  in  Bb,  op.  106,  a  work  which  till  that 
moment  had  probably  not  been  performed  in 


GODDARD. 


GOD  SAVE  THE  KIXG 


605 


public  in  England,  but  which  she  played  without 
book.  The  winter  of  1854  and  the  whole  of  55 
were  passed  by  Miss  Goddard  in  Germany  and 
Italy.  She  carried  her  classical  repertoire  with 
her  ;  played  inter  alia  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concert 
Oct.  1855  ;  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by 
some  of  the  best  critics  of  Germany.  Eeturning 
to  this  country,  she  made  her  first  appearance  at 
the  Philharmonic  on  June  9,  1856,  in  Stemdale 
Bennett's  Concerto  in  C  minor  (then  in  MS.) ; 
at  the  Crystal  Palace  (in  Moscheles'  Concerto  in 
E)  on  March  13,  58,  and  at  the  Monday  Popular 
Concerts  on  March  9,  59. 

In  1857  and  58  Miss  Goddard  played  in 
London  all  the  last  sonatas  of  Beethoven  (from 
op.  loi  to  III) — at  that  time  almost  absolute 
novelties  to  most  of  her  hearers — as  well  as 
many  other  masterpieces  by  Clementi,  Dussek, 
Mozart,  ISIendelssohn,  and  other  masters,  either 
solo  or  with  accompaniment  of  stringed  instru- 
ments, in  addition  to  the  usual  classical  Con- 
certos, Trios,  Sonatas,  etc.  In  i860  she  married 
Mr.  Davison,  who,  as  already  stated,  was  her  real 
master  and  the  former  of  her  taste.  In  1873 
Madame  Goddard  left  this  country  for  a  length- 
ened tour  through  America,  Australia,  and  India, 
returning  in  the  autumn  of  76,  and  making  her 
first  reappearance  in  two  recitals  at  St.  James's 
Hall  on  Oct.  12  and  19.  [G.] 

GODFREY.  A  family  of  English  military 
band-masters.  Chaeles  Godfrey,  the  founder, 
was  bom  in  1 790  at  Kingston,  Surrey ;  in 
181 3  joined  the  Coldstreams  as  a  bassoon-player, 
and  soon  became  band-master,  a  post  which 
he  filled  with  honour  till  his  death,  Dec.  12, 
1863,  at  his  house  in  Vincent  Square,  West- 
minster, after  50  years'  service.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Musician  in  Ordinary  to  the  King  in 
1 83 1,  and  was  one  of  the  Court  of  Assistants 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians.  The  first 
journal  of  military  music  published  in  this 
country,  under  the  name  of  '  Jullien's  Journal,' 
was  arranged  by  Mr.  Godfrey.  His  three  sons 
were  educated  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
Daniel,  the  eldest,  was  bom  in  1831,  and  has 
been  band-master  of  the  Grenadier  Guards  since 
1856.  In  1872  he  took  his  band  to  the  United 
States — the  first  visit  of  an  English  military 
band  since  the  Independence.  He  is  well  known 
here  and  abroad  by  his  waltzes  for  military 
band — 'Guards,'  'Mabel,'  'Hilda,'  etc. 

The  second,  Adolphus  Feederick,  bom  in 
1837,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  Coldstreams,  and 
is  still  band-master  of  that  regiment.  Charles, 
the  third,  bom  in  1839,  joined  the  Scots  Fusiliers 
as  band-master  in  1859  and  left  that  regiment 
in  1868  for  a  similar  position  in  the  Royal  Horse 
Guards,  which  he  now  fills  (1878).  [G.] 

GOD  SAVE  THE  KING.  The  so-called 
'National  Anthem'  of  England,  a  tune  in  two 
sections,  the  first  of  6  bars,  the  second  of  8. 


God    save  our 


ble  Queea,  Long  live  our 


ous,  Hap-py  and  glor  -  i  -  ous.  Long  to  reign 


Queen. 


o    -    ver  us,       God    save  the 

O  Lord  our  God,  arise, 
Scatter  our  enemies. 

And  make  them  faU. 
Confound  their  politics. 
Frustrate  their  knavish  tricks. 
On  Thee  our  hopes  we  fix, 

God  save  us  all. 

Thy  choicest  gifts  in  store 
On  her  be  pleased  to  pour, 

Long  may  she  reign. 
May  she  defend  our  laws, 
And  ever  give  us  cause 
To  sing  with  heart  and  voice, 

God  save  the  Queen. 

Its  first  public  performance  is  stated  to  have 
been  at  a  dinner  in  1 740  to  celebrate  the  taking 
of  Portobello  by  Admiral  Vernon  (Nov.  20, 1 739), 
when  it  is  said  to  have  been  sung  by  Henry 
Carey  as  his  own  composition,  both  words  and 
music.  The  nearest  known  copy  to  that  date  is 
that  in  the  'Harmonia  Anglicana'  of  1742  or  43, 
as  follows^.  It  is  marked  'for  two  voices,'  but 
we  give  the  melody  only. 


God    save    our    Lord      the  King,  Long  live 


no  -  ble  King,  God  save    the  King! 


Send   him  vie 


tor  -  i  -  ous,  Hap-py  and  glor  -  i  -  ous,  Long  to 


o    -    ver  us,      God  save     the  King. 
O  Lord  our  God,  arise, 
Scatter  his  enemies, 

And  make  them  fall. 
Confound  their  politicks. 
Frustrate  their  knavish  tricks, 
On  him  our  hopes  are  fix'd, 

O  save  us  alL 

This  is  the  nearest  we  can  arrive  at  to  the 
original  form  of  the  air  and  words,  and  both  will 
be  found  somewhat  difi'erent  from  those  with 
which  we  are  familiar.  The  fact  that  Henry 
Carey  was  the  author  of  both  is  testified  to 
by  J.  Christopher  Smith,  Handel's  amanuensis, 
and  by  Dr.  Harington  ;  but  for  the  evidence  the 
reader  must  be  referred  to  Mr.  Chappell's  full 
statement  in  his  'Popular  Music,'  pp.  694,  5, 
and  to  Chrysander's  'Jahrbiicher'  (i.  287-407). 
In  1745  it  became  publicly  known  by  being 
sung  at  the  theatres  as  'a  loyal  song  or  anthem' 
during  the  Scottish  Rebellion.  The  Pretender 
was  proclaimed  at  Edinburgh  Sept.  16,  and  the 
first  appearance  of  'God  save  the  King'  was  at 
Drury  Lane,  Sept.  28.  For  a  month  or  so  it 
was  much  sung  at  both  Covent  Garden  and 

I  See  ChappeU's  'Popular  Music,'  ii.  704. 


606 


GOD  SAVE  THE  KING. 


GOD  SAVE  THE  KING. 


Drury  Lane ;  Bumey  harmonised  it  for  the 
former,  and  Arne  for  the  latter.  Both  words  and 
music  were  printed,  the  latter  in  their  present 
form,  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  Oct.  1745. 

How  far  God  save  the  King  was  compiled 
from  older  airs  will  probably  never  be  known. 
Several  exist  with  a  certain  resemblance  to  the 
modem  tune. 

1.  An  'Ayre,'  without  further  title,  at  p.  98 
of  a  MS.  book  attributed  to  'Dr.  Jan  Bull,'  and 
dated  1619.  The  MS.,  formerly  in  possession  of 
Pepusch  and  of  Kitchener,  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  Mrs.  Clark,  who  refuses  to  allow  it  to  be  seen, 
but  the  following  is  copied  from  a  transcript  of 
Sir  G.  Smart's^:— 


This  is  in  2  strains  of  6  and  8  bars,  and  besides 
■'ts  general  likeness  it  has  both  the  rhythm  and 
the  melody  of  the  modern  air  in  the  first  four 
bars  of  the  second  strain  ;  but  the  minor  mode 
makes  an  essential  difference  in  the  effect. 

A  piece  entitled  '  God  save  the  King '  occurs 
in  the  same  MS.,  p.  66,  but  this  is  founded  on 
the  phrase 

Ji2. 


and  has  no  resemblance  whatever  to  the  national 
melody. 

2.  A  Scotch  carol,  '  Remember,  0  thou  man,' 
in  Ravenscroft's  'Melismata,'  161 1. 


-  mem-ber, 


thou  man,     O       thou  man, 


O    thou  man,  Kemember,    O  thou  man,  thy  time  is  spent. 


And     I      did    what      I    can,    there  -  fore  re  -  pent. 

This  is  the  air  on  the  ground  of  which  •  God 
save  the  King'  is  sometimes  claimed  for  Scotland. 
It  is  in  2  strains  of  8  bars  each,  and  has  the 
rhythm  and  melody  of  the  modern  tune  in  the 
first  and  third  bars  of  the  second  strain.  But  it 
is  in  minor. 

3.  A  ballad,  'Franklin  is  fled  away'  (first 
printed  in  1669). 

>  Printed  by  Mr.  Cummlngs  CMus.  Times,  May  1878).  The  sharps 
there  given  are  omitted  from  the  signature  ;  as  Mr.  Cummings  surmisej, 
With  great  probability,  that  they  were  added  after  Bull's  time. 


In  whom  my    joys      do  end,     0     hone,    0      hone ! 


Franklin,  my  heart's  delight,  since  last    he     took    his  flight. 


Bids  now  the   world  good  night,  O    hone,     O  hone! 

4.  A  piece  in  '  A  choice  Collection  of  Lessons 
for  the  Harpsichord  or  Spinnet,  composed  by  the 
late  Mr.  Henry  Purcell,'  1696. 


Here  the  similarity  is  confined  to  the  recurring 
rhythm  in  the  first  and  third  bars  of  each  section. 

Thus  the  rhythm  and  phrases  of  God  save  the 
King,  and  even  the  unequal  length  of  the  two 
strains  (its  most  essential  peculiarity),  had  all 
existed  before.  So  also  did  some  of  the  phrases 
of  the  words.  *God  save  the  king'  is  found  in 
the  English  Bible  (Coverdale,  I535)>  and  as  the 
phrase  is  in  no  sense  a  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
words,  which  literally  are  'Let  the  king  live,' 
it  seems  to  follow  that  the  phrase  must  have 
been  employed  in  the  translation  as  one  familiar 
to  English  readers.  Mr.  Froude  has  also  quoted  a 
watchword  of  the  navy  as  early  as  1 545 — '  God  save 
the  king,'  with  the  countersign  '  Long  to  reign 
over  us'  (Hist.  chap.  22).  'God  save  King 
James'  is  the  refi-ain  of  a  ballad  of  1606 ;  and 
God  save  Charles  the  king,  Our  royal  Roy,  Grant 
him  long  to  reign,  In  peace  and  joy,'  is  the  open- 
ing of  another  ballad  dating  probably  from  1645. 

Both  words  and  tune  have  been  considerably 
antedated.  They  have  been  called  'The  very 
worf'S  and  music  of  an  old  anthem  that  was  sung 
at  St.  James's  Chapel  for  King  James  the 
Second'  (Victor's  letter,  Oct.  1745).  Dr.  Ame 
is  reported  to  have  said  that  it  was  a  received 
opinion  that  it  was  written  for  the  Catholic 
Chapel  of  James  11.  This  is  the  date  given  it 
by  Bumey  in  Rees's  Cyclopaedia  (Chappell,  694), 
and  Dr.  Benjamin  Cooke  had  heard  it  sung  to 
the  words  'Great  James  oinr  King.'  But  Dr. 
Cooke  was  not  bom  till  1734,  and  his  'James' 
must  have  been  (James  III. )  the  Pretender.  And 
as  to  the  Catholic  Chapel  of  James  II,  to  have 
been  sung  there  it  must  surely  have  been  in 
Latin,  of  which  certainly  no  traces  are  found. 

Lully's  (1633-87)  claim  to  the  'God  save,' some- 
times put  forward,  rests  on  the  '  Souvenirs  de  la 
Marquise  de  Cr^qui,'  which  is  now  known  to  be 


GOD  SAVE  THE  KING. 


GOLDMAEK. 


607 


a  mere  modem  fiction.  The  tune  however  quickly 
crossed  the  Channel,  It  is  found  in  'La  Lire 
Ma9onne . . .  de  VignoUes  et  du  Bois ...  a  la  Haye' 
as  early  as  1 766,  and  it  is  worth  noting  that  Hhe 
first  bar  has  there  taken  its  present  form,  and 
that  the  close  is  as  follows  : — 


It  was  employed  as  the  Danish  National  Air,  to 
words  which  afterwards  became  '  Heil  dir  im 
Siegerkranz  ! '  (Flensburger  Wochenblatt,  Jan. 
27,  1790.)  As  a  Berlin  'Volkslied'  the  words 
first  appeared  in  the  '  Spenersche  Zeitung,'  Dec. 
17,  1793,  and  both  words  and  music  have  since 
become  the  Prussian  and  German  National  Air. 

Mr.  Chappell  has  quoted  more  than  one  addi- 
tional occasional  stanza  as  well  as  parody  of 
*God  save  the  King.'  But  perhaps  none  are  so 
curious  as  the  extra  stanza  which  is  said  to  have 
been  sung  at  Calais  at  the  banquet  given  in 
honour  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  when,  as  Lord 
High  Admiral  of  England,  he  took  Louis  XVIIL 
across  the  Channel : — 

God  save  noble  Clarence, 

"Who  brings  her  king  to  France, 
God  save  Clarence ! 

He  maintains  the  glory 

Of  the  British  navy, 

O  God  make  him  happy  I 
God  save  Clarence ! 
The  tune  was  a  great  favourite  with  Weber. 
He  has  introduced  it  into  his  Cantata  'Kampf 
und  Sieg'  (No.  9)  and  his  '  Jubel  Overture,'  and 
has  twice  harmonised  it  for  4  voices— in  D  and 
Bb  (both  MS.— Jahns,  Nos.  247,  271).^  With 
Beethoven  it  was  at  least  equally  a  favourite.  He 
wrote  7  variations  on  it  for  Piano  (in  C;  1804), 
and  has  introduced  it  into  his  Battle  Symphony ; 
and  k  propos  to  the  latter  the  following  words 
are  found  in  his.  journal :  *  I  must  shew  the 
English  a  little  what  a  blessing  they  have  in 
God  save  the  King'  (Nohl,  ' Beethoven-Feier,' 
p.  55).  Our  own  Attwood  harmonised  it  in 
his  anthem  *I  was  glad'  for  the  coronation  of 
George  IV,  as  he  did  '  Eule  Britannia '  for  the 
coronation  of  William  IV. 

Since  these  pages  were  in  print  Mr.  Cummings 
has  published  an  investigation  of  the  subject  in 
the  Musical  Times  (March  to  August,  1878) 
more  complete  than  any  preceding  it.  I  have 
only  been  able  to  avail  myself  of  his  copy  of 
Bull's  Ayre,  and  must  refer  my  readers  to  the 
Musical  Times  for  the  rest.  [G.] 
GOETZ,  Hermann,  bom  at  Konigsberg,  Dec. 
17,  1840,  died  at  Hottingen,  Zurich,  Dec.  3, 
1876,  a  composer  of  some  performance  and 
greater  promise.  Though  evidencing  great 
musical  ability  at  an  early  age,  he  did  not 
receive  any  regular  instruction  till  he  was  17. 
After  passing  some  time  at  the  University  of 
Konigsberg,  he  at  length  decided  on  a  musical 
career,  and  placed  himself  at  the  school  of  Stein 
at  Berlin,  where  he  was  the  pupil  of  Bulow  in 
playing  and  Ulrich  in  composition.  In  63  he 
succeeded  Kirchner  as  organist  at  Winterthur, 

I  If  the  tune  is  alike  in  tlie  1st  and  2nd  (1775)  editions.  See  lappert 
In  Mus,  Wochenblatt,  Aug.  31, 1877, 


supporting  himself  also  by  teaching,  and  em- 
bracing any  musical  work  that  fell  in  his  way. 
Meantime  he  was  engaged  in  the  composition 
of  an  opera  adapted  by  J,  V,  Widmann  from 
The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  and  entitled  *Der 
Widerspiinstigen  Zahmung,'  It  was,  after  much 
delay  and  many  disappointments  (not  unnatural 
with  the  first  work  of  an  unknown  composer), 
produced  at  Mannheim  Oct,  11,  1874.  Its 
success,  however,  was  great  and  rapid ;  it  was 
played  at  Vienna  (Feb.  75),  Leipzig,  Berlin, 
and  a  dozen  other  towns  in  Germany,  and  has 
recently  (1878)  been  published  in  English  (Auge- 
ner.  For  a  full  analysis  of  the  work  see  the 
M.  Mus.  Record  for  1S78).  It  was  followed  by  a 
Symphony  in  F,  also  successful,  and  by  a  second 
opera,  'Francesca  di  Rimini'  (Mannheim,  Sept. 
30, 1877).  This,  however,  was  not  finished  when 
its  author,  long  a  prey  to  ill  health,  died,  as  al- 
ready stated.  The  first  two  acts  were  finished, 
and  the  third  fully  sketched  ;  it  has  been  com- 
pleted, in  compliance  with  Goetz's  last  request, 
by  his  friend  Franck,  and  produced  at  Mann- 
heim, Sept.  30,  1877.  Besides  the  above  works 
Goetz  has  published  a  P.  F.  trio,  a  quartet,  and 
various  Pianoforte  pieces.  [G.] 

GOLDBERG,  Johann  Gottlieb  2,  the  dates 
and  places  of  whose  birth  and  death  are  un- 
known, was  a  pupil  of  Sebastian  Bach,  and 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  players  on  clavier 
and  organ  of  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 
He  was  brought  to  Bach  from  Konigsberg  by 
Count  Kaiserling,  the  Russian  ambassador,  of 
whose  establishment  he  appears  to  have  been  a 
member.  Bach  held  him  up  as  his  cleverest  and 
most  industrious  pupil,  and  with  reason,  for  to 
immense  executive  power  he  joined  an  extra- 
ordinary facility  of  improvisation,  and  of  playing 
the  most  difl&cult  music  at  sight.  His  works  (as 
named  by  Gerber)  are  not  important,  and  remain 
in  MS. : — a  Motet  and  a  Psalm  for  voices  and 
orchestra  ;  Preludes  and  Fugues  ;  24  Polonaises 
with  Variations  ;  2  Concertos  ;  a  Sonata,  and  a 
few  Trios  for  Flute,  Violin,  and  Bass — all  ex- 
hibiting a  certain  melancholy,  and  strong  indi- 
viduality. During  the  Seven  Years  War  (1756- 
63)  he  was  '  Kammer-musikus'  to  Count  Briihl. 
Bach's  Thirty  Variations  were  written  for  Gold- 
berg at  the  request  of  Count  Kaiserling  (in 
exchange  for  a  golden  goblet  and  100  louis  d'or), 
and  he  was  accustomed  to  play  them  nightly  to 
the  Count  to  lull  him  to  sleep.  They  are  some- 
times known  as  the  Goldberg  Variations.  [G.] 

GOLDMARK,  Kakl,  born  May  18,  1832,  at 
Keszthely  on  the  Flatten  See,  Hungary,  of 
Hebrew  parents.  Was  a  pupil  of  Jansa,  the 
violinist,  at  Vienna,  and  in  47  entered  the 
Violin  and  Harmony  classes  of  the  Conservato- 
rium  there.  His  studies  however  were  inter- 
rupted by  the  revolution  of  48,  and  he  probably 
owes  more  to  his  own  perseverance  than  to  the 
schools.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  chiefly  in 
Vienna,  excepting  a  short  residence  at  Pesth. 
Hellmesberger  acted  as  a  good  friend,  and  gave 

2  There  seems  to  be  some  uncertainty  whether  these  names  are  cor- 
\  rect. 


608 


GOLDMAEK. 


GOMBERT. 


him  opportunities  of  hearing  his  chamber  music 
performed,  and  he  produced  orchestral  and  choral 
works  at  various  concerts  on  his  own  account. 
His  overture  Sacuntala,  his  grand  opera  Die 
Konigin  von  Saba,  produced  at  Vienna  March 
lo,  1875,  and  more  recently  his  so-called  sym- 
phony 'Die  landliche  Hochzeit'  (the  country 
wedding),  have  been  much  played,  and  have  given 
Goldmark  a  more  or  less  European  reputation. 

He  has  published  several  overtures  and  a 
Scherzo  for  Orchestra,  a  quintet  and  a  quartet 
for  Strings,  Pianoforte  pieces,  and  various  Songs. 
The  '  Country  Wedding '  was  played  by  Charles 
Halle  at  Liverpool  Nov.  27,  1877,  and  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  March  2,  1878.  [G.] 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  Otto,  pianist,  composer, 
and  conductor,  born  Aug.  21,  1829,  at  Hamburg, 
where  his  father  and  grandfather  resided  as  mer- 
chants ;  studied  the  piano  and  harmony  under 
Jacob  Schmitt  and  F.  W.  Grund.  At  the  age 
of  14  he  entered  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium, 
where  amongst  his  fellow  students  were  Joachim 
and  von  Billow.  From  1843  to  46  he  studied  the 
piano  and  composition  as  a  pupil  in  Mendels- 
sohn's class.  In  1 848  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  with 
the  view  of  continuing  his  studies  under  Chopin, 
whose  acquaintance  he  made,  and  was  present 
at  the  last  concert  given  by  him  in  the  Salle 
Pleyel.  He  came  to  England  in  1848,  and 
in  the  following  year  played  at  the  Musical 
Union,  and  at  a  concert  of  Mile.  Lind's  at  H.  M. 
Theatre.  In  1851  he  went  to  Aitnerica,  succeed- 
ing Mr.  Benedict  as  conductor  of  a  series  of 
concerts  given  by  Mile.  Lind.  He  married  that 
lady  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  on  Feb.  5,  1852.  From 
52  to  November  55  he  and  his  wife  resided  at 
Dresden,  and  since  58  have  lived  in  or  near 
London.  He  conducted  the  Festivals  held  at 
Diisseldorf  and  Hamburg  in  1863  and  66,  and  in 
63  was  appointed  Vice-Principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  then  presided  over  by  Sir 
Sterndale  Bennett,  with  whom  he  edited  'The 
Chorale  Book  for  England,'  a  collection  of 
Chorales  set  to  translations  of  German  hymns 
by  Miss  C.  Winkworth  (Longmans,  1863).  He 
composed  the  Oratorio  *  Ruth '  for  the  Hereford 
Festival  of  1867,  and  it  was  subsequently  per- 
formed in  London,  Diisseldorf,  and  Hamburg. 
He  wrote  additional  accompaniments  for  Han- 
del's 'Allegro'  and  'Penseroso,'  as  well  as  for 
the  'Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day,'  and  introduced 
these  works  for  the  first  time  in  their  entirety  to 
English  and  German  audiences  since  Handel's 
death.  In  1875  the  Bach  Choir,  an  association 
of  amateurs,  was  formed  under  his  direction.  At 
its  first  concert  on  April  26,  76,  Bach's  Mass  in 
B  minor,  with  additional  accompaniments  by  Mr. 
Goldschmidt,  was  performed  for  the  first  time  in 
England.  The  marked  success  of  that  perform- 
ance, and  the  subsequent  prosperity  of  the  Choir, 
are  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  earnestness  and 
devotion  of  the  conductor.  Besides  his  Oratorio 
Mr.  Goldschmidt  has  published  a  Pianoforte  Con- 
certo ;  a  ditto  Trio ;  Pianoforte  Studies ;  Songs, 
and  Part-songs.  In  1861  he  was  elected  Hono- 
rary Member  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  in  64 


a  Member  of  the  Swedish  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  in  76  the  King  of  Sweden  conferred 
on  him  the  Royal  Order  of  Wasa.  [A.D.C.] 

GOLD  WIN,  John,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  William 
Child.  On  April  12,  1697,  he  was  appointed 
successor  to  his  master  as  organist  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor.  In  1 703  he  became  also  master 
of  the  choristers.  He  died  Nov.  7,  1719.  His 
Service  in  F  is  printed  in  Arnold's  Cathedral 
Music,  and  Boyce  and  Page  also  printed  some 
of  his  anthems  ;  others  remain  in  MS,  in  Tud- 
way  and  at  Ely  Cathedral,  where  he  is  entered 
as  Golding,  '  I  have  set  God — Goldwin '  is  a 
very  favourite  little  anthem  at  cathedrals, 
melodious  and  agreeable.  [W,  H,  H.] 

GOLTERMANN,  Geoeg  Eduaed,  a  player 
and  composer  on  the  cello  of  some  eminence, 
whose  name  is  occasionally  seen  in  concert  pro- 
grammes, born  in  Hanover  1825,  and  educated 
there  and  in  Munich.  He  has  held  posts  in 
Wflrzburg  and  in  Frankfort,  where  he  is  now 
residing,  and  where  on  May  I,  1878,  he  cele- 
brated his  25th  anniversary  as  conductor.  His 
concerto  and  other  contributions  to  the  repertoire 
of  the  cello  are  of  value,  since  though  not  of  great 
originality  they  are  thoroughly  well  written  for 
the  instrument,  pleasing,  and  effective.  Another 
Goltermann — Louis,  bom  also  in  1825,  but  in 
Hamburg,  and  apparently  no  relation  to  the 
former — was  for  some  time  Professor  of  the  Cello 
at  Prague  and  afterwards  a  member  of  the  court 
band  at  Stuttgart.  [G.] 

GOMBERT,  Nicolas,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  prolific  composers  of  the  i6th  century, 
was  born  at  Bruges,  as  we  learn  from  the  title- 
page  of  his  motets,  and  was  attached  to  the 
service  of  Charles  V,  though  in  what  exact  ca- 
pacity is  not  known.  That  Josquin  was  his  master 
is  testified  by  Hermann  Finck  in  his  'Practica 
Musica,'  and  M.  Fdtis  has  given  us  the  quotation 
from  the  copy  of  this  rare  work  in  his  possession. 
•  Nostro  vere  tempore'  (the  book  was  published 
in  1556)  'novi  sunt  inventores,  in  quibus  est 
Nicolaus  Gombert,  Jusquini  pise  memoriae  disci- 
pulus,  qui  omnibus  musicis  ostendit  viam,  imo 
semitam  ad  quserendas  fugas  ac  subtilitatem,  ac 
est  author  musices  plane  diversse  a  superiori.  Is 
enim  vitat  pausas,'  et  illius  compositio  est  plena 
cum  concordantiarum  tum  fugarum.'  Gombert 
set  to  music  a  poem  by  Avidius  on  the  death 
of  Josquin,  which  was  also  set  by  Benedictus. 
Burney  gives  us  the  music  of  this,  but  '  after 
performing  the  tedious  task  of  scoring  the 
setting  by  Gombert,  found  its  chief  merit  to 
consist  in  imitations  of  his  master.'  A  great 
merit  nevertheless,  for  Gombert,  a  mere  lad 
when  Josquin  died,  persevered  in  his  imitations 
so  successfully  that  he  not  only  came  to  be 
looked  upon  as  his  master's  greatest  pupil,  but 
was  able  in  due  time,  and  when  his  own  genius 
became  mature,  to  engrave  his  name  on  a  separate 
link  in  the  chain  of  musical  history.  In  the 
hands  of  his  predecessors,  in  Josquin's  especially, 

I  The  Introduction  of  frequent  pauses  had  become  very  common  In 
music.  I'hilip  Basiron  is  censured  for  Riving  way  to  this  'fasniouablo 
folly '  (Burney,  vol.  11.  p.  533). 


GOMBERT. 


GOODGROOME.  609 


contrapuntal  skill  had  already  become  subser- 
vient to  the  beauty  of  the  music.  A  further  im- 
provement was  making  itself  visible  in  the  art. 
Composers  began  more  and  more  to  vary  the  cha- 
racter of  their  music  according  to  the  subject  of 
the  words.  No  one  worked  with  this  end  more  in 
view  than  Gombert,  and  nothing  helped  him  so 
much  as  the  increasing  love  for  secular  chamber 
music.  Musicians  of  his  time,  far  from  looking 
down  upon  secular  music,  were  beginning  to  make 
it  one  of  their  great  specialities.  It  gave  them 
full  scope  for  their  fancy,  they  were  hampered 
by  no  prescribed  forms,  they  had  no  prejudices 
to  overcome.  It  gave  them  free  access  and  wel- 
come into  half  the  educated  homes  in  Europe. 
Gombert  seems  to  delight  in  it.  He  chooses 
the  prettiest  pastoral  subjects,  and  sets  them  to 
descriptive  music,  and  while  the  birds  are  dis- 
coursing the  pleasures  of  Spring  in  notes  imitating 
their  natural  language,  while  shepherd  and 
shepherdess  sing  of  love  and  the  wolf  meantime 
attacks  their  flock,  or  while  all  the  stirring 
incidents  of  the  'chasse  k  courre'  are  vividly 
depicted  to  us,  there  is  no  extravagance,  only  the 
simple  happy  treatment  which  our  own  Haydn 
or  Mozart  would  have  employed  when  in  such 
a  mood.  Gombert's  love  for  nature  is  apparent 
in  the  very  titles  of  his  songs — '  En  ce  mois 
delicieux ' ;  'J oyeux  verger ' ;  ' Le  chant  des 
oiseaux ' ;  '  L'et^  chaud  bouilloit ' ;  *  Je  m'en 
vois  au  vert  bois,'  etc.  His  power  of  description 
he  carries  into  all  the  higher  forms  of  his  art, 
and  his  motets  and  psalms  were  not,  in  their  time, 
surpassed  for  the  wonderful  manner  in  which  the 
noble  music  blends  itself  with  the  ideas  the 
words  convey.  Gombert  has  had  one  piece  of 
good  fortune  in  the  last  three  centuries,  of  which 
few  of  his  contemporaries  can  boast.  One  of  his 
motets,  the  '  Pater  Noster,'  has  been  performed. 
M.  Fdtis  tells  us  of  the  profound  impression  it 
created  on  the  Paris  audience  at  one  of  his 
historical  concerts. — Eitner's  Bibliographic  der 
Musik - Sammelwerke  (Berlin,  1877)  mentions 
nearly  250  of  Gombert's  compositions,  printed  in 
upwards  of  90  different  collections  between  1529 
and  1573.  A  single  motet,  'In  nomine  Jesu,' 
printed  26  years  before  any  of  these  under  the 
name  Gompert  in  the  Motetti  B  (Venice,  Pe- 
trucci,  1 503)  must  surely  be  the  work  of  another 
composer.  [J.  R.  S.  B.] 

GOMEZ,  A,  Carlos,  a  Portuguese  by  parent- 
age and  a  Brazilian  by  birth,  was  born  at  Com- 
pinos  July  ii,  1S39,  was  sent  to  Europe  by  the 
Emperor,  and  received  his  musical  education  at 
the  Conservatorio  of  Milan.  His  d^but  as  a 
composer  was  made  at  the  Teatro  Fossati  in 
Jan.  67  in  a  little  piece  called  *  Se  sa  minga,' 
which  had  a  remarkable  success.  His  next  was 
'II  Guarany,'  produced  at  La  Scala  March  19, 
1870,  and  shortly  after  brought  out  at  Genoa, 
Florence,  and  Rome.  In  this  country  it  was 
first  performed  on  July  13,  1872,  at  Co  vent 
Garden.  This  was  followed  by  'Fosca'  at  the 
Scala,  which  was  unsuccessful ;  and  that  by 
'Salvator  Rosa'  (Genoa,  Feb.  21,  74),  again 
unsucceesful.   Besides  these  operas  Seuor  Gomez 


composed  an  ode  entitled  '  II  Saluto  del  Brasile,' 
which  was  performed  in  the  Exhibition  Building 
at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  Gomez's  music  is  fuU 
of  spirit  and  picturesque  effect,  and  is  therefore 
popular,  but  it  is  wanting  in  originality,  and  too 
obviously  indebted  to  Verdi  and  Meyerbeer. 
The  best  parts  of  II  Guarany — a  Brazilian  story — 
are  said  to  have  been  those  which  are  concerned 
with  native  subjects.  [G.] 

GONG.  (Fr.  Tam-tam,  from  the  Indian  name.) 
This  is  a  Chinese  instrument,  made  of  bronze  (80 
copper  to  20  tin)  ;  in  form,  a  thin  round  plate 
with  the  edges  turned  up,  like  a  shallow  sieve 
or  tambourine.  It  is  struck  with  a  stick,  ending 
in  a  large  padded  leather  knob.  The  effect  pro- 
duced is  an  awful  crash  or  clang,  which  adds  con- 
siderably to  the  horrors  of  a  melodramatic  scene. 
Meyerbeer  has  even  used  it  pianissimo  with  the 
orchestra,  in  'Robert  le  Diable'  (scene  of  the  re- 
surrection of  the  nuns) ;  and  Cherubini  has  one 
stroke  of  it  in  his  Requiem  in  C  minor,  absolutely 
solo  (Dies  irse,  bar  7).  If  a  long-continued  and 
loud  noise  is  desired,  it  should  first  be  struck  very 
gently,  and  the  force  of  the  stroke  gradually  in- 
creased until  the  effect  becomes  almost  terrific. 

It  is  a  remarkable  property  of  the  alloys  of 
copper  and  tin,  that  they  become  malleable  by 
being  heated  and  then  plunged  into  cold  water. 
Gongs  are  thus  treated  after  being  cast,  and  are 
then  hammered.  This  was  a  secret  in  Europe 
until  found  out  some  years  ago  by  M.  d'Arcet, 
an  eminent  French  chemist.  [V.  de  P.] 

GOODBAN,  Thomas,  was  bom  at  Canterbury 
about  1 780.  His  mother  was  a  vocalist,  and  his 
father  combined  the  three  qualifications  of  violin- 
ist, lay  vicar  of  the  cathedral,  and  host  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  tavern,  where  in  1 779  he  founded 
the  Canterbury  Catch  Club.  At  seven  years  old 
Goodban  became  a  chorister  of  the  cathedral 
under  Samuel  Porter.  After  leaving  the  choir 
he  was  placed  in  a  solicitor's  ofiice,  but  on  his 
father's  death,  about  1798,  changed  the  legal 
profession  for  that  of  music.  In  1809  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  lay  clerk  in  the  cathedral,  and  in  18 10, 
on  the  retirement  of  his  cousin,  Osmond  Saffrey, 
was  made  leader  and  director  of  the  Catch  Club. 
In  1 81 9  the  members  of  the  club  presented  him 
with  a  silver  bowl  and  salver  as  a  token  of  esteem. 

Goodban  was  author  of  some  instruction  books 
for  the  violin  and  pianoforte,  and  of  'The  Rudi- 
ments of  Music,'  published  about  1825,  a  work 
once  highly  popular.  He  was  also  the  inventor 
of  a  'Musical  Game'  for  imparting  elementary 
instruction,  and  of  '  Musical  Cards '  for  teaching 
the  theory  of  music.  He  died  in  his  79th  year. 
May  4,  1863,  leaving  three  sons,  all  members 
of  the  musical  profession,  viz.  Charles,  Mus. 
Bac.  Oxon.  (now  retired  from  practice),  Henry 
William,  violoncellist,  and  Thomas,  viola-player. 
His  nephew,  James  Frederic,  is  a  violinist,  and 
organist  of  St.  John's,  Paddington.     [W.  H.  H.] 

GOODGROOME,  John,  born  about  1630, 
was  a  chorister  in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 
On  the  accession  of  Charles  II  in  1660  he  was 
appointed  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on 

Rr 


610  GOODGROOME. 


GOSS. 


Nov,  28,  1664,  on  the  death  of  Purcell's  father, 
was  made  Musician  in  Ordinary  to  the  King. 
He  composed  several  songs,  some  of  which  ap- 
peared in  'The  Treasury  of  Musick,'  1669,  and 
died  June  27,  1704.  A  John  Goodgroome, 
probably  his  son,  was  organist  of  St.  Peter's, 
Cornhill,  about  1725,  Theodore  Goodgroome, 
the  singing-master  of  Samuel  Pepys  and  his  wife, 
was  probably  his  brother.  [W.  H.  H.] 

GOODSON,  EiCHARD,  Mus.  Bac,  on  July  19, 
1682,  succeeded  Edward  Lowe  as  organist  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  Professor  of  Music 
in  the  University.  Some  Odes  composed  by  him 
for  performance  at  the  Acts  at  Oxford  are  still 
extant.  He  died  Jan.  13,  1718.  His  son, 
BiCHAKD,  Mus.  Bac,  was  the  first  organist  of 
Newbury,  to  which  post  he  was  appointed  August 
24,  1709.  He  graduated  Mus.  Bac.  March  I, 
1 716.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  succeeded 
him  in  both  posts,  and  was  also  organist  of  New 
College.    He  died  Jan.  9, 1 741 .         [W.  H.  H.] 

GORDIGIANI,  LuiGi,  the  son  of  one  musician 
(Antonio)  and  the  younger  brother  of  another 
(Giovanni  Battista),  has  been  called  the  Italian 
Schubert.  He  was  born  at  Modena  June  21, 
1806.  His  musical  education  was  most  desul- 
tory, but  his  talent  was  great,  and  while  still 
in  his  teens  he  had  written  three  Cantatas.  In 
1820  his  father  died,  and  he  was  forced  to 
make  a  living  by  writing  pianoforte  pieces  under 
such  German  noms  de  plume  as  Zeuner  and 
Von  Fiirstenberger.  His  start  in  life  was  due 
to  two  Russian  princes,  Nicholas  Demidoff  and 
Joseph  Poniatowski,  the  latter  of  whom  not 
only  furnished  him  with  the  libretto  of  an  opera, 
*  Filippo,' but  himself  acted  in  it  with  his  wife 
and  brother  at  the  Standish  Theatre,  Florence, 
in  1840.  Between  the  years  1835  and  1849 
Gordigiani  composed  or  produced  nine  other 
operas,  all  at  different  theatres  in  Florence.  But 
it  is  by  his  *  Canzone tte'  and  'Canti  populari' 
for  voice  and  piano  that  he  will  be  remembered — 
delicious  melodies,  of  a  sentimental,  usually 
mournful,  cast,  in  the  taste  or  on  the  actual 
melodies  of  old  Italian  national  tunes,  and  often 
set  to  words  of  his  own.  They  are  more  than 
300  in  number,  and  were  published  in  parts, 
usually  of  8  or  10  each,  with  characteristic 
titles — 'In  cima  al  monte';  ' Le  FarfaUe  di 
Firenze' ;  '  In  rival  al  Arno' ;  '  Mosaico  Etrusco,' 
etc.  They  have  been  republished  everywhere  and 
in  all  languages.  He  also  published  a  collection 
of  Tuscan  airs  with  accompaniments  in  3  books. 
Gordigiani  was  odd  and  fantastic  in  manners  and 
disposition.    He  died  at  Florence  in  i860.  [G,] 

GORDON,  John,  the  son  of  an  eminent  watch- 
maker of  the  same  names,  was  born  in  the  parish 
of  St.  Martin,  Ludgate,  March  26,  1702.  He 
was  admitted  a  foundation  scholar  at  West- 
minster, and  elected  thence  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  became  pensioner  of  Trinity  College  June  18, 
1720.  In  1 72 1  he  obtained  a  scholarship  in  the 
same  college.  He  left  Camlmdge  June  1,  22,  and 
returned  to  London  to  study  law,  in  view  of  which 
he  had  on  Nov.  9,  i8,  entered  as  a  student  at  | 


Gray's  Inn.  On  Jan.  16,  23,  he  was  elected  Pro- 
fessor of  Music  in  Gresham  College,  which  place 
had  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Edward 
Shippen.  On  Feb.  10,  25,  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  Gray's  Inn,  but  continued  to  hold  his  pro- 
fessorship tiU  his  death,  Dec.  12,1 739.  [W.H.H.] 

GORDON,  W.,  a  Swiss  of  English  descent, 
bom  about  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  In  his 
youth  he  studied  music  as  an  amateur,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  Drouet,  the  celebrated  flutist.  After 
the  fall  of  the  first  French  Empire  he  obtained 
a  captain's  commission  in  one  of  the  regiments 
of  Swiss  Guards  in  Paris.  In  1 826  he  began  his  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  the  flute.  The 
Swiss  Guards  being  disbanded  after  the  revolution 
of  1830,  Gordon  devoted  his  whole  attention  to 
his  favourite  object.  In  1833  he  went  to  Munich, 
where  he  had  some  flutes  made  on  a  novel  plan. 
He  circulated  prospectuses  of  his  invention  in 
Germany,  Paris,  and  London.  He  came  to  Lon- 
don in  the  hope  of  finding  a  large  demand  for 
his  instrmnents,  but  was  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ment, and  returned  to  Lausanne.  In  1836  he 
became  deranged,  and  (with  the  exception  of  a 
short  interval  in  1839)  remained  so  until  his 
death.  His  modifications  were  carried  out  by 
Boehm,  and  resulted  in  the  flute  which  bears 
that  name.  [Boehm  ;  Flute,  5366.]  [W.H.H.] 

GORGHEGGI.    [See  Solfeggi.] 

GOSS,  John  Jeremiah,  born  at  Salisbury  in 
1770,  received  his  musical  education  as  a  chorister 
of  the  cathedral  there,  of  which  he  subsequently 
became  a  lay  vicar.  On  Nov.  30,  1808,  he  was 
appointed  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and 
about  the  same  period  obtained  the  places  of 
vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  lay  vicar 
of  Westminster  Abbey.  His  voice  was  a  pure 
alto  of  beautiful  quality,  and  his  skill  and  taste 
in  part-singing  remarkable.  He  was  for  many 
years  the  principal  alto  at  the  Meetings  of  the 
Three  Choirs.  He  died  in  May  181 7.  [W.H.H.] 

GOSS,  Sir  John,  Ejiight,  Mus.  Doc,  son  of 
Joseph  Goss,  organist  of  Fareham,  Hants,  where 
he  was  born  in  1800.  In  18 11  he  became  one 
of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  John 
Stafi'ord  Smith,  and  on  leaving  the  choir  became 
a  pupil  of  Attwood,  under  whom  he  completed 
his  musical  education.  About  1824  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  the  new  church  of  St.  Luke, 
Chelsea,  and  in  38  succeeded  Attwood  as  or- 
ganist of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  On  the  death 
of  William  Knyvett  in  56  Goss  was  appointed 
one  of  the  composers  to  the  Chapel  Royal.  He 
was  knighted  in  1872,  and  shortly  afterwards 
resigned  his  appointment  at  St.  Paul's.  He 
graduated  as  Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge 
in  1876.  Goss's  compositions  consist  of  services 
and  anthems,  chants,  psalm-tunes,  glees,  songs, 
orchestral  pieces,  etc.  Of  his  anthems  the  best 
known  are  '  If  we  believe,'  written  for  the  funeral 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  ;  '  Praise  the  Lord, 
0  my  soul,'  composed  for  the  bicentenary  festival 
of  the  Sons  of  the  Clergy ;  '  The  wilderness' ;  and 
'The  Lord  is  my  strength,'  composed,  together 
with  a  *  Te  Deum,'  for  the  Thanksgiving  for  the  j 


GOSS. 


GOSSEC. 


611 


recovery  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  (Feb.  27,  1872). 
Of  his  glees,  '  There  is  beauty  on  the  mountain ' 
is  a  charming  specimen  of  truly  graceful  com- 
position. In  1833  he  published  'An  Introduction 
to  Harmony  and  Thorough-bass,'  a  second  edition 
of  which  appeared  in  1847,  and  which  has  now 
reached  a  13th  edition.     In  1841  he  edited  a 
collection  of  •  Chants,  Ancient  and  Modem' ; 
and  in  18    the  '  Church  Psalter  and  Hymnbook,' 
in  conjunction  with  the  Kev.  W.  Mercer.  He 
ilso  published  'The  Organist's  Companion,'  a 
-eries  of  voluntaries  and  interludes,  besides  other 
works.  His  music  is  always  melodious  and  beau-  | 
tifully  written  for  the  voices,  and  is  remarkable  1 
for  a  union  of  solidity  and  grace,  with  a  certain 
unaffected  native  charm  which  ought  to  ensure 
it  a  long  life.  [W.H.H.] 
GOSSEC  (so  pronounced),  Francois  Joseph, 
bom  Jan.  17,  1733,  at  Vergnies,  a  village  in 
Belgian  Hainault,  5  miles  from  Beaumont.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  smaU  farmer  whose  name  is  j 
spelt  Gosse,  Gossez,  and  Gosset,  in  the  registers 
of  his  native  place.    From  early  childhood  he 
showed  a  decided  taste  for  music,  and  there  is  a 
story  that  while  herding  the  cows  he  made  himself 
a  fiddle  out  of  a  sabot  with  strings  of  horse-hair. 
He  was  always  particularly  fond  of  the  violin, 
and  studied  it  specifically  after  leaving  the  cathe- 
dral of  Antwerp,  of  which  he  was  a  chorister 
till  the  age  of  15.   In  1 751  he  came  to  Paris,  and 
was  fortunate  enough  to  make  the  acquaintance  of 
Kameau,  and  to  become  conductor  of  the  private 
band  which  was  maintained  by  the  Fermier- 
g^n^ral  La  Popeliniere  for  the  express  purpose 
of  trying  the  new  works  of  his  protege  and  friend  I 
the  author  of  '  Castor  et  Pollux.'    It  was  while  ' 
conducting  these  performances,  and  observing  the  j 
poverty  of  French  instrumental  music,  that  Gossec  | 
conceived  the  idea  of  writing  real  symphonies,  | 
a  species  of  composition  then  unknown  :  his  first  ! 
was  performed  in  1754,  five  years  before  the 
date  of  Haydn's  first. ^    It  was  some  time  before 
the  public  appreciated  this  new  style,  but  his 
quartets,   published   in  1759,  became  rapidly 
popular.    By  this  time  he  was  attached  to  the 
household  of  the  Prince  de  Cond^,  who  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  making  himself  known 
both  as  composer  and  conductor.     Under  this 
encouragement  he  entered  upon  the  departments 
of  sacred  and  dramatic  music,  and  quickly  gained 
a  reputation  in  both.    In  his  '  Messe  des  Morts,'  \ 
which  made  a  great  sensation  when  first  per-  i 
formed  at  St.  Eoch,  1 760,  he  has  produced  an  effect  1 
which  must  have  been  not  only  quite  new  but 
also  very  mysterious  and  religious,  by  writing  the  ! 
'Tuba  mirum'  for  two  orchestras,  the  one  of  wind 
instruments  concealed  outside,  while  the  strings 
of  the  other,  in  the  church,  are  playing  an  accom- 
paniment pianissimo  and  tremolo  in  the  upper 
registers.    In  his  oratorio  of  'La  Nativity' ^  he 
does  the  same  with  a  chorus  of  angels,  which  is 
sung  by  an  invisible  choir  at  a  distance. 

»  The  date  of  Haydn's  first  Orchestral  Symphony,  for  2  Violins, 
Tiola,  Bass,  2  Oboes  and  2  Horns,  is  1759 ;  it  was  published  in  1766. 
(See  Pohl's  Haydn,  i.  193,  283.) 

»  Word*  by  Chabanon  de  Maugris,  who  died  In  1780. 


In  writing  for  the  stage  he  was  less  of  an 
innovator.  He  produced  successively  '  Le  Faux 
Lord'  (1765),  a  three-act  opera,  left  unfinished 
owing  to  the  badness  of  the  libretto ;  '  Les  Pe- 
cheurs'  (1766),  long  and  successfully  performed; 
'Toinon  et  Toinette'  (1767);  'Le  double  d^guise- 
ment'  (1767),  withdrawn  after  the  first  repre- 
sentation; 'Sabinus'  (1774);  'Alexis  et  Daphne' 
produced  the  same  night  with  '  Philemon  et 
Baucis'  (1775);  'La  Fete  de  village,'  inter- 
mezzo (1778);  'Thesee'  (1782),  reduced  to 
three  acts,  with  one  of  Lully's  airs  retained  and 
re-scored;  'Rosine'  (1786);  'L'Offrande  k  la 
liberte'  (Oct.  2,  1792)  ;  and  'Le  Triomphe  de  la 
Republique,  ou  le  Camp  de  Grandpr^'  (Jan.  27, 
1 793)-  ^1^6  two  last  works  he  introduced  the 
'Marseillaise,'  with  slight  alterations  in  the  air 
and  harmony,  and  very  telling  instrumentation. 

The  ease  with  which  Gossec  obtained  the 
representation  of  his  operas  at  the  Comedie 
Italienne  and  the  Academie  de  Musique,  proves 
how  great  and  legitimate  an  influence  he  had 
acquired.  He  had  in  fact  founded  the  '  Concert 
des  Amateurs '  in  1770,  regenerated  the  'Concert 
Spirituel'  in  1 773,  organised  the  '  ficole  de  Chant,' 
the  predecessor  of  the  'Conservatoire  de  Musique,' 
in  1784,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Eevolution  was 
conductor  of  the  band  of  the  National  Guard. 
He  composed  many  pieces  for  the  patriotic  fetes 
of  that  agitated  period,  among  which  the  '  Hymne 
a  I'Etre  supreme'  and  'Peuple,  reveille-toi,'  and 
the  music  for  the  funeral  of  Mirabeau,  in  which 
he  introduced  the  lugubrious  sounds  of  the 
gong,  deserve  special  mention.  On  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Conservatoire  in  1795  Gossec  was 
appointed  joint  inspector  with  Cherubini  and 
Mehul,  and  professor  of  composition,  a  post  he 
retained  tiU  1814,  Catel  being  one  of  his  best 
pupils.  He  wrote  numerous  'solfeges/  and  an 
'Exposition  des  principes  de  la  Musique'  for 
the  classical  publications  of  the  Conservatoire. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institut  from  its 
foundation  (1795),  and  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour  (1802).  He  retired  from  his  professor- 
ship in  181 5,  but  until  1823  continued  to  attend 
the  meetings  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts, 
in  which  he  took  great  interest.  He  died  at 
Passy,  where  he  had  long  resided,  Feb.  16,  1829. 

Gossec's  works  are  both  numerous  and  im- 
portant, and  include,  besides  the  compositions 
already  named,  26  symphonies  for  full  orchestra, 
one  of  which,  '  La  Chasse,'  suggested  to  Mehul 
his  '  Ouverture  du  jeune  Henri ' ;  3  symphonies 
for  wind ;  a  symphonie-concertante  for  1 1  instru- 
ments ;  overtures ;  quartets,  trios,  and  other 
chamber  music ;  masses  with  full  orchestra ;  a 
'  Te  Deum,'  then  considered  very  effective ; 
motets  for  the  'Concert  Spirituel,'  including  a 
'Dixit  Dominus'  and  an  'Exaudiat';  several 
oratorios,  among  them  '  Saul,'  in  which  he  inserted 
an  '0  salutaris'  for  3  voices,  composed  for  Rous- 
seau, Lais,  and  Charon,  during  a  country  walk 
on  Sunday  ;  a  set  of  fine  choruses  for  Racine's 
*  Athalie ' ;  and  finally  a  '  Deraiere  Messe  des 
Vivants'  (18 13),  and  the  ballet  h^roique  of 
'Calisto/  neither  of  which  have  ever  been  en- 
ilr2 


612 


GOSSEC. 


GOULDING  &  DALMAINE. 


graved,  but  form  part  of  the  large  collection  of  his 
autographs  in  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire. 

Gossec's  life  may  be  held  up  as  a  model  to 
young  artists  ;  without  money  or  friends,  we  may 
even  say  without  genius,  and  without  the  aid 
of  masters,  he  educated  himself,  and  by  toil  and 
study  attained  the  rank  of  a  classical  composer. 
His  career  presents  one  unfortunate  peculiarity. 
No  sooner  had  he  worked  out  an  original  idea 
than  some  man  of  genius  stepped  forward  and  ap- 
propriated the  ground  he  had  won.  As  a  writer 
of  symphonies  he  saw  his  'Chasse'  and  his  2ist 
Symphony  in  D  eclipsed  by  those  of  Haydn  ;  as 
a  composer  of  sacred  music  he  was  surpassed  by 
Mozart,  in  spite  of  the  long -continued  popularity 
of  his  '  Messe  des  Morts' ;  and  at  the  theatre  he 
was  entirely  thrown  into  the  shade  by  Gretry 
and  Gluck.  In  spite  of  all  this,  however,  the 
French  school  has  good  reason  to  be  proud  of 
him  ;  he  was  completely  exempt  from  envy,  and, 
with  a  disinterestedness  truly  praiseworthy,  did 
all  in  his  power  to  promote  the  works  of  his 
great  rivals.  Nature  and  his  many  struggles  had 
made  him  usually  very  reserved,  but  he  could  be 
kind  on  occasion,  as  he  was  to  Mozart  in  1778, 
who  hits  him  off  in  a  line — 'Mein  sehr  guter 
Freund  und  sehr  trockener  Mann'  (April  5). 

An  oil-painting  of  him  ornaments  one  of  the 
rooms  in  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire.  There 
is  another  small  portrait  engraved  by  Fremy 
after  Brun,  and  a  marble  bust  by  Caillouete, 
a  pupil  of  Cartellier.  The  Belgians,  always 
ready  to  show  honour  to  the  illustrious  men  of 
their  own  country,  have  lately  erected  at  Verg- 
nies  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  Gossec,  in 
the  form  of  a  quadrangular  fountain  surmounted 
by  his  bust.    It  was  inaugurated  Sept,  9,  1877. 

In  England  Gossec  is  almost  entirely  unknown. 
Probably  the  only  piece  published  here  is  the 
*0  Salutaris'  named  above,  and  the  fine  library 
of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  contains  but  one 
of  his  compositions.  [G.C.] 

GOTTERDAMMERUNG.  The  fourth  and 
last  piece  in  Wagner's  '  Ring  des  Nibelungen,' 
first  performed  at  Bayreuth,  Aug.  17, 1876.  [G.] 

GOUDIMEL,  Claude,  a  celebrated  teacher 
and  composer,  born  at  Vaison,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Avignon,  in  the  early  part  of  the  1 6th 
century.  He  betook  himself  to  Rome,  and 
opened  a  music  school  there,  numbering  amongst 
his  pupils  such  distinguished  musicians  as  Ani- 
muccia,  Bettini  (called  'il  Fornarino'),  'Alessan- 
dro  della  Viola, '  Nanini,  and,  above  all,  Palestrina. 
Masses  and  motets,  written  at  this  period,  are 
preserved  in  the  Vatican  and  Vallicellan  libraries 
at  Rome.  Eitner's  Bibliographic  der  Musik- 
Sammelwerke  (Berlin,  1877)  gives  a  list  of  more 
than  60  compositions  printed  between  the  years 
1549  and  1597.  The  4th  book  '  Ecclesiasti- 
carum  cantionum,'  etc.  (Antwerp,  Tylman  Susato 
1554),  has  a  motet,  '  Domine  quid  multiplicati 
sunt/  which  Burney  has  printed  in  score  in  his 
History.  In  1555  Goudimel  appears  to  have  set- 
tled in  Paris  ;  and  the  work,  entitled  '  Q.  Horatii 
odai  omnes  ad  rythmos  musicos  redactse,'  is  issued 
in  the  joint  names  of  Duchemin  and  Goudimel. 


This  partnership  lasted  for  a  short  time,  probably 
only  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  out  this  particular 
work,  for  we  find  in  the  next  year  Duchemin's 
name  alone  on  the  title-page  of  his  publications. 
Goudimel  commenced  writing  music  to  the  whole 
psalms  of  David  in  the  form  of  motets,  but  did 
not  live  to  complete  the  work.  He  also  put  music 
to  the  French  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms  of 
Marot  and  Beza,  the  music  being  in  4  parts,  the 
counterpoint  note  against  note,  and  the  melody 
in  the  tenor  (Lyons,  Jaqui,  1565).  The  melo- 
dies are  those  used  by  Claude  Le  Jeune  in  a 
similar  work,  and  were  probably  of  German 
origin.  The  translation  had  not  been  originally 
intended  for  any  particular  religous  sect,  or  for 
any  form  of  public  worship.  The  Sorbonne  saw 
nothing  in  it  contrary  to  the  faith,  and  the 
Catholics  at  first  used  it  freely.  It  is  thus 
doubtful  whether  Goudimel's  work,  which  he 
expressly  states  in  his  preface  is  for  private  use 
only,  is  enough  to  prove  that  he  became  a 
Protestant.  It  is  certainly  not  enough  to  justify 
Hawkins  (Hist,  ch.  88)  in  denying  the  possibility 
of  his  having  lived  at  Rome  or  having  taught 
Palestrina.  But  Calvin's  introduction  of  psalm 
singing  into  the  public  worship  of  his  followers 
stamped  it  as  heretical,  and  Goudimel  fell  a 
victim  to  his  connection  with  it.  He  was  killed 
at  Lyons  in  the  massacre  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
day,  Aug.  24,  1572,  by  'les  ennemis  de  la  gloire 
de  Dieu  et  quelques  mechants  envieux  de  I'hon- 
neur  qu'il  avait  acquis.'  [J.R.S.B.] 
GOULDING  &  DALMAINE,  a  noted  Eng- 
lish firm  of  music  publishers.  Thomas  Dalmaine, 
late  of  20  Soho  Square,  commenced  his  career  by 
joining  Messrs.  Goulding  and  Phipps,  '  Music 
Sellers  to  their  Royal  Highnesses  The  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Wales,'  at  45  Pall  Mall  and 
76  St.  James's  Street,  about  1800.  Mr.  Goulding, 
however,  was  in  that  line  of  business  in  the  year 
1794  in  James  Street,  Covent  Garden  (Musical 
Directory  of  that  date).  They  published  songs 
and  ballads  composed  by  Mazzinghi,  Reeve, 
Shield,  etc.  In  1806,  7,  8  we  find  the  firm  at 
124  New  Bond  Street.  In  1809,  on  the 
secession  of  Phipps,  they  removed  to  20  Soho 
Square,  where  they  secured  the  publication  of 
the  works  of  Bishop.  The  house  eventually 
became  the  most  prominent  publishing  firm  in 
London  for  the  production  of  works  of  English 
composers,  up  to  about  the  period  when  Auber 
produced  his  opera  *La  Muette'  (Feb.  1828), 
the  publication  of  which  induced  Mr.  Dalmaine 
to  purchase  the  exclusive  publication  for  England 
of  Auber's  future  works,  though  by  the  decision 
of  the  House  of  Lords  (1854)  he  was  unable  to 
maintain  that  right.  The  firm  did  not  concern 
itself  with  classical  music,  and  although  its  cata- 
logue contains  no  less  than  300  pages,  we  look 
in  vain  for  the  great  works  of  Bach,  Beethoven, 
Haydn,  Mozart,  or  Mendelssohn.  Under  the 
management  of  his  nephew  Mackinlay,  Dal- 
maine retired  on  an  annuity  of  £600,  after 
which  the  house  dwindled  down  to  a  fourth-rate 
establishment,  and  in  1858  removed  to  104  Bond 
Street,  where  Dalmaine  died  at  the  age  of  83, 


GOULDING  &  DAL^IAIXE. 


GOUNOD. 


613 


and  in  1866  was  followed  by  Mackinlay.  In  67 
the  plates  and  copyrights  were  brought  to  the 
hammer.  The  printed  stock  sold  for  little  more 
-Iian  waste  paper.  The  plates  of  all  Bishop's 
•I  leras  were  melted,  and  his  popular  songs  and  glees 
are  published  by  anybody  who  chooses.  [C.  H.  P.] 

GOUNOD,  Charles  FRAX901S,  bom  in  Paris 
June  17,  181 8.  He  received  his  early  musical 
education  from  his  mother,  a  distinguished  pianist, 
and  having  finished  his  classical  studies  at  the 
Lyce'e  St.  Louis,  and  taken  his  degree  as  Bache- 
lier-es-lettres,  in  1 836  entered  the  Conservatoire, 
where  he  was  in  Halevj-'s  cla^s  for  counterpoint, 
and  learned  composition  from  Paer  and  Lesueur. 
In  1837  his  cantata  'Marie  Stuart  et  Rizzio' 
obtained  the  second  'prix  de  Rome,'  which  he 
shared  with  the  pianist  Louis  ChoUet ;  and  in 
1839  he  won  the  'Grand  prix'  for  his  cantata 
'  Femand.'  No  artist  or  literary  man  can  tread 
the  soil  of  Italy  with  indifference,  and  Gounod's 
residence  in  Rome  exercised  an  influence  on  his 
ardent  imagination,  of  which  his  whole  career 
bears  traces.  The  years  he  spent  at  the  TiUa 
Medici  as  a  pensioner  of  the  Acade'mie  de  France, 
were  chiefly  occupied  with  the  study  of  the  music 
of  the  old  masters,  especially  Palestrina  ;  and  his 
first  important  compositions  were  a  mass  for  3 
equal  voices  and  full  orchestra,  performed  May  i, 
1 84 1,  at  the  Church  of  San  Luigi  dei  Francesi 
(the  unpublished  MS.  is  in  the  Library  of  the 
Paris  Conservatoire\  and  a  mass  for  3  voices  with- 
out accompaniment,  produced  in  Vienna  in  1843. 
It  was  while  visiting  Austria  and  Germany  on 
his  way  back  to  Paris,  that  he  first  heard'  the 
compositions  of  Robert  Schumaim,  of  which  he 
knew  nothing  previously  ;  the  eff'ect  they  must 
have  had  on  the  impressionable  mind  of  the 
young  composer  may  be  imagined.  The  ideas 
imbibed  in  Rome  however  prevailed,  he  remained 
faithful  to  Palestrina.  and  on  reaching  Paris 
became  organist  and  maitre  de  chapelle  of  the 
•  Missions  etrangeres.'  It  was  at  this  period  that 
he  attended  for  two  years  a  course  of  theology; 
in  1S46  he  even  became  an  out-pupil  at  the 
'Seminaire,'  and  it  was  generally  expected  that 
he  would  take  orders.  Fortunately  he  perceived 
the  mistake  in  time,  and  renoxmced  the  idea  of 
the  priesthood;  but  these  years  of  theological 
study  had  given  him  a  love  of  reading,  and  lite- 
rary- attainments  of  a  kind  rarely  possessed  by 
modem  musicians.  M.  GiDunod  snll  delights  to 
quote  not  only  St.  Augustine  and  other  Fathers, 
but  passages  from  the  Latin  sermons  of  St.  Leon 
and  St.  Bernard — indeed  he  would  almost  seem 
to  have  appropriated  the  words  of  the  latter, 
'  ardere  et  lucere,*  as  the  motto  of  his  life. 

How  he  passed  the  years  1S45-50,  he  will 
himself  perhaps  inform  us,  if  he  writes  the 
history  of  his  life,  as  he  is  said  to  intend  doing. 
We  may  believe  that  he  employed  these  five 
years  of  silence  in  studying  the  works  of  Schu- 
mann and  Berlioz — the  former  then  almost  un- 
known in  France ;  the  latter  encountering  nothing 
but  opposition  and  unmerited  abuse.  With  his 
keen  intellect,  refined  taste,  and  aptitude  for 
subtle  analysis,  M.  Gounod  would  have  no  diffi- 


culty in  appreciating  both  the  leading  charac- 
teristics and  the  defects  of  these  two  original 
composers ;  he  would  doubtless  next  endeavour 
to  discover  the  best  method  of  creating  an 
individual  style  for  himself,  profiting  by  the 
study  of  models  so  dangerous  if  followed  too 
closely.  It  was  probably  during  this  time  that 
he  wrote  his  *  Messe  solennelle '  in  G,  for  solos, 
chorus,  orchestra,  and  organ,  and  which  gave 
him  his  first  appearance  before  the  world — 
strangely  enough  in  London !  Four  numbers 
from  that  work,  included  by  Mr.  Hullah  in  a 
Concert  at  S.  Martin's  Hall,  .Jan.  15, 185 1,  formed 
the  text  of  various  articles  in  the  English  ptapers, 
and  esp>ecially  of  one  in  the  'Athenaeum'  (Jan.  18) 
which  was  reprinted  in  Paris  and  elsewhere,  and 
caused  much  discussion.  '^Miatever  the  ultimate 
result,  here  at  any  rate  was  a  poet  and  musician 
of  a  very  high  order.' 

But  the  theatre  was  destined  mainly  to  occupy 
M.  Gounod  for  many  years.  His  first  opera, 
'  Sapho,'  in  3  acts,  was  given  at  the  Academie 
April  16,  185 1,  with  Mme.  Viardot  in  the 
principal  part.  It  contains  many  passages  rich  in 
colour,  though  scarcely  dramatic ;  the  grand  scena 
of  Sapho,  'Hero  sur  la  tour,'  and  the  herdsman's 
air,  have  alone  survived.  In  writing  the  numer- 
ous choruses  for  Ponsard's  tragedy  of  '  Ulysse  ' 
(1852),  M.  Gounod  again  attempted  to  produce 
an  antique  colouring  by  means  of  rhythmical 
effects  and  modulations  of  an  obsolete  character ; 
but  the  music — though  betraying  a  master  hand, 
was  stigmatised  as  monotonous,  and  the  charm- 
ing chorus  of  the  'Servantes  uifideles'  was 
the  only  piece  received  with  real  enthusiasm. 
In  1852  he  became  conductor  of  the  Orpheon  in 
Paris  ;  and  the  eight  years  he  was  there  en- 
gaged in  teaching  choral  singing  gave  him  much 
valuable  experience  both  of  the  himian  voice  in 
itself,  and  of  the  various  effects  to  be  obtained 
from  large  bodies  of  voices.  For  the  Orpheonistes 
he  composed  several  choruses,  and  2  Classes  for 
!  4  men's  voices  ;  but  such  works  as  these  were  not 

■  calculated  to  satisfy  the  ambition  of  so  exception- 
ally gifted  an  artist.  .Anxious  to  try  his  strength 
in  all  branches  of  music,  he  wrote  several  sympho- 
nies (one  in  D,  a  second  in  E?  which  were 
performed  with  success  at  the  concerts  of  the 
'Association  des  jeunes  Artistes,'  but  are  of  no 
importance.  In  France  however  the  stage  is  the 
sole  avenue  to  fame  and  fortune,  and  accordingly 
his  main  efforts  were  made  in  that  direction. 
The  'Nonne  Sanglante'  Oct.  18,  1854)  a  5-act 
opera  fotmded  on  a  weird  legend  in  Lewis's 

,  '  Monk,'  was  only  given  1 1  times  ;  although  it 
j  contains  a  2nd  act  of  a  high  order  of  merit 
.  as  music,  and  a  very  striking  duet — that  of  the 

■  l^end.  After  this  second  feilure  at  the  Aca- 
demie Gounod  was  compelled  to  seek  success 
elsewhere,  and  accordingly  produced  'Le  Me'decin 
malgre  lui,'  an  opera* comique  arranged  by  Carre 
and  Barbier  from   Mcliere's  comedy,  at  the 

■  Theatre  Lyrique  (Jan.  if,  1S58).    The  music  is 

I refined,  but  not  in  the  least  comic.  The  most 
hwB  been  repe*teQy  heard  at  SyJenlw. 


614 


GOUXOD. 


GOUVY. 


successful  number  was  the  septet  of  the  con- 
sultation; as  for  the  charming  couplets  sung 
by  Sganarelle  when  in  liquor,  they  are  de- 
lightful from  a  musical  point  of  view,  and 
essentially  lyric,  but  contain  not  a  particle  of 
the  vis  comica.  Under  the  title  of  the  '  Mock 
Doctor'  the  piece  has  had  fair  success  in 
London.  '  Faust '  however,  also  produced  at 
the  Theatre  Lyrique,  March  19,  1S59,  with 
Mme.  Miolan-Carvalho  as  Marguerite,  placed 
Gounod  at  once  in  the  first  rank  of  living 
composers.  The  fantastic  part  of  Faust  may 
not  be  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  stronger 
dramatic  situations  are  perhaps  handled  with 
less  skill  than  those  which  are  more  elegiac, 
picturesque,  or  purely  lyric,  but  in  spite  of  such 
objections  the  work  must  be  classed  among  those 
which  reflect  high  honour  on  the  French  school. 
The  Kermesse  and  the  garden-scene  would  alone 
be  sufficient  to  immortalise  their  author.  '  Phi- 
lemon et  Baucis,'  a  one-act  opera  composed  for 
the  theatre  at  Baden,  was  re-written  in  three 
acts  for  the  Theatre  Lyrique,  and  performed 
Feb.  18,  i860.  The  score  contains  some  charm- 
ing passages,  and  much  ingenuity  and  elegance 
of  detail;  but  unfortunately  the  Kbretto  has 
neither  interest,  movement,  nor  point,  and  be- 
longs to  no  weU-defined  species  of  drama.  After 
the  immense  success  of  '  Faust,'  the  doors  of  the 
Academic  were  naturally  again  opened  to  Gou- 
nod, but  the  'Eeine  de  Saba'  (Feb.  28,  1S62) 
did  not  rise  to  the  general  expectation.  The 
libretto,  written  by  Gerard  de  Nerval,  embodies 
ideas  more  suitable  for  a  political  or  a  psycho- 
logical exposition,  than  for  a  lyric  tragedy.  Of 
this  great  work  nothing  has  survived  but  the 
dialogue  and  chorus  between  the  Jewesses  and 
Sabeans.  in  the  2nd  act,  the  air  of  the  Queen 
in  the  4th  act  (afterwards  inserted  in  Faust), 
the  choral  march,  the  choral  dance,  and  above 
all  the  elegant  and  picturesque  airs  de  ballet. 
Under  the  name  of  '  Irene '  an  English  version  of 
the  opera  was  occasionally  performed  in  London. 
The  success  of  'MireiUe'  (Theatre  Lyrique, 
March  19,  1864),  a  5-act  opera  foimded  on  the 
Provencal  poem  of  F.  Mistral,  was  secured  by 
the  cast,  especially  by  the  splendid  performance 
of  ^Ime.  Miolan-Carvalho,  whose  part  contains 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  airs  of  modem 
times  ('Mon  coeur').  Mme,  Faure-Lefebvre — 
as  Andreloun — and  the  other  artists  combined 
to  make  an  excellent  ensemble.  StiU  '  Mireille ' 
is  descriptive  and  lyric  rather  than  dramatic  ; 
accordingly  by  Dec.  15,  1864,  it  was  reduced  ^ 
to  3  acts,  in  which  abridged  form  it  was  revived  i 
in  1876.  Its  overtvu-e  is  admirable,  and  a  great  ' 
favourite  in  English  concert  rooms.  This  charm-  j 
ing  pastoral  was  succeeded  by  'La  Colombo'  j 
(June  7,  1866)  originally  written  for  the  theatre  i 
at  Baden,  and  known  in  England  as  the  'Pet  | 
Dove,'  and  by  '  Eom^o  et  Juliette'  (April  27,  | 
1867),  a  5-act  opera,  of  which  the  principal  part 
was  again  taken  by  Mme.  Miolan.  The  song  of 
Queen  Mab,  the  duet  in  the  garden,  a  short 
chorus  in  the  2nd  act,  the  page's  song,  and  the 
duel  scene  in  the  3rd  act,  are  the  favourite 


pieces  in  this  opera.  Since  these  Gounod  has 
written  incidental  music  for  Legouve's  tragedy 
*  Les  deux  Reines,'  and  for  Jules  Barbier's 
'Jeanne  d'Arc'  (Nov.  8,  1873). 

He  has  also  published  much  church  music, 
besides  the  '  Messe  SolenneUe '  already  men- 
tioned, and  the  2nde  Messe  des  Orpheonistes  ;  a 
'Stabat  ^Nlater'  with  orchestra;  the  oratorio 
'Tobie';  'Gallia,'  a  lamentation,  produced  at 
the  Albert  HaU,  London  (May  i,  18  71),  a 
De  Profimdia  ;  an  Ave  Verum ;  Sicut  cervus ; 
and  various  other  hymns  and  motets,  two  collec- 
tions of  songs,  and  many  single  songs  and  pieces, 
such  as  '  Nazareth,'  and  'There  is  a  green  hill.' 
For  orchestra  a  Saltarello  in  A,  and  the  Funeral 
march  of  a  marionette.  Ajeu  de  plume,  on  the 
propriety  of  which  we  will  not  decide,  but  which 
is  unquestionably  extremely  popular,  is  his  '  Me- 
ditation' for  soprano  solo  and  orchestra  on  the 
1st  Prelude  of  Bach's  48. 

After  a  stay  of  some  years  in  England,  during 
which  he  appeared  in  public  at  the  Philharmonic, 
the  Crystal  Palace,  and  Mrs.  Weldon's  concerts, 
Goimod  recollected  that  he  had  been  elected  a 
member  of  the  'Institut  de  France'  on  the  death 
of  Clapisson  (1866);  and  returning  to  Paris, 
resumed  the  position  to  which  his  genius  entitled 
him.  On  the  5th  of  April,  1877,  he  produced 
'  Cinq  Mars '  at  the  Theatre  de  I'Opera  Comique, 
a  work  which  bears  traces  of  the  haste  in  which 
it  was  designed  and  executed.  His  last  opera, 
Polyeucte,  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Oct.  7, 
18  78,  though  containing  some  fine  music  will 
hardly  add  to  the  fame  of  the  author  of  Faust. 

To  sum  up,  Gounod  is  a  great  musician  and  a 
thorough  master  of  the  orchestra.  Of  too  refined 
a  nature  to  write  really  comic  music,  his  dramatic 
compositions  seem  the  work  of  one  hovering  be- 
tween mysticism  and  voluptuousness.  This 
contrast  between  two  opposing  principles  may 
be  traced  in  all  his  works,  sacred  or  dramatic  ; 
and  gives  them  an  immense  interes-t  both  from 
a  musical  and  psychological  point  of  view.  In 
the  chords  of  his  orchestra,  majestic  as  those  of 
a  cathedral  organ,  we  recognise  the  mystic — in 
his  soft  and  original  melodies,  the  man  of 
pleasure.  In  a  word,  the  lyric  element  pre- 
domiaates  in  his  work,  too  often  at  the  expense 
of  variety  and  dramatic  truth,  [G.  C] 

GOUVY,  Theodore,  prolific  composer,  bom 
of  French  parents,  July  2,  1S19,  at  GofibntaLne, 
Saarbruck,  where  his  father  was  a  large  iron- 
founder.  He  took  his  degree  at  the  coUege  at 
Metz,  and  then  proceeded  to  Paris  to  study  the 
law.  Hitherto,  though  possessing  an  unmistake- 
able  talent  for  music,  he  had  had  no  instruction 
in  it,  and  had  probably  not  heard  a  single  classical 
piece.  But  being  at  the  Conservatoire  he  happened 
to  hear  Beethoven's  7th  Symphony.  This  at 
once  fired  his  mind,  and  he  wrote  home  to 
announce  his  determination  to  be  a  musician. 
His  parents'  consent  obtained,  he  placed  himself 
under  Elwart  for  3  years,  then  resided  at  Berlin, 
where  he  published  his  'Opus  i,'  and  thence 
went  for  more  than  a  year  to  Italy.  In  1S46  he 
returned  to  Paris,  which  since  then  has  been  hi» 


GOUVY. 


GRADUAL. 


615 


home,  with  visits  to  Cologne  and  Leipsic,  where 
hi-;  music  has  been  frequently  played  with  success. 

His  published  and  unpublished  works  (of  which 
a  list  is  given  by  F^tis  and  Pougin)  extend  to 
'  p.  56,  containing  more  than  1 70  numbers,  many 
.)t"  them  of  large  dimensions.  They  comprise 
6  S}nnphonies  for  full  orchestra ;  2  Concert  over- 
tures; String  quartets  and  a  quintet;  5  P.  F. 
trios  and  one  ditto  Quintet;  18  Serenades  for 
P.  F.  solo ;  Sonatas  for  ditto ;  choruses,  songs, 
and  other  pieces  in  large  numbers.  His  music 
appears  to  be  much  relished  in  Paris,  and  to  be 
esteemed  even  in  Germany.  In  England,  however, 
it  is  not  at  all  known.  [G.] 

GOW,  Neil,  was  bom  at  Strathband,  Perth- 
shire, in  1 7  2  7 ,  of  humble  parents.  At  a  very  early 
age  he  showed  a  taste  for  music,  and  at  nine 
began  to  play  the  violin.  He  was  self-instructed 
imtil  the  age  of  thirteen,  when  he  received  some 
lessons  from  John  Cameron,  a  retainer  of  Sir 
George  Stewart,  of  Grandtully.  He  became  dis- 
tinguished by  his  performance  of  Scotch  tunes, 
particularly  strathspeys  and  reels,  in  which  he 
has  probably  never  been  excelled  or  equalled. 
His  fame  soon  reached  London,  and  his  assist- 
ance was  long  sought  at  fashionable  balls  and 
assemblies.  He  had  an  uncommonly  powerful 
bow  hand,  particularly  in  the  up  stroke.  He 
was  ably  supported  by  his  brother,  Donald,  on 
the  violoncello.  Gow  died  at  Inver,  near  Dun- 
keld,  in  1807.  He  published  several  collections 
of  Scotch  tunes,  including  many  of  his  own 
composition.  He  had  four  sons,  all  excellent 
violinists  in  the  same  style  as  their  father. 
The  eldest,  Nathaniel,  published  'The  Beauties 
of  Neil  Gow,'  in  six  books,  and  several  other 
collections  of  Scotch  melodies.  [W.H.H.] 

GRACE  NOTES,  or  GRACES,  the  English 
name  for  the  ornaments  in  vocal  and  instrumental 
music — appoggiaturas,  acciaccaturas,  mordents, 
turns,  shakes,  and  many  more — which  are  treated 
of  in  this  work  under  the  general  head  of 
Agremens,  as  well  as  under  their  own  separate 
names.  [G.] 

GRADUAL  (Lat.  Graduale ;  from  gradus, 
a  step).  A  short  anthem  sung  at  High  Mass, 
between  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  for  the  day. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  the  Gradual 
was  chaunted,  by  the  Deacon,  from  the  steps  of 
a  primitive  species  of  reading-desk,  called  the 
Am  bo,  or  ''Afi$ajv  ;  from  which  steps  this  por- 
tion of  the  Service  derives  its  peculiarly  charac- 
teristic name.  It  is  now  sung  by  the  Choir  :  the 
first  clause,  by  two  Cantors  only ;  the  remainder, 
in  full  chorus.  On  Sundays,  and  Festivals,  it  is 
usually  supplemented  by  the  Alleluia  and  Versus. 
During  the  Seasons  of  Septuagesima,  and  Lent, 
and  on  some  few  other  occasions,  these  are  omit- 
ted, and  the  Gradual,  properly  so  called,  is  sung 
alone.  On  the  Sundays  after  Easter,  the  Gradual 
itself  is  omitted,  and  the  Alleluia,  and  Versus, 
are  sung  alone.  Special  forms  of  both  are  ap- 
pointed, for  daily  use  throughout  the  ecclesias- 
tical year.  The  words  are  taken,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  from  the  Book  of  Psalms :  and  the 


Plain  Chaunt  melodies  to  which  they  are  inva- 
riably sung  form  part  of  the  volume  called  the 
Graduale  Homanum,  to  which  the  reader  must 
be  referred  for  their  general  style.  Before  the 
9th  century,  the  Gradual  proper  was  repeated, 
in  full,  after  the  Alleluia,  and  Versus. 

The  so-called  '  Graduals '  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
and  some  other  modern  composers,  are  Graduals 
in  name  only ;  and  will  be  more  properly  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  Motet.  [W.  S.  R.] 

GRADUAL,  THE  ROMAN  (Lat,  Graduale 
Bomanum;  Old  Eng,  Grayle).  A  well-known 
volume  of  Ritual  Music,  containing  a  complete 
collection  of  the  Plain  Chaunt  melodies  appointed 
to  be  sung  at  High  Mass  throughout  the  year. 
The  first  idea  of  the  Graduale  Bomanum,  as 
well  as  that  of  its  sister  volume,  the  Vesperale, 
was  undoubtedly  suggested  by  the  treasury  of 
antient  music,  arranged,  for  the  first  time,  in  a 
systematic  form,  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
4th  century,  by  Saint  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan, 
whose  method  of  chaunting  exercised  a  lasting 
influence  upon  mediaeval  art,  notwithstanding  the 
neglect  to  which  it  was  consigned,  when,  some 
two  hundred  and  thirty  years  later,  that  set  forth 
in  the  famous  Antiphonarium  of  Saint  Gregory 
the  Great  was  brought  into  almost  universal  use. 
Throughout  the  entire  Western  Church,  this  cele- 
brated Antiphonary  was  all  but  unanimously 
accepted  as  the  norm  to  which  all  other  Office 
Books,  of  like  scope  and  intention,  must,  of 
necessity,  conform.  It  was,  indeed,  well  worthy 
of  the  admiration  it  excited  ;  but,  unhappily,  the 
uncertain  and  rudimentary  character  of  its 
notation  led  to  so  much  misunderstanding,  and 
consequent  corruption  of  the  musical  text,  that, 
in  process  of  time,  every  Diocese  of  importance 
claimed  to  have  its  own  peculiar  '  Use.'  Hence, 
we  find  the  Paris,  Sarum,  York,  Hereford,  and 
innvmierable  other  Graduals,  all  difiering  widely 
in  their  details,  though  always  exhibiting  suf- 
ficient resemblance,  in  their  general  plan,  to 
point  to  a  common  original.  Attempts  were 
made,  from  time  to  time,  to  restore  a  purer  and 
more  uniform  practice  :  but,  until  after  the 
revision  of  the  Littirgy,  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
no  real  progress  was  made  in  the  right  direction. 
The  first  decisive  step  was  taken  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII;  who,  in  the  year  1576,  commis- 
sioned Palestrina,  assisted  by  his  friend  and  pupil, 
Guidetti,  to  revise,  and  restore  to  its  original 
purity,  the  entire  system  of  Plain  Chaunt  then  in 
common  use.  This  gigantic  task,  though  never 
fully  carried  out,  indirectly  led  to  the  publication 
of  other  invaluable  works.  A  splendid  folio  Gra- 
dual was  also  printed  at  Venice  in  15  79-1580,  by 
Pet.  Liechtenstein,  Another  very  fine  copy — the 
Editio  Plantiniana — was  brought  out,  at  Ant- 
werp, in  1599  :  while,in  i6i4-i6i5.the  celebrated 
Medicaean  edition,  which  (though  not  free  from 
error)  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  most 
correct  hitherto  given  to  the  world,  was  printed, 
at  Rome,  at  the  express  command  of  Pope  Paul 
V.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  copies  of  these 
magnificent  editions  have  long  since  become 
exceedingly  rare,  and  costly.     One  of  the  best 


616 


GRADUAL. 


GEAXD  OPEEA. 


modem  reprints — or,  rather,  re-compilations — is 
a  Gradual,  based  upon  the  editions  of  1599  and 
1 6 14,  and  printed,  at  Mechlin,  in  1848,  under  the 
patronage  of  Cardinal  Sterckx.  A  similar  volume, 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  Dioceses  of  Kheims,  and 
Cambrai,  appeared  in  1851 :  and  a  third,  prepared 
for  the  press  by  Pere  Lambillotte,  was  published, 
by  his  executors,  in  1857.  Far  more  important, 
however,  than  any  of  these,  is  the  latest  edition, 
carefully  revised  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Eites,  and  first  printed,  at  Eatisbon,  by  Friedrich 
Pustet,  in  187 1,  under  special  privileges  granted 
by  His  Holiness,  Pope  Pius  IX> 

The  contents  of  the  Gradual — always  printed 
in  Gregorian  notation — are  classed  in  five  prin- 
cipal divisions  :  viz.  the  ' Proprium  de  Tempore,' 
' Froprium  de  Sanctis,'  'Commune  Sanctorum' 
'  Ordinarium  Misses'  and  'Modus  Re-rpondendi.' 
Of  these,  the  first  three  contain  the  words  and 
music  of  the  Introit,  Gradual,  Alleluia,  Versus, 
Tract,  Sequence,  Offertory,  and  Communion,  for 
every  day  throughout  the  ecclesiastical  year. 
The  Ordinarium  MisscB  contains  the  Asperges  me, 
Kyrie,  Gloria  in  Excehis,  Credo,  Sanctus,  Bene- 
dictus,  and  Agnus  Dei,  for  festivals  of  every 
degree  of  solemnity.  The  Modus  respondendi 
contains  the  Sursurn  Corda,  Sed  libera  nos  a 
malo,  and  other  Eesponses  usually  sung  at  High 
Mass.  The  notation  of  the  Prefationes,  and 
Pater  noster,  being  given,  in  full,  in  the  Missal, 
is  not  repeated  in  the  Gradual ;  which,  indeed, 
is  intended  rather  for  the  use  of  the  Choir,  than 
that  of  the  Celebrant.  [W.  S.  E.] 

GEADUS  AD  PAEXASSUM.  The  title  of 
two  eminent  progres-sive  works  on  music.  I. 
Fux's  treatise  on  composition  and  counterpoint — 
'  Gradus  ad  Pamassum,  sive  manuductio  ad  com- 
positionem  musicse  regularem,  methoda  nova  ac 
certa,  nondum  ante  tam  exacto  ordine  in  lucem 
edita :  elaborata  a  Joanne  Joseph o  Fux'  (Vienna 
1725  ;  I  vol.  folio).  It  was  translated  into 
German  by  Mizler  (Leipsic  1742),  into  Italian 
by  Manfredi  (Carpi  1761),  and  into  English, 
'Practical  rules  for  learning  Composition  trans- 
lated from  a  work  entitled  Gradus  ad  Pamassum, 
written  originally  in  Latin  by  John  Joseph 
Feux,  late  chief  composer  to  the  Eoman  Emperor 
Charles  VI. — "Welcker,  10  Hay  Market'  (a  thin 
foHo  with  no  date).  This  contains,  in  addition 
to  the  exercises  in  the  text,  a  Kyrie  and  Amen 
from  the  Missa  Vicissitudinis. 

2.  dementi's  well-known  work  'Gradus  ad 
Pamassum,  ou  I'art  de  jouer  le  Pianoforte  de- 
montre  par  des  Exercises  dans  le  style  severe  et 
dans  le  style  elegant.  Compost  et  dedid  a 
Madame  la  Princesse  Wolkonsky,  nee  Wolkonsky, 
par  Muzio  Clementi,  membre  de  I'Academie 
Eoyale  de  Stockholm.'    (Milan,  Eicordi.) 

It  is  in  two  parts  or  voliunes,  containing  in  all 
100  exercises.  Some  of  these  are  marked  as  having 
been  published  before,  and  extended  and  revised 
by  the  author.  Thus  Ex.  14  is  headed  'extrait 
par  I'auteur  de  ses  Duos  k  4  mains,  oeuvre  xiv,  pub- 
lie  a  Londres  en  1 784.  Tulit  alter  honores.  Virg. 

•  The  Mechlin  and  Eatisbon  Graduali  are  sold,  In  London,  by  Messrs. 
Bonu  A  Gates,  17  Fortman  Street. 


apud  Donat.'  Ex.  39,  Adagio  in  Bb,  is  entitled 
'Scena  patetica,'  and  so  on.  The  work  has  at 
the  beginning  an  English  motto  from  Dr.  John- 
son— '  Every  art  is  best  taught  by  example.' 
Clementi  published  an  Appendix  to  the  Gradus, 
containing  1 34  Exercises,  Gavottes,  Gigues,  Airs 
with  Variations,  etc.,  partly  his  own,  but  chiefly 
by  other  composers.  They  are  arranged,  each 
key  with  its  relative  minor — usually  a  prelude  or 
^  preludes  by  Clementi,  followed  by  pieces.  [G.] 
i  GEAHAM,  George  Fabquhab,  son  of  Lieut.- 
Col.  Humphre}'  Graham,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh 
1  in  1790  and  educated  in  the  High  School  and 
I  University  there.  He  studied  music  as  an 
;  amateur,  and  was  to  a  great  degree  self-taught. 
I  In  181 5  he  and  George  Hogarth  acted  as  joint 
secretaries  of  the  first  Edinbtu-gh  Musical  Festi- 
val, and  in  the  next  year  Graham  published 
'An  Account  of  the  First  Edinburgh  Musical 
Festival,  to  which  is  added  Some  General  Ob- 
servations on  Music'  He  passed  some  years 
in  Italy  in  pursuit  of  musical  knowledge.  He 
composed  and  published  some  baUads,  and  con- 
tributed the  article  'Music'  to  the  7th  edition 
of  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica,'  The  article 
was  reprinted  separately  in  1838,  with  the 
addition  of  an  Introduction  and  Appendix  under 
the  title  of  'An  Essay  on  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Musical  Composition.'  About  the 
same  time  he  assisted  in  bringing  out  the  '  Skene 
MS.,'  and  contributed  an  interesting  paper  to  the 
appendix.  [See  Dauxey,]  He  wrote  the  article 
'  Organ'  for  the  8th  edition  of  the  '  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,'  In  1848-9  he  furnished  historical, 
biographical,  and  critical  notices  to  '  The  Songs  of 
Scotland,  adapted  to  their  appropriate  melodies.' 
He  died  in  Edinburgh,  March  1 2, 1867.  [W,H.H.] 
GEAN  C  ASSA  or  GE  AX  T  AMBUEO,  the  Ita- 
lian term  for  the  bass- drum.  [Drum,  3.]  [V.deP,] 
GEAXCIXO,  Paolo,  a  violin-maker  of  the 
second  rank.  Bom  at  Milan,  he  learnt  his  art 
under  Xicolo  Amati  at  Cremona.  His  violins 
are  dated  from  1665-1690.  His  son  Giovaxxi 
(1696-1715),  who  dates  'from  the  sign  of  the 
Crown'  in  the  Contrada  Larga  of  Milan,  wad 
a  maker  of  higher  merit.  His  violins,  tenors, 
and  violoncellos,  are  usually  of  a  large  flat 
pattem,  and  present  a  development  of  the  Amati 
model  analogous  to  that  of  Stradivari.  His  sons 
Giam-Battista  and  Francesco  carried  on  his 
business  (171 5-1 746)  under  the  title  of  'Fratelli 
Grancini.'  [P.D.] 
GEAXD.  A  word  much  in  use  in  England 
till  within  a  few  years  to  denote  a  classical  com- 
position of  full  dimensions  or  for  full  orchestra. 
Thus  the  1 2  Symphonies  written  by  Haydn  for 
Salamon  were  known  as  'Grand,'  A  grand 
sonata  or  a  grand  concerto  meant  one  in  com- 
plete classical  form.  It  probably  originated  in 
I  the  French  grand  or  German  grosse.  (See  Bee- 
thoven's Sonatas,  Op.  13,  26,  28,  106,  115,  and 
most  of  his  symphonies,  etc.)  [G.] 
GEAXD  OPEEA.  A  reference  to  the  articles 
Comic  Opera  and  Academie  de  Musiqde  will 
show  that  Grand  Opera,  like  Comic,  owes  its 


GRAND  OPEEA. 


GRAND  PIANO. 


617 


origin  and  its  present  form  to  the  French.    That  ' 
in  the  Florentine  Academy  were  produced,  very 
early  in  the  1 7th  century-,  lyric  dramas  in  which  j 
:U3ic  was  employed  for  the  illustration  of  noble  j 
-  ibjects,  and  that  these  were  presented  with  j 
considerable  effect,  is  no  doubt  true.    The  con-  I 
dition  at  that  epoch  of  the  musical  ars  nova,  and  I 
the  means  of  giving  effect  to  any  specimens  of  j 
it,  were  however  both  too  imperfect  to  justify  the  1 
application  of  the  epithet  'grand'  to  any  music  , 
r  any  performances  that  could  then  possibly  have 
een  forthcoming.  Grand  opera  begins  nearly  half  \ 
a  century  later,  with  the  school  of  Lully ;  a  school 
which,  the  birthplace  of  its  founder  notwithstand- 
ing, was  in  all  respects  essentially  French.  To 
LuUy,  without  however  altogether  displacing 
him  in  public  favour,  succeeded  Rameau,  and 
to  Rameau,  Gluck  and  Piccinni,  the  one  a  Ger- 
man, the  other  an  Italian ;  but  both  of  whom, 
from  the  times  of  their  arrival  in  Paris,  worked 
on  French  libretti,  with  the  cooperation  of  French 
singers,    dancers,   instrumentalists,  machinists, 
scene  painters,  and  the  like,  and,  more  than  all, 
of  French  audiences.    The  model  too  on  which 
these  great  masters  worked  was  in  its  essentials 
still  that  of  Lully. 

The  term — fast  becoming  obsolete — is  French 
and  purely  conventional,  and  denotes  a  lyric 
drama  in  which  spoken  dialogue  is  excluded,  and 
the  business  is  carried  on  in  melody  or  recitative 
throughout.  It  may  contain  any  number  of 
acts,  any  ballets  or  divertissements,  but  if  spoken 
dialogue  is  introduced  it  becomes  a  'comic'  opera. 

Grand  opera,  though  till  lately  all  but  ex- 
clusively written  for  the  French  stage,  has  from 
its  origin  to  the  present  time  been  contributed 
to  by  the  musicians  of  every  musical  country  but 
our  own ;  among  Italians  by  Piccinni,  Guglielmi, 
Sacchini,  SaHeri,  Zingarelli,  Cherubini,  Spontini, 
Rossini,  and  Donizetti ;  among  Germans  by 
Gluck  and  Meyerbeer.  To  native  genius,  which 
has  shone  with  such  splendour  in  '  Opera  Comique,' 
Grand  Opera  owes  little.  One  attempt  only  of 
Auber  in  this  class  of  composition  still  keeps  the 
stage,  *  La  Muette  de  Portici.'  The  popularity 
of  the  grand  operas  of  Halevy  seems  to  have 
expired  \vith  their  author ;  the  reception  of 
Berlioz's  single  di-amatic  essay,  '  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini,' never  inspired  him  to  make  another ;  and 
the  most  successful  lyric  productions  of  Gounod 
have  not  been  among  those  bearing  the  name  of 
'grand'  operas. 

The  Italian  theatre  has  not  been  prolific  in 
successful  grand  operas.  The  best  works  of 
this  kind  of  some  of  the  best  Italian  composers 
have,  as  we  have  seen,  been  written  for  the 
French  stage.  Zingarelli,  Rossini,  Donizetti, 
and  Mercadante,  are  the  most  important  of 
those  Italians  who  have  contributed  to  their 
own  repertory.  Their  grand  operas,  however, 
with  the  exceptions  of  those  of  Rossini  and 
Donizetti,  scarcely  fulfil  the  French  conditions, 
and  few,  even  of  the  most  successful  among 
them,  are  now,  or  are  likely  again  to  be,  heard 
in  or  out  of  the  country.  Exception  may  be 
made,  perhaps,  in  favour  of  some  of  the  pro- 


ductions of  our  contemporary  Yerdi,  which  at 
least  approximate  in  their  subjects  and  their 
scale  to  the  French  model ;  but  the  two  grandest 
operas  of  this  admirable  master,  'Les  Vepres 
Siciliennes'  and  'La  Favorite,'  were  written  for 
the  French  stage. 

The  romantic  and  mixed  lyric  drama  of  modem 
Germany — richer  beyond  all  comparison  in  musi- 
cal invention  and  science  than  the  lyric  drama, 
of  whatever  kind,  of  whatever  coimtry — does 
not  here  fairly  come  under  consideration.  Neither 
'  Don  Giovanni,'  '  Euryanthe,"  nor  even  '  Fidelio,' 
whatever  their  pla<:es  in  the  world  of  art,  are 
what  is  imderstood  by  'grand  operas.'  Wag- 
ner alone  has  attempted  this  kind  of  art — on 
conditions,  self  -  imposed,  which  are  discussed 
elsewhere.  [J.H.] 
GRAND  PIANO  (Fr.  Piano  ii  queue;  Ital. 
Piano  a  coda  ;  Germ.  Flugel).  The  long  hori- 
zontal pianoforte,  the  shape  of  which,  tapering 
along  the  bent  side  towards  the  end,  has  sug- 
gested the  French,  Itahan,  and  German  ap- 
pellations of  'tail'  and  'wing,'  the  latter  of 
which  was  borne  also  by  the  predecessor  of  the 
grand  piano,  the  harpsichord. 

The  inventor  of  the  pianoforte,  Cristofori,  ha-d 
as  early  as  the  year  1 7 1 1  made  four  '  gravicem- 
bali  col  piano  e  forte,'  three  of  which  we  learn  by 
the  account  of  Scipione  Maff'ei  were  of  the  usual, 
that  is  long  harpsichord  shape :  they  were  there- 
fore grand  pianos,  although  the  prefix  '  grand ' 
does  not  occur  as  applied  to  a  piano  until  Sto- 
dart's  patent  of  1777.  The  Cavaliere  Leto  Pu- 
liti,  to  whose  researches  we  owe  the  vindication 
of  Cristofori's  claim  to  be  the  first  inventor,  saw 
and  examined  in  1874  a  grand  piano  in  Florence 
made  by  Cristofori  in  1720.  Farinelli's  'Rafael 
d'Urbino,'  described  by  Dr.  Burney  as  the  favourite 
piano  of  that  famous  singer,  was  a  Florentine 
piano  of  1730,  and  appears  to  have  been  also  a 
grand.  Cristofori  had  followers,  but  we  hear  no 
more  of  pianoforte  making  in  Italy  after  his 
death,  in  1731. 

\Ye  are  not  told  whether  the  Silbermann 
pianos  bought  up  in  1747  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  were  grand  or  square  in  shape,  and  those 
instruments,  which  were  described  by  Forkel  as 
existing  in  1802,  recent  researches  have  not  been 
successful  in  finding.  There  is  an  anonymous 
grand  in  the  New  Palace  at  Potsdam,  said  to 
have  been  one  on  which  J.  S.  Bach  played  when 
he  visited  the  King.  If  so  this  would  be  a  very 
early  German  grand,  and  one  of  Silbermann's,  but 
absence  of  name  or  date  leaves  us  in  doubt. 

It  is  certain  the  pianos  made  in  London  be- 
tween 1760-70  by  Zumpe  and  other  Germans 
were  of  the  'table'  or  square  shape.  James  Shudi 
Broadwood  (MS.  Notes  1838,  printed  1862) 
states  that  the  grand  piano  with  the  so-called 
English  action  was  invented  by  Americus  Bac- 
kers, a  Dutchman,  and  a  note  appended  claims 
for  John  Broadwood  and  his  apprentice  Robert 
Stodart,  the  merit  of  assisting  him.  The  writer 
has  seen  a  nameboard  for  a  grand  piano — re- 
ferred to  by  Dr.  Pole  in  '  Musical  Instruments 
'  of  the  Exhibition  of  1851 ' — inscribed  'Americua 


618 


GRAND  PIANO. 


GRANDSIRE. 


Backers,  Factor  et  Inventor,  Jermyn  St.  London, 
1776.'  His  action,  since  known  as  the  'English 
Action,'  is  shown  in  the  drawing  to  Stodart's 
patent  of  1777,  ah-eady  referred  to,  for  coupling 
a  piano  with  a  harpsichord.  It  is  the  same  in 
the  principle  of  the  escapement  as  that  of  Cristo- 
fori,  1 71 1. 

There  is  no  reference  in  Mozart's  letters  to  the 
shape  of  the  pianos  he  played  upon,  those  of 
Spaett  or  Stein  for  example.  The  one  preserved 
in  the  Mozarteum  at  Salzburg,  made  by  Walter 
of  Vienna,  is  a  grand,  and  the  date  attributed  to 
it  is  1780.  It  was  Stein's  grand  action  that  be- 
came subsequently  known  as  the  'Viennese,'  and 
we  should  derive  it  from  Silbermann's  could  we 
trust  implicitly  the  drawings  in  Welcker  von 
Gontershausen's  '  Der  Clavierbau'  (Frankfort 
1870).  The  probability  is  that  Stein  submitted 
this  action  to  Mozart,  and  that  it  was  the  one  so 
much  approved  of  by  him  (Letter,  Oct.  17, 1777). 

According  to  Fdtis  the  first  grand  piano  made 
in  France  was  by  Sebastian  Erard  in  1 796,  and 
it  was  on  the  English  model.  But  Erard's  Lon- 
don patent  for  one  was  earlier,  being  dated  1 794, 
and  the  drawing  was  allied  rather  to  Silbermann's 
idea.  Perhaps  the  instrument  was  not  made. 
The  difference  introduced  into  Pianoforte  playing 
by  the  continued  use  of  the  very  different  grand 
actions  of  London  and  Vienna,  has  been  explained 
by  Hummel  in  his  Pianoforte  School.  Sebastian 
Erard  set  himself  the  problem  of  his  famous 
Repetition  Action  apparently  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  both.  The  Viennese  action  is  still 
adhered  to  in  Austria  for  the  cheaper  grands, 
but  the  English  (Broadwood)  and  French  (Erard) 
actions  are  used  for  the  better  classes,  and  their 
various  modifications  occupy  the  rest  of  the  field 
of  grand  piano  making  in  other  countries.  The 
enormous  advance  due  to  the  introduction  of  iron 
into  the  structure  of  the  instrument  began  with 
James  Shudi  Broadwood's  tension  bars  in  1808  : 
the  latest  development  we  enjoy  in  the  magnificent 
concert  grands  of  contemporary  makers.  [See 
Ckistofori  and  Pianoforte.]  [A.  J.H.] 

GRAND  PRIX  DE  ROME.  The  Academie 
des  Beaux  Arts,  a  branch  of  the  Institut  de 
France,  holds  annual  competitive  examinations 
in  painting,  sculpture,  engraving,  architecture, 
and  music.  The  successful  candidates  become 
pensioners  of  the  government  for  a  period  of 
four  years,  and  as  such  are  sent  to  Rome,  where 
they  reside  at  the  Villa  Medici,  in  the  'Academie 
de  France'  founded  by  Louis  XIV  in  1666.  Hence 
the  term  'Grand  prix  de  Rome'  is  applied  to 
those  musicians  who  have  obtained  the  first  prize 
for  composition  at  the  Institut  de  France,  The 
Prize  was  established  on  the  reorganisation  of 
the  Institut  in  1803.  The  judges  consist  of  six 
musician-members  of  the  Institut  who  belong  to 
the  Acaddmie,  and  three  of  the  most  eminent 
composers  of  the  day.  The  competition  takes 
place  in  May  or  June.  The  prize  composition  was 
originally  a  cantata  for  one  voice  and  orchestra  ; 
subsequently  for  one  male  and  one  female  voice  ; 
but  for  the  last  forty  years  three  characters  have 
been  required,  and  it  has  now  attained  to  the 


importance  of  a  one-act  opera.  The  libretto 
is  also  furnished  by  competition,  in  which 
distinguished  v/riters  often  take  part ;  while  the 
most  popular  singers  take  pleasure  in  performing 
these  first  compositions  of  the  young  aspirants. 
In  the  event  of  no  composition  proving  worthy 
of  the  Prize,  it  stands  over  till  the  next  year, 
when  two  may  be  adjudged  (see  1805, 1819,  etc.). 

We  append  a  complete  list  of  the  musicians 
who  have  gained  this  gratifying  and  eagerly 
coveted  distinction ;  adding  the  titles  of  their 
cantatas,  and,  where  obtainable,  the  dates  of 
birth  and  death. 


•Al- 


1840.  Bazinasie).  '  Loyse  de  Mont- 
fort.' 

1841.  Maillart.  'Lionel  Foscari.' 

1842.  Ro^er   (1814-).     '  La  reine 
Flore.' 

1843.  No  first  prize. 

1844.  Mass^,  and  Renaud  do  Vil- 
back.  '  Le  Ren^gat.' 

1845.  No  first  prize. 

1846.  Gastinel.  'Velasquez.' 

1847.  Deffes  (1819).    'L'Ange  et 
Tobie.' 

1848.  Dupratoa827).  'Damocles.' 

1849.  No  first  prize. 

1850.  Chariot  (1827-71).  '  Emma  et 
Eginhard.* 

1851.  Delehelle  a826).  '  Le  Prisou- 
nier.' 

1852.  L^once  Cohen  a830).  'Le 
Retour  de  Virginie.' 

1853.  Galibert  (1826-58).  '  Le  rocher 
d'Appenzell.' 

1854.  Barthe  (1828).  'Francesca  d 
Rimini.' 

1855.  Conte    a830).      'Acis  et 
Galat^e.' 

1856.  No  first  prize. 

1857.  Bizet  (1838-75),  and  Charles 
Colin.  'ClovisetClotilde.' 

1858.  David  (1836).  '  Jepht^.' 

1859.  Eugene  Guiraud.    '  Bajazet 
et  le  joueur  de  flfite.' 

1860.  Paladilhe.  'Le Czar  Ivan IV.' 

1861.  Dubois  (1837-).  '  Atala.' 

1862.  Bouijrault-Ducoudray  (1840-). 
'  Louise  de  M^zieres.' 

1863.  Massenet.  '  David  Rizzic' 

1864.  Sieg.  'Ivanhoe.' 

1865.  Leuepveu.  '  Renaud  dans  les 
jardins  d'Armide.' 

1866.  Emile  Pessard.  'Dalila.' 

1867.  No  first  prize. 

1868.  Wintzweiller  (1844-70),  and 
Rabuteau.  'Daniel.' 

1869.  Taudou.  'Frau90ise  de  Ri- 
mini.' 

1870.  Mar^chal,  and  Ch.  Lefebvra 
'  Le  Jugement  de  Dieu.' 

1871.  Serpette.  '  Jeanne  d'Arc. 

1872.  Salvayre.  'Calypso.' 

1873.  Paul  Puget.  '  Mazeppa.' 

1874.  Ehrhart  (1854-75).    'Acis  et 
Galat^e.' 

1875.  Wormser.  '  Clytemnestre.' 

1876.  Hillemacher,  and  P.  V.  de  la 
Nux.  'Judith.' 

1877.  No  first  prize. 

The  successful  cantata  is  performed  at  the  an- 
nual seance  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts  at 
the  Institut,  usually  in  October ;  it  has  sometimes 
been  sung  in  costume  at  the  Opera.  A  few  of 
the  cantatas  have  been  engraved,  but  the  greater 
part  are  unpublished.  At  the  instance  of  the 
writer  of  this  article,  and  by  his  endeavours, 
the  whole  of  the  autographs  of  these  interesting 
compositions  have  been  deposited  in  the  Library 
of  the  Conservatoire  in  Paris,  under  the  title  of 
'  Fonds  des  Prix  de  Rome.'  [G.C] 

GRANDSIRE.  The  name  given  to  one  of 
the  methods  by  which  changes  in  ringing  are 


803.  Androt  0781-1804). 
cyone." 

804.  No  first  prize. 

805.  Dourlen.  and  Gasse  (1788-) 
'  Cupidon  pleurant  Psych6.' 

806.  Bouteiller(1788— 18  ).  'H6ro 
et  L^andre.' 

807.  No  first  prize. 

808.  Blondeau.  '  Marie  Stuart.' 
1809.  Daussoigne       (1790  —  1875). 

'Agar  dans  le  desert.' 

810.  Beaulieu  (1791—1863).  '  H^ro." 

811.  Chelard.  'Ariane.' 

812.  Harold.  'La  Duchesse  de  la 
Valliere.' 

813.  Panseron.  'Hermiuie.' 

814.  Roll  (1788-).  'Atala.' 

815.  Benoist  (1795).   '  CEnone.' 
No  first  prize. 

817.  Batton  (1797— 1855).  'Lamort 
d'Adonis.' 
!.  No  first  prize. 

i.  Hal^vy,  and  Massin-Turina 
(179.3-).   '  Herminie.' 

820.  Lebome  (1797—1866).  '  Sopho- 
nisbe.' 

821.  Rifaut (1798— 1838).  'Diane.' 
.822.  Lebourgeois (1799— 1824).  'Ge- 
nevieve de  Brabant.' 

823.  Boilly(1799-),  and  Ermel  (1798- 
1871).  'Pyrame  et  Thisbe.' 

824.  Barbereau.  '  Agnes  Sorel.' 

825.  Guillion (1801— 1854).  'Ariane 
dans  rile  de  Naxos*. 

826.  Paris  (1801-66).  '  Herminie.' 

827.  J.  B.  Guiraud  (1804-).    '  Or- 
ph^e.' 

1828.  Ross-Despr^aux  (1803-). '  Her- 
minie.' 
No  first  prize. 
830.  Berlioz,  and  Montfort. 


'Sar 


831.  Provost.  '  Bianca  Capello.' 

832.  A.  Thomas.    '  Hermann  et 
Ketty.' 

833.  Thys.     '  Le  Contrebandier 
espagnol.* 

.834.  Elwart  (1808-77).  'L'entrde 
en  loge.' 

835.  Boulanger(1815).  'Achille.' 

836.  Boisselot  (1811).  'Vell^da.' 

837.  L.  D.  Besozzi.  '  Marie  Stuart 
et  Rizzio.' 

838.  Bousquet  (1818-54).  'LaVen. 
detta.' 

839.  Gounod.  'Fernand.' 


GRANDSIRE. 


GEASSHOPPER.  619 


produced.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  original 
method.  [See  Change  Ringing.]  [C.A.W.T.] 

GR A  NJON,  Robert.  Born  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 6th  century  at  Paris,  a  type-founder 
who  was  one  of  the  fii'st  to  introduce  round  notes 
instead  of  square  and  lozenge-shaped  ones,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  suppress  the  ligatures  and 
signs  of  proportion,  which  made  the  notation  of 
the  old  music  so  difficult  to  read — and  thus  to 
simplify  the  art.  His  efforts,  however,  appear  to 
have  met  with  little  or  no  success.  His  first 
publications  are  said  to  be  dated  1523,  and  the 
first  work  printed  on  his  new  system,  1559,  at 
which  time  he  had  left  Paris  for  Lyons;  he 
was  at  Rome  in  1582,  where  he  printed  the  first 
edition  of  Guidetti's  Directorium,  having  been 
called  to  Rome  by  the  Pope  in  order  to  cut  the 
capital  letters  of  a  Greek  alphabet. 

Whether  he  or  Briard  of  Bar-le-duc  was  the 
first  to  make  the  improvements  mentioned  above 
is  uncertain.  Briard's  Carpentras  (printed  in 
the  new  style)  was  published  at  Avignon  in 
1532,  but  Granjon  appears  to  have  made  his 
invention  and  obtained  letters  patent  for  it  many 
years  before  he  had  an  opportunity  of  exercising 
it.    See  Fetis  for  more  details.  [G.] 

GRANOM,  Lewis  C.  A.,  a  composer  who 
floui-ished  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century, 
and  produced  many  songs  and  pieces  which  were 
popular  in  their  day.  His  first  work  was  '  Twelve 
Sonatas  for  the  Flute,'  published  in  175 1.  He 
afterwards  published  'Six  Trios  for  the  Flute,' 
1 755,  and  a  collection  entitled  '  The  Monthly  Mis- 
cellany,' consisting  of  duets  for  flutes,  songs,  etc. 
His  '  Second  Collection  of  40  favourite  English 
Songs,  with  string  accompaniments,  in  score ;  de- 
dicated to  Dr.  Boyce,'  bears  the  opus  number  xiii. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  biography.    [W.  H.  H.] 

GRAS,  Madame  Julie  Aimee  Dorus,  whose 
family  name  was  Steenkiste,  was  bom  at  Valen- 
ciennes in  1807.  Dorus  was  the  name  of  her 
mother.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  leader  of 
the  band,  and  educated  by  her  father.  At  the  age 
of  14  she  made  a  debut  in  a  concert  with  such  suc- 
cess as  to  obtain  a  subsidy  from  the  authorities  to 
enable  her  to  study  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris. 
There  she  was  admitted  Dec.  21,  182 1  ;  and 
received  instruction  from  Henri  and  Blangini. 
With  a  good  voice  and  much  facility  of  execution, 
she  obtained  the  first  prize  in  1822.  Paer  and 
Bordogni  then  helped  to  finish  her  education. 
To  the  former  she  owed  her  appointment  as 
chamber-singer  to  the  king.  In  1825  she  began 
her  travels,  going  to  Brussels  first,  where  she 
sang  with  such  success  as  to  receive  proposals 
for  the  opera.  She  now  gave  six  months  to 
study  for  the  stage,  and  made  a  brilliant  dt^but. 
After  the  revolution  of  1830  she  went  to  the 
opera  at  Paris,  and  made  her  first  appearance 
in  the  *  Comte  Ory '  with  great  applause.  On 
the  retirement  of  Mme.  Damoreau-Cinti  (1835) 
Mile.  Dorus  succeeded  to  the  principal  parts 
in  '  La  Muette,'  *  Guillaume  Tell,'  '  Fernand 
Cortez,'  etc.  She  had  already  created  the  roles 
of  Ther^sina  in  '  Le  Philtre,'   of  Alice  in 


j  *  Robert  le  Diable,  *  and  the  page  in  *  Gustave.' 

'  In  1839  she  visited  London,  where  she  had  a 

I  very  warm  reception.  Having  married  M.  Gras, 
one  of  the  principal  violins  at  the  Op^ra,  April  9, 

I  1833,  MUe.  Dorus  for  some  years  kept  her 
maiden-name  on  the  stage.    The  management  of 

[  the  theatre  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  M, 
Stolz,  she  had  the  mortification  to  see  her  chief 
parts  given  to  Mme.  Stolz,  and  consequently 
retired  in  1845.  She  continued  however,  to  sing 
occasionally  in  Paris  and  in  the  provinces.  In 
1847  she  reappeared  in  London,  and  renewed 
her  former  triumphs  ;  as  she  did  again  in  1848 
and  9,  singing  in  the  latter  year  Auber's  Italianised 
'Masaniello.'  In  1 850-1  Mme.  Dorus-Gras  re- 
mained in  Paris,  singing  in  a  few  concerts  ;  but 
since  then  her  artistic  career  has  ended.  [J.M.] 

GRASSET,  Jean-Jacques,  a  distinguished 
violin-player,  born  at  Paris  about  1769.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Berthaume,  and  is  reported  to 
have  excelled  by  a  clear,  though  not  powerful 
tone,  correct  intonation  and  technique.  After 
having  been  obliged  to  serve  in  the  army  for 
several  years — which  he  appears  to  have  spent 
not  without  profit  for  his  art  in  Germany  and 
Italy — he  returned  to  Paris  and  soon  gained  a 
prominent  position  there.  On  the  death  of  Ga- 
vini^s  in  1 800  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
violin  at  the  Conservatoire,  after  a  highly  suc- 
cessful competition  with  a  number  of  eminent 
performers.  Soon  afterwards  he  succeeded  Bruni 
as  *  chef  d'orchestre '  at  the  Italian  Opera,  which 
post  he  filled  with  eminent  success  till  1829, 
when  he  retired  from  public  life.  He  published 
three  Concertos  for  the  Violin,  five  books  of 
Violin-Duos,  and  a  Sonata  for  Piano  and  Violin, 
which  are  not  without  merit.  He  died  at  Paris 
in  1839.  [P.D.] 

GRASSHOPPER  or  HOPPER,  in  a  square 
or  upright  pianoforte  of  ordinary  London  make,  is 
that  part  of  the  action  known  technically  as  the 
escapement  lever  or  jack,  so  constructed  with 
base  mortised  into  the  key  and  back  piece,  that 
it  may  be  taken  out  or  replaced  with  the  key, 
without  disturbing  the  rest  of  the  mechanism. 
There  is  a  regulating  screw  perforating  the  jack, 
tongue,  or  fly,  as  it  is  variously  called,  of  the 
grasshopper,  drilled  into  the  backpiece  and  bear- 
ing a  leather  button,  the  position  of  which  and 
the  pressure  of  a  spring  determine  the  rake  of  the 
jack,  and  consequently  the  rise  and  rebound  of 
the  hammer ;  the  rebound  being  further  regulated 
by  a  contrivance  attached  to  the  jack,  when  not 
an  independent  member,  and  used  for  checking 
or  arresting  it  after  the  blow.  In  grand  piano- 
fortes, and  in  upright  ones  with  crank  lever 
actions,  the  escapement  apparatus  is  less  easily 
detached  from  the  action. 

It  is  not  recorded  by  whom  the  Grasshopper 
was  introduced,  although  the  escapement  part  of 
it  existed  in  Cristofori's  '  linguetta  mobile ' ;  but 
the  tradition  which  attributes  it  to  Longman 
and  Broderip,  pianoforte  makers  in  London,  and 
predecessors  of  the  firm  of  Clementi  and  Collard, 
may  be  relied  upon.    John  Geib  patented  in 


620  GEASSHOPPER. 


GRAUN. 


London  in  1786  a  square  action  with  the  jack, 
and  the  setting  off  button  acting  upon  the  key, 
also,  in  another  form,  the  screw  holding  the 
button  perforating  the  jack — but  with  the  button 
in  front  of  it.  The  improved  form  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  with  the  button  behind  the 
jack,  was  adopted  by  Messrs.  Longman  and 
Broderip,  and  soon  became  general.      [A.  J.H.] 

GRASSI,  Cecilia,  who  afterwards  became  the 
wife  of  John  Christian  Bach  ('English  Bach'), 
was  born  in  1746.  She  came  to  London  with 
Guarducci  in  1766,  as  'first  woman,'  and  re- 
mained in  that  capacity  at  the  opera  for  several 
years.  Burney  thought  her  'inanimate  on  the 
stage,  and  far  from  beautiful  in  her  person ;  but 
there  was  a  truth  of  intonation,  with  a  plaintive 
sweetness  of  voice,  and  innocence  of  expression, 
that  gave  great  pleasure  to  all  hearers  who  did 
not  expect  or  want  to  be  surprised.'  She  was 
succeeded  in  1772  by  Girelli,  but  remained  in 
England  until  the  death  of  her  husband  in  17.82, 
when  she  returned  to  Italy,  and  retired  from 
public  singing.  [J.  M.] 

GRASSINEAU,  James,  bom  of  French 
parents  in  London,  about  1715  ;  was  first  em- 
ployed by  Godfrey,  the  chemist,  of  Southampton 
Street,  Strand,  then  became  Secretary  to  Dr. 
Pepusch,  at  whose  instance  he  translated  the 
'  Lictionnaire  de  musique '  of  Brossard  (Paris, 
1703),  with  alterations  and  additions,  some  of 
which  are  said  to  be  by  Pepusch  himself: — 'A 
musical  dictionary  ...  of  terms  and  characters,' 
etc.,  London,  1740,  an  8vo.  of  343  pages,  with 
a  recommendation  prefixed,  signed  by  Pepusch, 
Greene,  and  Galliard.  A  2nd  edition  is  said  to 
have  been  published  in  1 769  by  Robson  with  an 
appendix  taken  from  Rousseau.  [G.] 

GRASSINI,  JosEPHiNA  (as  she  signed  her- 
self), was  born  at  Varese  (Lombardy)  in  1773,  of 
very  humble  parents.  The  beauty  of  her  voice 
and  person  induced  General  Belgiojoso  to  give 
her  the  best  instruction  that  could  be  procured 
at  Milan.  She  made  rapid  progress  in  the  grand 
school  of  singing  thus  opened  to  her,  and  soon 
developed  a  powerful  and  extensive  contralto, 
with  a  power  of  light  and  finished  execution 
rarely  found  with  that  kind  of  voice.  She  had 
the  great  advantage  of  singing  in  her  first  operas 
with  such  models  as  Marchesi  and  Crescentini. 
Grassini  made  her  debuts  at  Milan,  in  the  carni- 
val of  1794,  in  Zingarelli's  'Artaserse,'  and  the 
•Demofoonte'  of  Portogallo.  She  soon  became 
the  first  singer  in  Italy,  and  appeared  in  triumph 
on  all  the  chief  Italian  stages.  In  1796  she 
returned  to  Milan,  and  played  in  Traetta's '  Apelle 
6  Campaspe,'  and  with  Crescentini  and  Bianchi 
in  the  '  Giulietta  e  Romeo'  of  Zingarelli.  The 
year  after  she  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm  at 
Venice  as  'Orazio.'  In  179  7  she  was  engaged 
to  sing  at  Naples  during  the  fetes  held  on  the 
mamage  of  the  Prince.  In  1 800,  after  Marengo, 
she  sang  at  Milan  in  a  concert  before  Buona- 
parte, and  was  taken  by  him  to  Paris,  where 
she  sang  (July  22)  at  the  national  f6te  in  the 
Champ  de  Mars,  and  in  concerts  at  the  opera. 


In  1803  she  was  engaged  to  sing  in  London  from 
March  to  July  for  £3000,  taking  the  place  of 
Banti.  Here  she  had  to  contend  with  Mrs. 
Billington  in  popular  favour,  though  their  voices 
were  very  diff'erent.  Lord  Mount -Edgcumbe 
speaks  in  disparaging  terms  of  that  of  Grassini, 
though  he  gives  her  credit  for  great  beauty,  '  a 
grace  peculiarly  her  own,'  and  the  excellence  of 
her  acting.  Her  style  was  then  '  exclusively  the 
cantabile,  and  bordered  a  little  on  the  monotonous. 
She  had  entirely  lost  all  her  upper  tones,  and 
possessed  little  more  than  one  octave  of  good, 
natural  notes ;  if  she  attempted  to  go  higher, 
she  produced  only  shriek,  quite  unnatural,  and 
almost  painful  to  the  ear.'  Her  first  appearance 
was  in  'La  Vergine  del  Sole,'  by  Mayer,  well 
suited  to  her ;  but  '  so  equivocal  was  her  re- 
ception, that  when  her  benefit  was  to  take  place 
she  did  not  dare  encounter  it  alone,  but  called 
in  Mrs.  Billington  to  her  aid.'  The  tide  then 
turned,  and  Grassini  became  the  reigningfavourite. 
'  Not  only  was  she  rapturously  applauded  in 
public,  but  she  was  taken  up  by  the  first  society, 
fetee,  caressed,  and  introduced  as  a  regular  guest 
in  most  of  the  fashionable  assemblies.'  Very 
different  from  this  was  the  eff'ect  produced  by 
Grassini  on  other  hearers,  more  intellectual, 
though  less  cultivated  in  music,  than  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe.  De  Quincey  found  her  voice 
'delightful  beyond  all  that  he  had  ever  heard.' 
Sir  Charles  Bell  (1805)  thought  it  was  'only 
Grassini  who  conveyed  the  idea  of  the  united 
power  of  music  and  action.  She  died  not  only 
without  being  ridiculous,  but  with  an  eff'ect  equal 
to  Mrs.  Siddons.  The  '0  Dio '  of  Mrs.  Billing- 
ton was  a  bar  of  music,  but  in  the  strange, 
almost  unnatural  voice  of  Grassini.  it  went  to 
the  soul.'  Elsewhere  he  speaks  of  her  '  dignity, 
truth,  and  affecting  simplicity.'  Such  was  her 
influence  on  people  of  refined  taste,  not  mu- 
sicians. In  1804  she  sang  again  in  Paris;  and, 
after  1806,  when  she  quitted  London,  con- 
tinued to  sing  at  the  French  Court  for  several 
years,  at  a  very  high  salary  (altogether,  about 
£2,600).  Here  the  role  of  '  Didone'  was  written 
for  her  by  Paer.  After  the  change  of  dynasty, 
Mme.  Grassini,  whose  voice  was  now  seriously 
impaired,  lost  her  appointment  at  Paris,  and 
returned  to  Milan,  where  she  sang  in  two  concerts 
in  April  1817.  In  1822  she  was  at  Ferrara, 
but  died  at  Milan  in  January  1850. 

In  1806  a  fine  portrait  of  her  was  scraped  in 
mezzotint  (folio)  by  S.  W.  Reynolds,  after  a  picture 
by  Mme.  Le  Brun.  It  represents  her  in  Turkish 
dress,  as  '  Zaira'  in  Winter's  opera.         [J.  M.] 

GRAUN.  The  name  of  three  brothers,  one  of 
whom  made  his  mark  on  German  music,  sons  of  an 
Excise  collector  at  Wahrenbriick  near  Dresden. 

The  eldest,  August  Friedbich,  born  at  the 
end  of  the  1 7th  century,  was  at  the  time  of  his 
death  cantor  of  Merseburg,  where  he  had  passed 
the  greater  part  of  his  life,  1 727-1 771. 

JoHANN  Gottlieb,  born  1698,  was  an  eminent 
violinist,  and  composer  of  instrumental  music 
much  valued  in  his  day.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Pisendel.    After  a  journey  to  Italy,  where  he 


GRAUN. 


GRAUN. 


621 


had  instruction  from  Tartini,  he  became  Concert- 
ineister  at  Merseburg,  and  had  Friedemann  Bach 
for  some  time  as  his  pupil.  In  1727  he  entered 
the  service  of  Prince  von  Waldeck,  and  in  28 
that  of  Frederick  the  Great,  then  Crown  Prince 
at  Reinsberg.  On  the  King's  accession  he  went 
to  Berlin,  and  remained  there  till  his  death  in 
1771  as  conductor  of  the  royal  band.  Of  his 
many  compositions  only  one,  *  6  Klavier-trios 
mit  Violine,'  has  been  printed.  Bumey  in  his 
'Present  State'  (ii.  229)  testifies  to  the  great 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held.  The  excellence  of 
the  then  Berlin  orchestra  is  always  attributed  to 
him.  [P.D.] 
The  most  celebrated  of  the  three  is  the  youngest, 
Karl  Heinrich,  bom  May  7.  1701.  He  was 
educated  with  Johann  Gottlieb  at  the  Kreuzschule 
in  Dresden,  and  having  a  beautiful  soprano  voice, 
was  appointed,  in  171 3,  *  Raths-discantist,'  or 
treble-singer  to  the  town-council.  Grundig  the 
cantor  of  the  school,  the  court-organist  Petzold, 
and  the  capellmeister  Joh.  Christoph  Schmidt, 
were  his  early  musical  instructors,  and  he  profited 
by  the  friendship  of  Ulrich  Konig  the  court-poet, 
and  of  Superintendent  Loscher,  who  defended 
him  from  the  pedantic  notions  of  an  inartistic 
Burgomaster.  His  career  both  as  a  singer  and 
composer  was  largely  influenced  by  his  study  of 
the  vocal  compositions  of  Keiser,  the  then  cele- 
brated composer  of  Hamburg,  and  of  the  operas 
of  the  Italian  composer  Lotti,  who  conducted  in 
person  a  series  of  performances  in  Dresden,  with 
a  picked  company  of  Italian  singers.  Even  during 
this  time  of  study,  Graun  was  busily  engaged 
in  composing.  There  still  exist  a  quantity  of 
motets  and  other  sacred  vocal  pieces,  which  he 
wrote  for  the  choir  of  the  Kreuzschule.  In  par- 
ticular maybe  cited  a  'Grosse  Passions-Cantata,' 
with  the  opening  chorus  '  Lasset  uns  aufsehen  auf 
Jesum,'  which,  as  the  work  of  a  boy  of  barely  15, 
is  very  remarkable.  Upon  Konig's  recommenda- 
tion he  was  appointed  tenor  to  the  opera  at 
Brunswick  when  Hasse  was  recalled  to  Dresden 
in  1725.  The  opera  chosen  for  his  first  appear- 
ance was  by  Schurmann  the  local  capellmeister, 
but  Graun  being  dissatisfied  with  the  music  of 
his  part  replaced  the  airs  by  others  of  his  own 
composition,  which  were  so  successful  that  he  was 
commissioned  to  write  an  opera,  and  appointed 
vice-capellmeister.  This  first  opera  'Pollidoro' 
(1726)  was  followed  by  five  others,  some  in 
Italian,  and  some  in  German  ;  and  besides  these 
he  composed  several  cantatas,  sacred  and  secular, 
two  '  Passions-Musiken,'  and  inotrumental  pieces. 
His  fame  was  now  firmly  established.  In  1735 
he  was  invited  to  Reinsberg,  the  residence  of 
the  Crown-Prince  of  Prussia,  afterwards  Frederic 
the  Great.  This  powerful  amateur  continued 
Graun's  friend  and  patron  till  his  death.  Here 
he  composed  about  50  Italian  cantatas,  usually 
consisting  each  of  two  airs  with  recitatives.  They 
were  highly  valued  at  the  time,  and  contain 
ample  materials  for  an  estimate  of  Graun's  style 
of  writing  for  the  voice.  When  Frederic  came 
to  the  throne  in  1740,  he  gave  Graun  the  post 
of  capellmeister,  with  a  salary  of  2000  thalers, 


and  despatched  him  to  Italy  to  form  a  company 
of  Italian  singers  for  the  opera  at  Berlin.  In 
Italy  he  remained  more  than  a  year,  and  his 
singing  was  much  appreciated.  After  his  return 
to  Berlin  with  the  singers  he  had  engaged,  he 
spent  some  years  of  remarkable  activity  in  com- 
posing operas.  Those  of  this  period  amount  to 
27  in  all  (a  complete  list  will  be  found  in  Fdtis)  ; 

*  Rodelinda,  Regina  di  Longobardia  '  appeared  in 
1 741,  and  'Merope,'  his  last,  in  1756.  In  his 
operas  he  gave  his  chief  consideration  to  the 
singer,  as  indeed  was  the  case  with  all  Italian 
operas  at  that  time.  His  forte,  both  in  singing 
and  in  composition,  resided  in  the  power  he 
possessed  of  executing  adagios,  and  of  expressing 
tenderness  and  emotion.  Although  his  operas,  as 
such,  are  now  forgotten,  they  contain  airs  which 
merit  the  attention  of  both  singers  and  public,  a 
good  instance  being  '  Mi  paventi '  from  '  Britan- 
nicus'  (1752),  with  which  Mme.  Viardot -Garcia 
used  to  make  a  great  eff"ect.  A  collection  of  airs, 
duets,  terzettos,  etc.,  from  Graun's  operas  was 
edited  by  the  celebrated  theorist  Kirnberger,  in 
4  vols.  (Berlin  1773). 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life  Graun  again  de- 
voted himself  to  church-music,  and  two  of  the 
works  belonging  to  this  period  have  carried  his 
name  down  to  posterity ;  and  are  indeed  those 
by  which  he  is  now  almost  exclusively  known. 
These  are  the  *  Te  Deum '  which  he  composed  for 
Frederic's  victory  at  Prague  (1756) — first  per- 
formed at  Charlottenburg  at  the  close  of  the  Seven 
Years  War,  July  15,  1763 — and  still  more,  *  Der 
Tod  Jesu,'  or  Death  of  Jesus,  a  'Passions-Cantata,' 
to  words  by  Ramler,  a  work  which  enjoyed  an 
unprecedented  fame,  and  placed  its  author  in  the 
rank  of  classical  composers.  In  Germany  the  Tod 
Jesu  holds  in  some  degree  the  position  which  is 
held  by  the  Messiah  in  England.  It  was  first 
executed  in  the  Cathedral  of  Berlin  on  March  26, 
1755,  and  has  since  then  been  annually  performed 
in  Passion-week.  A  centenary  performance  took 
place  in  1855  in  presence  of  Frederic  William 
IV.  Of  late  years  some  opposition  has  been 
raised  to  this  continual  repetition  of  an  anti- 
quated work,  but  it  may  to  a  great  extent  be 
justified  by  the  complete  and  masterly  form  in 
which  it  embodies  the  spirit  of  a  bygone  age. 
Looked  at  from  a  purely  musical  point  of  view, 
and  apart  from  considerations  of  age  or  taste,  the 

*  Tod  Jesu '  contains  so  many  excellences,  and 
so  much  that  is  significant,  that  no  oratorio  of 
the  second  half  of  the  last  century,  excepting 
perhaps  Mozart's  'Requiem'  and  Haydn's  'Crea- 
tion' can  be  compared  to  it.  Graun  was  a  master 
of  counterpoint ;  his  harmony — as  his  biographer, 
J.  A.  Hiller,  says — was  always  '  clear  and  signifi- 
cant, and  his  modulation  well  regulated.'  His 
melodies  may  be  wanting  in  force,  but  they 
are  always  full  of  expression  and  emotion.  That 
he  possessed  real  dramatic  ability  may  be  seen 
from  his  recitatives,  and  these  are  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  'Tod  Jesu.'  An  English 
edition  of  the  work  has  recently  been  published 
by  Messrs.  Novello,  so  that  it  has  now  a  fair 
chance  of  attaining  that  popularity  in  England 


622 


GEAUN. 


GREATOREX. 


to  which  its  merits  entitle  it.  Hitherto  we  are 
not  aware  of  its  having  ever  been  performed 
here  in  public. 

Graun's  instrumental  compositions,  trios,  piano- 
forte concertos,  etc,  have  never  been  published 
and  are  of  little  value.  He  wrote  31  solfeggi, 
which  form  an  excellent  singing  method,  and  he 
invented  the  so-called  '  Da  me  ne  satio ' — a  put- 
ting together  of  the  syllables,  da,  me,  ni,  po,  tu, 
la,  be,  for  the  practice  of  solfeggio,  which  how- 
ever has  been  little  used.  Graun  died  at  Berlin 
Aug.  8.  1759,  in  full  enjoyment  of  the  king's 
favour,  illustrious  among  his  contemporaries, 
and,  after  Hasse,  undoubtedly  the  chief  com- 
poser of  Italian  opera  of  his  time.  [A.M.] 

GRAUPNER,   Christoph,  composer,  bom 
1683  or  84  at  Kirchberg  in  Saxony,  near  the 
Erzgebirge ;  came  early  to  Leipzig,  where  he 
studied  nine  years  at  the  Thomas-schule  under 
Cantors  Schelle  and  Kuhnau.     He  began  to 
study  law,  but  was  driven  by  the  Swedish 
invasion  to  take  refuge  in  Hamburg,  where  he 
passed  three  years  as  harpsichord  player  at  the 
opera   under   Keiser.     The  Landgrave  Ernst 
Ludwig  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  then  staying  in 
Hamburg,  having  appointed  him  his  vice-Capell-  i 
meister,  he  removed  in  17 10  to  Darmstadt,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  promoted  to  the  CapeU-  ' 
meistership  on  the  death  of  Briegel.    Here  he  j 
did  much  to  elevate  both  sacred  and  dramatic  ' 
music,  and  greatly  improved  the  court  perform-  j 
ances,  the  excellence  of  which  is  mentioned  by  ' 
Telemann.    In  1723  he  was  proposed,  together 
•with  Bach  and  Telemann,  for  the  post  of  Cantor  | 
at  the  Thomas-schule  (when  Bach  was  elected), 
but  he  preferred  remaining  in  Darmstadt.  In 
1750  he  lost  his  sight,  a  great  trial  to  so  active 
a  man,  and  died  May  10, 1760,  in  his  78th  year. 

Graupner  worked  almost  day  and  night ;  he 
even  engraved  his  own  pieces  for  the  clavier, 
many  of  which  are  very  pleasing.  Of  his  operas 
the  following  were  produced  in  Hamburg : — 
'  Dido'  (1707),  'Hercules  und  Theseus,'  'Antio- 
chus  in  Stratonica,'  *  Bellerophon'  (1708),  and 
'Simson'  (i.e.  Samson — 1709).  After  this  he 
•wrote  only  church  and  chamber  music.  Between 
the  years  17 19  and  45  he  composed  more  than 
1300  pieces  for  the  service  in  the  Schloss-kirche 
at  Darmstadt — figured  chorales,  pieces  for  one 
and  more  voices,  and  chorales  with  accompani- 
ment for  organ  and  orchestra.  The  court  library 
at  Darmstadt  contains  the  autograph  scores  and 
the  separate  parts  of  these,  which  were  printed 
at  the  Landgrave's  expense ;  Superintendent 
Lichtenberg  furnished  the  words.  The  same 
library  also  contains  in  MS.  50  concertos  for 
different  instruments  in  score  ;  80  overtures  ; 
116  symphonies;  several  sonatas  and  trios  for 
different  instruments  in  various  combinations, 
mostly  in  score ;  6  Sonatas  for  the  harpsichord, 
•with  gigues,  preludes,  and  fugues.  Of  his  printed 
works  there  also  exist  8  'Partien'  for  the  Clavier 
(1718)  ;  'Monatliche  Clavier-Friichte,'  consisting 
of  preludes,  allemandes,  courantes,  sarabandes, 
minuets,  and  gigues  (Darmstadt  1722)  ;  '  Die 
vier  Jahreszeiten,'  4  suites  for  clavier  (Frankfurt 


1 733) ;  and  '  VIII  Partien  auf  das  Clavier,'  dedi- 
cated to  the  Landgrave  Ernst  Ludwig  (Darm- 
stadt 1726).    We  must  also  mention  his  *Neu 
vermehrtes  Choralbuch'  (Frankfurt,  Gerhardt, 
1728).     Graupner's   autobiography  is  printed 
in  Mattheson's  Ehrenpforte,  p.  410.  [C.F.P.] 
GRAVE.    One  of  the  slow  Tempos,  indicating 
perhaps  rather  character  than  pace.   As  familiar 
instances  may  be  given  the  opening  movement  of 
the  Overture  to  the  Messiah,  the  short  Choruses 
in  plain  counterpoint  in  Israel  in  Egypt — *  And 
,  Israel  saw,'  'He  is  my  God,'  etc.  ;   the  two 
j  recitatives,  'As  God  the  Lord,'  in  Elijah;  'The 
I  nations  are  now  the  Lord's '  in  St.  Paul ;  '  What 
I  ailed  thee'  in  the   114th  Psalm;  the  'Rex 
tremendae '  in  Mozart's  Requiem ;  the  Introduction 
to  the  Sonata  Pathetique,  and  that  to  the  Prison 
,  scene  in  Fidelio.    In  Elijah  Mendelssohn  marks 
it  |*=  60,  but  in  St.  Paul  |»=  66.  [G.] 

GRAVICEMBALO.  An  Italian  corruption  of 
the  term  Clavicembalo,  a  harpsichord.  [A.  J.H.] 
GRAY  &  DAVISON.  Robert  Gray  established 
an  organ  factory  in  London  in  1 7  74,  was  succeeded 
by  William  Gray,  who  died  in  1820,  and  then  by 
John  Gray.  In  1837-38  the  firm  was  John 
Gray  &  Son,  after  which  John  Gray  took  Frederic 
Davison  into  partnership.  Gray  died  in  1849, 
but  the  firm  continues  to  bear  the  same  title. 
Amongst  the  many  organs  erected  by  these 
favourite  makers  all  over  the  country,  we  may 
mention  those  in  the  Crystal  Palace  (Handel 
orchestra),  St.  Paul's,  Wilton  Place,  and  St,  Pan- 
eras,  London ;  Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  and 
the  Town  Halls  of  Leeds,  Bolton,  and  Glasgow. 

In  1876  they  took  up  the  business  of  Robson, 
and  have  also  a  factory  in  Liverpool,  having 
succeeded  Bewshur  in  that  town.  [V.deP.] 
GRAZIANI,  SiGNOR,  a  singer  who  appeared 
in  London  first  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  in 
1855.     He  made  his  debut  in  the  'Trovatore,' 
then  also  produced  here  for  the  first  time.  In 
this  '  the  song  II  balen  exhibited  to  its  best 
j  advantage  one  of  the  most  perfect  baritone  voices 
I  ever  bestowed  on  mortal.    Such  an  organ  as  his 
j  is  a  golden  inheritance ;  one,  however,  which  has 
j  tempted  many  another  beside  himself  to  rely  too 
exclusively  on  Nature'  (Chorley).    Graziani  has 
I  continued  to  sing  in  London  and  Paris,  with 
I  almost  undiminished  powers,  since  that  time, 
j  His  voice,  though  not  extensive  downwards,  has 
I  still  beautiful  and  luscious  tones,  reaching  as  high 
j  as  G,  and  even  A.     He  appeared  with  great 
effect  as  Nelusco  in  the  'Africaine'  when  that 
opera  was  first  produced  in  London.         [J.  M.] 
GREATOREX,  Thomas,  son  of  a  professor  of 
music,  was  born  at  North  Wingfield,  near  Ches- 
terfield, Derbyshire,  on  Oct.  5,  1758.    In  1772 
he  became  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Cooke.  In 
1774,  at  a  performance  of  sacred  music  in  St. 
Martin's  church,  Leicester  (of  which  his  sister 
was  then  organist),  on  occasion  of  the  opening 
of  the  Leicestershire  Infirmary,  he  had  the  good 
fortune  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  Earl 
of  Sandwich  and  Joah  Bates.    The  earl  invited 
him  to  become  an  inmate  of  his  house,  and 


GREATOKEX. 


GREAT  ORGAN. 


62b 


in  1774,  5,  and  6,  he  assisted  at  the  oratorios 
which  were  given  at  Christmas,  under  Bates's 
direction,  at  his  lordship's  seat,  Hinchinbrook 
House,  near  Huntingdon.  On  the  establishment 
of  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music  in  1 776  Greatorex 
sang  in  the  chorus.  In  1 780  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Carlisle  cathedral,  a  post  which  he 
held  until  about  1784,  when  he  resigned  it  and 
went  to  reside  at  Newcastle.  In  1 786  he  went 
to  Italy,  returning  home  through  the  Netherlands 
and  Holland  at  the  latter  end  of  1 788.  At  Rome 
he  was  introduced  to  the  Pretender,  Charles 
Edward  Stuart,  with  whom  he  so  ingratiated 
himself  as  to  induce  the  Prince  to  bequeath  him 
a  large  quantity  of  valuable  manuscript  music. 
On  his  return  to  England  Greatorex  established 
himself  in  London  as  a  teacher  of  music,  and 
soon  acquired  a  very  extensive  practice.  On  the 
retirement  of  Bates  in  1793  he  was,  without 
solicitation,  appointed  his  successor  as  conductor 
of  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music.  In  1801  he 
joined  W.  Knyvett,  Harrison,  and  Bartleman 
in  reviving  the  Vocal  Concerts.  In  1819  he  was 
chosen  to  succeed  George  Ebenezer  Williams  as 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  For  many  years 
he  conducted  the  triennial  musical  festivals  at 
Birmingham,  and  also  those  at  York,  Derby,  and 
elsewhere.  Greatorex  published  a  collection  of 
Psalm  Tunes,  harmonised  by  himself  for  four 
voices,  and  a  few  harmonised  airs.  Besides  these 
he  arranged  and  composed  orchestral  accom- 
paniments to  many  pieces  for  the  Ancient  and 
Vocal  Concerts,  which  were  never  published. 
His  knowledge  was  by  no  means  limited  to 
music ;  he  was  well  -  skilled  in  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  natural  history,  and  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  and  Linnsean  Societies.  He  died 
July  18,  1 831,  and  was  buried  in  the  West 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  [W.  H.  H.] 

GREAT  ORGAN.  This  name  is  given,  in 
modem  instruments,  to  the  department  that 
generally  has  the  greater  number  of  stops,  and 
those  of  the  greater  power,  although  occasional 
exceptions  are  met  with  as  to  one  or  other  of 
these  particulars  ;  as  when  a  Swell  of  more  than 
proportionate  completeness,  or  a  Solo  organ,  com- 
posed of  stops  of  more  than  the  average  strength 
of  tone,  forms  part  of  the  instrument. 

The  use  of  the  term  *  Great  Organ'  in  England 
can  be  traced  back  for  upwards  of  400  years.  In 
the  *  Fabrick  Rolls  of  York  Minster,'  under  date 
1469,  the  following  entry  occurs: — 'To  brother 
John  for  constructing  two  pair  of  bellows  for  the 
great  organ,  and  repairing  the  same,  15s.  ad.' 
English  Organs  at  that  period,  and  for  nearly  a 
century  and  a  half  afterwards,  were  invariably 
single  manual  instruments.  This  is  clearly 
intimated  in  numerous  old  documents  still  in 
existence.  Thus  the  churchwardens'  accounts  of 
St,  Mary's,  Sandwich,  contain  the  following  four 
memoranda  : — '  1496.  Payd  for  mending  of  the 
lytell  organys,  iijs.  ivcZ.'  '  Item,  for  shepskyn  to 
mend  the  grete  organyse,  iijc?.'  More  clearly 
Btill : — '1502.  Paid  for  mending  of  the  grtt 
organ  beUowis  and  the  small  organ  bellowis,  vc?.' 
'  Item,  for  a  shepis  skyn  for  both  organys,  i]d.' 


It  was  no  uncommon  circumstance  before  the 
Reformation  for  a  large  or  rich  church  to  possess 
one  or  even  two  organs  besides  the  chief  one. 
Thus  at  Worcester  Cathedral  there  were,  besides 
the  'great  organ'  in  the  choir,  a  'pair  of  organs' 
in  the  Chapel  of  St. George,  and  another  'pair' 
in  that  of  St.  Edmund.  At  Durham  there  were 
two  'great  organs,'  as  well  as  a  smaller  one, 
all  in  the  choir  ;  and  an  interesting  description 
has  been  preserved  in  Davies's  'Ancient  Rites 
and  Monuments  of  the  Monastical  and  Cathedral 
Church  of  Durham,  1672,'  of  the  position  of  two, 
and  the  separate  use  to  which  these  several 
organs  were  appropriated: — 'One  of  the  fairest 
pair  of  the  three  stood  over  the  quire  door,  and 
was  only  opened  and  play'd  upon  on  principal 
feasts.'  'The  second  pair, — a  pair  of  fair  large 
organs,  called  the  Cryers, — stood  on  the  north 
side  of  the  choir,  being  never  play'd  upon  but 
when  the  four  doctors  of  the  church  were  read.' 
*  The  third  pair  were  daily  used  at  ordinary  ser- 
vice.' Reverting  to  the  York  records  of  the  15th 
century  we  find  express  mention  of  'the  large 
organ  in  the  choir,'  and  '  the  organ  at  the  altar.' 

The  'great'  organ  was  doubtless  in  all  cases 
a  fixture,  while  the  '  small'  one  was  movable ;  and 
it  is  pleasant  to  notice  the  authorities  of  more 
opulent  or  fortunate  churches  helping  the  cus- 
todians of  smaller  establishments  by  lending  them 
a  'pair  of  organs'  for  use  on  special  anniver- 
saries. An  early  instance  of  this  good  custom 
is  mentioned  in  the  York  records  of  1485 : — 
'  To  John  Hewe  for  repairing  the  organ  at  the 
altar  of  B.V.M.  in  the  Cathedral  Church,  and 
for  carrying  the  same  to  the  House  of  the 
Minorite  Brethren,  and  for  bringing  back  the 
same  to  the  Cathedral  Church.  13s.  9c?.'  A 
16th-century  entry  in  the  old  accounts  of  St. 
Mary  at  Hill,  London,  states  the  occasion  for 
which  the  loan  of  the  organ  was  received ; — 
'1519.  For  bringing  the  organs  from  St.  An- 
drew's Church,  against  St.  Barnabas'  eve,  and 
bringing  them  back  again,  yd.' 

We  have  seen  that  some  of  the  large  churches 
had  two  or  even  three  organs  in  the  choir, 
located  in  various  convenient  positions,  and  em- 
ployed separately  on  special  occasions.  But  the 
idea  of  placing  the  small  organ  close  to  the  large 
one, — in  front  of  and  a  little  below  it, — with 
mechanism  so  adjusted  that  the  two  organs  could 
be  rendered  available  for  use  by  the  same  player 
and  on  the  same  occasion,— in  fact,  of  combining 
them  into  a  two-manual  organ, — does  not  seem 
to  have  been  conceived  in  England  until  about 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century;  and  among 
the  earliest  artists  who  effected  this  important 
improvement  appears  to  stand  Thomas  Dallam. 
This  builder  made  an  organ  for  King's  College 
Chapel,  Cambridge,  the  accounts  of  which, — en- 
titled, '  The  charges  about  the  organs,  etc.,  from 
the  22nd  of  June,  1605,  to  the  7th  of  August, 
1606,' — are  still  extant.  From  the  manner  in 
which  'the  greate  Organ'  and  'the  greate  and 
litel  Organs'  are  mentioned  in  these  entries, 
it  seems  clear  that  the  union  of  the  two  was 
a  recent  device.    Seven  years  later  Dallam  built 


624  GREAT  ORGAN. 


GREENE. 


an  instrument  for  Worcester  Cathedral,  the  two 
departments  of  which  were  referred  to  collectively 
in  the  following  extract :  —  'a,d.  1613.  All  the 
materials  and  workmanship  of  the  new  double- 
organ  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Worcester  by 
Thomas  Dalham,  organ-maker,  came  to  £211.' 
The  name  'Chayre  organ'  is  also  given  to  the 
smaller  one.  At  length,  in  the  contract  for  the 
York  Cathedral  Organ,  dated  1632,  we  find  the 
word  'great'  applied  to  an  organ  as  a  whole — 
'  touchinge  the  makeinge  of  a  great  organ  for  the 
said  church,' — although  farther  on  in  the  agree- 
ment a  'great  organ'  and  'chaire  organ'  (in 
front)  are  specified.  [E.J.H.] 

GREAVES,  Thomas,  a  lutenist,  published  in 
1604  a  work  intitled  '  Songs  of  Sundrie  Kindes  ; 
first  Aires  to  be  sung  to  the  Lute  and  Base 
Violl.  Next,  Songs  of  Sadnesse,  for  the  Viols 
and  Voyces.  Lastly,  Madrigalles  for  five  Voyces.' 
It  consists  of  2 1  pieces  ;  1 5  songs  and  6  madri- 
gals. On  the  title-page  the  composer  describes 
himself  as  'Lutenist  to  Sir  Henrie  Pierrepoint, 
Knight,'  to  whom  he  dedicates  his  work.  No- 
thing is  known  of  his  biography.  [W.H.H.] 

GRECCO,  Gaetano,  born  at  Naples  about 
1680,  pupil  of  A.  Scarlatti,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  teacher  of  composition  in  the  Conservatorio 
dei  Poveri,  where  he  had  Pergolesi  and  Vinci 
for  his  pupils.  From  thence  he  passed  to  the 
Conservatorio  di  San  Onofrio.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  None  of  his  music  appears 
to  have  been  printed,  and  only  a  very  few  pieces 
are  known  in  MS.  [G.] 

GREEN,  James,  an  organist  at  Hull,  pub- 
lished in  1 734  'A  Book  of  Psalmody,  containing 
Chanting  Tunes  for  the  Canticles  and  the  reading 
Psalms,  with  eighteen  Anthems  and  a  variety  of 
Psalm  tunes  in  four  parts,'  which  was  very 
favourably  received,  and  ran  through  many  edi- 
tions. The  eleventh  appeared  in  1 75 1 .  [W.  H.  H.] 

GREEN,  Samuel,  a  celebrated  organ  builder, 
born  in  1740,  studied  the  art  of  organ  building 
under  the  elder  Byfield,  Bridge,  and  Jordan. 
After  commencing  business  on  his  own  account 
he  erected  many  instruments  in  conjunction  with 
the  younger  Byfield,  with  whom  he  was  for 
some  years  in  partnership.  Green  became  the 
most  esteemed  organ  builder  of  his  day,  his  in- 
struments being  distinguished  by  peculiar  sweet- 
ness and  delicacy  of  tone.  There  exist  more 
cathedral  organs  by  him  than  any  other  builder  ; 
though  most  of  them  have  been  since  altered 
and  added  to.  He  erected  those  in  the  cathe- 
drals of  Bangor,  1779  ;  Canterbury,  1784  ;  Wells, 
1786;  Cashel,  1786;  Lichfield,  1789;  Roches- 
ter, 1791  ;  and  Salisbury,  1792  :  in  Winchester 
College  chapel,  1780  ;  St.  George's  chapel,  Wind- 
sor, 1 790  ;  and  Trinity  College  chapel,  Dublin  : 
in  the  following  churches,  chapels,  etc.  in 
London,  viz.  St.  Botolph,  Aldersgate ;  Broad 
Street,  Islington  ;  St.  Catherine  -  by-  the  -  Tower ; 
Freemasons'  Hall ;  The  Magdalen  Hospital ;  St. 
Mary- at -Hill ;  St.  Michael,  Cornhill ;  St.  Olave, 
Hart  Street ;  and  St.  Peter-le-Poor :  in  the  fol- 
lowing provincial  cities  and  towns,  Aberdeen;  | 


Ardwick,  near  Manchester ;  Bath ;  Bolton-le- 
Moors  ;  Chatham  ;  Cirencester  ;  Cranboume  ; 
Greenwich  Hospital ;  Helston  ;  Leigh ;  Lough- 
borough ;  Macclesfield  ;  Nayland ;  Sleaford ; 
Stockport  (St.  Peter  s) ;  Tamworth  ;  Tunbridge  ; 
Walsall ;  Walton  ;  Wisbech  ;  Wrexham  ;  and 
Wycombe :  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  Kingston, 
J amaica.  He  also  repaired  the  organ  erected  by 
Dallans  in  1632  in  York  Minster  (destroyed  by 
fire  in  1829)  and  that  in  New  College,  Oxford. 
Green  died  at  Isleworth,  Sept.  14, 1 796.  Although 
always  fully  employed  he  died  in  straitened  cir- 
cumstances, and  left  little,  if  any,  provision  for  his 
family,  having  invariably  expended  his  gains  in 
the  prosecution  of  experiments  with  a  view  to 
the  improvement  of  the  mechanism  of  the  organ. 
After  his  death  his  widow  continued  to  carry  on 
the  business  for  some  years.  [W.H.H.] 
GREENE,  Maurice,  Mus.  Doc,  one  of  the 
two  younger  sons  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Greene, 
D.D,,  vicar  of  the  united  parishes  of  St.  Olave, 
Old  Jewry,  and  St.  Martin,  Ironmonger  Lane 
(or  Pomary),  and  grandson  of  John  Greene, 
Recorder  of  London,  was  bom  in  London  about 
1696.  He  received  his  early  musical  education 
as  a  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  under 
Charles  King.  On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he 
was  articled  to  Richard  Brind,  then  organist  of 
the  cathedral.  He  soon  distinguished  himself 
both  at  the  organ  and  in  composition.  In  1 716 
he  obtained  (it  was  said  chiefly  through  the 
interest  of  his  uncle,  Serjeant  Greene)  the  ap- 
pointment of  organist  of  St.  Dunstan's  in  the 
West,  Fleet  Street,  and,  on  the  death  of  Daniel 
Purcell,  in  171 7,  was  chosen  organist  of  St. 
Andrew's,  Holborn.  He  held  both  those  places 
until  the  following  year,  when,  on  the  death  of 
Brind,  he  became  organist  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in 
1727,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Croft,  organist  and 
composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal.  Greene  had  a 
strong  admiration  for  the  genius  of  Handel,  and 
assiduously  courted  his  friendship ;  and,  by  ad- 
mitting him  to  perform  on  the  organ  at  St.  Paul's, 
for  which  instrument  Handel  had  an  especial 
liking,  had  become  very  intimate  with  him. 
Handel,  however,  discovering  that  Greene  was 
paying  the  like  court  to  his  rival,  Buononcini, 
cooled  in  his  regard  for  him,  and  soon  ceased 
to  have  any  association  with  him.  In  1728, 
by  the  artifice  of  Buononcini,  Greene  was  made 
the  instrument  of  introducing  to  the  Academy 
of  Ancient  Music  a  madrigal  ('In  una  siepe 
ombrosa')  as  a  composition  of  Buononcini's,  This 
madrigal  was  three  or  four  years  later  proved  to 
have  been  composed  by  Lotti.  The  discovery  of 
the  fraud  led  to  the  ^  expulsion  of  Buononcini  from 
the  Academy,  and  Greene,  believing,  or  affecting 
to  believe,  that  his  friend  had  been  unjustly 
treated,  withdrew  from  it,  carrying  off  with  him 
the  St.  Paul's  boys,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
another  friend,  Testing,  established  a  rival  concert 
in  the  great  room  called  'The  Apollo'  at  the 

1  a  hard  fate  ;  for  it  Is  difficult  to  see  that  Buononcini  was  more  dis- 
honest than  Handel  was  when  he  included  a  fugue  of  Kerl's  in  Israel 
In  Egypt  as  '  Kgypt  was  glad,'  without  a  word  to  show  that  it  was  not 
his  own. 


GEEENE. 


GKEGOEIAN  MODES.  625 


Devil  Tavern  near  Temple  Bar ;  a  proceeding  which 
gave  rise  to  the  joke,  attributed  to  Handel,  that 
•  Toctor  Greene  laad  gone  to  the  devil.'  In  1730, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  Tudvvay,  Greene  was  elected 
I'rofessor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, with  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music.  As 
his  exercise  on  the  occasion  he  set  Pope's  Ode  on 
St.  Cecilia's  Day,  altered  and  abbreviated,  and  with 

1  new  stanza  introduced,  expressly  for  the  occa- 
sion, by  the  poet  himself.  This  composition  was 
performed  at  Cambridge  at  the  Commencement 
on  Monday,  July  6,  1730.  (A  duet  from  it  is 
given  by  Hawkins  in  his  History,  chap.  191.) 
In  1735,  on  the  death  of  John  Eccles,  Dr. Greene 
was  appointed  his  successor  as  Master  of  the 
King's  band  of  music,  in  which  capacity  he 
jiroduced  many  odes  for  the  king's  birthday  and 
New  Year's  Day.  In  1743  he  published  his 
'Forty  Select  Anthems,'  the  work  on  which  his 
reputation  mainly  rests.  These  compositions,  it 
has  been  remarked,  'place  him  at  the  head  of 
tlie  list  of  English  ecclesiastical  composers,  for 
they  combine  the  science  and  vigour  of  our 
earlier  writers  with  the  melody  of  the  best 
German  and  Italian  masters  who  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  i8th  century'  (Harmonicon 
for  1829,  p.  72).  In  1750  Greene  received  a 
considerable  accession  of  fortune  by  the  death 
of  a  cousin,  a  natural  son  of  his  uncle,  Serjeant 
Greene,  who  bequeathed  him  an  estate  in  Essex 
worth  £700  a  year.  Being  thus  raised  to 
affluence  he  commenced  the  execution  of  a  long 
meditated  project,  the  formation  and  publication 
in  score  of  a  collection  of  the  best  English 
cathedral  music.  By  the  year  1755  he  had 
amassed  a  considerable  number  of  services  and 
anthems,  which  he  had  reduced  into  score  and 
collated,  when  his  failing  health  led  him  to 
bequeath  by  will  his  materials  to  his  friend  Dr. 
Boyce,  with  a  request  that  he  would  complete 
the  work.  [See  Botce.]  Dr.  Greene  died  Sept. 
1,  17555  leaving  an  only  daughter,  who  was 
married  to  the  Kev.  Michael  Festing,  Eector  of 
Wyke  Eegis,  Dorset,  the  son  of  her  father's 
friend  the  violinist. 

In  addition  to  the  before-named  compositions, 
Greene  produced  a  Te  Deum  in  D  major,  with 
orchestral  accompaniments,  composed,  it  is  con- 
jectured, for  the  thanksgiving  for  the  suppression 
of  the  Scottish  rebellion  in  1 745  ;  a  service  in  C, 
composed  1737  (printed  in  Arnold's  'Cathedral 
Music');  numerous  anthems — some  printed  and 
others  still  in  MS.  ;  '  Jephthah,'  oratorio,  1737  ; 
'  The  Force  of  Truth,'  oratorio,  i  744  ;  a  para- 
phrase of  part  of  the  Song  of  Deborah  and  Barak, 
1732;  Addison's  ode,  'The  spacious  firmament,' 
'  Florimel ;  or,  Love's  Eevenge,'  dramatic  pasto- 
1737  ;  'The  Judgment  of  Hercules,' masque, 
1 740  ;  '  Phoebe,'  pastoral  opera,  1 748  ;  '  The 
Chaplet,'  a  collection  of  twelve  English  songs ; 
'  Spenser's  Amoretti,'  a  collection  of  twenty-five 
sonnets  ;  two  books  each  containing  '  A  Cantata 
and  four  English  songs';  'Catches  and  Canons 
for  3  and  4  voices,  with  a  collection  of  Songs  for 

2  and  3  voices' ;  organ  voluntaries,  and  several 
sets  of  harpsichord  lessons.    It  must  not  be 


forgotten  that  Greene  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  that  most  valuable  institution  'The  Society 
of  Musicians.'  [Festing,  p.  515  b.]  [W.H.H.] 
GEEENSLEEVES.  An  old  English  ballad 
and  tune  mentioned  by  Shakspeare  (Merry  Wives, 
ii.  I ;  V.  5).  The  ballad — 'A  new  Northerne 
dittye  of  the  Ladye  Greene  Sleeves' — was  entered 
in  the  Stationers'  Eegister  Sept.  1580  (32nd  of 
Elizabeth)  ;  but  the  tune  is  probably  as  old  as 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  It  was  also  known  as 
'The  Blacksmith'  and  '  The  Brewer'  (Cromwell), 
and  was  a  great  favourite  with  the  Cavaliers. 
Mr.  Chappell  (from  whom  the  above  is  taken, 
Popular  Music,  etc.,  Plate  3,  and  p.  227-233) 
gives  the  tune  in  its  oldest  form  as  follows  : — 


A  -  las  my  love,  you  do  me  wrong  to  cast  me  off'  dis 


heart  of     gold,    and  who   but  my     La  -  dy  Greensleeves. 


A  modified  version  is  found  in  the  Beggar's 
Opera,  to  the  words  'Since  laws  were  made  for 
ev'ry  degree,'  and  the  tune  is  still  sung  to 
'  Christmas  comes  but  once  a  year,'  and  to  songs 
with  the  burden  'Which  nobody  can  deny.'  [G.] 

GEEETING,  Thomas,  was  a  teacher  of  the 
flageolet  in  London  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 7th 
century,  when  the  instrument  appears  to  have 
been  played  on  by  ladies  as  well  as  gentlemen, 
as  we  gather  from  Pepys's  '  Diary,'  which  informs 
us  that  in  1667  Mrs.  Pepys  was  a  pupil  of 
Greeting.  He  also  taught  Pepys  himself.  In 
1675  Greeting  issued  a  thin  oblong  small  8vo. 
volume  entitled  'The  Pleasant  Companion;  or, 
New  Lessons  and  Instructions  for  the  Flagelet,' 
consisting  of  8  pages  of  letter-press  containing 
'  Instructions  for  Playing  on  the  Flagelet,'  signed 
by  Greeting,  followed  by  64  pages  of  music 
printed  from  engraved  plates.  The  music  is  in 
a  peculiar  kind  of  tableture,  dots  being  placed 
in  the  spaces  of  a  stave  of  6  lines  to  indicate 
which  holes  of  the  instrument  were  to  be  stopped 
to  produce  each  note.  The  duration  of  each  note 
is  shown  above  the  stave  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  tableture  for  the  lute.  The  music  consists  of 
the  popular  song  and  dance-tunes  of  the  day.  The 
work  was  reprinted  in  1680.  [W^.H.H.] 

GEEGOEIAN  MODES  are  the  musical  scales 
as  set  in  order  by  St,  Gregory  the  Great  (a.D. 
590)- 

Ss 


626 


GEEGORIAN  MODES. 


GREGORIAN  MODES. 


I.  Four  scales,  traditionally  ascribed  to  St. 
Ambrose  (a.d.  384),  existed  before  the  time  of  St. 
Gregory.  These,  known  as  the  'Authentic'  modes, 
and  since  the  13th  century  named  after  the  ancient 
Greek  scales  (from  which  they  were  supposed  to 
be  derived)  are  as  follows :  i.  Dorian,  2.  Phrygian, 
3.  Lydian,  4.  Mixo-lydian. 

(1.)  (2.) 


Sve  lower. 


lower. 


Each  mode  thus  consists  of  8  natural  notes  of 
the  Diatonic  scale — a  perfect  fifth,  or  diapente, 
below,  joined  to  a  perfect  fourth,  or  cUatessaron, 
above.  The  lowest  note  of  the  scale  is  called  the 
'Final '  (corresponding  to  the  Tonic  of  the  modern 
scale)  because  though  the  melody  may  range 
through  the  entire  octave  it  ends  regularly  on 
that  note ;  and  the  fifth  note  above  the  final, 
that  which  forms  the  junction  of  the  diapente  and 
diatessaron,  is  called  the' Dominant,'  except  in  the 
Phrygian  mode,  where  C  was  substituted  for  Bi].^ 

The  term  Dominant  in  the  ancient  scales  has 
not  the  same  meaning  that  it  has  in  modern 
tonality,  but  means  the  predominating  sound  in 
each  mode,  the  note  on  which  the  recitation  is 
made  in  each  Psalm  or  Canticle  tone. 

One  peculiarity  of  these  ancient  scales  to  modern 
ears  is,  that  the  place  of  the  semitones  varies 
in  each ;  in  the  Dorian  occurring  between 
the  2nd  and  3rd,  6th  and  7th  notes ;  in  the 
Phrygian  between  the  1st  and  2nd,  5th  and  6th, 
and  so  on.  The  range  of  notes,  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest,  in  any  ancient  melody  (seldom 
exceeding  8  or  9  notes)  partly  determines  the 
mode  to  which  it  belongs.  In  some  cases,  melo- 
dies of  small  compass  have  their  Tone  determined 
by  the  Final  of  other  portions  of  Plain  Song  pre- 
ceding and  following  them.  To  the  Dorian  scale, 
for  example,  belong  melodies  extending  from  D 
(or  C)  upwards  and  having  D  as  their  Final. 

The  well-known  tune,  Luther's  'Ein  feste 
Burg'  (see  p.  484  a),  ranging  from  F,  its  key-note 
or  final,  to  the  octave,  may  be  mentioned  in 
illustration  of  a  modern  tune  in  a  quasi-Authentic 
mode. 

2.  To  the  4  Authentic,  St.  Gregory  added 
4  'Plagal,'  i.e.  collateral  or  relative  modes.  Each 
is  a  4th  below  its  corresponding  original,  and 
is  called  by  the  same  name,  with  the  prefix 
hypo  {vTTO,  below),  as  follows  :  5.  Hypo-dorian, 
6.  Hypo-phrygian,  7.  Hypo-lydian,  8.  Hypo-mixo- 
lydian  ''^.  Each  scale  here  also  consists  of  a  perfect 
fifth  and  a  perfect  fourth  ;  but  the  positions  are 
reversed ;  the  fourth  is  now  below,  and  the  fifth 
above. 

1  In  all  these  examples  the  Final  Is  marked  by  a  breve,  and  the 
Dominant  has  a  •  above  it. 

2  As  a  peuJant  to  this  the  Authentic  scales  are  sometimes  called 
Hyi-.er  (above,— Hyper-phtygian,  etc.— but  it  is  a  nomenclature  which 
only  teiidi  to  cotiTu^lon. 


In  the  Plagal  scales  the  '  Final '  is  no  longer 
the  lowest  note,  but  is  the  same  as  that  in  the 
corresponding  Authentic  scale.  Thus  the  Final 
of  the  Hypo-dorian  mode  is  not  A  but  D,  and  a 
melody  in  that  mode,  though  ranging  from  about 
A  to  A,  ends  regularly  on  D,  as  in  the  Dorian. 
As  an  exemplification  of  this,  we  may  mention 
Handel's  'Hanover,'  among  modem  tunes,  which 
ranges  from  F  to  F,  but  has  its  Final  on  Bb. 
'Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot'  is  also  a 
specimen  of  a  tune  in  a  Plagal  mode  descending 
about  a  fourth  below  its  final,  and  rising  above 
it  only  six  notes,  closing  upon  the  final  of  its 
tone.  The  semitones  in  each  scale  naturally  vary 
as  before.  The  Dominants  of  the  new  scales  are 
in  each  case  a  third  below  those  of  the  old  ones, 
C  being  however  substituted  for  B^j  in  the  Hypo- 
mixo-lydian,  as  it  had  been  before  in  the  Phrygian, 
on  account  of  the  irregularity  of  the  relations 
between  Bi]  and  the  F  above  and  below. 

3.  The  system  was  afterwards  further  extended 
by  the  addition  of  two  more  Authentic  scales 
having  their  Finals  on  A  and  C,  and  their  Domi- 
nants on  E  and  G,  and  called  the  ^olian  (No.  9) 
and  Ionian  (No.  10) — 

(90  „  ^  (10.) 


4 

1— ^-^--^-1 

8i-'e  lower. 


loco. 


and  two  corresponding  Plagal  modes  the  Hypo- 
aeolian  (No.  ii)  and  Hypo-ionian  (No.  12) : — 


(11.) 


(12.) 


i 


8ve  lower. 


8ve  lower. 


and  the  whole  formed  one  great  scheme,  in 
which  the  Authentic  modes  were  the  ist,  3rd, 
5th,  7th,  9th  and  nth,  and  the  Plagal  ones  the 
2nd,  4th,  6th,  8th,  loth  and  12th. 


No. 

Mode. 

Compass. 

Final  or 
Tonic. 

Uonii- 
i:ant. 

1 

Dorian 

DtoD 

D 

A 

2 

Hypo-dorian 

A  to  A 

D 

F 

3 

Phrygian 

E  toE 

E 

C 

4 

Hypo-phrygian 

BtoB 

E 

A 

5 

Lydiaii 

F  to  F 

P 

C 

6 

Hypo-lydian 

C  toC 

P 

A 

7 

Mixo  Jydian 

GtoG 

G 

D 

8 

Hypo-mixo-lydian 

D  to  D 

G 

C 

9 

^ohan 

A  to  A 

A 

E 

10 

Hypo-seolian 

E  toE 

A 

C 

11 

Ionian 

C  to  C 

C 

G 

12 

Hypo-ionian 

G  toG 

c 

E 

4.  Some  inventors  or  innovators  have  how- 
ever broken  from  the  trammels  of  the  perfect 
diapente  and  diatesmron  law,  and  make  the 


GREGORIAN  MODES. 


GRETRY. 


627 


natural  diatonic  modes  14  in  number — 2  to  each 
of  the  7  natural  notes — admitting  the  proscribed 
Bt  as  a  Final  for  a  quad-Authentic  and  quasi- 
Plagal  pair  of  modes — Locrian  and  H\-po-locrian. 
It  does  not  however  appear  that  more  than  i  2  or 
13  at  the  most  have  ever  been  found  in  any 
Ritual  Service-books.  In  some  of  these  books  we 
find  the  9th,  10th,  nth.  and  1 2th  transposed  and 
placed  imder  the  head  of  one  or  other  of  the  first 
eight  with  the  title  '  formerly  the  9th,  icih.'  etc. 
In  the  recent  Ratisbon  editions  of  Ritual  music 
all  1 4  modes  are  however  cotmted,  so  that  the  nth 
and  1 2th  above  are  styled  the  13th  and  14th. 

5.  Such  is  the  basis  on  which  the  arrangement 
of  the  whole  body  of  Ritual  music  of  the  Western 
Churches,  including  the  Reformed  Church  of 
England — and  probably  that  of  the  Eastern 
Churches  also — is  founded.  The  'Accents'  for 
Collects,  the  Verses  and  Responses,  Psalm  and 
Canticle  tones,  Introits,  Antiphons,  Kyries, 
Sanctus,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Agnus,  Osanna, 
Benedictus,  Communio,  Sursum  corda.  Proses 
or  Sequences,  Prefaces,  Office-hvmns,  the  X icene 
Creed,  and  special  Oflices  and  Services  as  printed 
by  authorit%-  in  the  various  Antiphonals,  Proces- 
sionals, HsTonals.  Graduals,  and  Rituals  in  Latin, 
and  in  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
noted,  all  belong  to  this  species  of  sacred  music. 
[See  Modes,  Plaixsoxg,  Toxes.]  [T.H.] 

GRESHAJ*!  MUSICAL  PROFESSORSHIP! 
In  the  will  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  the  founder 
of  the  college  t-earing  his  name  in  the  city  of 
London,  provision  was  made  for  several  professor- 
ships, and  for  the  '  sallarie '  of  a  person  ''  mete  to 
rede  the  lecture  of  musicke'  in  the  college.  Sir 
Thomas  died  on  Xov.  21,  1579,  widow 
■n  Xov,  3,  1596,  upon  which  the  provision  for 
the  lectures  tc>ok  effect,  the  civic  authorities 
requesting  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge to  nominate  persons  properly  qualified  as 
professors.  Dr.  John  Bull  was  appointed  the 
first  Pr«;.fessor  of  Music  by  the  special  recom- 
mendation of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  ordinance 
adopted  concerning  the  music  lecture,  according 
to  Stowe  Strype  s  edition ran  as  follows : — 
•  The  solemn  music  lecture  is  to  be  read  twice 
ever^-  week  in  manner  following :  viz, — the  theo- 
rique  part  for  half  an  hour,  and  the  practique, 
by  concert  of  voice  or  instruments,  for  the  rest 
of  the  hour ;  whereof  the  first  lecture  to  be  in 
the  Latin  tongue  and  the  second  in  the  English 
tongue.  The  days  appointed  for  the  solemn 
lectures  of  music  are  Thursday  and  Saturday  in 
the  afternoon  between  the  hours  of  three  and  four ; 
and  because  at  this  time  Dr.  Bull  is  recommended 
to  the  place  by  the  Queen  s  most  excellent 
Majesty  being  not  able  to  speak  Latin,  his 
lectures  are  permitted  to  be  altogether  in  English 
so  long  as  he  shall  continue  the  place  of  the 
music  lecturer  there.'  At  first  the  Professors 
were  given  apartments  in  the  college  and  a 
stipend  of  £50  a  year,  but  in  the  8th  of  Geo,  III 
an  Act  was  passed  enabling  the  lecturers  to 
marry,  any  restriction  in  Sir  Thomas  Gresham's 
will  notwithstanding,  and  also  giving  them  £50 
a  year  in  lieu  of  their  apartments.    For  many 


years  the  Professors  had  no  knowledge  of  music, 
and  were  utterly  unqualified  to  lecture  upon  it. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  professors,  with  the 
date  of  their  appointments  :  —  (_  i )  John  BuU, 
Mus.  Doc.,  1 596  (resigned  on  his  marriage '1  ; 

(2)  Thomas  Cla\-ton,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  1607  ; 

(3)  Rev.  John  Tavemer,  M.A.,  1610,  elected  at 
the  age  of  26,  subsequently  Rector  of  Stoke 
Xewington  :  (4)  Dr.  Richard  Knight,  physician, 
163S;  (5)  Sir  W.  Petty,  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
1650  ;  (  6)  Sir  Thomas  Bavnes,  Dc^ctor  of  Medi- 
cine, 1660,  ejected  from  office  by  a  vote  of  the 
committee;  ij^  Rev.  John  Xewey,  M.A.,  in- 
cumbent of  Itching  Abbotts  and  Avington.  Hants, 
1696;  (^Sl  Rev,  Dr.  R.  Shippen,  Principal  cf 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  Rector  of  White- 
chapel,  1705;  (9)  Edward  Shippen,  Doctor  <f 
Medicine,  17 10;  (10)  John  Gordon,  barrister  at 
law  of  Grav's  Inn,  1723  ;  (ii)  Thomas  Browne, 
M,A.,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
1739,  elected  by  an  equality  of  votes,  and  the 
committee  proceeded  to  a  second  election;  \i2) 
Charles  Gardner,  1739;  (13)  Thomas  Griffin, 
1762  ;  (14)  Theodore  Ayl ward,  assistant  director 
of  the  Handel  Commemoration  and  organisi;  of 
St,  George's,  Windsor;  (15)  R.  J.  S.  Stevens 
the  com{;>oser,  iSoi  ;  (16)  Edward  Tavlor,  1837; 
(17)  Henry  Wylde,  Mus.  Doc.,  1S63'  In  1S33 
and  for  some  years  after,  a  medal  was  given  in 
commemoration  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  for  the 
best  choral  work,  the  judges  being  the  Oxford 
Professor,  Dr.  Crotch  ;  the  Gresham  Professor, 
Mr.  Stevens ;  and  Mr.  Horsley ;  and  the  work  was 
sung  at  a  commemoration  service  at  St.  Helen's, 
Bishop^sgate,  which  had  been  Sir  Thomas's  p  arish 
church.  The  Music  Lectiu*es  at  the  College  are 
now  given  in  the  evening,  in  English,  on  days 
announced  in  the  newspapers,  and  the  admission 
to  them  is  free.  For  an  instance  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  intentions  of  the  founder  were  at  one 
time  set  at  naught  see  GRiTFiy,  Thos.  |^C.M.] 

GR£TRY,  Ajstdre  Eb>-est  Modeste,  l>.-»m 
Feb.  II,  1741,  at  Lie'ge,  on  the  ground-flocT  of 
a  smaU  house  in  the  Rue  des  Recollets,  now 
Xo.  28.  His  father,  a  poor  violinist,  placed  him 
at  6  years  old  in  the  choir  of  St.  Denis  :  but 
under  the  harsh  treatment  of  his  master  the 
little  chorister  showed  no  aptitude  for  music, 
and  at  11  was  dismissed  as  incapiable.  His  next 
master,  Leclerc,  as  gentle  as  the  former  had  been 
cruel,  made  him  a  good  reader;  and  Renekin, 
organist,  taught  him  harmony.  His  taste  :or 
music  was  however  develop)ed  by  listening  to  :he 
operas  of  Pergolesi,  Galuppi,  Jomelli,  etc.,  per- 
formed by  a  company  of  Italian  singers  with  Resta 
as  conductor.  After  a  year  spent  in  this  maimer 
an  irresistible  impulse  urged  him  to  compK'se ; 
in  vain  the  maitre  de  chape'ile  tried  to  teach 
him  counterpoint — he  longed  to  give  expression 
to  the  thoughts  that  were  burning  for  utterance; 
and  as  his  first  attempt,  produced  at  Lirge 
in  1758  six  small  symphonies,  and  in  1759 
a  '  messe  solennelle  '  for  4  voices,  none  of  which 
have  been  published.  These  compositions  secured 
him  the  protection  of  the  Chanoine  du  Harlez, 
who  furnished  him  with  the  means  of  going 
Ss2 


628 


GRETRY. 


GRETRY. 


to  Rome,  Leaving  his  native  city  in  March 
1759,  he  travelled  on  foot,  with  a  smuggler  for 
his  companion  ^  On  his  arrival  at  Rome  he 
was  received  into  the  'College  de  Lidge,'  founded 
by  a  Liegeois  named  Darcis  for  the  benefit  of 
his  townsmen,  who  were  permitted  to  reside 
there  for  five  years  while  completing  their  specific 
studies.  His  master  for  counterpoint  and  com- 
position was  Casali,  who  dismissed  him  as 
hopelessly  ignorant.  Gretry  never  did  under- 
stand the  science  of  harmony ;  his  mission  was 
to  enforce  the  expression  of  words  by  melody,  and 
to  compose  operas.  During  his  stay  in  Rome 
he  composed  a  'De  profundis'  and  some  motets^ 
which  have  not  been  published,  and  an  inter- 
mezzo called  'Le  Vendemmianti,'  for  the  Aliberti 
theatre.  Although  the  work  of  a  foreigner  this 
operetta  was  successful,  and  might  have  intro- 
duced him  to  more  important  theatres ;  but 
Gretry  having  read  the  score  of  Monsigny's 
*  Rose  et  Colas '  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
French  opera-comique  was  his  vocation.  To 
get  to  Paris  now  became  his  one  idea.  He  left 
Rome  Jan.  i,  1767,  and  having  reached  Geneva 
asked  Voltaire  to  write  him  a  good  libretto 
for  an  opera-comique,  a  task  which  Voltaire 
was  incapable  of  performing  and  had  the  tact 
to  decline.  At  Geneva  he  supported  himself 
for  a  year  by  teaching  singing ;  and  produced 
'  Isabelle  et  Gertrude,'  a  one-act  opera  by 
Favart  on  a  subject  suggested  by  Voltaire, 
and  previously  set  to  music  by  Blaise.^  At 
length,  by  the  advice  of  the  owner  of  Femey 
himself,  Gretry  went  to  Paris,  where  he  obtained 
from  an  amateur  the  libretto  of  '  Les  Mariages 
Samnites'  in  three  acts.  This  work  was  not 
performed  at  that  time,  but  its  public  rehearsals 
procured  him  the  patronage  of  Count  de  Creutz 
the  Swedish  Ambassador,  and  as  a  consequence 
of  that,  a  two-act  libretto  by  Marmontel,  '  Le 
Huron,'  successfully  performed  Aug.  20,  1768. 
This  opera  was  followed  by  'Lucile'  (1769), 
which  contains  the  duet  '  Oh  peut-on  etre  mieux 
qu'au  sein  de  sa  famille,'  which  became  so  popular 
and  played  so  singular  a  part  on  more  than  one 
historical  ^  occasion  ;  and  by  'Le  Tableau  par  Ian  t,' 
an  original  and  extremely  comic  piece,  and  one  of 
Gretry's  very  best.  What  life  and  spirit  there 
are  in  this  refined  jesting !  How  natural  and 
charming  are  the  melodies,  with  their  skilfully 
varied,  but  always  animated  rhythm !  How  pret- 
tily does  Isabelle  make  fun  of  old  Cassandre  and 
his  antiquated  love  making  !  How  appropriate, 
and  how  thoroughly  in  keeping  is  the  action 
of  each  individual  on  the  stage  !  How  pointed 
and  dramatic  the  duet  between  Pierrot  and 
Columbine !  Grimm  was  right  in  proclaiming 
'Le  Tableau  parlant'  a  real  masterpiece. 

Gretry  now  showed  his  versatility  by  composing 
no  less  than  3  operas,  all  produced  in  1770 — 'Le 
Sylvain,'  of  which  not  even  the  over  rated  duet 

1  These  details  are  taken  from  Grdtry's '  M(5moires.' 

^  An  autograph  'Coiifiteor'  for  four  voices  and  orchestra  is  in  t]iH 
library  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 

J  rerformed  in  Taris  in  1705.  Blaise's  ariettes  are  printed  in  the 
'Theatre  de  M.  Favart'  (vol  ix). 

*  See  the  article  Od  pedt-on  fiiEE  mieux. 


'Dans  le  sein  d'un  pbre '  survives;  'Les  deux 
Avares,'  which  contains  a  good  comic  duet,  a 
march,  and  a  Janissaries'  chorus,  still  heard  with 
pleasure;  and  'L'Amitie  a  I'^preuve,'  an  indif- 
ferent comedy  in  two  acts,  reduced  to  one  in 
1775  '^y  Favart,  without  improving  either  piece 
or  music.  'Zemire  et  Azor'  (Dec.  i6,  1 771) 
at  once  placed  Gretry  in  the  rank  of  creative 
artists.  His  fertility  in  ideas  was  marvellous, 
and  he  regularly  supplied  both  the  Coraedie  Ita- 
lienne  and  the  Theatre  Favart,  where  he  produced 
successively  '  L'Ami  de  la  maison/  3  acts 
(Fontainebleau  Oct.  1771,  and  Paris  March  14, 
1772);  'Le  Magnifique,'  3  acts  (1773),  the 
overture  of  which  contains  the  air  'Vive  Henri 
IV '  most  effectively  combined  with  another 
subject;  'La  Rosifere  de  Salency'  in  4  acts, 
afterwards  reduced  to  3  (1774),  which  contains 
a  remarkable  duet  between  two  jealous  young 
women,  and  the  pretty  melody  '  Ma  barque 
legere,'  so  well  arranged  by  Dussek  for  the  piano; 
'  La  fausse  Magie,'  2  acts,  with  the  syllabic  duet 
between  the  two  old  men,  an  excellent  piece; 
'  Les  Mariages  Samnites,'  a  work  which  he  rewrote 
several  times  but  which  never  became  popular, 
though  the  march  supplied  Mozart  with  a 
theme  for  Variations ;  '  Matroco,'  a  burlesque  in 
4  acts  composed  for  the  court-theatre  at  Fontaine- 
bleau (1777)  and  unsuccessfully  performed  in 
Paris  (1778)  against  the  wish  of  Gretry;  *Le 
Jugement  de  Midas,'  3  acts  (1778),  in  which  he 
satirised  French  music  of  the  old  style,  and 
especially  the  manner  in  which  it  was  rendered 
by  the  singers  of  the  Acaddmie ;  '  L'Amant 
jaloux,'  3  acts  (1778) — in  the  2nd  act  an  ex- 
quisite serenade ;  '  Les  Evenements  impr^vus  * 

(1779)  ,  3  s-cts,  containing  2  airs  once  popular, 
now  forgotten;  '  Aucassin  et  Nicolette,'  3  acts 

(1780)  ,  in  which  he  endeavoured  unsuccessfully 
to  imitate  ancient  music  ;  '  Thalie  au  Nouveau 
Theatre,'  a  prologue  for  the  inauguration  of  the 
Salle  Favart  (1783)  ;  'Theodore  et  Paulin,'  lyric 
comedy  in  3  acts,  which  failed  at  first,  and  was 
afterwards  given  in  2  acts  under  the  title  of 
'L'Epreuve  villageoise  '  with  marked  and  well- 
merited  success  ;  'Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,'  3  acts 
(Oct,  21,  1784),  the  finest  of  all  his  works, 
containing  the  air,  '  0  Richard,  6  mon  roi, 
I'univers  t'abandonne,'  which  became  of  historic 
importance  at  Versailles,  Oct.  i,  1 789  ;  and  '  Une 
fievre  brulante,'  on  which  Beethoven  wrote  varia- 
tions. 'Les  M^prises  par  ressemblance,'  opera 
in  3  acts  (1786)  now  justly  forgotten;  'Le  Comte 
d' Albert,'  2  acts  (1787),  the  success  of  which  was 
secured  by  Mme.  Dugazon;  'La  Suite  du  Comte 
d'Albert,'  i  act  (1787)  ;  '  Le  Prisonnier  Anglais,' 
3  acts  (1787),  revived  in  1793  as  'Clarice  et 
Belton,'  without  making  a  more  favourable  im- 
pression ;  '  Le  Rival  confident,'  opera  in  2  acts, 
which  failed  in  spite  of  a  pleasing  arietta  and 
a  graceful  rondo;  '  Raoul  Barbe-Bleue,'  3  acts 
(1789),  a  weak  production  quickly  forgotten; 
'Pierre  le  Grand,'  3  acts  (1790),  in  which  the 
search  after  local  colouring  is  somewhat  too 
apparent;  'Guillaume  Tell,'  in  3  acts  (1791), 
containing  a  round  and  a  quartet,  long  favourites; 


GRETRY. 


GRETRY. 


629 


*  Basile,'  i  act  (1792);  '  Les  deux  Couvents,' 
3  acts  (1792);  'Joseph  Barra,'  i  act  (1794), 
a  pitce  de  circonstance ;  'Callias,'  i  act  (1794), 
a  republican  piece,  of  which  the  so-called  Greek 
music  is  justly  forgotten,  though  one  of  Hoff- 
mann's lines  has  survived — 

'  Quand  nous  serons  soumis,  nous  n  existerons  plus ! ' ; 

'Lisbeth,'  3  acts  (1797),  which  contains  a 
romance  that  has  not  yet  lost  its  charm ;  '  Le 
Barbier  de  village,'  i  act  (1797);  and  'Elisca,' 
3  acts  (i  799),  which  was  a  fiasco. 

Long  as  this  list  is,  it  does  not  include  all 
Gr^try's  dramatic  works.  Not  content  with  sup- 
plying pieces  for  the  Opdra  Comique,  his  ambi- 
tion was  to  distinguish  himself  at  the  Academic 
de  Musique.  Here  he  produced  '  Cephale  et 
Procris,'  3  acts  (1775),  of  which  the  only  number 
worthy  of  notice  was  the  duet  'Donne  la  moi ' ; 
'Les  trois  Ages  de  I'Opera'  (1778),  a  prologue  ! 
received  with  indifference  ;  '  Andromaque,'  3  acts 
(1780),  the  principal  r6le  of  which  is  accom- 
panied throughout  by  3  flutes  in  harmony ; 
'  Emilie'  ('la  Belle  Esclave'  1781),  unsuccess- 
fully introduced  as  the  5th  act  of  the  ballet 
'La  Fete  de  Mirza';  *La  double  Epreuve,  ou 
Colinette  h  la  Cour,'  3  acts  (1782),  the  finale 
of  the  first  act  full  of  dramatic  truth  ;  *L'Em- 
barras  des  richesses,'  3  acts  (1782),  a  complete 
failure;  'La  Caravane  du  Caire,'  3  acts  (1784), 
the  words  by  the  Count  de  Provence,  afterwards 
Louis  XVIII — as  complete  a  success,  owing  prin- 
cipally to  the  ballets,  and  the  picturesque  scene 
of  the  bazaar ;  it  was  performed  no  less  than 
506  times ;  '  Panurge  dans  I'ile  des  Lantemes,' 
3  acts  (1785),  a  not  very  lively  comic  opera; 
'Amphitryon,'  3  acts  (1788),  badly  received ; 
'Aspasie,'  3acts  (1789),  apartial  success  ;  'Denys 
le  Tyran'  (1794),  I  act,  a  j^iece  de  circonstance 
which  the  composer  did  well  not  to  publish  ;  I 
'La  Eosi^re  re'publicaine '  (i794\  i  act,  another 
jjiece  de  circonstance  performed  under  the  title 
'La  Fete  de  la  raison' — one  of  the  scenes  ^ 
represented  a  church  with  an  organ  on  the  , 
stage  to  accompany  the  sacred  choruses  ;  '  Ana-  j 
cr^on  chez  Polycrate,'  3  acts  (1797),  containing 
an  air  and  a  trio  long  favourites ;  *  Le  Casque  et  , 
les  Colombes,'  i  act  (1801),  performed  only  3  1 
times;  and  ^Delphis  et  Mopsa,'  2  acts  (1803), 
which  met  with  but  little  better  fate. 

The  question  arises,  out  of  all  these  50  operas 
produced  in  Paris,  how  many  are  there  besides 
'Le  Tableau  parlant'  which  deserve  special 
attention  ?   '  Z^mire  et  Azor,'  '  L'Amant  jaloux,' 

*  L'Epreuve  villageoise,'  and  above  all  '  Richard,' 
which  is  still  performed  with  success,  and  of 
which  nearly  every  nimiber  deserves  to  be 
specified,  are  those  we  should  select.  In  treating 
subjects  of  a  more  ambitious  stamp,  such  as '  Pierre 
le  Grand'  and  'Guillaume  TeD,'  Gre'try  did 
violence  to  his  nature.  Broad  and  vigorous 
conceptions  were  not  within  his  range,  because 
they  require  not  only  sustained  effort,  but  a 
thorough  mastery  of  harmony  and  instrumenta- 
tion, and  this  he  did  not  possess.  He  scarcely 
ever  wrote  for  more  than  two  voices,  and  is 


manifestly  perplexed  by  the  entrance  of  a  third, 
as  a  glance  at  the  trio-duet  in  '  Zemire  et  Azor ' 
will  show.  '  You  might  drive  a  coach  and  four 
between  the  bass  and  the  first  fiddle '  was  wit- 
tily said  of  his  thin  harmonies.  But  though  it 
may  be  thought  necessary  at  the  present  day  to 
reinforce  his  meagre  orchestration,  his  basses  are 
so  well  chosen,  and  form  such  good  hai*mony, 
that  it  is  often  extremely  difficult  to  add  comple- 
mentary parts  to  the  two  in  the  original  score.^ 
And  Gretry's  instrumentation  though  poor  is  not 
wanting  in  colour  when  occasion  serves.  More- 
over he  was  aware  of  his  defects  as  well  as  of 
his  capacities.  '  In  the  midst  of  popular  applause 
how  dissatisfied  an  artist  often  feels  with  his 
own  work! '  he  exclaims  at  the  end  of  his  analysis 
of  '  Huron.'  Elsewhere  in  speaking  of  his  works 
as  a  whole,  he  puts  the  following  words  into 
Gluck's  mouth,  '  You  received  from  Nature  the 
gift  of  appropriate  melody,  but  in  giving  you 
this  talent  she  withheld  that  of  strict  and 
complicated  harmony.'  This  is  true  self-know- 
ledge, and  by  such  remarks  Gretry  has  shortened 
and  simplified  our  task. 

The  qualities  in  his  music  which  most  excite 
our  admiration  are,  his  perfect  understanding  of 
the  right  proportions  to  be  given  both  to  the 
ensemble,  and  to  each  separate  part  of  an  opera, 
and  his  power  of  connecting  and  evolving  the 
scenes,  faithfully  interpreting  the  words,  and 
tracing  the  lineaments,  so  to  speak,  of  his  charac- 
ters by  means  of  this  fidelity  of  expression  in  the 
music.  While  thus  taking  declamation  as  his 
guide,  and  believing  that  'the  most  skilful 
musician  was  he  who  could  best  metamorphose 
declamation  into  melody,'  Gretry  little  thought 
that  the  day  would  come  when  Mehul  would 
say  of  him  that  'what  he  wrote  was  very 
clever,  but  it  was  not  music'  ('il  faisait  de 
I'esprit  et  non  de  la  musique ').  No  doubt  he 
carried  his  system  too  far;  he  did  not  see 
that  by  trying  to  follow  the  words  too  literally 
a  composer  may  deprive  his  phrases  of  ease 
and  charm,  and  sacrifice  the  general  eflect  for 
the  sake  of  obtaining  many  trifling  ones—  a  most 
serious  fault.  But  in  spite  of  his  weakness  for 
details — the  defect  of  many  a  painter — Gretry 
is  a  model  one  never  wearies  of  studying.  He 
excelled  in  the  simple  pastoral  style,  in  the 
touching  and  pathetic,  and  in  comic  opera  at 
once  comic  and  not  trivial.  By  means  of  his 
rich  imagination,  thorough  acquaintance  with 
stage  business,  and  love  for  dramatic  truth,  he 
created  a  whole  world  of  characters  dra^n  to  the 
life ;  and  by  his  great  intelligence,  and  the 
essentially  French  bent  of  his  genius  he  almost 
deserves  to  be  called  the  'jNIoli^re  of  music,'  a 
title  as  overwhelming  as  it  is  honourable,  but 
which  his  passionate  admirers  have  not  hesitated 
to  bestow  on  him. 

A  witty  and  brilliant  talker,  and  a  friend  of 
influential  literary  men,  Gretry  possessed  many 
powerful  patrons  at  the  French  court,  and  was 

•'Guillaume  Tell'  was  reinstrumented  by  Berton  and  Rifaut ; 
'  Richard '  bj  Adolphe  Adam :  '  L'Epreuve  villageoise '  by  Auber ;  ar.d 
'La  fausse  Magie'  by  Eugene  Provost. 


C30 


GRETRY. 


GRIEG. 


the  recipient  of  pensions  and  distinctions  of 
all  kinds.  In  1785  the  municipality  of  Paris 
named  one  of  the  streets  near  the  Com^die 
Italienne  after  him,  and  in  the  previous  year 
the  Prince -Bishop  of  Liege  had  made  him  one 
of  his  privy-councillors.  On  the  foundation  of 
the  Conservatoire  he  was  appointed  an  inspector, 
a  post  which  he  resigned  in  a  year.  When  the 
Institut  was  formed  at  the  same  time  (i795) 
he  was  chosen  to  fill  one  of  the  three  places 
reserved  for  musical  composers.  Napoleon  made 
him  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  on 
the  institution  of  the  order  in  1802,  and  also 
granted  him  a  pension  to  compensate  for  his  losses 
by  the  Revolution. 

A  career  so  successful  was  likely  to  intoxicate, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  Grdtry  had 
a  firm  belief  in  his  own  merits,  and  thought 
himself  almost  infallible.  He  has  left  us  several 
records  of  his  vanity  both  artistic  and  intel- 
lectual. The  first  is  his  *  Memoires  ou  Essais 
sur  la  musique,'  published  in  i  vol.  in  1789,  and 
reprinted  in  1797  wath  two  additional  vols.,  said 
to  have  been  edited  by  his  friend  Legrand,  a 
professor  of  rhetoric.  The  first  part  only  is 
interesting,  and  as  has  been  aptly  said,  it  should 
be  called  'Essais  sur  ma  musique.'  In  1802  he 
brought  out  *  M^thode  simple  pour  apprendre  k 
preluder  en  peu  de  temps  avec  toutes  les  res- 
sources  de  rharmonie,'  a  pamphlet  of  95  pages 
with  lithograph  portrait,  in  which  he  exhibits 
both  the  insufficiency  of  his  studies,  and  his  want 
of  natural  talent  for  harmony.  His  3  vols  '  De 
la  Verity  :  ce  que  nous  fdmes,  ce  que  nous 
sommes,  ce  que  nous  devrions  etre'  (1803)  are 
simply  a  pretentious  statement  of  his  political 
and  social  opinions,  with  remarks  on  the  feelings, 
and  the  best  means  of  exciting  and  expressing 
them  by  music. 

Grdtry  had  bought  'I'Ermitage'  near  Mont- 
morency, formerly  the  residence  of  Rousseau,  and 
it  was  there  he  died,  Sept.  24,  181 3.  Three  days 
afterwards  (27th)  Paris  honoured  his  remains 
with  a  splendid  funeral ;  touching  and  eloquent 
eulogiums  were  pronounced  over  his  grave  by 
Bouilly  on  behalf  of  the  dramatic  authors,  and 
Mehul  in  the  name  of  the  musicians.  A  year 
later,  at  a  special  meeting  on  Oct.  i,  18 14,  Joa- 
chim de  Breton,  permanent  secretary  of  the 
Academic  des  Beaux -Arts  read  a  '  Notice  sur  la 
vie  et  les  ouvrages  d'Andr^  Ernest  Gre'try.'  Since 
then  many  biographies  and  critiques  have  been 
published  ;  the  most  important  are — '  Grdtry  en 
famille'  (Paris  1815,  i2mo.)  by  A.  J.  Gretry,  his 
nephew  ;  '  Recueil  de  lettres  dcrites  a  Gretry,  ou 
k  son  sujet,'  by  the  Comte  de  Livry  (Paris,  1809, 
8vo.) ;  'Essai  sur  Gretry'  (Li^ge  182 1,  8vo.)  by 
M.  de  Gerlache,  and  F^tis's  article.    [See  Fra- 

MERY.] 

There  are  many  portraits  of  Gr(itry.  One  of 
the  best  was  drawn  and  engraved  by  '  his  friend ' 
Moreau  the  younger.  Another  engraving  is  by 
Cathelin  (1785),  from  the  portrait  by  Madame 
Lebrun,  with  the  lines  : 

•  Par  des  plaisirs  r^ols  et  de  fausses  alarm  es 
Ce  puissant  Euchauteur  caline  ou  trouble  nos  sens ; 


Mais  de  son  amiti6  peut-on  goflter  les  charmes 
Sans  6galer  au  moins  son  cceur  k  ses  talents.' 

Besides  these  there  are  Isabey's  portrait  en- 
graved by  P.  Simon ;  that  taken  by  the  *  phy- 
sionotrace '  and  engraved  by  Quenedey  in  1 808  ; 
those  of  Forget  and  P.  Adam ;  and  finally 
Maurin's  lithograph  from  the  portrait  by  Robert 
Leffevre.  In  his  youth  he  is  said  to  have  resembled 
Pergolesi  both  in  face  and  figure.  Comte  Livry 
had  a  statue  made  of  him  in  marble,  and  placed 
it  at  the  entrance  of  the  old  Theatre  Feydeau  ; 
it  is  not  known  what  has  become  of  it.  The 
'  foyer '  of  the  present  Opera  Comique,  contains 
only  a  bust  of  him.  In  1842  a  statue  by  Geefs 
was  inaugurated  at  Li^ge  ;  being  colossal  it  is 
not  a  good  representation,  as  Gretry  was  small 
in  stature,  and  of  delicate  health. 

Gretry  had  three  daughters.  The  second, 
LuciLE,  bom  in  Paris  1773,  was  only  13  when 
her  one-act  opera  '  Le  Mariage  d' Antonio,'  in- 
strumented by  her  father,  was  successfully 
performed  at  the  Op^ra  Comique  (1786).  In 
1787  she  produced  'Toinette  et  Louis,'  in  2  acts, 
which  was  not  well  received.  This  gifted  young 
musician  made  an  unhappy  marriage,  and  died 
in  1793. 

We  may  mention  in  conclusion  that  Gretry 
spent  his  last  years  in  writing  6  vols  of  '  Re- 
flexions sur  I'art,'  which  however  have  not  been 
published.  He  also  left  5  MS.  operas  in  3  acts 
— '  Alcindor  et  Za'ide '  ;  '  Zim^o ' ;  *  Electre ' ; 
'Diogfene  et  Alexandre';  'Les  Maures  d'Espagne'; 
and  'Zelmar,  ou  I'Asile,'  in  one  act.  [G.C.] 

GRIEG,  Edvard,  composer  and  pianist,  born 
June  15,  1843,  at  Bergen  in  Norway,  and  now 
conductor  and  teacher  at  Christiania,  He  came 
to  Leipsic  in  1858,  and  remained  at  the  Conser- 
vatorium  for  four  years,  having  Hauptmann  and 
Richter  as  masters  for  harmony  and  counterpoint, 
Rietz  and  Reinecke  forcomposition,  and  Moscheles 
for  pianoforte  playing.  During  the  term  of  his 
studies  he  lived  mostly  in  the  romantic  worlds  of 
Schumann,  Mendelssohn, and  Chopin,  whose  works 
then  gave  the  tone  to  the  entire  musical  life  of 
the  town,  and  especially  of  the  Conservatorium. 
He  has  since  become  aware  of  other  older  and 
newer  masters,  without  however  showing  very 
distinct  traces  of  their  influence  in  his  composi- 
tions. The  characteristic  Scandinavian  features  of 
Grieg's  musical  talent  took  a  tangible  shape  soon 
after  his  return  to  the  north.  Danish,  Swedi.sh, 
and  Norwegian  Volkslieder  and  dances  absorbed 
his  fancy  more  than  the  study  of  any  great 
composer's  works ;  and  henceforth  his  compositions 
are  marked  with  the  stamp  of  a  particular  nation- 
ality more  clearly  than  that  of  any  man,  except 
perhaps  Chopin. 

Grieg  has  hitherto  published  the  following 
works:  —  4  Clavierstiicke  (op.  i) ;  4  Lieder 
(op.  2) ;  Poetische  Tonbilder  (op.  3)  ;  6  Lieder 
(op.  4);  '  Melodien  des  Herzens'  —  on  Hans 
Andersen's  songs  —  (op.  5);  Humoresken  fiir 
Pianoforte  (op.  6) ;  Sonate  fiir  Pianoforte  (op.  . 
7)  ;  Sonate  fur  Pianoforte  und  Violin  (op.  8) ; 
Romanzen  und  Balladen  (op.  9) ;  Kleine  Ro- 
manzen  (op.  10);  'Im  Herbst,'  Phantasie  fiir 


GRIEG. 


GRIFFIN.         '  631 


Pianoforte,  K  quatre  mains  (op.  Il);  Lyrische 
Stiickchen  ftir  Pianoforte  (op.  12)  ;  Senate  fiir 
Pianoforte  und  Violine  (op.  13);  2  symphonische 
Stticke  fiir  Pianoforte,  k  qnatre  mains  (op.  1 4) ; 
Romanzen  (op.  15) ;  Concert  fiir  Pianoforte  und 
Orchester  (op.  16);  Norwegische  Volks-Lieder 
und  T.inze  fur  Pianoforte  behandelt  (op.  1 7) ; 
Romanzen  und  Lieder,  2  Hefte  (op.  18) ;  'Bilder 
aus  dem  Volksleben,'  neue  Humoresken  fiir 
Pianoforte  (op.  19);  '  Vor  Siidens  Kloster,'  fiir 
Soli,  Damenchor  und  Orchester  (op.  20).  [E.  D.] 

GRIEPENKERL,  Friedrich  Conrad,  pro- 
fessor at  the  Carolinum  College  in  Brunswick, 
born  at  Peine,  near  Hanover,  in  1782  ;  long 
tutor  in  the  Fellenberg  Institution  at  Hofwyl  in 
the  Canton  of  Berne;  died  at  Brunswick,  April 
6,  1849.  He  wrote  '  Lehrbuch  der  ^sthetik' 
(Brunswick  1827),  in  which  he  applied  Herbart's 
philosophical  theory  to  music ;  and  was  the 
author  of  the  preface  to  the  excellent  edition  of 
J.  S.  Bach's  instrumental  compositions,  edited  by 
himself  and  Roitsch,  and  published  by  Peters  of 
Leipzig.  This  work  has  made  his  name  familiar 
to- many  in  England. 

His  son  Wolfgang  Robert,  born  May  4, 
1 810,  at  Hofwyl,  studied  at  Brunswick  and 
Leipzig,  was  also  an  enthusiastic  amateur,  and 
an  ardent  admirer  of  Meyerbeer's  'Huguenots' 
and  the  later  works  of  Berlioz.  He  wrote  '  Das 
Musikfest,  oder  die  Beethovener'  (1838  and  41)  ; 
'Ritter  Berlioz  in  Braunschweig'  (1843") ;  'Die 
Oper  der  Gegenwart'  (1847);  and  two  dramas, 
'Robespierre'  and  'Die  Girondisten,'  to  which 
Litolff  composed  overtures.  He  died  at  Bruns- 
wick, Oct.  17,  1868.  [E.G.] 

GRIESBACH,  John  Henry,  born  at  Wind- 
sor, June  20,  1798,  was  eldest  son  of  Justin 
Christian  Griesbach,  violoncellist  in  Queen  Char-  ' 
lotte's  band,  and  nephew  to  Friedrich  Griesbach,  I 
the  oboe  player.    He  studied  music  under  his 
uncle,  George  Leopold  Jacob  Griesbach,  and  at  | 
12  years  of  age  was  appointed  violoncellist  in  ' 
the  Queen's  band.    He  then  studied  for  some 
years  under  Kalkbrenner.    On  the  breaking  up  \ 
of  the  Queen's  band  at  her  death  he  came  to  ' 
London  and  appeared  at  concerts  as  a  pianist.  I 
In  I S  2  2  he  composed  a  symphony  and  a  capriccio  ' 
for  pianoforte  and  orchestra,  and  shortly  after-  ' 
wards  a  second  symphony  for  the  Philharmonic  ' 
Society.    Although  he  was  after  this  time  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  tuition  he  found  time  to  pro-  j 
duce  numerous  compositions  of  """arious  kinds,  and 
also  to  attain  to  no  mean  skill  in  astronomy,  I 
painting  in  water  colours,  entomology',  and  ma- 
thematics.    His  principal  compositions  were 
*  Belshazzar's  Feast,'  an  oratorio,  written  in  1835 
with  a  view  to  stage  representation,  but  such 
performances  being  interdicted  he  some  years 
afterwards  remodelled  the  work,  and  it  was  per- 
formed, under  the  title  of '  Daniel,'  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  on  June  30,  1854;  Overture 
and  Music  to  Shakspere's  'Tempest';  'James 
the  First,  or.  The  Royal  Captive,'  operetta  ;  'The 
Goldsmith  of  West  Cheap,'  opera  ;  '  Eblis,'  opera 
(unfinished) ;   *  Raby  Ruins,'   musical  drama ; 


several  overtures  and  other  instrumental  pieces, 
anthems,  songs,  cantatas,  &c.  He  also  wrote 
'An  Analysis  of  Musical  Sounds'  (published), 
and  '  The  fundamental  elements  of  Counter- 
point,' 'The  Acoustic  Laws  of  Harmony,'  and 
*  Tables  shewing  the  variations  of  musical  pitch 
from  the  time  of  Handel  to  1859  '  (unpublished). 
He  was  14  times  a  director  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society.    He  died  Jan.  9,  1875.  [W.H.H.] 

GRIESINGER,  Georg  August,  deserves  a 
word  of  grateful  mention  for  his  charming  little 
work  on  Haydn — '  Biographische  Notizen  iiber 
Joseph  Haydn'  (i  26  pages) — which  was  originally 
communicated  to  the  Allg.  Musik.  Zeitung  from 
July  to  Sept.  1809,  and  then  published  by 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel  in  1 810.  Griesinger  was  a 
'  Legations-Rath '  of  the  Saxon  government,  and 
possibly  attached  to  the  embass}'^  at  Vienna.  At 
any  rate  he  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Haydn 
for  the  last  ten  years  of  the  life  of  the  latter,  and 
he  claims  to  report  directly  from  his  lips,  often 
in  his  very  words.  His  work  was  used  by 
Framery  for  his  'Notice  sur  Haydn'  (Paris,  1810), 
but  Griesinger  complains  that  his  statements  have 
often  been  widely  departed  from,  and  in  one  case 
an  absolute  invention  introduced. 

Whether  he  was  the  same  Griesinger  who 
founded  singing  societies  and  public  concerts  in 
Stuttgart  10  or  12  years  after  Haydn's  death,  is 
not  apparent.    He  died  April  27,  1828.  [G.] 

GRIFFIN,  George  Eugene,  pianist  and  com- 
poser, was  bom  Jan.  8,  1781.  At  sixteen  years 
of  age  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  composer 
by  the  production  of  a  concerto  for  pianoforte 
and  orchestra,  in  which  the  melody  of  '  The  Blue 
Bell  of  Scotland'  was  introduced.  He  next 
published  a  P.  F.  sonata,  with  ad  libitum  violin, 
and  an  'Ode  to  Charity,'  inscribed  to  the 
supporters  of  the  Patriotic  Fund,  and  published 
in  1806.  His  remaining  compositions,  with  the 
exception  of  three  quartets  for  stringed  instru- 
ments, were  all  for  the  pianoforte,  either  alone 
or  in  conjunction  with  other  instruments.  They 
comprise  two  concertos  for  P.  F.  and  orchestra ; 
a  quartet  for  pianoforte  and  strings  ;  four  sonatas ; 
five  divertimentos  ;  four  rondos  ;  six  marches ; 
six  airs ;  a  capriccio ;  an  introduction  to  an 
arrangement  of  the  military  movement  from 
Haydin's  1 2  th  symphony ;  and  two  sets  of  quad- 
rilles. Griffin  was  one  of  the  original  members 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  One  of  his  stringed 
quartets  was  given  by  that  body  on  Feb.  28, 
1814,  and  his  P.  F.  quartet  on  April  14,  181 7, 
he  himself  plapng  the  P.  F.  part.  Griffin  was 
stricken  with  mortal  illness  whilst  attending  one 
of  the  Society's  concerts,  and  died  a  few  days 
afterwards  in  May  1863.  His  compositions  were 
fonned  upon  classical  models,  and  were  esteemed 
in  their  day,  although  now  forgotten.  [W.H.H.] 

GRIFFIN,  Thomas,  an  organ  builder,  in  1741 
erected  an  organ  in  St.  Helen's,  Bishopsgate,  and 
engaged  'to  play  himself  or  provide  an  organist.' 
He  is  said  to  have  also  built  organs  in  other  City 
churches.  On  Jan.  11,  1763  (being  then  a 
Common  Councilman  for  Langboum  Ward  and 


632 


GRIFFIN. 


GRISI. 


one  of  the  Gresham  Committee),  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Music  in  Gresham  College  in  the 
room  of  Charles  Gardner,  deceased.  He  seems 
to  have  been  totally  incapable  of  performing  the 
duties  of  the  office,  since  we  learn  from  a  con- 
temporary newspaper  that  on  Jan.  29,  1763,  the 
day  appointed  for  his  first  lecture,  John  Potter, 
who  had  acted  as  deputy  to  his  predecessor, 
appeared  to  lecture  for  him,  but  the  audience 
refused  to  hear  him,  and  compelled  him  to  retire  ; 
that  on  Feb.  1 2  following  Griffin  himself  appeared, 
apologised  for  his  absence  on  Jan.  29,  which  he 
assured  the  audience  was  owing  solely  to  his  not 
having  had  sufficient  time  to  prepare  a  proper 
lecture,  and  then  retired  without  saying  more; 
and  that  he  soon  afterwards  delivered  a  lecture, 
which  lasted  11  minutes,  in  an  almost  inaudible 
tone  of  voice.  He  died  in  1 7  7 1 .  Hawkins  asserts 
him  to  have  been  a  barber.  He  was  more  probably 
of  the  Barber-Surgeons'  Company.       [W.  H.  H.] 

GRIMALDI.    See  Nicolini. 

GRIMM,  Julius  Otto,  German  pianist  and 
composer  of  some  note;  bom  1830  at  Pernau  in 
Saxony ;  was  a  pupil  of  the  Conservatorium  of 
Leipzig.  When  Grimm  had  finished  the  coiu-se 
of  instruction  there,  he  found  employment  at 
Gottingen,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  con- 
ductor of  the  Musikverein  at  Miinster,  where 
he  is  still  living  as  a  teacher  of  singing  and 
pianoforte  playing.  He  has  hitherto  published 
pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  songs,  and  a  few 
orchestral  compositions,  of  which  latter  his  *  Suite 
in  canon-form '  has  made  the  round  of  German 
concert-rooms  successfully,  and  in  point  of  clever 
workmanship  deserves  all  the  praise  it  has  met 
with.  [E.D.] 

GRISAR,  Albeet,  bom  at  Antwerp,  Dec.  26, 
1808,  was  intended  for  com.merce,  and  with  that 
view  was  placed  in  a  house  of  business  at  Liver- 
pool.   The  love  of  music  was  however  too  strong 
for  him,  and  after  a  few  struggles  with  his  family 
he  ran  away  to  Paris,  and  reached  it  only  a 
day  or  two  before  the  Revolution  of  July  1830. 
He  began  to  study  under  Reicha,  but  the  revo- 
lution spread  to  Belgium,  and  Grisar  was  obKged 
to  join  his  family  in  Antwerp.    His  first  public 
success  was  '  Le  Mariage  impossible '  at  Brussels 
in  the  spring  of  1833.       attracted  the  attention 
of  the  government,  and  procured  him  a  grant 
of  1200  francs  towards  the  completion  of  his  1 
musical  education.    He  returned  to  Paris  and  ! 
henceforward  gave  himself  up  almost  entirely  | 
to  the  theatre.    His  first  appearance  there  was 
at  the  Opdra  Comique  with  '  L'an  mil.'  Though 
not  unsuccessful  he  was  dissatisfied  with  himself,  I 
and  in  1840  or  1841  went  to  Naples  to  study  j 
composition  under  Mercadante ;  and  there  he  j 
remained  for  several  years.     In  1848  he  was 
again  in  Paris,  and  did  not  leave  it  till  his  ' 
death,  which  took  place  at  Asniferes  on  June  ' 
15,  1869.    Nineteen  of  his  comic  operas  were 
produced  on  the  stage,  and  a  dozen  more  remained 
in  MS.    A  list  will  be  found  in  Pougin's  sup- 
plement to  Fetis.    He  also  published  more  than 
50  melodies  and  romances.     His  statue,  by  [ 


Brack  eleer,  is  in  the  vestibule  of  the  Antwerp 
Theatre,  and  a  Life  of  him  by  Pougin  has  been 
published  by  Hachette.  With  the  Parisians  he 
was  a  great  favourite.  *A  charming  delicate 
natural  musician,  several  of  whose  works  will 
remain  to  attest  the  rare  excellence  of  his  talent ' 
is  the  judgment  of  a  French  critic  in  the  Menes- 
trel.  On  an  Englishman  however — and  one  who 
knew  him  and  liked  him — he  made  a  different 
impression  ;  'His  music,'  says  Mr.  Chorley,  'leaves 
not  the  slightest  trace  on  the  memory.  I  cannot 
recall  from  the  whole  list  a  melody,  a  touch  of 
instrumental  novelty,  an  indication  of  character 
or  local  colour.'  M.  Choiiquet  (Musique  Drama- 
tique,  286),  while  praising  his  fresh  and  graceful 
melody  and  his  sympathy  with  the  scene  and  the 
situation,  will  not  allow  him  a  place  above  the 
second  rank.  [G.] 
GRISI,  GiULiA.  This  famous  operatic  vocal- 
ist, daughter  of  Gaetano  Grisi,  an  officer  of 
engineers  under  Napoleon,  was  bom  at  Milan  in 
181 2;  others  say  18 10,  others  even  1806.  She 
belonged  to  a  family  of  artists.  Her  maternal  aunt 
was  the  celebrated  Grassini ;  her  eldest  sister, 
Giuditta  (bom  at  Milan,  July  28,  1805),  was 
a  singer  of  high  merit ;  and  her  cousin,  Carlotta 
Grisi,  originally  educated  asasinger,  became,  under 
the  tuition  of  Perrot,  the  most  charming  dancer  of 
her  time.  Probably  her  mother,  like  the  rest  of 
the  family,  had  before  marriage  made  music  her 
profession.  If  so,  with  a  soldier  for  a  father  and 
a  singer  for  a  mother,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
future  '  dramatic  soprano '  came  indeed  of  suit- 
able parentage.  Her  earliest  instructors  were 
successively  her  sister  Giuditta;  Filippo  Celli, 
afterwards  resident  professor  in  London ;  Madame 
Boccabadati ;  and  Guglielmi,  son  of  the  composer 
of  that  name.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  public  as  Emma  in  Ros- 
sini's 'Zelmira.'  In  1830  Mr.  C.  C.  Greville 
saw  her  at  Florence  with  David  in  '  Ricciardo,' 
and  says,  '  She  is  like  Pasta  in  face  and  figure, 
but  much  handsomer.  She  is  only  eighteen.* 
Rossini  took  a  great  interest  in  the  young  and 
promising  Giulietta,  for  whom  he  predicted  a 
brilliant  future.  '  Youth,  uncommon  personal 
attractions,  a  beautiful  voice,  and  indications 
already  of  that  stage  talent  afterwards  so  remark- 
ably developed,  combined,'  says  one  who  speaks 
with  authority  on  the  subject,  '  to  obtain  a  re- 
ception for  their  possessor  more  hearty  and  more 
unanimously  favourable  than  often  falls  to  the  lot 
of  a  debutante.'  One  of  Giulia's  warmest  admirers 
was  Bellini,  who,  composing  at  Milan  the  opera 
of 'Norma'  for  Pasta,  recognised  in  the  young 
artist  all  the  qualifications  for  a  perfect  Adalgisa. 
Strangely  enough,  when  the  opera  was  first 
brought  out,  the  first  act  proved  almost  a  fiasco; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  duet  for  Norma  and 
Adalgisa  in  the  2nd  Act  that  the  audience  began 
to  applaud.  Dissatisfied  with  her  engagement  at 
Milan,  and  unable  to  get  herself  released  from  it 
by  ordinary  means,  the  impulsive  Giulia  took  to 
flight,  and  escaping  across  the  frontier  reached 
Paris,  where  she  found  her  aunt,  Madame  Gras- 
aini,  her  si.ter  Giuditta,  and  Rossini, — at  that 


GRISI. 


GRISI. 


633 


time  artistic  director  of  the  Theatre  des  Italiens. 
>^he  had  no  trouble  in  obtaining  an  engage- 
ment. Rossini,  who  had  not  forgotten  her  per- 
fiirmance  in  'Zelmira,'  offered  her  the  part  of 
Semiramide  in  his  own  admirable  opera  of  that 
name;  and  in  1832  Mdlle.  Grisi  made  her  first 
appearance  at  the  Italian  Opera  of  Paris  in  the 
character  of  the  Assyrian  Queen,  Mdlle.  Eckerlin 
representing  Arsace,  and  Signor  Tamburini 
Assur.  Nothing  could  have  been  more  perfect 
than  Mdlle  Grisi's  success  ;  and  for  sixteen  con- 
secutive years,  from  1S32  to  1849,  ^'^^ 
engaged  and  re-engaged  at  the  Theatre  des 
Italiens.  Mdlle.  Grisi  passed  the  winter  of 
I  S3 3  at  Venice,  where  Bellini  wrote  and  pro- 
duced '  I  Montecchi  ed  I  Capuleti '  for  the  two 
sisters,  Giuditta  and  Giulia.  She  did  not  visit 
London  until  1834,  where  she  made  her  first 
appearance,  amid  general  admiration,  as  Ninetta 
in  'La  Gazza  Ladra'  (April  8th).  Her  first 
great  London  success,  however,  was  achieved  in 
the  part  of  Anna  Bolena.  The  chief  characters  in 
this  work — which  Donizetti  had  written  for  Galli, 
Rubini.and  Madame  Pasta — became  identified  in 
London  with  Lablache,  Rubini,  and  Mdlle.  Grisi. 
Strangely  enough,  the  opera  itself  which  was  at 
one  time  looked  upon  as  its  composer's  master- 
piece, seems  now  all  but  forgotten.  Those 
however  who  saw  Grisi  in  the  part  of  the  heroine 
will  never  forget  it.  On  the  occasion  of  her 
first  appearance  in  London,  the  'Times'  critic 
described  her  voice  as  a  '  pure,  brilliant,  power- 
ful, flexible  soprano  ....  one  of  the  finest  we 
ever  heard.'  *  As  an  actress,'  added  the  %s-riter, 
'  Mdlle.  Grisi  exhibits  discriminative  powers 
of  no  common  order,'  When  she  undertook 
the  part  of  Semiramide,  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
it  was  said  by  everyone  that  Pasta  having 
now  retired  her  only  successor  was  Grisi.  In 
the  year  1S35  Bellini  -nTote  'I  Puritani'  for 
Grisi,  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and  Lablache  ;  that 
memorable  operatic  quartet  of  which  she  was 
the  last  survivor.  It  is  true  that  after  Rubini 
had  been  replaced  by  Mario  the  quartet  was 
still  incomparable ;  and  it  was  for  the  new 
combination — Grisi,  Mario,  Tamburini,  and  La- 
blache— that  Donizetti,  in  1843,  composed  'Don 
Pasquale.'  '  Don  Pasquale,'  like  'Anna  Bolena,' 
visited  London  and  -soon  became  naturalised; 
and  year  after  year  the  Mario  quartet,  like  the 
Rubini  quartet,  spent  the  winter  in  Paris,  the 
summer  in  London.  Fortunately  the  Paris 
season  does  not  interfere  with  our  own.  Indeed, 
owing  to  the  Paris  and  St.  Petersburg  seasons 
taking  place  in  the  winter,  it  is  possible  to  form 
in  London  for  the  summer  an  operatic  troupe 
superior  to  that  of  either  St.  Petersburg  or  Paris, 
and  which  shall,  in  fact,  include  the  most  dis- 
tinguished ornaments  of  both  the  great  European 
winter  companies.  But  between  Paris  and  Lon- 
don in  particular  an  entente  cordiale  had  long 
existed ;  and  Madame  Grisi,  with  her  attendant 
tenor,  baritone,  and  basso,  must  have  been  as 
much  at  home  in  one  of  these  capitals  as  in  the 
other. 

When,  in  1846,  Mr.  Lumley's  company  was 


^  broken  up  by  the  sudden  departure  of  his  prin- 
cipal singers,  together  with  Mr.  Costa,  and  nearly 

1  the  whole  of  the  orchestra,  the  second  of  the  great 
quartets  came  to  an  end.  It  struggled  on  for  a 
time  in  the  reduced  form  of  a  trio :  Grisi,  Mai-io 
and  Tamburini,  without  Lablache.  Then  the 
trio  became  a  duet;  but  Grisi  and  Mario  still 
sang  the  duo  concertante  which  Donizetti  had 
written  for  them  in  '  Don  Pasquale,'  as  no  other 
singers  could  sing  it.  They  were  still  '  the  rose 
and  the  nightingale '  of  Heine's  Parisian  Letters, 
'  the  rose  the  nightingale  among  flowers,  the 
nightingale  the  rose  among  birds.'  Mr.  N.  P. 
Willis  had  heard  Grisi  in  London  in  the  year 
1834,  and,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  '  Pencillings  by 
the  Way,'  did  not  much  like  her.  On  the  other 
hand,  Heine  heard  her  in  Paris  in  the  year  1840, 
and,  as  he  assures  us  in  his  'Lutetia,'  liked  her 
very  much.  The  unbounded  admiration  of  the 
German  poet  would  probably  have  consoled 
^Madame  Grisi,  if  she  had  ever  troubled  herself 
about  the  matter,  for  the  very  limited  admir- 
ation expressed  for  her  by  the  American  prose- 
writer. 

From  the  year  1834,  when  she  made  her  debut 
at  the  King's  Theatre,  London,  until  the  year 
1 86 1,  when  she  retired  from  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera,  Madame  Grisi  only  missed  one  season 
in  London — that  of  1842.  And  it  was  a  rare 
thing  indeed  when  she  was  engaged  that  illness 
or  any  other  cause  prevented  her  from  appearing. 
She  seldom  disappointed  the  public  by  her  ab- 
sence ;  and  never,  when  she  was  present,  by 
her  singing.  There  is  some  significance  in  styling 
such  vocalists  'robust,'  for  there  are  robust 
sopranos  as  there  are  robust  tenors.  Indeed  no 
one  who  has  not  really  a  robust  constitution 
could  stand  such  wear  and  tear,  which  are  tlie 
indispensable  accompaniments — which  form,  one 
might  almost  say,  the  very  substance — of  the  life 
of  a  great  singer.  In  the  year  1854  she  made 
an  artistic  tour  in  the  L'nited  States,  in  com- 
pany with  Signor  ^Nlario.  In  1859  accepted 
an  engagement  at  Madrid,  which  was  not  suc- 
cessful, and  was  rapidly  broken  off.  In  iS6i 
Madame  Grisi  signed  an  agreement  with  Mr. 
Gye  binding  her  not  to  appear  again  in  public 
within  a  term  of  five  years,  Mr.  Gye  thought, 
no  doubt,  that  in  this  case  five  years  were  as 
good  as  fifty.  But  he  had  reckoned  without  his 
prima  donna,  who,  in  the  year  1866,  to  the 
regret  of  her  friends,  and  to  the  astonishment  of 
every  one,  came  out  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  in 
her  old  part  of  Lucrezia,  After  that  Madame 
Grisi  still  continued  from  time  to  time  to  sing  at 
concerts,  and  as  a  concert  singer  gained  much 
and  deserved  applause.  She  had  for  years  made 
London  her  head-quarters,  and  on  leaving  it  in 
1869  to  pay  a  ^■isit  to  Berlin  had  no  intention 
of  not  returning  to  the  capital  where  she  had 
obtained  her  greatest  and  most  prolonged  suc- 
cesses. She  did  not  however  return.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs  seized  her,  and  after  a  short 
attack  she  died  at  the  Hotel  du  Xord,  Berlin, 
on  the  25th  Nov.  1869.  Her  artistic  life  had 
lasted  about  35  years;  and  considering  that  fact. 


634 


GRISI. 


GRUTZMACHER. 


and  the  vigorous  constitution  which  such  a  fact 
indicates,  it  may  safely  be  inferred  that  but  for 
the  accident  of  a  severe  cold,  which  appears  to 
have  been  neglected,  she  would  have  lived  to 
something  like  the  age  attained  by  so  many 
distinguished  members  of  the  profession  to  which 
she  belonged,  and  of  which  for  an  unusually  long 
period  she  formed  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments. 

Mdlle.  Grisi  was  married  on  April  24,  1836,  to 
Count  de  Melcy,  but  the  union  was  not  a  happy 
one,  and  was  dissolved  by  law.  Later  on  she 
was  again  married  to  Signer  Mario,  by  whom  she 
had  three  daughters.  [H.S.E.] 

GROSSE  CAISSE  and  GR0S3E  TROMMEL 
are  respectively  the  French  and  German  terms 
for  the  bass-drum.    [Drum,  3.]  [V.  de  P.] 

GROSSI.    See  Siface. 

GROSSO.  Italian  for  'great.'  The  'Con- 
certo Grosso'  of  the  first  half  of  the  iSth  century, 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Torelli  in  1709, 
was  a  piece  for  a  combination  of  several  solo 
instruments  with  the  full  band.  Thus  Corelli's 
Concerti  Grossi  (op.  6)  are  described  in  the  title 
as  '  con  due  violini  e  violoncello  di  concertino 
obligati,  e  due  altri  violini  e  basso  di  concerto 
grosso,  ad  arbitrio  che  si  potramo  radoppiare.' 
The  same  is  the  case  with  Handel's  '  12  Grand 
Concertos,'  which  are  for  2  solo  violins  and  a 
cello,  accompanied  by  and  alternating  with  a 
band  of  2  violins,  viola,  cello,  and  bass.  The 
piece  contained  4,  5,  or  6  movements  of  different 
tempo,  one  being  usually  a  fugue  and  one  a 
dance,  and  all  in  the  same  key. 

The  name  does  not  occur  in  the  works,  of  either 
Haydn  or  Mozart.  It  was  probably  last  used  by 
Geminiani,  who,  before  his  death  in  1761,  ar- 
ranged Corelli's  soLis  as  Concerti  Grossi.  [G.] 

GROSSVATER-TANZ,  i.e  grandfather-dance. 
A  curious  old  German  family-dance  of  the  1 7th 
century,  which  was  greatly  in  vogue  at  weddings. 
Spohr  had  to  introduce  it  into  the  Festival  march 
which  he  wrote  by  command  for  the  marriage  of 
Princess  Marie  of  Hesse  with  the  Duke  of  Saxe 
Meiningen  in  1825  (Selbstbiog.  ii.  16^).  It  con- 
sisted of  three  parts,  the  first  of  which  was  an 
andante  in  triple  time,  sung  to  the  words 

'  Uni  als  der  Grossvater  die  Grossmutter  nahm, 
Da  war  der  Grossvater  eiu  Briiutigam," 

to  which  succeeded  two  quick  phrases  in  2-4 
time — 

An'lanf<' 


As  this  dance  usually  concluded  an  evening,  it 
was  also  called  the  'Kehraus'  (clear  out).  Its 
chief  musical  interest  arises  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  'air  of  the  1 7th  century,'  which  Schumann 


in  his  'Camaval'  introduces  in  the  'March  of  the 
Davidsbiindler  against  the  Philistines.'  He  also 
uses  it  in  the  finale  of  his  '  Papillons,'  op.  2.  [E.  P.]  i 

GROUND  BASS.  The  most  obvious  and  \ 
easily  realisable  means  of  arriving  at  sym-  i 
metry  and  proportion  in  musical  works  is  b}" 
repetition,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  earliest  ^ 
attempts  in  this  direction  took  the  safe  side  of 
making  the  symmetry  absolute  by  repeating  the 
same  thing  over  and  over  again  in  the  form  of 
variations  ;  and  of  this  order  of  form  a  Ground 
Bass,  which  consisted  of  constant  repetition  of 
a  phrase  in  the  Bass  with  varied  figures  and  har- 
monies above  it,  is  a  sub- order.  At  an  early 
period  of  Modem  Music  this  was  a  very  popular 
device,  resorted  to  alike  by  Italians,  such  as 
Carissimi  and  Astorga,and  by  our  English  Purcell. 
In  the  works  of  Purcell  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  examples,  both  in  his  songs  in  the  Orpheus 
Britannicus,  and  in  his  dramatic  works,  as  in  the 
Dido  and  ^^neas,  in  which,  though  not  a  lengthy 
work,  there  are  three  songs  on  a  Ground  Bass ; 
the  best  of  which  '  When  I  am  laid  in  earth,' 
has  often  been  pointed  out  as  a  fine  example. 
An  expansion  of  the  idea  was  also  adopted  by 
him  in  the  '  Music  before  the  play '  of  King 
Arthur  in  which  the  figure  after  being  repeated 
many  times  in  the  bass  is  transferred  to  the  upper 
parts,  and  also  treated  by  inversion.  Bach  and 
Handel  both  made  use  of  the  same  device  ;  the 
former  in  his  Passacaglia  for  Clavier  with  Pedals, 
and  the  'Crucifixus*  of  his  Mass  in  B  minor; 
and  the  latter  in  his  Choruses  '  Envy  eldest-born 
of  Hell '  in  Saul,  and  '  0  Baal  monarch  of  the 
skies '  in  Deborah.  In  modem  times  Brahms 
has  produced  a  fine  example  in  the  Finale  to  the 
Variations  on  a  Theme  of  Haydn  in  B?  for 
Orchestra. 

At  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  century  Ground 
Basses  were  known  by  the  names  of  their  authors, 
as  'Farinell's  Ground,'  'Purcell's  Ground,'  etc., 
and  extemporising  on  a  Ground  Bass  was  a  very 
popular  amusement  with  musicians.  Christopher 
Simpson's  '  Chelys  Minuritionum,  or  Division 
Viol'  (1665'),  was  intended  to  teach  the  practice, 
which  he  describes  as  follows — 'Diminution  or 
division  to  a  Ground  is  the  breaking  either  of 
the  bass  or  of  any  higher  part  that  is  applicable 
thereto.    The  manner  of  expressing  it  is  thus: — 

'  A  Ground,  subject,  or  bass,  call  it  what  you 
please,  is  pricked  dowm  in  two  several  papers; 
one  for  him  who  is  to  play  the  ground  upon  an 
organ,  harpsichord,  or  what  other  instrument 
may  be  apt  for  that  purpose  ;  the  other  for  him 
that  plays  upon  the  viol,  who  having  the  said 
ground  before  his  eyes  as  his  theme  or  subject, 
plays  such  variety  of  descant  or  division  in  con- 
cordance thereto  as  his  skill  and  present  invention 
do  then  suggest  unto  him.' 

A  long  extract  and  a  specimen  of  a  '  Division, 
on  a  Ground '  are  given  in  Hawkins's  History, 
chap.  149.  [C.H.H.P.] 

GRUTZMACHER,  Fbiedrich  Wilhelm  Lun- 
WIG,  a  distinguished  violoncellist  of  our  day,  son 
of  a  musician,  bora  at  Dessau,  March  i,  1832. 


G8UTZMACHER. 


Gl-ADAGXryi. 


635 


H:  i  Tr.  :s:cal  txfdty  showed  itself  xay  eady,  and  j 
tlionM^ily  instmcted  in  theory  hy  F.  | 
rT.  and  m  the  cdlo  by  Drechslar.  In 
-nt  to  Leipfioc,  where  he  at  once 
r  notice  ^  I)aTid,  and  in  1S49, 
:  ame  first  cdlo  and  ado  player 
and  a  teadier  in  tibe  Gonser- 

  -  -  ?  called  to  Dresden,  where 

he  still  reskir  .:er-YirtDaB*  to  the  K: : 

of  Saxony.    K  :ed  most  of  the  northe: 

capitals  of  Europe,  and  was  in  England  in  6; 
aiui  68,  playing  at  the  PhOhannonic  (May  20, 
1867),  Maidcal  Union,  and  Crystal  Palace.  His 
compositions  embrace  orchestral  and  dmnber 
pieces,  songs,  etc.,  besides  oonootos  and  other 
conqKMotions  for  the  odlo.  His  exercises  and 
studies  are  specially  Talnable  ('"Kglidie  Uebim- 
gen'  and  '  Technologie  des  Yioloocdkpiels,*  used 
in  the  Leipsic  Coa^erratarinm).  We  are  also 
indebted  to  him  for  many  carelal  editions  of 
standard  works  (Beethoven's  Sonatas  for  I^ano- 
forte  and  Cello,  Bomberg's  Concertos,  Bocche- 
rini's  Sonatas,  etc,  ebc.\  and  for  the  reviTal  of 
some  forgottcm  works  of  coimderaUe  interest. 
As  a  player  he  has  an  extraordinarj  command  oi 
difficnlties,  and  his  style  is  remarkable  alike  for 
vigour,  point,  and  delicacy.  As  a  teacher  he 
is  greatly  and  deservedly  esteemed,  and  has 
formed  a  number  of  fine  players  of  all  tiie  nations 
of  Europe.  Amongst  them  his  brother  Lbopold, 
bom  Sept.  4,  1S35,  now  (7^)  first  ceUo  in 
the  Duke  of  Meiningen's  band,  is  one  of  the 
moat  remarkable.  [T.  P.  H.] 

GU  AD  AG  NT,  Gabtaho,  one  of  the  most 
famoas  male  contralti  of  the  last  century,  was 
bom  at  Lodi^  about  1725  (Fetis)  or,  perhaps, 
later.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  history. 
In  1 747  he  was  singing  at  Parma  :  in  48  he 
came,  very  young,  to  ^^ndon  as  'serious  man*  | 
in  a  burletta  troupe.,  with  Pertici,  Laschi,  Frasi, 
etc.  'His  voice  attracted  the  notice  of  Han- 
del, who  assigned  him  the  parts  in  the  Messiah 
and  Samson,  which  had  been  originally  composed 
for  Mrs.  Cibber.'  in  the  studying  which  parts/ 
says  Buraey,  'he  applied  to  me  for  assistance. 
During  his  first  residence  in  England,  which  was 
four  or  five  years,  he  was  more  noticed  in 
singing  English  than  Italian.  He  quitted  London 
about  1753.'  A  year  later  he  sang  at  Paris  and  ' 
Versailles,  after  which  he  went  to  Lisbon  to 
sing  under  Gizziello,  and  in  1755  narrowly 
escaped  destruction  during  the  earthquake.  To 
Gizziello  he  owe<i  much  of  his  improvement  and 
refinement  of  singing.  His  ide^s  of  acting  were 
derived  much  earlier  from  Garrick,  who  took  as 
much  pleasure  in  fomiing  him  as  an  actor  (for 
'The  Fairies'  of  Smith\  as  Gizziello  did  after- 
wards in  polishing  his  style  of  vocalisation.  After 
leaving  Portugal,  he  acquired  great  reputation 
in  all  the  principal  theatres  of  Italy.  There  he 
sanr  the  part  of  'Teleniaco,'  written  for  him  by 
Gluck,  who  procured  his  engagement  in  1766 
at  Vienna,  as  'Orfeo.'  Ha\-in^  excited  both 
admiration  and  disturbance  in  that  capital, 

I  Or  Ticenzs  (Bnrae;). 

*  tie  sang  also  in  '  Theodon '  GTSO). 


actor 

ratic 
nlv 


to 


gives  a  cur. 
quote  here.  :  : 
his  best  efi  r 
finiiig  off  h: 


under  J.  C. 
in  the  saui 


where  he  r 
Elector  tiL 
he  sang  a: 
gave  him  .  - 

with  brilliants, — the  r  .  r  -  er  given. 
In  1777  he  retmmed  TLere  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe  heard  Liia  .  1 ;  >4 ;  in  a  motetto, 
and  found  his  voice  still  full  and  well-toned, 
and  his  style  ex  -  ^  -  Lord 
M^ount-Edgcuml  r  he 

entertained  him    _r  ex- 

hibited on  a  Ht:  which  he  took 

great  de%hr.    T  :^  :1:  :n  the 

next  year,  i  -  riis  axes  i:  r.  in 

1797.    He  -ed  of  er'iis:  -Ith. 

which  he  spri.:  u  .d  ju^y  an 

GUADAGNI,  SiGXORA, 
above,  came  to  Lon^^on,  as  one  01  a  0 arietta  com- 
pany, with  Lovattini,  Morigi,  etc.,  in  1 766.  She 
appeared  as  *  Cecchina '  in  the  '  Buona  Figliuola,' 
a  part  which  she  had  previously  played  in  Italy 
with  great  applause.  She  sang  for  several  seasons 
in  the  ' Viaggiatori  ridicoli"  (I76S>,  and  other 
operas.  Her  husband  was  the  operatic  composer, 
Felice  Alessandri,  of  Rome.  [J,M.] 

GUADAGNINI,  a  numerous  family  of  Italian 
violin -makers,  of  the  Cremona  school,  though  pro- 
bably originating  from  Piaeenza.  The  first  genera- 
tion consists  of  Lorenzo  and  Johx-Baptist  :  the 
latter  seems  always  to  have  been  a  fa-Jiily  name. 
Their  exact  kinship  is  imcertain.  They  worked 
from  about  1690  to  1740.  Both  claimed  to 
be  pupils  of  Stradivarius.  The  violins  of  John- 
Baptist  fully  justify  this  claim.  They  are  finely 
designed,  and  covered  with  a  rich  dark  red 
varnish,  easily  distinguishable  from  the  glaring 
scarlet  varnish  used  by  the  second  John-Bapti^:t, 
and  are  in  all  respects  worthy  of  the  Stradi- 
varian  school.  John-Baptist  dated  from  ^lilan, 
Piaeenza.  and  Turin :  he  sometimes  describes 
himself  as  '  Cremonensis,'  sometimes  as  'Placen- 
tinus,'  The  violins  of  Lorenzo  are  of  high  sterling 
merit,  despite  their  divergence  from  the  Stradi- 


636 


GUADAGNINT. 


GUAENIERI. 


varian  model.  The  design  is  often  bold  to  the  | 
verge  of  uncouthness  ;  the  corners  are  heavy  and  | 
obtrusive ;  the  scroll  is  quite  unlike  that  of 
Stradivari  us  :  the  varnish,  though  rich  and  good, 
is  less  brilliant.  Both  of  these  makers  are  highly 
esteemed,  and  good  specimens  command  prices 
varying  from  £40  to  £80.  In  the  second  genera- 
tion a  marked  decadence  is  observable.  The 
second  John-Baptist  (probably  a  son  of  Lorenzo) 
made  a  large  number  of  useful  violins  of  the  com- 
moner sort.  They  are  mostly  of  the  Stradivarian 
pattern.  The  second  John-Baptist  introduced 
that  unpleasantly  high-coloured  varnish  which  is 
often  supposed  to  be  the  special  characteristic  of 
a  'Guadagnini.'  He  used  excellent  wood,  and  his  ' 
instruments  are  in  good  repute  among  orchestral  ' 
players.  He  usually  dates  from  Piacenza.  To  the 
same  generation  belongs  Joseph  (i 740-1 760), 
who  usually  dates  from  Milan,  and  claims  to  be 
from  Cremona.  He  was  probably  a  brother  of 
the  second  John-Baptist.  His  work  is  massive 
and  full  of  character,  but  distinguished  by  a  cer- 
tain rudeness,  in  which  he  probably  imitated 
Joseph  Guarnerius.  His  brownish-yellow  varnish 
contrasts  oddly  with  that  of  his  contemporary 
John-Baptist  and  those  used  in  the  earlier  genera- 
tion. The  third  and  following  generations  of  the 
Guadagnini  family  exhibit  a  lamentable  falling 
off.  Now  and  then  they  did  their  best  to  imitate 
the  wM-k  of  their  predecessors  :  more  often  they 
seem  to  have  worked  at  hap-hazard.  The  third 
generation  had  quite  lost  the  art  of  varnishing. 
Sometimes  the  varnish  is  a  hard  and  cold  imita- 
tion of  that  of  John-Baptist  the  second  :  some- 
times it  is  a  thick,  dull,  opaque  mass,  resembling 
paint :  sometimes  merely  a  thin  albuminous  wash. 
In  the  make  little  often  remains  of  the  Cremonese 
character  at  all.  They  nevertheless  made  a  cer- 
tain number  of  useful  instruments.  Members  of 
the  family  are  believed  to  be  still  engaged  in  the 
violin  trade  at  Turin.  [E.J.  P.] 

GUALANDI.    See  Campioli. 

GUARDUCCI,  ToMMASso,  Toscano,  bom  at 
Montefiascone  about  1720,  was  afterwards  a  pupil 
of  the  famous  Bernacchi  at  Bologna,  and  became 
one  of  the  best  singers  of  his  time.  He  appeared 
at  most  of  the  chief  theatres  of  Italy  with  success 
from  1745  to  1770.  In  the  autumn  of  1766  he 
was  brought  over  by  Mr.  Gordon,  one  of  the 
managers,  to  the  London  Opera  as  'first  man,' 
with  Grassi.  In  the  spring  of  1767,  two  serious 
operas,  'Carattaco'  by  J,  C.  Bach  and  Vento's 
'Conquista  del  Messico,'  were  produced  ;  and  in 
these  the  two  new  singers  excited  more  atten- 
tion, and  acquired  more  applause,  than  before. 
Guarducci  was,  according  to  Burney,  'tall  and 
awkward  in  figure,  inanimate  as  an  actor,  and  in 
countenance  ill-favoured  and  morbid  ;  but  a  man 
of  great  probity  and  worth  in  his  private  character, 
and  one  of  the  most  correct  singers.  His  voice  was 
clear,  sweet,  and  flexible.  His  shake  and  intona- 
tions were  perfect,  and  by  long  study  and  prac- 
tice he  had  vanquished  all  the  difficulties  of  his 
art,  and  possessed  himself  of  every  refinement.' 
Prejudice  at  first  ran  high  against  him,  but 


his  merit  made  its  way,  and  his  highly -polished 
style  was  very  much  admired.  Ho  paid  a  high 
compliment  to  the  then  state  of  taste  in  London, 
by  which  (he  told  Dr.  Burney)  he  had  profited 
largely,  in  discarding  superfluous  and  ill-selected 
ornaments  from  his  singing.  He  was,  perhaps, 
the  simplest  of  all  the  first  class  of  singers.  All 
his  effects  were  produced  by  expression  and  high 
finish.  He  sang  in  the  English  oratorios  at 
short  notice,  with  very  little  knowledge  of  our 
language.  He  received,  however,  £600  for  twelve 
oratorios,  a  larger  sum  than  was  ever  given  on 
a  like  occasion  until  the  time  of  Miss  Linley. 
In  1 771  he  retired,  and  lived  with  his  family, 
passing  the  winter  at  Florence  and  the  summer 
at  Montefiascone,  where  he  had  a  handsome 
country-house.  [J.  M.] 

GUARNIERI  or  GUARNERIUS,  a  cele- 
brated family  of  violin -makers  of  Cremona, 
Their  pedigree  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Andreas,  Giam-Dattista, 
worked  1650—1695.  not  a  violin-maker. 

2.  Josepli. 'filius  3.  Peter  of  5.  JOSEPH 'DEL  Gesu,* 

Andreae,'  Cremona,  b.  1683,  d.  1745. 

worked  worked 

1690-1730.  1690-1725. 

4.  Peter  of  Venice, 
worked  1730-1755. 

1.  Andreas  Guarnieri,  the  first  of  the  family, 
worked  with  Stradivari  in  the  workshop  of 
Nicholas  Amati,  and  like  Stradivari  developed 
out  of  his  master's  model  an  entirely  original 
style.  Excellent  instruments  of  his  make,  not 
very  highly  finished,  but  covered  with  fine  orange 
varnish,  are  dated  from  the  sign  of '  St.  Theresa,' 
in  Cremona,  where  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

2.  Joseph,  '  filius  Andrew,'  who  so  described 
himself  to  distinguish  himself  from  his  cousin. 
At  first  he  followed  his  father's  pattern  ;  but  he 
soon  developed  a  style  of  his  own,  in  which 
the  narrow  and  rapidly  -  widening  waist,  the 
peculiar  set  of  the  soundholes,  and  a  more 
brilliant  varnish,  are  prominent  features.  Good 
specimens  command  prices  vaj:ying  from  £30  to 
£80.  Some  points  first  traceable  in  his  work 
were  adopted  by  his  cousin.    His  brother, 

3.  Peter  Guarnieri,  commonly  called  'Peter 
OP  Cremona  ' — from  his  describing  himself  in  his 
tickets  as  ' Cremonensis,'  i.e.  from  Cremona — 
emigrated  from  Cremona  to  Mantua,  where  he 
also  worked  'sub  signo  Sanctse  TeresJE.'  The 
originality  of  the  Guarnieri  knew  no  limits  : 
Peter  of  Cremona  has  scarcely  a  point  in  common 
with  his  father  or  brother.  'There  is,'  says 
Mr.  Hart,  in  his  work  on  the  violin,  '  increased 
breadth  between  the  sound-holes  :  the  sound-hole 
is  rounder  and  more  perpendicular ;  the  middle 
bouts  are  more  contracted,  and  the  model  is 
more  raised.'  His  varnish  is  often  equal  to  that 
of  his  brother.  The  instruments  of  Peter  of 
Cremona  are  valued  by  connoisseurs,  but  in  a 
less  degree  than  those  of  his  nephew, 

4.  Peter  of  Venice,  son  of  Joseph  filius  An- 
dreae, who  adopted  his  uncle's  method,  and 
carried  the  'Petrine'  make  to  perfection.  Un- 
like the  rest  of  his  family,  Peter  of  Venice  had 


GUARNIERI. 


GUEST. 


637 


the  advantage  of  that  splendid  Venetian  varnish 
which  astonishes  the  beholder  in  the  work  of 
Mcmtagnana.  His  violins,  though  of  high  model, 
have  a  fine  rich  tone,  and  are  in  their  way  com- 
plete masterpieces.  But  all  the  Guamieri  family 
yield  in  fame  to  the  celebrated 

5.  Joseph  del  Gesu,  so  called  from  the 
I.H.S.  which  is  added  to  his  name  on  his  tickets. 
Sometimes  erroneously  said  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Stradivari,  with  whom  his  work  has  nothing 
in  common,  he  was  probably  a  pupil  of  his 
cousin  and  namesake.  His  attention  seems  to 
have  been  early  diverted  from  the  school  of  the 
Amati,  in  which  all  his  relatives,  and  Stradivari 
himself,  imbibed  their  first  ideas.  He  fixed  on 
the  works  which  the  early  Brescian  makers  had 
produced  before  the  Amati  family  brought  into 
fashion  geometrical  curves,  extreme  fineness  of 
finish,  and  softness  of  tone.  Whoever  may  have 
been  the  instructor  of  Joseph  Guarnerius,  his  real 
master  was  Gaspar  di  Salo,  He  revived  the 
bold  and  rugged  outline,  and  the  masterly  care- 
lessness, and  with  it  the  massive  build  and 
powerful  tone,  of  the  earlier  school.  Perfection 
of  form  and  style  had  been  attained  by  others  : 
tone  was  the  main  quality  sought  by  Joseph, 
and  the  endless  variety  of  his  work,  in  size,  in 
model,  and  in  cutting  of  sound-holes,  probably 
merely  indicates  the  many  ways  in  which  he 
sought  it.  He  was  sedulous  in  the  selection  of 
sonorous  wood.  He  is  supposed  to  have  obtained 
a  piece  of  pine  of  vast  size,  possessing  extraor- 
dinary acoustic  properties,  from  which  he  made 
most  of  his  bellies.  The  bellies  made  from  this 
wood  have  a  stain  or  sap -mark  running  parallel 
with  the  finger-board  on  either  side.  This  great 
block  of  wood,  says  IStr.  Hart,  '  he  regarded  as  a 
mine  of  wealth.'  He  often  finished  an  instru- 
ment more  carefully,  perhaps  to  special  order  : 
the  finer  examples  are  well  characterised  by  Mr. 
Hart  as  'a  strange  mixture  of  grace  and  bold- 
ness.' These  finer  examples  predominate  in  what 
has  been  termed  the  '  second  epoch '  of  his  life  : 
but  the  truth  is  that  throughout  his  career  he 
worked  with  no  uniformity  as  to  design,  size, 
appearance,  or  degree  of  finish,  and  without  any 
guide  but  his  own  genius,  and  the  scientific 
principles  he  had  wrought  out  by  experiment. 
The  story  of  Joseph  Guarnerius  making  rude 
instruments  while  in  prison  out  of  chance 
pieces  of  wood  provided  by  the  daughter  of  his 
gaoler,  who  'sold  them  for  what  they  would 
fetch,  in  order  to  alleviate  the  misery  of  his  con- 
finement,' rests  upon  no  satisfactory  evidence. 
Joseph  Guarnerius  made  instruments  often  of 
very  rude  appearance,  and  he  may  or  may  not 
have  been  at  some  time  imprisoned :  but  the 
story  of  the  'prison  Josephs'  has  probably  been 
invented  to  explain  the  hosts  of  spurious  instru- 
ments which  have  found  their  way  all  over  Europe 
since  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  The  great 
tone-producing  powers  of  the  '  Joseph '  were  thus 
early  very  well  known  ;  but  the  softer  quality 
of  the  Amati  and  the  Stradivari  us  violin  was 
usually  preferred  by  amateurs  until  the  present 
century,  when  Paganini's  extraordinary  perform- 


ances on  an  unusally  fine  'Joseph'  sent  them  up 
at  once  three-fold  in  the  market.  The  value  of 
a  good  'Joseph '  now  varies  firom  £150  to  £'400, 
according  to  size,  power  of  tone,  finish,  and 
condition.  Only  extraordinary  specimens  fetch 
higher  prices. 

No  contemporary  copyist  imitated  Joseph 
Guarnerius  with  much  success.  Landolfi  was  the 
best :  the  productions  of  the  Testores  and  of 
Lorenzo  Storioni  could  never  be  mistaken  for 
their  original.  No  violoncello  of  Joseph  Guar- 
nerius has  ever  been  known  to  exist.     [E,  J.  P.] 

GUEERERO,  FRA^-CISC0,  one  of  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  early  Spanish  school  of 
composers,  was  bom  at  Seville  in  1 5 28,  and  re- 
ceived his  education  first  from  an  elder  brother, 
and  then  from  the  great  Morales.  At  the  age 
I  of  18  he  was  made  chapel-master  at  Jaen,  a  few 
years  afterwards  obtained  a  similar  position  at 
Malaga  ;  and  finally  succeeded  Fernandez  in  the 
cathedral  at  Seville.  At  the  age  of  60  he  under- 
took a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  an  account  of 
which  was  afterwards  published  with  the  title  '  EI 
viage  de  Jerusalem  que  hizo  Francisco  Guerrero,' 
etc.  (Alcala  161 1).  Guerrero  died  in  1599  at 
the  advanced  age  of  81.  His  most  important 
works  were  published  under  the  title,  'Liber 
primus  Missarum  F.  Guerero  Hispalensis  Odei 
phonasco  autore  '  (Pari.s,  Du  Chemin  1566). 
This  contains  4  masses  in  5  parts,  viz.  'Sancta 
et  immaculata ' ;  '  In  te  Domine  speravi ' ;  '  Con- 
gratulamini  mihi';  'Super  flumina  Babylonis.' 
5  masses  in  4  parts,  viz.  '  De  B.  Virgine' ;  '  Dor- 
mendo  un  giorno';  '  Inter  vestibulum' ;  'Beata 
Mater ' ;  and  '  Pro  Defunctis.'  Also  the  motets 
'Ave  virgo  sanctissima'  (5  parts),  'Usquequo 
Domine'  (6  parts),  and  'Pater  Noster'  (8  parts). 

There  is  a  copy  of  the  book  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Vienna.  Sandoval,  in  his  life  of 
Charles  V,  tells  us  that  Guerrero  presented  this 
volume  to  the  Emperor,  and  that  monarch's 
musical  reputation  chiefly  rests  on  the  fact  that, 
after  hearing  one  of  these  compositions,  he  called 
Guerrero  'a  thief  and  a  plagiarist,  while  his 
singers  stood  astonished,  as  none  of  them  had 
discovered  these  thefts  till  they  were  pointed  out 
by  the  Emperor.'  But  they  may  possibly  have 
discovered,  notwithstanding  their  respectful  as- 
tonishment, that  Guerrero  was  guilty  of  nothing 
more  than  using  the  ordinary  mannerisms  of  a 
particular  school. 

The  Vienna  library  also  possesses  a  collection 
of  Magnificats  by  Guerrero,  printed  at  Louvain, 
by  Phalesius  in  1563.  Eslava  has  printed  in 
his  '  Lira-sacro-Hispana '  the  Passion  according 
to  St.  Matthew  for  4  voices,  for  Palm  Sunday, 
and  that  according  to  St.  John  (5  voices)  for 
Good  Friday.  Also  3  motets  for  5  voices  and 
a  4-part  mass,  'Simile  est  regnum  coelorum.' 
I  [Eslava.]  [J.R.S.B.] 

GUEST,  Ralph,  was  born  in  1742  at  Basely, 
Shropshire.    At  a  very  early  age  he  became  a 
member  of  the  choir  in  the  church  of  his  native 
I  place.     On  attaining  his  majority  he  came  to 
I  London  and  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits ; 


638 


GrEST. 


GUICCIARDI. 


but  the  love  of  music  induced  him  to  enter  in 
addition  the  choir  of  Portland  Chapel,  After 
five  years  he  removed  to  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and 
entered  into  business  on  his  own  account.  From 
Ford,  organist  of  St.  James's  Church,  Bury,  he 
learned  organ-playing,  and  in  1805  was  appointed 
choir-master  at  St,  Mary's  there,  and  later,  on 
the  erection  of  an  organ  there,  its  organist.  He 
then  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  profession 
of  music.  He  published  '  The  Psalms  of  David,' 
arranged  for  every  day  in  the  month,  retaining 
many  of  the  old  psalm  tunes  and  adding  about 
sixty  new  ones.  He  subsequently  published  a 
supplement  under  the  title  of  '  Hymns  and 
Psalms,'  with  music  composed  and  adapted  by 
him.  He  also  composed  many  songs.  He  resigned 
his  appointment  as  organist  in  1822,  and  died,  at 
the  advanced  age  of  88  years,  in  June  1830. 

His  son,  George,  was  bom  at  Bury  St,  Ed- 
munds in  1771.  He  was  initiated  in  music  by 
his  father,  and  subsequently  became  a  chorister 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr,  Nares  and  Dr. 
Ayrton.  On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  obtained 
in  1787  the  appointment  of  organist  at  Eye, 
Suffolk,  but  gave  it  up  in  1789  for  that  at 
Wisbech,  Cambridgeshire,  which  he  held  during 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  compositions  in- 
clude anthems,  hymns,  glee.s,  duets,  songs,  organ 
pieces,  and  pieces  for  a  military  band.  He  died 
at  Wisbech,  Sept.  10,  1831.  [W.H.H.] 

GUGLIELMI,  PiETRO,  bom  at  Massa- Carrara 
in  1727.  His  father  was  an  accomplished 
musician  and  Maestro  di  Capella  to  the  Duke 
of  Modena.  At  the  age  of  18  he  was  sent  to 
supplement  his  home  training  at  the  Neapolitan 
Conservatorio,  where  he  had  the  advantage  of 
the  tutorship  of  Durante,  Volatility  of  temper- 
ament rather  than  stupidity  hindered  his  progress 
in  harmony,  and  it  only  required  a  single  incident, 
sufficiently  exciting  to  induce  twenty-four  hours 
of  self-concentration,  to  make  him  at  once  evince 
his  superiority  to  all  his  class-fellows.  As  soon 
as  he  left  the  Conservatorio  he  started  on  a  tour 
through  the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  beginning 
with  Turin,  where  he  brought  out  his  earliest 
opera  U755)'  Everywhere  his  genius  was  cordi- 
ally acknowledged,  and  his  best  works  met  with 
general  applause.  He  is  known  however  to  have 
made  a  great  number  of  failures,  which  were 
probably  the  result  of  that  careless  workman- 
ship to  which  artists  of  his  self-indulgent  and 
pleasure  loving  habits  are  prone.  From  Italy  he 
went  to  Dresden,  Brunswick,  and  finaUy  to  London, 
whither  his  wife  appears  to  have  accompanied  him, 
and  where  his  success  seems  to  have  been  checked 
by  the  intrigues  of  a  mu.sical  cabal.  In  1777  he 
returned  to  Naples  to  find  that  Cimarosa  and 
Paisiello,  each  in  the  height  of  his  fame,  had 
eclipsed  between  them  a  reputation  which  his 
own  fifteen  years  of  absence  had  allowed  to 
wane.  It  is  to  his  credit  that  the  necessity  of 
struggling  against  these  two  younger  rivals 
spurred  Guglielmi  to  unwonted  effort,  and  that 
the  decade  during  which  he  divided  with  them 
the  favour  of  the  Neapolitan  public  was  the 
culminating  epoch  of  his  mental  activity.  Wearied 


of  the  stage,  Guglielmi  finally  in  1793  accepted 
the  post  of  Maestro  at  the  Vatican,  and  died  in 
harness  at  Eome  in  1804. 

He  was  a  spendthrift  and  a  debauchee  ;  a  bad 
husband,  and  a  worse  father.  He  abandoned  a 
faithful  wife,  neglected  his  promising  children, 
and  squandered  on  a  succession  of  worthle.'-s 
mistresses,  most  of  whom  were  picked  up  in  the 
green  room,  a  fortune  which  it  was  his  one  trait 
of  worldly  wisdom  to  have  known  how  to  amass. 
But  he  stands  high  among  composers  of  the 
second  order,  and  he  had  the  fecundity  as  well 
as  the  versatility  of  genius.  His  operas  were 
numerous  and  their  style  was  varied,  and  he 
composed  masses,  motets,  hymns,  and  psalms, 
for  the  church,  besides  a  great  deal  of  important 
chamber-music  for  the  clavecin,  violin,  and 
violoncello.  F^tis  gives  a  list  of  79  of  his  operas, 
and  a.ssumes  that  this  number  is  incomplete 
owing  to  the  habit  then  prevalent  in  Italy  of  pre- 
serving only  the  scores  of  such  works  as  had  been 
fairly  successful.  Of  these  by  far  the  greater 
number  would  be  uninteresting  now -a -days,  but 
his  'I  due  Gemelli,'  'La  Serva  innamorata,'  'La 
Pastorella  Nobile,' '  La  Didone,' '  Enea  e  Lavinia,' 
'Debora  e  Sisera,'  'I  Viaggiatori,'  and  'La  Bella 
Pesca trice,'  will  always  hold  a  considerable  place 
in  the  history  of  music.  A  bravura  air  of  Gug- 
lielmi's,  '  Gratias  agimus,'  for  high  soprano,  with 
clarinet  obligate,  was  long  a  favourite  in  English 
concert  programmes.  [E.H.P,] 

GUGLIELMI,  SiGNORA,  sang  in  London  in 
Lent,  1770,  in  Italian  oratorios,  under  J,  C. 
Bach,  with  Grassi  and  Guadagni.  She  remained 
for  another  season  or  two,  singing  (1772)  in  Pic- 
cini's  '  Schiava'  and  the  '  Virtuosa'  of  Guglielmi. 
She  was,  perhaps,  the  wife  of  the  latter  composer, 
who  was  in  England  at  the  time,  having  come  to 
London  in  1 768.  [J.  M.] 

GUICCIARDI,  Giulietta  or  Julie,  Countess 
(Grafin)  Guicciardi — bom  Nov.  24,  1784,  mar- 
ried Count  Gallenberg,  Nov.  3,  1803,  died  March 
22,185  5 — was  a  Viennese  lady,  to  whom  Beethoven 
dedicated  his  'Sonata  quasi  fantasia'  in  CjJ  minor 
(Op.  27,  No,  2),  published  in  the  beginning  of 
March  1802.  She  was  his  pupil,  and  in  a  con- 
versation with  Otto  Jahn  in  the  year  1852  (re- 
ported by  Thayer,  Life,  ii,  171),  she  stated  that 
he  had  given  her  the  Rondo  in  G  (Op,  51  No,  2), 
but  that  he  withdrew  it,  and  dedicated  it  to 
Countess  Lichnowsky,  and  then  dedicated  the 
Sonata  to  her  instead.  The  Countess  Guicciardi 
has,  on  the  authority  of  Schindler,  been  believed 
to  be  the  person  to  whom  Beethoven  addressed  the 
passionate  letters  so  often  printed  (see  Moscheles's 
Schindler,  i.  101-106).  They  were  found  after  his 
death  in  the  secret  drawer  of  his  writing-desk,  with 
his  treasured  bank-shares.  They  are  all  wTitten 
with  pencil  on  one  piece  of  paper,  and  the  accu- 
rate dates  are  as  follow :  '  am  6  Juli  Morgends  ' ; 
'Abends  Montags  am  6  Juli';  'Guten  Morgen  am 
7  Juli ' — no  year  named  in  either,  though  Schind- 
ler adds  1806  to  each.  In  his  later  editions  he 
adopts  1803  as  the  year,  Thayer  however,  after 
an  elaborate  investigation  (Life,  ii.  173-180;  and 
Appendix  to  vol.  iii.  in  Musical  World  for  1878, 


GUICCIARDI. 


GUITAR. 


639 


nos.  8  and  ii),  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
letters  were  not  written  in  any  year  from  1800 
to  1803  inclusive,  and  that  the  Countess  Guic- 
ciardi  was  not  the  object  of  them\  Beethoven 
however  had  been  deeply  in  love  with  her,  and 
believed  that  his  passion  was  returned.  At  least 
such  was  his  impression  in  Feb.  1823,  when  he 
wrote  in  a  conversation- book  preserved  in  the 
Berlin  Library,  *  J'etois  bien  aime  d'elle  et  plus 
que  jamais  son  epoux.'  A  few  lines  further  on 
he  states  that  he  had  seen  her  again  after  her 
marriage — *  mais  je  la  meprisois.'  [G.] 

GUIDETTI,  Giovanni,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1532;  according  to  Baini  came  to  Rome,  and 
was  a  pupil  of  Palestrina.  Palestrina  being 
commissioned  by  Gregory  XIII  to  revise  the 
services  of  the  Roman  Church,  associated  his 
pupil  with  him  in  the  task,  as  having  an  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  the  MSS.  both  in  St.  Peter's 
and  in  the  other  principal  churches  of  Rome. 
Thus  the  real  labour  of  the  work,  which  he 
himself  styles  'opus  nullius  ingenii,  multarum 
tamen  vigiliarum,'  fell  upon  him.  It  was  begun 
in  1576,  and  occupied  him  till  1581.  The  work 
was  pubKshed  in  1582 — '  Directorium  chori  .  .  . 
Opera  Joannis  Guidetti  Bononiensis,'  etc.,  and 
Guidetti  had  the  right  of  sale  for  ten  years. 
His  preface  makes  the  respective  shares  of  the 
labour  of  himself  and  Palestrina  clear.  He  had 
the  drudgery,  while  Palestrina  had  the  final 
revision  and  completion  of  all  portions  requiring 
it.  It  is  quite  consistent  with  Palestrina's 
character  that  he  should  have  thus  given  Gui- 
detti his  full  credit.  The  '  Directorium'  went 
through  many  subsequent  editions  down  to  1 737> 
and  was  succeeded  by  *  Cantus  ecclesiasticus 
passionis,'  etc.  (1586);  'Cantus  ecclesiasticus 
officii  majoris,'  etc.  (1587);  and  '  Praefationes 
in  cantu  firmo,'  etc.  (1588),  all  published  in 
Rome.  The  aim  of  these  works  was  to  revive 
Gregorian  singing  in  its  pristine  purity,  and 
free  it  from  the  arbitrary  additions  and  alterations 
then  in  vogue,  Guidetti  was  a  piiest,  and  died  at 
Rome  Nov.  30,  159,2.  [F.G.] 

GUIGNON,  Jean-Pierre,  the  last  man  who 
bore  the  title  of  '  Roi  des  violons.'  Born  at 
Turin  in  1702,  he  was  still  very  young  when  he 
went  to  Paris  and  began  to  study  the  violoncello, 
which  however  he  soon  exchanged  for  the  violin. 
He  is  said  to  have  excelled  by  a  fine  tone  smd 
great  facility  of  bowing,  and  to  have  been  a 
formidable  rival  of  Leclair.  In  1733  he  entered 
the  King's  service,  was  appointed  musical  in- 
structor of  the  Dauphin,  and  obtained  the  revival 
in  his  favour  of  the  antique  title  of  '  Roi  des 
violons  et  menetriers.'  He  further  endeavoured 
to  revive  certain  obsolete  regulations  by  which 
all  professional  musicians  in  France  were  com- 
pelled to  become  members  of  the  guild  of  min- 
strels (confr^rie  des  menetriers)  on  payment  of 
a  fee  to  him.  This  however  raised  universal 
opposition  ;  and  the  case  was  brought  before  the 
Paiiement,  and  decided  against  him.    On  this 

1  If  Beethoven  had  mistaken  the  day  of  the  month,  1806  might  be 
the  year. 


Guignon  dropped  his  unprofitable  title  and  re- 
tired from  public  life.  He  published  several 
books  of  Concertos,  Sonatas,  and  Duos.     [P.  D,] 

GUILLAUME  TELL.  Rossini's  37th  and 
last  opera ;  in  4  acts,  libretto  by  Bis  and  Jouy. 
Produced  at  the  Academic  Aug.  3,  1829;  in 
London,  in  English,  as  '  Hofer  the  Tell  of  the 
Tyrol,'  '  arranged'  by  Bishop,  words  by  Blanche, 
Drury  Lane,  May  i,  1830,  and  as  Guillaume 
Tell  at  the  same  house,  Dec.  3,  38  ;  in  Italian, 
as  Guglielmo  Tell  at  Her  Majesty's,  July  11,  39. 
It  is  usually  much  curtailed,  but  in  1856  was 
performed  entire  in  Paris,  and  lasted  from  7  till  i . 

GUILMANT,  Felix  Alexandre,  son  of  an 
organist  of  Boulogne,  and  born  there  March  1 2, 
1837.  *o       organ  at  an  early  age,  and 

before  he  was  sixteen  was  made  organist  of 
S.  Joseph,  in  1857  Maitre  de  Chapelle  of  S. 
Nicolas,  and  shortly  after  professor  of  solfeggio 
in  the  local  Ecole  communale.  In  i860  he  be- 
came for  some  months  a  pupil  of  Lemmens,  who 
heard  him  play  and  was  struck  by  his  ability. 
In  1 87 1  he  removed  from  Boulogne  to  Paris,  and 
was  appointed  organist  of  the  church  of  the 
Trinity,  a  post  which  he  still  fills.  He  is  one  of 
the  leading  organ  players  of  France,  and  has  con- 
siderable extempore  power.  For  his  instrument 
he  has  published  a  sonata  and  two  collections  of 
arrangements — '  Pieces  de  difi'^rents  styles,'  and 
'  L'Organiste  pratique ' ;  also  various  masses, 
motets,  and  airs,  arrangements  and  original  pieces 
for  the  harmonium.  Guilmant  is  no  stranger  to 
England,  having  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
at  Sheffield,  and  elsewhere.  [G.] 

GUIMBARDE.  A  French  name,  of  unknown 
derivation,  for  the  Jew's-Harp.  [V.deP.] 

GUIRAUD,  Ernest,  son  of  a  French  musician, 
was  born  at  New  Orleans,  June  23,  1837,  brought 
up  amongst  music,  and  saw  his  first  opera  '  Roi 
David'  on  the  stage  when  only  15.  He  then 
came  to  Europe  and  entered  the  Conservatoire, 
where  he  obtained  various  distinctions,  ending,  as 
his  father  had  done  before  him,  with  the  Grand 
Prix  de  Rome  in  1859.  His  first  appearance 
before  the  public  was  made  with  a  one-act  opera, 
'Sylvie,'  which  he  wrote  while  in  Rome,  and 
which  was  brought  out  at  the  Opera  Comique 
May  II,  1864.  This  was  followed  after  a  long 
interval  by  '  En  Prison,'  also  in  one  act  (Theatre 
Lyrique,  March  5,  1869),  and  'Le  Kobold'  (July 
2,  1870).  M.  Guiraud  served  during  the  war, 
and  was  in  the  engagements  of  Champigny  and 
Montretout.  His  other  operas  have  been  Madame 
Turlupin  (1873),  Piccolino  (1876),  Gretna  Green, 
a  ballet  (1873).  He  has  also  composed  two 
Suites  for  Orchestra,  the  second  of  which  was 
performed  at  the  Concerts  populaires,  January 
28,  1872.  In  November  1876  M.  Guiraud  was 
chosen  professor  of  harmony  and  accompani- 
ment at  the  Conservatoii-e,  in  room  of  Baptiste, 
deceased.  [G.] 

GUITAR  (Ft.  Guitarc,  obsolete  Guiterne ;  Ital. 
Chitarra  ;  Germ.  Guitarre,  obsolete  Gittern,  Ghit- 
tern,  and  Gythorn ;  Span.  Giiitaira). 

The  Spanish  guitar  is   the  most  generally 


640 


GUITAR. 


GUITAR. 


known  modern  representative  of  the  numerous 
family  which  includes  also  the  lutes  and  cithers. 
The  identity  of  the 
name  with  the  Greek 
Ki9apa  is  not  to  be 
mistaken,  but  the 
resemblance  of  the 
Spanish  and  ancient 
Greek  instruments  is 
too  remote  to  imply 
derivation.  The  guitar 
is  at  once  known  by 
its  flat  back,  the  sides 
curving  inwards  after 
the  pattern  of  violins 
and  other  bow  instru- 
ments, and  suggest- 
ing its  descent  from 
some  instrument  to 
which  a  bow  was 
used.  The  shape  has 
however  varied  ac- 
cording to  fashion  or 
the  fancy  of  the 
maker.  The  woods 
commonly  used  for 
the  sides  and  back 
are  maple,  ash,  ser- 
vice, or  cherry  tree, 
not  unfrequently  ad- 
orned with  inlays  of  rosewood  or  fancy  woods. 
Old  instruments  of  tlie  seventeenth  century  are 
often  highly  ornamented  with  ivory,  ebony, 
tortoiseshell,  and  mother  of  pearl.  The  sound- 
board or  face  is  of  pine,  and  has  a  soundhole,  which 
.shares  in  the  general  decoration.  Hard  woods, 
such  as  ebony,  beech,  or  pear-tree,  are  employed 
for  the  neck  and  fingerboard.  The  bridge  should 
be  of  ebony,  and  has  an  ivory  or  metal  '  nut ' 
above  the  fastenings  of  the  strings,  similar  to  the 
nut  of  the  fingerboard,  the  open  strings  vibrating 
between.  Modem  guitars  have  six  strings,  three 
of  gut  and  three  of  silk  spun  over  with  silver 
wire,  tuned  as  (a) 

(«)  .  f:         .  (&) 


The  lowest  is  said  to  have  been  a  German 
addition  dating  about  1790.  The  written  nota- 
tion is  an  octave  higher,  as  (h).  Metal  screws 
are  now  used  for  tuning,  instead  of  the  ebony 
])egs  of  the  true  Spanish  instrument.  The  in- 
tervals are  marked  off  by  metal  frets  upon  the 
fingerboard,  and  transpo.sition  to  the  more  remote 
keys  is  effected  by  a  capo  tasto  or  d'astro.  [See 
Frets  ;  Capo  Tasto,]  Old  instruments  had 
often  ten,  twelve,  or  more  strings,  arranged  in 
sets  of  two,  tuned  in  unison.  The  Spanish  guitar 
is  always  played  with  the  fingers.  The  deepest 
strings  are  made  to  sound  by  the  thumb,  the  three 
highest  by  the  first,  second,  and  third  fingers,  the 
little  finger  resting  upon  the  soundboard. 

The  guitar  and  its  kindred  were  derived  from 
the  East.  In  the  famous  Gate  of  Glory  of  Master 


Mateo,  to  the  church  of  Santiago  da  Compostella 
in  Spain,  a  cast  of  which  is  in  South  Kensington 
Museum,  among  several  musical  instruments  may 
be  seen  one  guitar-shaped,  which  may  be  assumed 
to  represent  the  original  Vihuela,  the  old  Spanish 
viol  or  guitar.   The  sides  are  curved,  but  there  is 
no  bow  held  by  the  player ;  still  this  is  no  proof 
that  a  bow  was  not  used,  since  the  sculptor  may 
have  omitted  it.    The  date  of  this  masterpiece 
(a.d.  1 1 88)  is  perhaps  not  more  than  a  hundred 
years  subsequent  to  the  introduction  of  the  in- 
strument by  the  Moors  into  Spain,    Mr.  Engel 
tells  us  (Musical  Instruments,  etc,  1874,  P-  ^^7) 
that  a  hundred  years  later  than  this  date,  there 
were  several  kinds  of  vihuela,  to  some  of  which 
the  bow  was  certainly  not  used.    There  were 
instruments  for  the  bow,  the  plectrum,  and  the 
fingers,   all    in  itse 
at  tlie  epoch  of  the 
outburst  of  romantic 
Bong    in  Southern 
Europe.  At  the  close 
of  the  last  century 
and  beginning  of  this, 
the   Spanish  guitar 
became  a  fashionable 
instrument    on  the 
continent,  Ferdinand 
Sor,  a  Spaniard,  after 
the  Peninsular  War, 
brought  it  into  great 
notice    in  England, 
and  composing  for  it 
with  success  banished 
the    English  guitar 
or  Citra  (Fr,  Cistre  ; 
Ital,  Cetera;  Germ, 
Zither).  This  was  an 
instrument  of  differ- 
ent shape,  a  wire- 
strung  Cither,  with 
six  open  notes,  two 
being  single  spun  strings,  and  four  of  iron  wire 
in  pairs  tuned  in  unison.     The  scale  of  the 
English  Guitar  thus  strung  was  written 


in  real  pitch  an  octave  lower.  The  technique  of  the 
instrument  was  of  the  simplest,  the  thumb  and  first 
finger  only  being  employed,  if  not  a  plectrum. 

Sor's  most  distinguished  rival  was  an  Italian, 
Mauro  Giuliani,  who  composed  a  concerto  with 
band  accompaniment  for  the  'Terz  chitarra'  or 
Third-guitar,  an  instrument  with  a  shorter  neck, 
tuned  a  minor  third  higher.  This  concerto,  pub- 
lished by  Diabelli,  Vienna,  was  transcribed  by 
Hummel  for  the  pianoforte.  Other  popular  com- 
posers were  Legnani,  Kreutzer,  Niiske,  Regondi, 
and  that  wayward  genius  Leonard  Schulz, 
Berlioz  and  Paganini  were  both  guitarists. 

There  is  also  an  octave  guitar,  the  little 
Portuguese  Machete,  with  four  strings,  tuned 


f 


:,  or  by  guitar-players  often 


GUITAR. 


GUSTAVE  III. 


^41 


In  Madeira,  after  work  in  the  vineyards  is  done 
for  the  day,  the  country  people  return  plajdng 
the  Machete,  perhaps  twenty  together,  with  occa- 
sionally a  larger  five-stringed  one  accompanying. 

There  is  an  English  Guitar  Tutor  by  Mme. 
Sidney  Pratten  (Boosey,  London),  but  those 
who  wish  to  know  more  about  the  instrument 
technically  are  referred  to  '  Learning  the  G  uitar 
simplified,'  by  the  same  authoress.  The  price 
of  a  good  guitar  of  French  make,  the  best  for 
playing,  is  from  £5  to  £10.  [A.  J.H,] 

GUNG'L,  Joseph,  popular  composer  of  dance 
music,  born  at  Zskmb^k  in  Hungary  Dec,  I, 
1810;  son  of  a  stocking- weaver ;  began  life  as 
a  schoolmaster.  He  received  his  first  instruction 
in  music  from  Semann  in  Buda,  and  having 
enlisted  in  the  Austrian  army,  was  first  oboist 
and  then  bandmaster  to  the  4th  regiment  of 
artillery.  His  Hungarian  March,  op.  i,  was  the 
first  of  a  long  series  of  marches  and  dance  music. 
Up  to  1843  Gung'l  made  concert-tours  with  his 
regimental  band  to  Munich,  Augsburg,  Nurem- 
berg, Wurzburg,  and  Frankfurt,  performing 
chiefly  his  own  pieces,  but  in  that  year  he 
established  a  band  of  his  own  at  Berlin,  and  his 
publishers,  Bote  and  Bock,  are  said  to  have 
made  large  sums  by  his  music.  On  his  return 
from  America  in  1849,  he  was  appointed  musik- 
director  to  the  King  of  Prussia;  and  in  1858 
Capellmeister  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  In 
the  meantime  he  and  his  band  had  visited 
nearly  every  capital  on  the  continent.  Gung'l 
has  been  stationary  at  Munich  since  1864.  His 
works  are  very  numerous.  It  is  stated  that 
down  to  the  end  of  1873  he  had  composed  300 
dances  and  marches,  for  the  most  part  distin- 
guished by  charming  melody  and  marked  rhythm. 

His  daughter  Virginia,  an  opera-singer  of 
merit,  made  her  first  appearance  at  Munich  in 
1 87 1,  and  is  now  engaged  at  Schwerin. 

His  nephew  JohaNx^t,  also  well  known  as  a 
composer  of  dance  music,  was  bom,  like  his 
uncle,  at  Zskmbfek  in  1819,  and,  like  him,  made 
professional  tours  to  every  capital  in  Europe. 
He  retired  in  1862,  and  lives  at  Fiinfkirchen  in 
Hungary.  [E.G.] 

GUNN,  Barnabas,  noted  for  his  extempore 
playing,  was  organist  of  St.  Philip's,  Birmingham, 
which  he  quitted  in  1730  to  succeed  Hine  as  or- 
ganist of  Gloucester  Cathedral.  A  Te  Deum  and 
■  Jubilate  in  D  of  his  composition  are  extant  in  MS. 
He  published  '  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsichord,'  and 
in  1736,  at  Gloucester,  a  thin  4to.  volume  con- 
taining 'Two  Cantr.tas  and  Six  Songs,'  the  music 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  leaf  only,  and  prefaced 
by  a  poetical  address  '  To  all  Lovers  of  Musick,' 
and  a  remarkable  list  of  464  subscribers  (including 
Handel  and  most  of  the  principal  musicians  of  the 
day),  subscribing  for  61 7  copies.  He  died  in  1 743. 

Barnaby  Gunn,  probably  a  relation  of  the 
above,  was  organist  of  Chelsea  Hospital  from 
April  16,  1730,  until  early  in  1753.  [W.H.H.] 

GUNN,  John,  born  in  Edinburgh  about  1 765, 
in  I  7qo  established  himself  in  London  as  professor 
of  the  violoncello  and  flute,  and  whilst  there 


published  'Forty  Scotch  Airs  arranged  as  trios 
for  flute,  violin,  and  violoncello';  'The  theory 
and  practice  of  fingering  the  Violoncello,'  1793, 
with  a  dissertation  on  stringed  instruments  ;  and 
*  The  Art  of  playing  the  German  Flute  on  new 
principles.'  In  1795  he  returned  to  Edinburgh. 
In  1 801  he  published  an  'Essay  theoretical 
and  practical,  on  the  application  of  Harmony, 
Thorough-bass,  and  Modulation  to  the  Violon- 
cello.' In  1 807  he  brought  out  his  most  important 
work,  viz.  'An  Historical  Inquiry  respecting  the 
performance  on  the  Harp  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  from  the  earliest  times  until  it  was 
discontinued  about  the  year  1754,'  written  at  the 
request  of  the  National  Society  of  Scotland.  His 
wife,  Anne,  before  her  marriage  Anne  Young, 
was  an  eminent  pianist.  She  was  the  authoress 
of  a  work  entitled  'An  Introduction  to  Music  .  .  . 
illustrated  by  musical  games  and  apparatus  and 
fully  and  familiarly  explained '  (Edinburgh  about 
1 815).  The  games  and  apparatus  were  of  her 
invention.  A  second  edition  appeared  in  1820, 
and  a  third  (posthumous)  in  1827.      [W.H.  H.] 

GUSIKOW,  Michael  Joseph,  an  artist  of 
rare  musical  faculty — 'a  true  genius'  says 
Mendelssohn — bom  of  poor  Jewish  parents  and 
of  a  family  which  had  produced  musicians  for 
more  than  a  century,  at  Sklow  in  Poland,  Sept. 
2,  1806.  He  first  played  the  flute  and  tympa- 
non,  a  kind  of  dulcimer.  At  the  age  of  17  he 
married,  and  a  few  years  after  discovered  that 
weakness  of  the  chest  would  not  allow  him 
to  continue  playing  the  flute.  He  thereupon 
took  up  the  Strohfiedel,  an  instrument  of  the 
dulcimer  kind,  composed  of  strips  of  fir  on  a 
framework  of  straws,  which  he  improved  and 
increased  in  compass.  Upon  this  he  attained 
extraordinary  facility  and  power.  In  1832  he 
and  four  of  his  relatives  began  a  long  tour, 
through  Odessa — where  he  was  heard  by  Lamar- 
tine  ;  Kiew — where  he  was  much  encouraged  by 
Lipinski ;  Moscow,  and  thence  to  south  and 
north  Germany,  Paris,  and  Brussels.  He  tra- 
velled in  the  dress  and  guise  of  a  Polish  Jew — 
long  beard,  thin,  pale,  sad,  expressive  features — 
and  excited  the  greatest  applause  by  his  astonish- 
ing execution  and  the  expression  which  he  threw 
into  his  unlikely  instrument.  Mendelssohn  heard 
him  at  Leipzig,  and  called  him  *  a  real  phenomenon, 
a  killing  fellow  (Mordkerl)  ;  who  is  inferior  to  no 
player  on  earth  in  style  and  execution,  and  de- 
lights me  more  on  his  odd  instrument  than  many 
do  on  their  pianos,  just  because  it  is  so  thankless 

 I  have  not  enjoyed  a  concert  so  much 

for  a  long  time'  (and  see  the  rest — Letter  Feb.  1 8, 
1836).  But  it  wore  him  out ;  he  was  laid  up  at 
Brussels  for  long,  and  died  at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  Oct. 
21,  1837,  adding  another  to  the  list  of  geniuses 
who  have  died  shortly  after  thirty.  (See  Fdtis, 
who  saw  much  of  him.)  [G.] 

GUSTAVE  III,  ou  le  Bal  masque,  opera  in 
5  acts ;  words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Academic  Feb.  27,  1833  ;  in  London, 
as  Gustavus  the  Third,  at  Covent  Garden,  Nov. 
I3>  33;  in  French  (as  above)  at  Her  Majesty's, 
March  29,  1851.  [G.] 

Tt 


642 


GUZLA. 


GYEOWETZ. 


GUZLA.  A  kind  of  rebab,  a  bow  instrument 
with  one  string  only,  used  in  Illjrria.  The  name 
was  adopted  by  Prosper  Merimee  as  the  title  of 
his  Servian  poems.  [G.] 

GYE,  Frederick.  [See  Koyal  Ital.  Opera.] 

GYMNASE  DE  MUSIQUE  MILITAIRE. 
A  school  for  educating  musicians  for  the  French 
military  bands,  founded  in  1836  under  the  di- 
rectorship of  F,  Berr,  who  died  Sept.  24,  1838. 
Finding  himself  unable  to  carry  out  his  views  in 
the  new  school,  he  detailed  them  in  a  pamphlet, 
*  De  la  n^cessite  de  reconstituer  sur  de  nouvelles 
bases  le  Gymnase  de  musique  militaire'  (Paris 
1832).  Carafa  succeeded  Berr,  and  under  him 
the  Gymnase  moved  to  the  Rue  Blanche,  and 
attained  to  considerable  dimensions,  giving  a 
complete  musical  education  from  solfeggio  to 
counterpoint  to  nearly  300  pupils.  It  was  sup- 
pressed in  1856,  but  it  was  agreed  between  the 
Ministres  d'^ltat  and  de  la  Guerre  that  50 
military  pupils  should  be  taught  at  the  Con- 
servatoire ;  and  for  these  the  masters  of  the  Gym- 
nase were  retained.  This  arrangement  has  since 
terminated,  but  the  examinations  for  conductors 
and  subconductors  of  regimental  bands  are  still 
held  at  the  Conservatoire.  [G.C.] 

GYROWETZ,  Adalbert,  prolific  composer, 
born  Feb.  19,  1763,  at  Budweis  in  Bohemia.  His 
father  was  a  choir-master,  and  taught  him  music 
at  an  early  age ;  and  on  leaving  school  he 
studied  law  at  Prague,  though  still  working  hard 
at  music  and  composing  much.  A  long  illness 
left  him  destitute,  and  compelled  him  to  take 
the  post  of  private  secretary  to  Count  Franz  von 
Fiiufkirchen.  The  Count  insisted  on  all  his 
household  being  musical,  so  Gyrowetz  had  abun- 
dant opportunity  not  only  of  composing,  but  of 
having  his  compositions  performed.  The  recep- 
tion they  met  with  induced  him  to  visit  Italy,  and 
complete  his  education  there.  Passing  through 
Vienna  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mozart,  who 
had  one  of  his  symphonies  performed,  and  him- 
self led  Gyrowetz  before  the  applauding  audience. 
In  Naples  he  studied  for  two  years  under  Sala, 
maintaining  himself  by  his  compositions,  among 
which  were  a  number  of  concerted  pieces  for  the 
lyre,  written  for  the  king,  with  whom  it  was  a 
favourite  instrument.  He  next  went  to  Paris, 
and  established  his  claim  to  the  authorship  of  se- 
veral symphonies,  hitherto  performed  as  Haydn's. 
In  consequence  the  publishers  bought  his  other 
compositions  at  high  prices.  The  Revolution  was 
rapidly  approaching,  and  Gyrowetz  went  on  to 
London,  arriving  in  Oct.  1 789.  His  reception  was 
an  honourable  one ;  both  the  Prince  of  Wales  and 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland  paid  him  marked  atten- 
tion ;  the  Professional  Concerts  and  Salomon  placed 
his  name  in  their  programmes,  and  the  latter 
engaged  him  as  composer  at  the  same  time  with 
Haydn.  He  wrote  industriously  and  met  with 
liberal  publishers  ;  but  he  was  most  pleased  by 
the  arrival  of  Haydn,  whom  he  warmly  welcomed. 
G3a'0wetz  was  also  engaged  to  write  an  opera,  in 
which  Mme.  Mara  and  Pacchierotti  were  to  \ 
have  Bung  at  the  Pantheon,  then  recently  turned  | 


I  into  an  opera-house  during  the  rebuilding  of  the 
I  King's  Theatre.  After  2  or  3  rehearsals  however 
the  Pantheon  was  burnt  down  (Jan.  13th,  1792), 
and  the  score  of  'Semiramis'  perished  in  the 
flames.  On  the  9th  of  February  he  gave  a 
benefit  concert  at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms, 
which  was  brilliantly  attended ;  but  the  climate 
disagreed  with  him,  and  he  shortly  after  left 
London  for  Vienna.  On  his  return,  after  7  years, 
he  received  an  appointment  in  the  War  Depart- 
ment. In  1804  Baron  Braun,  Intendant  of  the 
two  court  theatres,  offered  him  the  Capellmeister- 
ship,  which  he  retained  till  1831,  producing  a 
great  number  of  operas,  Singspiele,  and  operettas, 
besides  music  for  melodramas  and  ballets.  Gyro- 
wetz was  wonderfully  industrious  in  all  branches 
of  composition,  and  his  works,  though  now  for- 
gotten, were  long  popular.  His  sjmiphonies  and 
quartets  were  successful  imitations  of  Haydn's, 
but  still  they  were  imitations,  and  were  therefore 
bound  to  disappear.  In  1 843  his  artist  friends,  pity- 
ing the  poverty  to  which  he  was  reduced — for  his 
pension  afforded  him  a  bare  subsistence — arranged 
a  concert  for  his  benefit,  at  which  his  *Dorf- 
schule '  was  played  by  Staudigl  and  the  choristers. 
This  really  comic  cantata  was  repeated  with 
great  success  in  the  following  year  at  the  last 
concert  he  himself  ever  arranged.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  published  his  autobiography,  an  in- 
teresting book  in  many  respects  (Vienna,  1847). 

Gyrowetz  composed  about  30  operas  large  and 
small,  operettas,  and  Singspiele  ;  and  more  than 
40  ballets.  His  first  opera  was  'Selico'  (1804). 
The  most  successful  have  been  'Agnes  Sorel' 
(t8o6);  'Der  Augenarzt' (1811);  ' Die Priifung' 
(18 1 3),  approved  by  Beethoven  himself ;  'Helene' 
(1 8 1 6),  and  'Felix  und  Adele'  (1831).  Of  his 
operettas  and  Singspiele,  generally  in  one  act, 
'  Die  J unggesellen  Wirthschaft,'  *  Der  Sammt- 
rock,'  'Aladin,'  and  'Das  Standchen'  were  long 
favourites;  of  the  melodramas  'Mirina'  (1S06) 
was  most  liked.  Besides  *  Semirarais,'  he  wrote 
four  grand  Italian  operas  for  Vienna  and  Milan, 
of  which  'Federica  e  Adolfo'  (Vienna  18 12)  was 
especially  well  received.  *  Die  Hochzeit  der 
Thetis'  was  his  most  successful  ballet.  He  com- 
posed cantatas,  choruses  for  women's  and  boys' 
voices,  Italian  and  German  canzonets,  and  several 
songs  for  one  and  more  voices.  He  wrote  his 
19th  mass  at  the  age  of  84.  Of  his  instrumental 
music  there  are  over  60  symphonies,  a  quantity 
of  serenades,  overtures,  marches,  dance -music 
(for  the  Redoutensaal)  ;  quintets  ;  and  about 
60  string-quartets,  most  of  them  published  in 
Vienna,  Augsburg,  Offenbach,  Paris  or  London. 
For  the  pianoforte  he  wrote  about  40  sonatas, 
30  books  of  trios,  12  Nocturnes,  much  dance- 
music,  and  many  smaller  pieces  of  different 
kinds.  It  is  sad  to  think  of  so  much  labour, 
energy,  and  talent,  and  so  little  lasting  fruit; 
but  Gyrowetz  possessed  that  fatal  gift  of  facility 
which  so  often  implies  the  want  of  permanence. 
None  of  his  works,  either  for  the  concert-room  or 
the  stage  have  survived.  '  Der  Augenarzt '  kept 
the  boards  longer  than  the  others.  He  died  at 
Vienna  March  19, 1850,  aged  87.  [C.F.P.] 


H. 


H (pronounced  Ha)  is  the  German  name  for 
B  natural,  B  flat  being  called  by  them  B. 
It  was  originally  'B  quadi'atum,'  or  b,  a 
letter  which  would  easily  slip  by  degrees  into  fj 
or  h.  [See  Accidentals,  19  a.]  In  solfaing  it 
is  Si. 

H  major  is  a  key  rarely  used.  Beethoven's 
principal  movement  in  it  is  the  Adagio  of  the 
P.  F,  concerto  in  E  flat.  H  minor  is  the  key  of 
Schubert's  very  fine  unfinished  Symphony,  and 
of  his  equally  fine  Entracte  in  Rosamunde  ;  of 
Mendelssohn's  Capriccio  brilliant;  and  of  Chopin's 
ist  Scherzo,  In  a  sketch-book  of  1815-16,  in  the 
margin  of  a  passage  intended  for  the  finale  of  the 
Cello  Sonata  op.  102,  No.  2,  Beethoven  has  writ- 
ten '  h  moll  schwarze  Tonart.'  [G.] 

HABENECK,  Francois  Antoine,  born  at 
Meziferes,  Jan.  22,  1781,  eldest  of  three  brothers 
(Joseph  and  Corentin),  violinists,  sons  of  a  Ger- 
man musician  in  a  French  regimental  band.  He 
was  a  pupU  of  Baillot,  obtained  the  first  violin 
prize  at  the  Conservatoire  in  1804,  and  soon 
showed  remarkable  aptitude  as  a  conductor — his 
real  vocation.  He  was  successively  appointed  assis- 
tant professor  at  the  Conservatoire  (1808-16), 
solo  violin  at  the  Opera  (1815),  director  of  the 
'Academic  de  Musique'  (1821-24),  conductor  of 
the  theatre  de  I'opera,  conjointly  with  Valentino 
from  1824  to  31,  and  alone  from  31  to  47.  In  1825 
a  special  violin  class  was  formed  for  him  at  the 
Conservatoire,  which  he  retained  till  Oct.  1848. 
Among  his  pupils  may  be  mentioned  Cuvillon, 
Alard,  Clapisson,  and  Leonard.  Habeneck  has 
the  merit  of  having  founded  (1828)  and  con- 
ducted for  20  years  the  '  Societe  des  Concerts  du 
Conservatoire.'  He  was  also  the  first  to  introduce 
Beethoven's  symphonies  in  France,  steadily  per- 
severing against  all  opposition,  and  at  length 
executing  them  with  a  force,  sentiment,  and 
delicacy,  which  are  not  likely  to  be  soon  surpassed. 
As  a  conductor  he  was  exacting,  and  unmerciful 
to  singers  who  did  not  keep  strict  time.  Out 
of  respect  to  Cherubini  he  never  exercised  his 
ofl&ce  of  'Inspecteur  gdn^ral  des  classes  du 
Conservatoire,'  but  he  was  an  energetic  director 
of  Louis  Philippe's  concerts  at  the  Tuileries. 
He  composed  violin  music,  several  pieces  for 
*Aladin'  (1822),  and  a  ballet  'Le  Page  in- 
constant' (1823).  This  distinguished  musician 
and  conductor  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1849. 
He  received  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1822, 
For  many  curious  anecdotes  of  Habeneck,  see 
the  '  Memoires '  of  Berlioz.  [G.C.] 

HAESER,  August  Ferdinand,  bom  at  Leip- 
lig,  Oct.  15,  1779  ;  was  educated  at  the  Thomas- 
Bchule,  and  in  1797  appointed  professor  and 


cantor  at  Lemgo.  From  1806  to  18 13  he  passed 
in  Italy,  then  returned  to  Germany,  and  settled 
in  1 81 7  at  Weimar,  where  he  was  music-master 
in  the  Duke's  family,  and  taught  mathematics 
and  Italian  at  the  gymnasium.  He  was  also 
chorus-master  at  the  theatre,  and  director  of 
music  at  the  principal  church  (1829).  He  com- 
posed an  oratorio,  '  Der  Glaube,'  to  Klopstock's 
words ;  masses,  motets,  and  other  church  music  ; 
an  opera,  'Die  Mohren';  overtures  ;  P. F.  music 
for  2  and  4  hands  ;  and  18  songs.  Two  motets, 
in  plain  counterpoint  throughout,  melodious  and 
finely  harmonized  though  somewhat  chromatic, 
are  included  in  Mr.  Hullah's  Vocal  Scores.  He 
published  *  Versuch  einer  systematischen  Ueber- 
sicht  der  Gesanglehre '  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel, 
1820);  and  'Lehrbuch  des  Gesanges'  (Schott, 
1 831),  translated  into  French  by  Jelensperger  ; 
and  contributed  to  various  musical  periodicals. 
He  died  at  Weimar,  Nov.  1844.  [M.CC] 

HAUSER,  JoHANN  Ernst,  bom  at  Qued- 
linburg  1803,  deserves  mention  as  author  of 
* Musikalisches  Lexicon'  (Meissen,  1828;  2nd 
ed.  enlarged,  1833),  a  useful  work  in  two  small 
volumes.  His  other  works  are  'Der  musikal- 
ische  Gesellschafter '  (Meissen,  1830),  a  col- 
lection of  anecdotes  ;  *  Neue  Pianoforte  Schule ' 
(Halberstadt,  1832  ;  2nd.  ed.  Quedlinburg,  1836) ; 
'  Musikalisches  Jahrbiichlein '  (Quedlinburg  and 
Leipzig,  1833) ;  and  'Geschichte  des  o . .  Kirchen- 
gesanges,  und  der  Kirchenmusik '  (Quedlinburg 
and  Leipzig,  1834),  I  vol.  with  examples,  said  to 
be  a  good  book.  [M.  C.  C] 

HAFNER.  A  name  sometimes  given  to  Mo- 
zart's Symphony  in  D  (Kochel,  No.  385), 


A 11°  con  spin 

to 

.          *  *  • 

tr 

TT      ■  0^ 
Wits. 

T-r=in-:g 

to  distinguish  it  from  his  13  others  in  the  same 
key.  It  was  composed  at  the  end  of  July  and 
beginning  of  Aug.  1782,  for  the  wedding  of  a 
daughter  of  the  Hafners  at  Salzburg,  one  of  the 
great  merchant  families  of  Germany,  On  July 
21,  1776,  another  daughter  of  the  same  house  had 
been  married,  and  for  that  occasion  Mozart  fur- 
nished a  March  and  Serenade  (Kochel,  Nos.  249, 
250)  for  Orchestra,  also  in  the  key  of  D.  [G.] 
HAGUE,  Charles,  Mus,  Doc,  was  bom  at 
Tadcaster  in  1769.  He  was  taught  music  and 
the  violin  by  an  elder  brother.  In  1779  he 
removed  with  his  brother  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  was  placed  under  Manini  for  the  violin,  and 
Hellendaal,  sen.,  for  thorough  bass  and  compo- 
sition. On  the  death  of  Manini  in  1 785,  Hague 
Tt2 


644 


HAGUE. 


HA  LEVY. 


removed  to  London  and  became  a  pupil  of  Salo- 
mon and  Dr,  Cooke.  A  few  years  afterwards  he 
returned  to  Cambridge,  and  in  1794  took  the 
degree  of  Mus.  Bac,  composing  as  his  exercise 
an  anthem  with  orchestral  accompaniments,  '  By 
the  waters  of  Babylon,'  which  he  soon  afterwards 
published  in  score.  In  1799,  on  the  death  of 
Dr.  Eandall,  he  was  elected  professor  of  music  in 
the  University.  In  1801  he  proceeded  doctor 
of  music.  At  the  installation  of  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester  as  Chancellor  of  the  University,  June 
29,  181 1,  Hague  produced  an  ode  written  by 
Prof.  William  Smyth,  which  was  greatl}' admired. 
His  other  compositions  were  two  collections  of 
glees,  rounds  and  canons,  some  songs,  and  ar- 
rangements of  Haydn's  twelve  grand  symphonies 
as  quintets.  Dr.  Hague  died  at  Cambridge  June 
18,  1 82 1.  His  eldest  daughter,  Harriet,  was  an 
accomplished  pianist,  and  the  composer  of  a  col- 
lection of  '  Six  Songs  with  an  accompaniment  for 
the  pianoforte,'  published  in  1814.  She  died  in 
1816,  aged  23.  [W.H.H.] 

HAIGH,  Thomas,  bom  in  1769,  violinist, 
pianist,  and  composer ;  studied  composition  under 
Haydn  in  1791  and  1792.  He  shortly  after- 
wards went  to  reside  at  Manchester,  but  early 
in  the  present  century  returned  to  London. 
His  compositions  comprise  a  concerto  for  the 
violin,  sonatas  and  other  pieces  for  the  piano, 
and  a  few  songs.  His  arrangements  of  Haydn's 
symphonies,  and  music  by  other  composers,  are 
very  numerous.  [W.H.H.] 

HAIXL,  Georges,  bom  at  Issoire,  Nov.  19, 
1807,  died  in  Paris,  June  2,  1873;  gained  the 
first  cello  prize  at  the  Conservatoire  in  1830; 
became  in  1840  conductor  of  the  large  theatre 
at  Lyons,  where  he  remained  till  his  appointment 
in  1863  as  conductor  of  the  'Academic  de 
Musique,'  Paris.  From  January  1864  to  1873 
he  also  conducted  the  '  Soci^t^  des  Concerts '  at 
the  Conservatoire.  He  was  no  great  musician, 
but  as  a  conductor  he  had  fire,  a  firm  hand  and 
a  quick  eye,  and  possessed  in  an  eminent 
degree  the  art  of  controlling  large  masses  of 
performers.  Hainl  composed  some  fantasias  for 
the  violoncello.  He  was  a  generous  man,  and 
bequeathed  an  annual  sum  of  1000  francs  to 
the  winner  of  the  first  violoncello  prize  at  the 
Conservatoire.  [G.C.] 

HAITZINGER,  Anton,  bom  in  1796  at 
Wilfersdorf,  Lichtenstein,  Austria,  was  sent  at 
the  age  of  14  to  the  college  of  Comenburg,  whence 
he  returned  with  the  degree  of  licentiate ;  and 
soon  after  found  a  professor's  place  at  Vienna.  He 
continued  to  study  music,  and  took  lessons  in 
harmony  from  Wolkert;  while  his  tenor  voice 
was  daily  developing  and  improving.  Having 
received  some  instructions  from  Mozzati,  the 
master  of  Mme.  Schrbder-Devrient,  he  decided 
to  give  up  his  profession  for  that  of  a  public 
singer.  He  was  first  engaged  at  the  An-der- 
Wien  Theatre  in  182 1  as  primo  tenore,  and  made 
triumphant  debuts  as  Gianetto  (' Gazza  Ladra '), 
Don  Ottavio  ( Don  Giovanni),  and  Lindoro  ('  L'lta- 
liana  in  Algieri ').    His  studies  were  continued 


under  Salieri.  His  reputation  becoming  general, 
several  new  roles  were  written  for  him,  among 
others  that  of  Adolar  in  'Euryanthe';  and  he 
paid  successful  visits  to  Prague,  Presburg,  Frank- 
fort, Carlsruhe,  etc.  The  last-named  place  became 
his  head-quarters  until  his  retirement. 

In  1 8  31  and  32  he  created  a  deep  impression 
at  Paris  with  Mme.  Schrbder-Devrient,  in  'Fi- 
delio,'  '  Oberon,'  and  'Euryanthe.'  In  1832  he 
appeared  in  London,  with  the  German  company 
conducted  by  M.  Chelard.  His  voice,  described 
by  Lord  Mount-Edge umbe  as  '  very  beautiful, 
and  almost  equal  to  Tramezzani's,'  seemed 
'  throaty  and  disagreeable '  to  Mr.  Chorley.  The 
latter  describes  him  as  'a  meritorious  musician 
with  an  ungainly  presence  ;  an  actor  whose 
strenuousness  in  representing  the  hunger  of  the 
imprisoned  captive  in  the  dungeon  trenched 
closely  on  burlesque.'  (See  Moscheles'  Life,  i. 
270  etc.)  Haitzinger  sang  here  again  in  1833 
and  also  in  1 841,  and  in  1835  Petersburg. 
He  died  at  Carlsruhe  Dec.  31,  1869. 

Owing  to  the  late  beginning  of  his  vocal  studies, 
he  never  quite  succeeded  in  uniting  the  registers 
of  his  voice ;  but  his  energy  and  intelligence  atoned 
for  some  deficiency  of  this  kind.  There  is  a  song 
by  him,  '  Vergiss  mein  nicht,'  published  by  Fischer 
of  Frankfort.  He  married  Mme.  Neumann, 
'an  actress  of  reputation,'  at  Carlsruhe ;  and 
established  a  school  of  dramatic  singing  there, 
from  which  some  good  pupils  came  forth,  inclu- 
ding his  daughter.  [J.  M.] 
HALEVY,  Jacques  Francois  Fromextal 
Elias,  a  Jew,  whose  real  name  was  Levi,  bom  in 
Paris  May  27,1 799  ;  entered  the  Conservatoire 
1809,  gained  a  prize  in  solfeggio  iSio,  and  the 
second  prize  for  harmony  1811.  From  Berton's 
class  he  passed  to  that  of  Cherubini,  who  put  him 
through  a  severe  course  of  counterpoint,  fugue, 
and  composition.  In  1 816  he  competed  for  the 
'  Grand  Prix  de  Eome,'  and  gained  the  second  prize 
for  his  cantata  '  Les  demiers  moments  du  Tasse ' ; 
in  the  following  year  the  second  Grand  Prix  for 
'La  Mort  d' Adonis,'  and  in  1 819  his  '  Herminie' 
carried  ofi"  the  '  Grand  Prix '  itself.  Before  leav- 
ing for  Eome,  he  composed  a  funeral  march  and 
'  De  Profundis '  in  Hebrew,  on  the  death  of  the 
Due  de  Berry  (Feb.  14,  1820"),  for  3  voices  and 
orchestra,  with  an  Italian  translation ;  it  was 
dedicated  to  Cherubini,  performed  March  24, 
1820,  at  the  synagogue  in  the  Eue  St.  Avoye, 
and  published.  During  his  stay  in  Italy  Halevy 
studied  hard,  and  in  addition  not  only  wrote 
an  opera,  and  some  sacred  works,  still  in  MS., 
but  found  time  to  leam  Italian.  On  his  retum 
to  France  he  encountered  the  usual  difficvdties 
]  in  obtaining  a  hearing.  *  Les  Boht^miennes ' 
and  '  Pygmalion,'  which  he  offered  to  the  Grand 
Opera,  and  '  Les  deux  Pavilions,'  opera  comique, 
remained  on  his  hands  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts  ; 
but  in  1827  'L' Artisan,'  which  contains  some 
pretty  couplets  and  an  interesting  chorus,  was 
I  produced  at  the  Theatre  Feydeau.  This  was 
I  followed  in  1828  by  'Le  Eoi  et  le  Batelier,'  a 
I  little  piece  de  cir Constance,  comj^osed  conjointly 
1  with  his  friend  Kifaut  for  the  fete  of  Charles  X. 


HALEVY. 


HALEYY. 


645 


A  month  later,  Dec.  9,  1828  (not  1829)  he  pro- 
duced '  Clari,'  3  acts,  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  with 
Malibran  in  the  principal  part.  It  contains  some 
remarkable  muaic.  'Le  Dilettante  d'Avignon'  ; 
(Nov.  7,  1S29),  a  clever  satire  on  the  poverty  of  , 
Italian  librettos,  was  very  successful,  and  the 
chorus  *  Vive,  vive  Y  Italie  '  speedily  became  , 
popular.  *  La  Langue  musicale '  was  less  well 
received,  owing  to  its  poor  libretto,  but  the  ballet 
'Manon  Lescaut'  (May  3,  1S30)  had  a  well- 
merited  success  at  the  Opera,  and  was  published 
for  the  Piano,  *La  Tentation'  (June  20,  1832^ 
a  ballet-opera  in  5  acts,  written  conjointly  with 
Casimir  G  ide  ( 1 804- 1868)  contains  2  fiine  choruses, 
which  were  well  received.  In  spite  of  so  many 
proofs  of  talent,  Halevy  still  accepted  any  work 
likely  to  bring  him  into  notice  ;  and  on  March  4, 
1833,  brought  out  'Les  Souvenirs  de  Lafleur,'  a 
one  act  comic  opera  written  for  the  farewell 
appearances  of  Martin  the  baritone ;  and  on  May  | 
16  of  the  same  year  'Ludovic,'  a  l}Tic  drama  in 
2  acts  which  had  been  begun  by  Herold.  At 
length  however  his  opportunity  arrived.  To  pro- 
duce successfully  within  the  space  of  10  months  ' 
two  works  of  such  ability  and  in  such  opposite  I 
styles  as  -La  Juive'  (Feb.  23),  and  'L'Eclair' 
(Dec.  16,  1835),  the  one  a  grand  opera  in  5  acts, 
and  the  other  a  musical  comedy  without  choruses, 
for  2  tenors  and  2  sopranos  only,  was  indeed  a 
marvellous  feat,  and  one  that  betokened  a  great 
master.  They  procured  him  an  entrance  into 
the  Institut,  where  he  succeeded  Eeicha  (1836), 
and  were  followed  by  a  large  number  of  dramatic 
works,  of  which  the  following  is  a  complete  list : — 


"  Goido  et  Ginevra,'  5  acts  (March 
6, 1838;.  '  Les  Treize,'  3  acta  (April 
1.5),  and  '  Le  Sharif,'  3  acts  ("Sept.  2, 
1839).  •  Le  Drapier,"  3  acts  (3 An.  6, 
1W0>.  '  Le  Guitarrero,'  3  acts  Man. 
21),  and  'La  Reine  de  Chypre,'  .o 
»cts  (Dec.  22, 1*U;.  'Charles  VI,' 
6acts(^Marchl5,l&43).  'LeLazza^ 
rone."  s  acts  (March  29, 1844).  '  Les 
Mousquetaires  de  la  Reine,'  3  acts 
(Feb.  M,  l*4«i.  '  Le  Val  d'Andorre,' 
S  acts  rSoT.  11.  im).  Incidental 
music  for  'Prom^th^e  enchain^' 
(March  18),  a  translation  by  L^on 
Halevy  of  the  tragedy  of  jEschylus ; 
and'  La  F^e  aux  Roses,' 3 acts i Oct, 


1,  1849,1,  'La  Tempesta,'  3  acts, 
Italian  opera,!  produced  at  Her 
Jlajesty's  Theatre,  London,  June  8, 
l-<5<.>,  and  in  Paris.  Feb.  25,  1851. 
'  La  Dame  de  Pique,'  3  acts  rDec. 
28,  IScO;.  'Le  Juif  errant,'  5  acts 
(April  23, 1B.52,-.  '  Le  Xabab.'  3  acts 
'  Sept,  1.  l*o3).  'Jaguarita  I'lndi- 
enne,'  3  acts  'May  14, 16.55;.  'Va- 
lentine d'Aubieny,'  3  acts  (1S56;. 
'La  Magic-ienne,'  5 act5 'March  17, 
^f&S■.  'No^,'  an  opera  in  5  acts, 
left  unfinished:  'Les  Plages  du 
Nil,'  a  cantata  with  orchestra  and 
chorus;  many  vocal  pieces,  and 
some  piano  music. 


By  devoting  his  life  to  the  production  of  such 
varied  and  important  works,  Halevy  proved  his 
versatility  ;  but  the  fact  remains  that  throughout 
his  long  and  meritorious  career,  he  wrote  nothing  i 
finer  than  *La  Juive'  or  more  charming  than  i 
•  L'Eclair,'     He  was  unfortunately  too  easily  ' 
influenced,  and  the  immense  success  of  *  The  \ 
Huguenots'  (Feb.  29,  1836)  had  an  undue  effect 
upon  him.    Instead  of  following  in  the  direction 
of  Harold,  gi'ving  his  imagination  full  play,  hus-  1 
banding  his  resources,  and  accepting  none  but 
interesting  and  poetic  dramas,  he  over-exhausted 
himself,  took  any  libretto  offered  him,  no  matter 
how  melancholy  and  tefliou.s,  wrote  in  a  hurry 
and  carelessly,  and  assimilated  his  style  to  that 
of  Meyerbeer.    It  must  be  acknowledged  also 

'  The  book  of  this  opera  was  adapted  by  Scribe  from  Shakspeare, 
-  .'inally  for  Mendelssohn.  Its  reception  was  extraordinarily  favour- 
t.ie.  but  it  is  said  that  the  melody  on  which  Halevy  was  most  con- 
.  .  atulated  by  the  artists,  and  which  everybody  was  to  be  heard 
humming,  was  that  of  '  Where  the  bee  sucks,'  by  Ame,  which  he  had 
introduced  into  the  part  of  Ariel. 


that  in  '  Guido  et  Ginevra, '  '  La  Reine  de  Chy- 
pre,' and  'Charles  VI,'  side  by  side  with  scenes 
of  ideal  beauty,  there  are  passages  so  obscure 
that  they  seem  impenetrable  to  light  or  air.  His 
chief  defects  are — the  abuse  of  the  minor  mode  ; 
the  too  frequent  employment  of  sustained  low 
notes  in  the  orchestra  previous  to  a  sudden 
explosion  on  the  upper  registers ;  too  constant 
repetition  of  the  contrast  between  darkness  and 
brillancy ;  vagne  melodic  strains  instead  of  defi- 
nite rhythmical  airs;  and  morceaux  d'ensemble 
rendered  monotonous  by  the  same  phrase  being 
put  into  the  mouths  of  characters  widely  opposed 
in  sentiment.  In  spite  however  of  such  mis- 
takes, and  of  much  inexcusable  negligence,  even 
in  his  most  important  works,  his  music  as  a 
whole  compels  our  admiration,  and  impresses 
us  with  a  very  high  idea  of  his  powers.  Every- 
where we  see  traces  of  a  superior  intellect,  almost 
oriental  in  character.  He  excelled  in  stage 
pageantry — the  entrance  of  a  cortege,  or  the 
march  of  a  procession ;  and  in  the  midst  of 
this  stage  pomp  his  characters  are  always 
sharply  defined.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for 
a  perfect  gallery  of  portraits,  drawn  to  the  life 
and  never  to  be  forgotten.  The  man  who 
created  such  a  variety  of  such  typical  cha- 
racters, and  succeeded  in  giving  expression  to  such 
opposite  sentiments,  and  portraying  so  many 
shades  of  passion,  must  have  been  a  true  poet. 
His  countrymen  have  never  done  him  justice, 
but  the  many  touching  melodies  he  wrote  be- 
speak him  a  man  of  heart,  and  enlist  our  warm- 
est sjTnpathies,  Besides  all  this,  he  is  by  turns 
tender  and  persuasive,  grand  and  solemn,  grace- 
ful and  refined,  intellectual  and  witty,  and  in- 
variably distinguished.  We  admit  that  his  horror 
of  vxdgarity  sometimes  prevented  his  being  suffi- 
ciently spontaneous,  but  we  can  pardon  a  few 
awkward  or  tedious  phrases,  a  few  spun-out  pas- 
sages, in  one  who  possessed  such  a  ma.stery  of 
melancholy,  and  had  equally  within  his  grasp 
lofty  and  pathetic  tragedy,  and  sparkling  comedy 
thoroughly  in  harmony  with  French  taste. 

Not  content  with  suppl}-ing  the  repertoires  of 
three  great  l}Tic  theatres,  Halevy  also  found 
time  to  become  one  of  the  first  professors  at 
the  Conservatoire.  As  early  as  1816  he  was 
teaching  solfeggio,  while  completing  his  own 
studies  ;  and  in  2  7  was  appointed  professor  of 
harmony,  while  filling  at  the  same  time  the  post 
of  'Maestro  al  cembalo'  at  the  Italian  Op^ra,  a 
post  he  left  two  years  later  in  order  to  become  'chef 
du  chant'  at  the  Academic  de  Musique.  In  1833 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  counterpoint  and 
fugue,  and  in  40,  professor  of  composition.  His 
lessons  were  learned  and  interesting,  but  he 
wanted  method.  Among  his  pupils  may  be  men- 
tioned Gounod,  Victor  Masse,  Bazin,  Deldevez, 
Eugene  Gautier,  Deffes,  Henri  Duvernoy,  Ba- 
zille,  Ch.  Delioux,  A.  Hignard,  Gastinel,  Mathias, 
Samuel  David,  and  the  lamented  George  Bizet, 
who  married  his  daughter.  With  Cherubini  he 
maintained  to  the  last  an  intimate  and  affec- 
tionate friendship  which  does  credit  to  both, 
though  sometimes  put  rudely  to  the  proof.  See 


646 


HALEVY. 


HALLELUJAH. 


a  good  story  in  Hiller's '  Cherubini'  (Macmillan's 
Magazine,  July  1875).  Halevy's  only  didactic 
work  was  an  elementary  book  called  '  Le9ons  de 
lecture  musicale'  (Paris,  Ldon  Escudier,  1857). 
This  book,  revised  and  completed  after  his  death, 
is  still  the  standard  work  for  teaching  solfeggio  in 
the  primary  schools  of  Paris. 

We  have  mentioned  Halevy's  entrance  into  the 
Institut  in  1836;  in  54  he  was  elected  perma- 
nent secretary  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux  Arts, 
and  in  this  capacity  had  to  pronounce  eulogiums, 
which  he  published  with  some  musical  critiques 
in  a  volume  entitled  'Souvenirs  et  Portraits, 
etudes  sur  les  beaux  arts'  (1861).  These  criti- 
cal and  biographical  essays  are  pleasant  reading  ; 
they  secured  Haldvy  reputation  as  a  writer,  which 
however  he  did  not  long  enjoy,  as  he  died  of  con- 
sumption at  Nice,  March  17,  1862.  His  remains 
were  brought  to  Paris,  and  interred  with  great 
solemnity  on  the  24th  of  the  same  month.  [G.C.] 

HALF-CLOSE  or  Semi-cadence.  An  equiva- 
lent term  for  Imperfect  Cadence,  and  the  better  of 
the  two.  [See  Imperfect  Cadence,  p.  76  7  a.]  [G.] 

HALL,  Henry,  son  of  Capt.  Henry  Hall  of 
Windsor,  where  he  was  born  about  1655,  was  a 
chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Capt.  Cooke. 
He  is  said  to  have  studied  under  Dr.  Blow,  but 
this  is  doubtful.  In  1674  he  succeeded  Theodore 
Coleby  as  organist  of  Exeter  Cathedral,  an  ap- 
pointment which  he  resigned  on  becoming  or- 
ganist and  vicar  choral  of  Hereford  Cathedral. 
It  is  said  that  about  1696  Hall  took  deacon's 
orders  to  qualify  himself  for  some  preferment  in 
the  gift  of  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Hereford. 
He  composed  a  Te  Deum  in  E  flat,  a  Benedicite 
in  C  minor,  and  a  Cantate  Domino  and  Deus 
Misereatur  in  B  flat,  all  which,  together  with 
5  anthems,  are  included  in  the  Tudway  Collec- 
tion (Harl.  MSS.  7340  and  7342),  and  other 
anthems  of  considerable  merit.  The  Te  Deum 
has  been  printed  with  a  Jubilate  by  William 
Hine,  and  an  Evening  Service  by  Dr.  W.  Hayes. 
Some  songs  and  duets  by  Hall  are  included  in 
'Thesaurus  Musicus,'  1693,  and  'Deliciae  Mu- 
sicse,'  1695,  and  some  catches  in  'The  Monthly 
Masks  of  Vocal  Music'  for  1704  and  1707. 
Hall  cultivated  poetry  as  well  as  music ;  com- 
mendatory verses  of  some  merit  by  him  are  pre- 
fixed to  both  books  of  Purcell's  'Orpheus  Bri- 
tannicus,'  1698  and  1702,  and  to  Blow's  'Am- 
phion  Anglicus,'  1700.  He  died  March  30, 
1 707,  and  was  buried  in  the  cloister  of  the  vicars 
choral  at  Hereford. 

His  son,  Henry  Hall,  the  younger,  succeeded 
his  father  as  organist  and  vicar  choral  of  Hereford. 
He  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  composer,  but 
in  poetical  ability  he  excelled  his  father.  Many 
of  his  poems,  among  them  a  once  well-known 
ballad,  'AH  in  the  land  of  cyder,'  are  included 
in  'The  Grove,'  1721.  He  died  Jan.  22,  1713, 
and  was  buried  near  his  father.         [W.  H.H.] 

HALL,  William,  a  member  of  the  king's 
band  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17  th  century, 
composed  some  airs  which  were  published  in 
the  collection  called  'Tripla  Concordia.'  He 


died  in  1 700,  and  was  buried  in  the  churchyard 
of  Richmond,  Surrey,  being  styled  on  his  grave- 
stone, '  a  superior  violin.'  [W.H.H.] 

HALLE,  Charles  (originally  Carl),  bom 
April  J  I,  1 8 19,  at  Hagen,  near  Elberfeldt,  where 
his  father  was  CapeUmeister.  Began  to  play 
very  early;  in  1835  studied  under  Rink  at 
Darmstadt.  In  the  latter  part  of  1836  went  to 
Paris,  and  remained  there  for  1 2  years  in  constant 
intercourse  with  Cherubini,  Chopin,  Liszt,  Berton, 
Kalkbrenner,  and  other  musicians.  In  1841  he 
married.  In  1846  he,  Alard,  and  Franchomme, 
started  chamber  concerts  in  the  small  room  of 
the  Conservatoire.  These,  though  very  successful, 
were  rudely  interrupted  by  the  revolution  of  Feb. 
1848,  which  burst  out  after  the  second  concert 
of  the  third  series.  Halle  left  for  England,  and 
has  ever  since  been  permanently  settled  here. 
His  first  appearance  was  at  the  orchestral  Con- 
certs at  Covent  Garden  (May  12,  48)  in  the  Efc> 
concerto  of  Beethoven.  He  played  that  season 
and  several  subsequent  ones  at  the  Musical  Union; 
and  at  the  Philharmonic  made  the  first  of  many 
appearances  March  15,  52.  His  connexion  with 
Manchester  began  soon  after  his  arrival  here, 
and  in  1857  ^®  started  his  orchestral  subscription 
concerts  there,  which  are  now  so  justly  famed. 

In  London  Mr.  Halle  has  been  closely  attached 
to  the  Monday  and  Saturday  Popular  Concerts 
since  their  origin.  He  is  also  well  known  for 
his  annual  series  of  Recitals  at  St,  James's  Hall, 
which  began  in  1861  with  a  performance  of  the 
whole  of  Beethoven's  sonatas  spread  over  eight 
matinees.  The  programmes  were  illustrated  by 
an  analysis  of  the  sonatas  with  quotations,  from 
the  pen  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Davison,  which  were  as 
welcome  a  novelty  as  the  performances  themselves. 
The  same  programmes  were  repeated  for  2  years, 
and  have  since  been  annually  varied  through 
a  very  large  repertoire  of  classical  compositions, 
including  many  of  the  most  recent  works.  Not- 
withstanding his  many  public  duties  Mr.  Halle 
has  as  a  teacher  a  very  large  clienUle,  both  in 
London  and  the  North.  [G.] 

HALLELUJAH.  A  Hebrew  term  (hallelu- 
jah, 'praise  Jehovah')  which,  like  Amen,  Selah. 
Hosanna,  etc,  has  been  preserved  untranslated 
in  our  Bibles.  In  the  Latin  Church  the  Alleluia 
is  sung  in  the  ordinary  service,  except  during 
Lent.  It  is  omitted  from  the  Anglican  Liturgy 
and  Communion  Service,  but  has  revenged  itself 
by  keeping  a  place  in  the  popular  Easter  hymn 
'Jesus  Christ  is  risen  to-day,'  which  the  writer 
remembers  to  have  heard  sung  at  Vespers  by 
the  French  nuns  at  the  Trinita  de'  Monti. 

The  Hallelujah  Chorus  in  the  Messiah  is 
known  to  every  one.  Handel  is  reported  to  have 
said  that  when  he  wrote  it '  he  thought  he  saw 
Heaven  opened,  and  the  great  God  Himself.' 
The  phrase  'For  the  Lord  God  omnipotent 
reigneth '  is  almost  identical  with  that  to  '  I  will 
sing  .  .  .  unto  the  Lord'  in  Israel  in  Egypt. 
He  has  written  other  Hallelujahs  or  Allelujahs — 
though  none  to  compare  with  this — in  Judas 
Maccabeus,  the  Occasional  Oratorio,  and  the 


HALLELUJAH. 


HANDEL. 


647 


Coronation  Anthems — one  of  which  was  after- 
wards employed  in  Deborah.  For  the  custom 
of  standing  during  the  performance  of  the  Halle- 
lujah Chorus  see  Handel,  p.  651 6. 

In  his  114th  Psalm  Mendelssohn  has  accented 


Hal-le  -  lu  -  Jal     Hal-le  -  lu   -  ja! 
ihe  Hallelujah  in  a  manner  not  justified  by  the 
quantity  of  the  Hebrew  word.  [G.] 

HA  MBOYS,  or  HANBO YS.  John,  Mus.  Doc, 
a  distinguished  musician,  flourished  about  1470. 
He  was  author  of  a  Latin  treatise,  '  Summa 
super  Musicam  Continuam  et  Discretam,'  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS. 
8866),  and  printed  in  Coussemaker's  'Scripto- 
rum  de  Musica  Medii  ^vi,'  i.  416.  Another 
MS.  treatise  'Quatuor  principalia  totius  artis 
masicse,'  contained  in  the  same  volume  as  the 
above,  and  of  which  there  is  another  MS.  in 
the  Bodleian  Library,  has  been  ascribed  to  Ham- 
boys,  but  is  believed  to  be  the  work  of  Simon 
Tunstede.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Hamboys 
was  the  first  person  on  whom  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  music  was  conferred  in  this  country, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  it.  [  W.  H.  H.] 

HAMERTON,  William  Henry,  born  at 
Nottingham  1795  ;  was  placed  as  a  chorister  at 
Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Dublin.  In  181 2  he 
came  to  London  and  studied  singing  under 
Thomas  Vaughan.  In  18 14  he  returned  to 
Dublin  and  established  himself  as  a  teacher. 
In  1 81 5,  on  the  resignation  of  John  Elliott,  he 
was  appointed  master  of  the  choristers  of  Christ 
Church  Cathedral,  and  in  1823  Gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  Dublin,  In  1829  he  resigned  his 
appointments  and  went  to  Calcutta,  where  he  re- 
sided until  his  death.  Hamei'ton's  compositions 
comprise  some  anthems  and  chants ;  an  opera, 
entitled  'St.  Alban,'  performed  at  Dublin  in 
1827,  and  a  few  songs  and  duets.  He  was  also 
author  of  an  elementary  work  published  in  1824, 
entitled  '  Vocal  Instructions,  combined  with  the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Pianoforte  Accompani- 
ment.' [W.H.H.] 

HAMILTON,  James  Alexander,  born  in 
London  in  1785,  was  the  son  of  a  dealer  in  old 
books,  and  self-educated.  Music  became  his  par- 
ticular study — the  theory  rather  than  the  practice. 
He  wrote  many  elementary  works,  including  a 
long  series  of  useful  catechisms  on  musical  in- 
struments and  subjects,  many  of  which  have 
passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  a  list  of 
which  will  be  found  in  the  catalogue  of  R.  Cocks 
&  Co.  He  also  translated  and  edited  Cherubini's 
Counterpoint  and  Fugue,  Baillot's  Method  for 
the  Violin,  and  other  important  treatises.  He 
died  Aug.  2,  J 845.  [W.H.H.] 

HAMLET.  Grand  opera  in  5  acts  ;  words  by 
Barbier  and  Carr^  after  Shakspeare ;  music  by 
Amb.  Thomas.  Produced  at  the  Acad^nie,  March 
9,  1 868 ;  in  London,  in  Italian,  as  Amleto,  at 
Co  vent  Garden,  June  19,  69  (Nilsson  and  Sant- 
ley).  [G.] 


HAMMER  (Fr.  Marteau;  Ital.  Martello; 
Germ.  Hammer).  The  sound  of  a  pianoforte  is 
produced  by  hammers.  In  this  the  pianoforte 
resembles  the  dulcimer,  from  which  we  may 
regard  it  as  developed  by  contrivance  of  keys 
and  intermediate  mechanism,  rendering  the 
pianoforte  a  sensitive  instrument  of  touch,  instead 
of  one  of  mere  percussion,  incapable  of  refinement 
or  expression.  The  pianoforte  hammer  consists 
of  head  and  shank  like  any  other  hammer ;  the 
shank  is  either  glued  into  a  butt  that  forms  its 
axis,  or  is  widened  out  and  centred  or  hinged 
with  the  same  intention ;  and  the  blow  is  given 
and  controlled  by  leverage  more  or  less  ingenious, 
and  varying  with  the  shape  of  the  instrument 
and  the  ideas  of  the  makers. 

Both  head  and  shank  must  be  elastic  :  English 
makers  use  mahogany  for  the  former,  on  which 
are  glued  thicknesses  of  sole  or  buffalo  leather 
and  specially  prepared  felt.  Of  late  years  single 
coverings  of  very  thick  felt  have  been  success- 
fully employed.  For  the  shanks  most  English 
makers  prefer  cedar,  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
elasticity  and  freedom  from  warping  ;  on  the  con- 
tinent, peartree,  birch,  hickory,  and  other  woods 
are  in  use.  The  hammers  gradually  diminish  in 
size  and  weight  from  bass  to  treble.      [A.J.  H.] 

HAMMERKLAVIER,  i.  e.  Pianoforte.  Bee- 
thoven's Sonata,  op.  106,  composed  1816-7,  was 
superscribed  by  him  'Grosse  Sonate  fiir  das 
Hammerklavier.'  So  is  op.  loi,  only  at  that 
time  the  German  fit  was  not  so  strongly  on 
Beethoven,  and  he  gives  the  Italian  name  as 
well.  By  op.  109  he  has  returned  to  the  Italian 
name  alone.  [G.] 

HANCOCK,  organ  builder.  [Crang  &  Han- 
cock.] 

HAND  BELLS  for  purposes  of  tune-playing 
or  practising  Change-Ringing  can  be  obtained  of 
all  bell  founders,  tuned  either  chromatically  or 
simply  in  the  diatonic  scale. 

There  are  many  bands  of  tune -players  on 
hand  bells  in  England,  consisting  of  five  or  six 
men,  who  manipulate  between  them  as  many  as 
sixty  bells,  and  produce  extremely  pretty  music. 
Hand  bells  are  also  used  by  Change -Ringers  for 
practising  the  methods  by  which  changes  are 
produced,  before  performing  them  on  the  tower 
bells,  much  noise  and  annoyance  being  thus  pre- 
vented ;  they  are  almost  indispensable  for  this 
purpose.  [C.A.W.T.] 

HANDEL  ^  George  Frederick,  one  of  the 
greatest  composers  the  world  has  ever  seen,  was 
bom  at^HaUe,  Lower  Saxony,  February  23, 1685. 
His  father,  a  surgeon,  who  was  sixty-three  years 
of  age  when  this  son  was  born,  knew  nothing  of 
Art,  and  regarded  it  as  a  degrading  pursuit,  or, 
at  best,  as  an  idle  amusement.    Determined  to 

'  The  name  is  always  spelt  HSndel  by  German  writers.  It  was 
spelt  at  first,  in  England,  hmdel.  The  family-name  had  been  spelt 
HSndel,  Hendel,  Hendeler,  Hcindeler,  and  Hendtler,  but  most  correctly 
Hlindel  (Forstemann,  G.  F.  Haendel's  Stammbauvi,  fol.  Leipzig,  1S44, 
very  incorrectly  quoted  by  F^tis). 

2  A  woodcut  of  the  house.  No.  4  Grosser  Schlamme,  from  a  photo* 
graph  by  Klingemann,  Mendelssohn's  friend,  was  given  in  the  Illus- 
trated London  News  for  June  25, 1809,  and  as  a  frontispiece  to  the  Book 
of  Words  of  the  Handel  Festival.  1877. 


648 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


raise  his  son  in  the  social  scale,  he  thought  to  do 
so  by  making  him  a  lawyer,  and  to  this  end  he 
strove  in  every  way  to  stifle  the  alarming  symp- 
toms of  musical  genius  which  appeared  almost  in 
infancy,  while  he  refused  even  to  send  the  child 
to  school,  lest  there,  among  other  things,  he  should 
also  learn  his  notes.  In  spite  of  this,  some 
friendly  hand  contrived  to  convey  into  the  house 
a  dumb  spinet  (a  little  instrument  in  which  the 
strings,  to  deaden  their  sound,  were  bound  with 
strips  of  cloth) ; — it  was  concealed  in  a  garret, 
where,  without  being  discovered,  the  boy  taught 
himself  to  play. 

When  he  was  seven  years  old,  his  father  set 
out  on  a  journey  to  visit  a  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  who  was  valet-de-chamhre  to  the  Duke 
of  Saxe  Weissenfels.  George  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  go  too ;  his  request  was  denied,  but,  with  the 
persistence  of  purpose  which  characterised  him 
through  life,  he  determined  to  follow  the  carriage 
on  foot,  and  actually  did  so  for  a  considerable 
distance,  a  proceeding  which  resulted  in  his 
getting  his  way.  At  Weissenfels  he  was  not  long 
in  making  friends  among  the  musicians  of  the 
Duke's  chapel,  who  gave  him  opportunities  of 
trying  his  hand  on  the  organ.  One  day,  after 
the  service,  he  was  lifted  on  to  the  organ- stool, 
and  played  in  such  a  manner  as  to  surprise  every 
one,  and  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Duke, 
who,  on  making  enquiries,  found  out  the  state  of 
the  case,  and  sent  for  both  father  and  son.  He 
spoke  kindly  to  the  latter ;  to  the  former  he  repre- 
sented that  such  genius  as  that  of  his  son  should 
be  encouraged.  The  reluctant  surgeon  yielded 
to  these  arguments,  and  from  that  time  the  little 
Handel  was  emancipated. 

He  now  became  a  pupil  of  Zachau,  organist  of 
the  cathedral  at  Halle,  under  whom  he  studied 
composition,  in  the  forms  of  canon,  counterpoint, 
and  fugue,  and  practised  on  the  organ,  the 
harpsichord,  the  violin,  and  the  hautboy,  for  which 
last  instrument  he  had  a  special  predilection. 
After  three  years,  during  which  time  he  com- 
posed a  sacred  motet  each  week  as  an  exercise, 
his  master  confessed  that  the  pupil  knew  more 
than  himself,  and  Handel  was  sent  to  Berlin. 
Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  two  com- 
posers, Buononcini  and  Attilio  Ariosti,  whom  in 
after  years  he  was  to  meet  again  in  London. 
Ariosti  received  him  kindly,  and  warmly  admired 
his  talents ;  but  Buononcini,  whose  disposition 
was  sombre  and  harsh,  treated  him  at  first  with 
scorn  and  then  with  jealous  dislike.  Handel's 
wonderful  powers  of  improvisation  on  both  organ 
and  harpsichord  caused  him  to  be  regarded  here 
as  a  prodigy.  The  Elector  wished  to  attach 
him  to  his  Court,  and  to  send  him  to  Italy ; 
but  Handel's  father  thought  this  undesirable, 
and  the  boy  was,  therefore,  brought  back 
to  Halle,  where  he  set  to  work  again  with 
Zachau,  '  copying  and  composing  large  quantities 
of  music  .  .  .  .  ,  and  working  constantly  to  ac- 
quire the  most  solid  knowledge  of  the  science.' 
At  this  time  he  lost  his  father,  and  it  became 
necessary  for  him  to  work  for  his  own  subsistence 
and  the  support  of  his  mother.    He  went,  there- 


fore, to  Hamburg,  where  the  German  Opera-house, 
under  the  direction  of  the  famous  composer, 
Keinhard  Keiser,  enjoyed  a  great  reputation. 
Young  Handel  entered  the  orchestra  as  '  violino 
di  ripieno,'  and  amused  himself  by  aflfecting  to 
be  an  ignoramus,  *a  man  who  could  not  count 
five.'  But  it  happened  that  Keiser  was  involved 
by  his  partner  in  some  unsuccessful  speculations, 
and  was  forced  to  hide  for  a  time  from  his 
creditors.  During  his  absence,  Handel  took  his 
place  at  the  harpsichord  in  the  orchestra,  and, 
his  real  powers  being  made  manifest,  he  remained 
there  permanently.  He  made  here  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  composer  Telemann,  and  of  Mattheson, 
a  very  clever  young  musician,  a  few  years  older 
than  himself,  who  also  had  been  an  'infant 
prodigy,'  and  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
versatility  of  his  powers.  It  is  as  a  writer  on 
music  and  kindred  subjects  that  he  is  best 
remembered,  and  especially  for  his  valuable 
reminiscences  of  Handel.  Among  other  anec- 
dotes, he  tells  us  that  in  1703  he  and  Handel 
went  to  Liibeck  to  compete  for  the  vacant  post 
of  organist.  They  found,  however,  that  it  was 
necessary  that  the  successful  candidate  should 
marry  the  daughter  of  the  retiring  organist. 
This  condition  seemed  to  them  prohibitory,  and 
the  two  young  men  thought  it  best  to  return  to 
Hamburg.  The  friendship  between  the  two 
young  composers  was,  at  one  time,  very  nearly 
brought  to  a  sudden  and  tragical  conclusion. 
While  Handel  was  acting  as  conductor  at  the 
Opera-house,  it  happened  that  there  was  given 
Mattheson's  opera  of  'Cleopatra'  (1704),  in 
which  the  composer  himself  played  the  part  of 
Antony.  After  that  point  in  the  play  where  the 
hero  dies,  it  had  been  Mattheson's  custom  to 
return  to  the  clavecin  and  to  conduct  the  re- 
mainder of  the  opera.  To  this  Keiser  seems  not 
to  have  objected,  but  Handel  was  more  obsti- 
nate, and  refused  to  abdicate  his  place  in  favour 
of  the  resuscitated  Antony.  Mattheson  was 
indignant,  a  dispute  ensued,  and  a  duel,  in  which 
Handel's  life  was  only  saved,  and  the  loss  to  the 
world  of  this  mighty  master  only  averted, 
by  the  accidental  circumstance  that  the  point 
of  Mattheson's  sword  was  turned  aside  by  com- 
ing into  contact  with  a  brass  button  on  his  antago- 
nist's coat.  At  Hamburg,  in  Jan.  1705,  was  pro- 
duced Handel's  first  opera,  '  Almira,'  followed  in 
the  same  year  by  '  Nero.'  These  were  performed 
in  the  barbarous  manner  universal  at  that  time, 
partly  in  German  and  partly  in  Italian.  The 
success  of  '  Almira'  seems,  however,  to  have  been 
great  enough  to  excite  some  jealousy  in  Keiser 
and  other  musicians.  Mattheson  says  that,  when 
Handel  came  to  Hamburg,  he  composed  'long 
airs  and  interminable  cantatas,'  more  scholastic 
than  melodious  or  graceful ;  and  he  claims  to  have 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  young  composer's 
improvement.  It  is  probable,  at  any  rate,  that  the 
genius  of  Keiser,  whose  numerous  compositions 
are  full  of  a  melody  and  charm  till  then  unknown, 
did  go  far  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the 
crabbed  teaching  of  Zachau.  In  'Almira'  is  a 
Sarabande,  consisting  of  the  same  air  which 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


649 


Handel  afterwards  used  for  the  beautiful  song 
in  *  Rinaldo/  '  Lascia  ch'io  pianga.'  His  other 
works  at  this  time  were  the  operas  'Daphne' 
and  'Florinda,'  and  a  German  Cantata  on  the 
Passion. 

In  1 706  he  set  off  on  a  journey  to  Italy.  He 
went  to  Florence,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Naples, 
producing  during  this  time  both  operas  and 
sacred  music,  and  always  with  the  greatest 
success.  Among  these  works  may  be  mentioned 
two  Latin  Psalms,  *  Dixit  Dominus '  and  '  Lau- 
date  Pueri ; '  two  Operas, '  Rodrigo'  and  'Agrip- 
pina ; '  two  Oratorios,  *  Resurrezione '  and  '  II 
Trionfo  del  Tempo;'  and  the  serenata  'Aci, 
Galatea,  e  Polifemo,'  produced  at  Naples,  and 
quite  distinct  from  the  subsequent  English  work 
of  a  similar  name.  This  serenata  is  remarkable 
for  an  air,  written  for  some  Bass  singer  whose 
name  has  remained  unknown,  but  whose  voice 
must  have  been  extraordinary,  for  this  song  re- 
quires a  compass  of  no  less  than  two  octaves  and 
a  fifth!  [Bass.] 

In  1709  Handel  returned  to  Germany,  where 
the  Elector  of  Hanover  (afterwards  George  I  of 
England)  offered  him  the  post  of  Capellmeister, 
held  till  then  by  the  Abb^  Steffani,  who  himself 
designated  Handel  as  his  successor.  The  latter 
had  already  received  pressing  invitations  from 
England,  and  he  only  accepted  the  Capellmeister- 
ship  on  the  condition  that  he  should  be  allowed 
to  visit  this  country,  whither  he  came  at  the  end 
of  1 710. 

Italian  music  had  recently  become  the  fashion 
in  London;  operas  'on  the  Italian  model,'  that 
is,  with  the  dialogue  in  recitative,  having  been 
first  given  in  1705,  at  Drury  Lane,  and  after- 
wards at  the  King's  Theatre.  The  opera  of 
*Rinaldo,'  written  by  Handel  in  fourteen  days, 
was  first  performed  on  February  24,  1711.  It 
was  mounted  with  a  magnificence  then  quite 
unusual ;  and,  among  other  innovations,  the 
gardens  of  Armida  were  filled  with  living  birds, 
a  piece  of  realism  hardly  outdone  in  these  days. 
The  music  was  enthusiastically  received,  and  it 
at  once  established  its  composer's  reputation.  He 
was  obliged,  at  the  end  of  six  months,  to  return 
to  his  post  in  Hanover;  but  he  had  found  in 
London  a  fitter  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  genius ; 
and  in  January,  171 2,  he  was  here  again,  nor 
had  he  yet  made  up  his  mind  to  leave  England 
for  Hanover,  when  the  Elector  of  that  State 
succeeded  to  the  English  throne.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  the  new  king  should  look  with 
favourable  eyes  on  his  truant  Capellmeister,  who, 
for  his  part,  kept  carefully  out  of  the  way.  Peace 
was,  however,  brought  about  by  the  good  offices 
of  the  Hanoverian  Baron  Kihnanseck,  who  re- 
quested Handel  to  compose  some  music  for  the 
occasion  of  an  aquatic  fete  given  by  the  king. 
The  result  was  the  series  of  twenty-five  pieces, 
known  as  the  '  Water  Music*  These,  performed 
under  Handel's  direction  by  an  orchestra  in  a 
barge  which  followed  the  king's  boat,  had  the 
effect  of  softening  the  royal  resentment,  and 
Handel's  pardon  was  sealed  not  long  after  by  a 
grant  to  the  composer  of  an  annuity  of  £200. 


In  1 716  he  accompanied  the  king  to  Hanover, 
where  he  remained  till  1 718,  producing  while 
there  his  one  German  oratorio,  the  'Passion.' 
This  work  contains  great  beauties,  but  it  is  very 
different  in  style  from  his  subsequent  compositions 
of  a  similar  kind,  still  strongly  suggesting  the 
influence  of  Keiser  and  of  Steffani. 

On  Handel's  return  to  England,  he  accepted 
the  post  of  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Chandos. 
This  nobleman, — who  from  the  magnificence  of 
his  style  of  living  was  sometimes  called  the  Grand 
Duke,  had  a  palace  named  Cannons,  near  Edge- 
ware,  and  a  chapel  furnished  like  the  churches 
of  Italy.  His  first  chapel-master  was  Dr. 
Pepusch,  his  countryman,  who  retired  grace- 
fully in  favour  of  the  younger  master.  Here 
Handel  remained  for  three  years,  with  an  or- 
chestra and  singers  at  his  disposal ;  and  pro- 
duced the  two  'Chandos'  Te  Deums,  the  twelve 
'Chandos'  Anthems,  the  English  serenata  'Acis 
and  Galatea,'  and  'Esther,'  his  first  English 
oratorio.  He  also  taught  the  daughters  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  for  whom  he  wrote  his  '  Suites 
de  pieces  pour  le  Clavecin  '  (vol.  i).  Be- 
sides all  this,  he,  in  1720,  undertook  to  direct 
the  Italjan  Opera  for  the  society  called  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music.  He  engaged  a  company  of 
Italian  singers,  including  Durastanti  and  the 
celebrated  soprani  st,  Senesino  ;  and  with  these  he 
produced  '  Radamisto.'  The  success  of  this  opera 
was  complete ;  but  a  party,  jealous  of  Handel's 
ascendancy,  was  forming  in  opposition  to  him. 
Buononcini  and  Ariosti  had  also  been  attracted 
to  London  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
each  of  these  composers  had  a  following  among 
the  supporters  of  the  Opera.^    It  was,  perhaps, 

»  BUONONCINI  or  BONONCINT,  a  family  of  musicians  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  whose  name,  having  been  omitted  in  its  proper 
place,  is  added  here.  The  father,  Giov.\nni  Maru,  was  born  at 
Modena  about  1640,  and  was  chief  musician  to  the  Duke,  Maestro  di 
Capella  of  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Monte  there,  and  a  member 
of  the  Accademia  dei  Filarmonici  of  Bologna.  He  was  a  competent 
and  productive  artist,  who  left  compositions  in  many  classes,  vocal 
and  instrumental,  and  a  treatise  on  'Musico  prattico'  (Bologna  1673, 
1688',  which  was  translated  into  German,  and  is  a  clear  and  sensible 
work,  still  of  use  to  the  student.  He  died  Nov.  19,  1678.  His  sou 
Antonio,  or  Marc  Antonio,  was  born  at  Modena  1675.  He  appears  to 
have  travelled  much,  and  to  have  been  for  some  years  in  Germany— 
though  this  may  be  merely  a  confusion  with  his  brother.  In  1714  he 
was  at  Rome,  in  1721  Maestro  di  Capella  to  the  Duke  of  Modena,  where 
he  died  July  8,  1726.  7  operas  of  his  are  mentioned  as  remaining  in 
MS.  His  Camilla,  which  has  been  published,  had  an  extraordinary 
popularity  abroad ;  and  in  England  ran  64  nights  in  4  years  (Burney 
iv.  210).  He  was  apparently  the  best  of  the  family,  though  his  light  is 
considerably  obscured  by  his  brother  Giovanni  Battista.  on  whom, 
rightly  or  wrongly,  the  fame  of  the  family  rests.  He  was  born  at 
Modena  1672,  and  instructed  by  his  father  and  by  Colonna.  He  was 
a  musician  of  undoubted  merit,  though  not  of  marked  originality 
who  suffered  from  too  close  compai  ison  with  Handel— as  talent  must 
always  suffer  when  brought  into  collision  with  genius — and  from  a 
proud  and  difficult  disposition  very  damaging  to  his  interests.  His 
first  entrance  into  the  musical  world  was  as  a  violoncellist,  in  which 
capacity  he  was  attached  to  the  Court  of  Vienna  at  or  about  1692.  His 
earliest  opera,  Camilla  (if  indeed  that  was  not  his  brother's),  was  given 
at  Vienna  about  the  same  date ;  his  next,  '  TuUo  Ostilio '  and  '  Serse,' 
at  Rome  1694.  In  1696  we  find  him  and  Ariosti  at  ihe  Court  of  Berlin, 
when  Handel,  then  a  lad  of  12,  was  there  too  for  a  time  (Chrysander's 
Hiindel,  i.  52).  At  Berlin  he  was  court  composer  from  1703  to  1705,  and  a 
very  prominent  personage  ;  but  from  1706  to  1720  his  time  seems  to  have 
been  divided  between  Vienna  and  Italy.  In  the  latter  year  he  received 
a  call  to  London.  A  great  impulse  had  recently  been  given  to  Italian 
opera  by  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  Handel 
was  director,  and  Buononcini  and  Ariosti  were  invited  over  to  place  the 
new  institution  on  the  broadest  possible  basis.  Buononcini  was  received 
with  extraordinary  favour,  and  there  are  perhaps  few  subscription-lists 
so  remarkable  as  that  to  his  'Cantate  e  Duetti'  (1721),  for  the  large 
number  of  copies  taken  by  individuals  of  rank.  In  England  at  that 
time  everything  was  more  or  less  political,  and  while  Handel  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Hanoverian  King.  Buononcini  was  taken  up  by  the  great 
houses  of  Rutland,  Queensberry,  Sunderland,  and  Marlborough.  From 


650  HANDEL 

with  the  object  of  reconciling  all  parties,  that  it 
was  arranged  to  produce  'Muzio  Scsevola,'  an 
opera  of  which  the  first  act  was  written  by 
Ariosti  (or,  according  to  Chrysander,  by  a  certain 
Mattei,  alias  Pippo),  the  second  by  Buononcini, 
and  the  third  by  Handel,  Poor  Ariosti  had  no 
chance  in  this  formidable  competition.  With 
Buononcini,  a  man  of  distinguished  talent,  and 
able  in  some  measure  to  support  the  rivalry  with 
Handel,  the  case  was  different.  Handel's  act, 
however,  was  universally  declared  to  be  the  best ; 
but  his  victory  only  excited  the  enmity  of  his 
opponents  more  than  ever.  His  stubborn  pride 
and  independence  of  character  were  ill  suited  to 
conciliate  the  nobility,  in  those  days  the  chief 
supporters  of  the  Opera ;  and  all  those  whom  he 
had  personally  offended  joined  the  Buononcini- 
faction.  This  fashionable  excitement  about  the 
rival  claims  of  two  composers,  like  that  which 
raged  in  Paris  when  the  whole  of  society  was 
divided  into  'Gluckists'  and  '  Piccinnists, '  gave 
rise  to  many  squibs  and  lampoons,  the  best  of 
which,  perhaps,  has  been  more  often  incorrectly 
quoted  and  erroneously  attributed  than  any 
similar  jeu  d' esprit.  The  epigram,  usually  as- 
cribed to  Dean  Swift,  and  actually  printed  in 
some  collections  of  his  works,  is  undoubtedly  the 
work  of  John  Byrom,  the  Lancashire  poet,  and 
inventor  of  a  system  of  shorthand.  He  speaks 
in  his  diary S  under  date  June  1725,  of  'my 
epigram   upon  Handel  and  Bononcini  being 

the  Marlborough  family  he  enjoyed  for  many  years  an  income  of  500/., 
and  a  home  and  an  agreeable  position  in  fheir  house.  His  connexion 
with  the  Academy  continued  for  7  or  8  years,  during  which  he  com- 
posed the  operas  of  Astarto  (1720),  Crispo  (1722j,  Erminia  (1723),  Famace 
(1723;,  Calfumia  (1724^  Astyanax  (17-^',  and  Griselda  0722)  — though 
that  is  suspected  to  be  really  his  brother's.  All  these  pieces  were  well 
received,  and  Astarto  ran  for  30  nights.  An  episode  of  his  operatic 
career  was  th<»  joint  composition  of  the  3  acts  of  Muzio  Scevola,  in 
1721,  by  Ariosti— or  according  to  Chrysander  56>  Filippo  Mattei,  or 
Pippo— Buononcini,  and  Handel.  Buononcini's  act  was  superior  to 
Mattei's,  but  the  judgment  of  the  public  was  so  unmistakeably  in 
favour  of  Handel's  as  to  allow  of  no  appeal.  On  the  death  of  Marl- 
borough, June  16,  1722,  Buononcini  was  commissioned  to  write  the 
anthem  for  his  fvmeral  in  Henry  VII's  Chapel  CAug.  9),  to  the  words 
'  When  Saul  was  king  over  us.'  It  was  afterwards  published  in  score, 
and  has  fine  portions,  though  very  unequal.  About  the  year  1731 
the  discovery  that  a  madrigal  to  the  words  '  In  una  siepe  ombrosa,' 
which  had  been  submitted  to  the  Academy  some  years  previously  as 
his  composition,  was  a  mere  transcript  of  one  by  Lotti,  led  to  a  long 
correspondence,  and  caused  a  great  deal  of  excitement  and  much 
irritation  against  Buononcini,  and  was  the  first  step  in  his  fall.  It  is 
difficult  to  understand  why  a  man  of  his  abilities,  whose  own  madrigals 
were  well  known  and  highly  thought  of  (see  Hawkins's  testimony) 
should  have  borrowed  from  a  composer  whose  equal  he  certainly  i 
was,  if  indeed  he  did  borrow  Lotti's  music  at  all— which  is  by  no  means  ] 
certain  (Hawkins,  ch.  185).  The  pride  and  haughty  temper  of  the  man,  ' 
which  closed  his  lips  during  the  whole  contest,  was  probably  a  chief 
reason  for  the  feeling  against  him.  It  Is  certain  that  it  led  to  the 
severance  of  his  connexion  with  the  Marlborough  family,  which  took 
place  shortly  after  this  affair.  He  then  attached  himself  to  a  certain 
Count  Ughi,  who  professed  to  have  the  secret  of  making  gold,  went  to 
France,  and  remained  there  for  some  years.  There  we  catch  sight  of 
him  once  more,  playing  the  cello  to  a  motet  of  his  own  in  the  Chapel 
of  Louis  XV.  In  1748  he  was  sent  for  to  Vienna  to  compose  the  music 
for  the  Peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle  (Oct.  7),  and  soon  after  left  Vienna  to 
be  composer  to  the  Opera  at  Venice,  where  we  leave  him. 

Besides  the  operas  ascribed  to  him— 22  in  all— and  the  other  works 
mentioned  above,  before  leaving  Bologna  he  published  4  symphonies, 
2  masses  for  8  voices  each,duetti  dl  camera,  and  an  oratorio  *  II  Giosue.' 
Another  oratorio,  '  Intercio,'  a  Te  Deum,  et«.,  etc.,  remain  in  MS.  at 
Vienna  and  elsewhere.  A  third  oratorio.  '  S.  Xicola  di  Bari,'  and  a 
Psalm  '  Laudate  pueri,'  are  in  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society's  Library. 
Tlie  Fltzwilliam  Collection.  Cambridge,  contains  an  opera.  'Etearco,' 
Madrigals,  and  Motets,  a  Mass,  sine  nomine,  &  8,  and  many  Cantatas,  i 
Duets,  and  Divertimenti.  Xovello,  in  his  '  Fitzwilliam  Music,'  has 
published  4  movements  (see  p.  .^,),  of  which  the  Hanctus  and  Plenl 
sunt,  from  a  mass,  are  the  finest,  and  they  are  very  fine.  [G.] 

i  Prioted  for  the  Chftham  Society,  1854,  vol.  I.  p.  150. 


HANDEL. 

in  the  papers.'  It  runs,  correctly,  aa  published 
in  BjTom's  '  Miscellaneous  Poems,'  as  follows : — 

'  Some  say,  compar'd  to  Bononcini, 
That  Mynheer  Handel's  but  a  Ninny ; 
Others  aver,  that  he  to  Handel 
Is  scarcely  fit  to  hold  a  Candle : 
Strange  all  this  Difference  should  he, 
'Twixt  Tweedle-dum  and  Tweedle-dee ! ' 

Handel  worked  on,  immoved,  amid  the  general 
strife,  and  in  1729  entered  into  partnership 
with  Heidegger,  proprietor  of  the  King's  Theatre. 
He  produced  opera  after  opera ;  but,  owing  to 
the  ever-increasing  opposition,  his  later  pieces 
met  with  less  success  than  his  earlier  works. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  oratorio  of  'Esther,'  and 
*Acis  and  Galatea,'  composed  at  Cannons,  were 
now  given  in  public  for  the  first  time  ;  they  were 
performed  on  the  stage,  with  scenic  effects,  but 
without  action,  and  were  very  well  received. 
Several  of  Handel's  instrumental  works  were 
written  at  this  epoch.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
performance  of  'Deborah,'  an  oratorio,  in  1733, 
the  raised  prices  of  seats  at  the  theatre  added 
to  the  rancour  of  the  composer's  enemies .,  and, 
to  crown  all,  he  quarrelled  with  Senesino,  whose 
engagement  was,  therefore,  broken  oflF.  Sene- 
sino was  the  spoiled  child  of  the  public ;  his 
cause  was  hotly  espoused  by  all  the  partisans 
of  Buononcini,  and  even  those  influential  per- 
sonages who  had  remained  faithful  to  Handel 
insisted  that  their  favourite  should  be  retained 
at  the  theatre.  Handel  thought  this  condi- 
tion incompatible  with  his  dignity ;  he  refused, 
and  his  friends  deserted  him  for  the  enemy's 
1  camp.  At  this  juncture,  a  charge  was  brought 
j  against  Buononcini,  that  he  had  presented  as 
his  own  to  the  Academy  of  Music  a  Madrigal, 
I  in  reality  the  work  of  Lotti,  the  Venetian. 
1  This  was  very  strange,  as  Buononcini  might 
have  been  expected  to  compose  almost  as 
good  a  madrigal  as  Lotti :  he  quitted  England, 
however,  without  defence  or  replj',  and  his  party 
had  to  make  Senesino  their  raUying-point. 

Handel's  partnership  with  Heidegger  ended 
in  1734,  and  the  King's  Theatre  was  given  up 
to  the  rival  company.  He  now  became  an  im- 
presario on  his  own  account,  and  first  took  the 
theatre  in  Lincoln's-Inn-Fields,  but  soon  left  it 
for  Covent  Garden,  where,  besides  several  operas, 
he  produced  the  music  to  Dryden's  Ode  'Alex- 
anders Feast,  or  the  Power  of  Music'  His 
undertaking  proved,  commercially,  a  failure  ; 
and  in  1737  he  became  bankrupt.  It  speaks 
volumes  for  the  low  state  of  musical  taste  at  the 
period,  that  at  this  time  the  rival  house  was  also 
forced  to  close  its  doors  for  want  of  support ; 
although  its  company  included,  besides  Cuzzoni 
and  Senesino,  the  wonderful  Farinelli,  who  soon 
quitted  England  in  disgust.  Handel's  health 
succumbed  to  his  labours  and  anxieties  ;  he  had 
an  attack  of  paralysis,  which  forced  him  to  go 
to  Aix  la  Chapelle.  He  returned,  scarcely 
recovered,  in  November,  and,  between  the  15th 
of  that  month  and  the  24th  of  December,  wrote 
the  opera  of  '  Faramondo '  and  the  Funeral 
Anthem  for  the  death  of  Queen  Caroline.  *  Fara- 
mondo' was  a  failure  ;  so  were  also  the  pasticcio 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


651 


•Alexander  Severus'  and  the  opera  of  'Xerxes,' 
performed  in  the  spring  of  1738.  He  had,  how- 
ever, a  number  of  faithful  friends  who  remained 
loyal  to  him  in  his  adversity.  They  persuaded 
hiiu  to  give  a  concert  for  his  own  benefit ;  and 
this  was  a  complete  success.  It  shows  what,  in 
spite  of  his  unpopularity  with  the  great,  was  the 
l)ublic  appreciation  of  his  genius  and  high  cha- 
racter, that  a  statue  of  him,  by  Roubilliac,  was 
erected  in  Vauxhall  Gardens ;  the  only  instance 
on  record  of  such  an  honour  being  paid  to  an 
artist  during  his  lifetime.  From  1739  he  did 
little  in  the  way  of  opera-composing.  With  the 
exception  of  '  Imeneo'  in  1740,  and  of 'Deidamia' 
in  1 741,  he  thenceforward  treated  only  oratorio, 
or  similar  subjects.  He  said  that  '  sacred  music 
was  best  suited  to  a  man  descending  in  the  vale 
of  years ; '  but  it  was  with  regret,  and  only  after 
reiterated  failures,  that  he  quitted  the  stormy 
sea  of  operatic  enterprise.  The  world  has  no 
reason  to  be  sorry  that  he  did  so,  for  there  is  no 
doubt  that  in  Oratorio  he  found  his  real  field, 
for  which  Nature  and  education  had  equally  and 
specially  fitted  him. 

The  series  of  works  which  have  immortalised 
Handel's  name  only  began  now,  when  he  was 
fifty-five  years  old.  In  1 740  were  composed  and 
performed  'Saul'  and  'Israel  in  Egypt.'  'Saul' 
(says  Chrysander)  '  fulfils  in  the  highest  degree 
every  condition  of  a  perfect  historical  picture; 
reflecting,  as  it  does,  the  historical  object  at  once 
faithfully  and  in  its  noblest  aspect.'  It  was 
successful.  '  Israel,'  which  contains  some  of  the 
most  colossal  choruses  that  Handel  ever  wrote, 
was  so  ill-received  that,  at  the  second  perform- 
ance, it  was  thought  necessary  to  lighten  the 
\v(irk  by  the  introduction  of  operatic  songs  be- 
tween the  choruses.  After  the  third  performance, 
it  was  withdrawn.  '  Israel'  was  followed  by  the 
music  to  Dryden's  'Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,' 
and  that  to  '  L' Allegro '  and  '  II  Penseroso '  of 
Milton,  and  to  '  II  Moderato,'  which  was  a  third 
part  added  by  Chai'les  Jennens,  who  afterwards 
compiled  the  words  of  the  '  Messiah.' 

In  1 741  Handel  received  fi-om  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  then  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a 
pressing  invitation  to  visit  that  country.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  month  of  November  he  went  there, 
and  was  warmly  received,  his  principal  works 
(not  operatic)  being  performed  in  Dublin  and 
enthusiastically  applauded.  On  April  18,1742, 
for  the  benefit  of  a  charitable  society,  he  pro- 
1  duced  the  'Messiah,'  his  greatest  oratorio,  and 
that  which  has  obtained  the  firmest  and  most 
enduring  hold  on  public  favour.  Signora  Avoglio 
and  Mrs.  Gibber  were  the  principal  singers  on 
the  occasion  of  its  first  performance.  After  a 
sojourn  in  Ireland  of  nine  months,  during  which 
he  met  with  worthy  appreciation  and  also  some- 
what repaired  his  broken  fortunes,  he  returned  to 
London ;  and  the  '  Messiah '  was  performed  for 
the  first  time  there  on  March  23,  1749.  It  is 
related  that,  on  this  occasion,  the  audience  was 
exceedingly  struck  and  affected  by  the  music  in 
general,  but  that  when  that  part  of  the  Hallelujah 
Chorus  began,  'For  the  Lord  God  omnipotent 


reigneth,'  they  were  so  transported  that  they  all, 
with  the  king,  who  was  present,  started  at  once 
to  their  feet,  and  remained  standing  till  the 
chorus  ended.  The  custom  of  rising  during  the 
performance  of  the  'Hallelujah  Chorus '  originated 
from  this  incident. 

The  'Messiah'  was  followed  by  'Samson,'  and 
the  Te  JDeum  and  anthem  written  to  celebrate  the 
victory  of  Dettingen  ;  by  'Joseph,'  'Semele,'  'Bel- 
shazzar,'  and  'Hercules.'  But  the  hostility  of 
the  aristocratic  party  which  he  had  provoked  by 
refusing  to  compose  music  for  Senesino,  was  still 
as  virulent  as  ever.  They  worked  against  him 
persistently,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  season 
1744-5  he  was  again  bankrupt,  and  seems  to 
have  been,  for  the  time,  overwhelmed  by  his 
failure,  for  during  a  year  and  a  half  he  wrote 
scarcely  anything.  He  began  again  in  1 746  with 
the  'Occasional  Oratorio,'  and  'Judas  Macca- 
baeus;'  and  these  were  follow^ed  by  'Joshua,' 
'Solomon'  (which  contains  an  unrivalled  series 
of  descriptive  choruses),  'Susanna,'  'Theodora' 
and  the  '  Choice  of  Hercules.'  His  last  oratorio 
was  'Jephtha,'  composed  in  February,  1752. 
It  was  while  engaged  on  it  that  he  was  first 
attacked  by  the  disease  which  finally  deprived 
him  of  sight.  Three  times  he  was  couched  for 
cataract,  but  without  success ;  and  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  he  was  almost,  if  not  entirely 
blind.  He  was  at  first  profoundly  depressed  by 
his  affliction  ;  but  after  a  time,  with  indomitable 
strength,  he  rose  superior  to  it.  His  energy, 
though  lessened,  was  not  paralysed.  He  actually 
continued  to  preside  at  the  organ  during  the  per- 
formance of  his  own  oratorios,  and  even  to  play 
organ-concertos.  In  1757,  one  more  work  was 
produced  at  Covent  Garden,  the  'Triumph  of 
Time  and  Truth,'  an  augmented  version,  in 
English,  of  the  Italian  oratorio  of  1708,  'II 
Trionfo  del  Tempo  e  del  Disinganno.'  Of  the 
numerous  additions  in  the  later  version  many 
were  new,  some  taken  from  former  works.  His 
fame  and  popularity  steadily  increased  during 
these  last  years,  and  much  of  the  old  animosity 
against  him  died  away.  On  April  6,  1759, 
attended  a  performance  of  the  '  Messiah '  at 
Covent  Garden :  it  was  his  last  eff"ort.  On 
Saturday  the  ^  14th  of  April,  he  died,  at  his  house 
in  ^  Brook  Street.  He  was  buried  in  the  South 
Transept  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monu- 
ment by  Roubilliac  was  erected  to  his  memory 
in  1762.  His  gravestone,  with  his  coat  of  arms, 
his  name,  and  the  two  dates  'Born  y®  23  Feb- 
ruary 1684,  Died  y®  14th  of  April  1759,'  is  below 
the  monument.  It  was  engraved  as  a  frontispiece 
to  the  Book  of  Words  of  the  Handel  Festival, 
1862. 

Handel  has  left  behind  him  in  his  adopted 
country  a  name  and  a  popularity  which  never 

1  This  date  is  supported  by  the  entry  in  the  Westminster  Abbey 
Funeral  Book,  by  the  letter  of  James  Smyth,  the  perfumer,  Handel's 
most  intimate  friend,  by  all  the  contemporary  journals  and  maga- 
zines, and  by  the  date  on  the  tombstone.  Dr.  Burney  is  alone  in 
stating,  on  quite  insufficient  evidence,  the  date  as  the  13th  ;  and  it  is 
a  pity  that  he  should  have  altered  the  inscription  of  the  tombstone 
in  cocying  it  for  his  book,  so  as  to  support  his  statement. 

2  Formerly  No.  67,  now  No.  25,  on  the  south  side,  four  doors  from 
New  Bond  Street. 


652 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


has  been,  and  probably  never  will  be,  rivalled  by 
that  of  any  other  composer.  He  became  a  natur- 
alised British  subject  (in  1726) ;  but  to  claim  him 
as  an  Englishman  is  as  gratuitous  as  it  would 
be  to  deny  that  the  whole  tone  of  his  mind  and 
genius  were  singularly  attuned  to  the  best  fea- 
tures of  the  English  character.  The  stubborn 
independence,  the  fearless  truth  and  loyalty  of 
that  character,  the  deep,  genuine  feeling  which, 
in  its  hoiTor  of  pretence  or  false  sentiment, 
hides  itself  behind  bluntness  of  expression,  the 
practicalness  of  mind  which  seeks  to  derive  its 
ideas  from  facts,  and  not  its  facts  from  ideas, — 
these  found  their  artistic  expression  in  the  works 
of  Handel ;  beside  which  he  was,  beyond  all  doubt, 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  works  of  England's 
greatest  composer,  Henry  Purcell :  and  no  native 
composer  could  in  these  days  be  as  truly  EngHsh 
as  he  was,  for  ia  an  age  of  rapid  travelling  and 
constant  interchange  of  ideas,  men  and  thought 
become  cosmopolitan.  Grandeur  and  simplicity, 
the  majestic  scale  on  which  his  compositions  are 
conceived,  the  clear  definiteness  of  his  ideas  and 
the  directness  of  the  means  employed  in  carrying 
them  out,  pathetic  feeling  expressed  with  a  grave 
seriousness  equally  removed  from  the  sensuous 
and  the  abstract, — these  are  the  distinguishing 
qualities  of  Handel's  music. 

Handel  was  a  man  of  honour  and  integrity, 
and  of  an  uncompromising  independence  of  cha- 
racter. '  In  an  age  when  artists  used  to  live  in 
a  sort  of  domesticity  to  the  rich  and  powerful, 
he  refused  to  be  the  dependent  of  any  one,  and 
preserved  his  dignity  with  a  jealous  care.'  This, 
no  doubt,  irritated  those  great  people  whose 
vanity  was  gratified  when  men  of  genius  lived 
by  their  patronage ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  his  temper  was  natu- 
rally irascible  and  even  violent,  and  his  fits  of 
passion,  while  they  lasted,  quite  ungovernable. 
Even  when  he  was  conducting  concerts  for  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  if  the  ladies  of  the  Court 
talked  instead  of  li-stening,  'his  rage  was  un- 
controllable, and  sometimes  carried  him  to  the 

length  of  swearing  and  calling  names  

whereupon  the  gentle  Princess  would  say  to  the 
offenders,  "  Hush,  hush  !  Handel  is  angry."  '  It 
is  to  the  credit  of  the  prince  and  princess  that 
they  respected  the  real  worth  of  the  master  too 
much  to  be  seriously  offended  by  his  manners. 

Handel  never  married,  nor  did  he  ever  show 
any  inclination  for  the  cares  and  joys  of  domestic 
life.  He  was  a  good  son  and  a  good  brother ; 
but  he  lived  wholly  for  his  art,  his  only  other 
taste  being  for  pictures,  of  which  he  was  a 
connoisseur.  He  seldom  left  his  house,  except 
to  go  to  the  theatre,  or  to  some  picture-sale. 
His  tastes  were  simple,  though  he  ate  enor- 
mously ;  having  a  large,  if  not  an  unhealthy, 
appetite  to  satisfy.  His  charitableness  and 
liberality  were  unbounded ;  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Society  for  the  benefit  of  dis- 
tressed musicians,  and  one  of  the  chief  bene- 
factors of  the  Foundling  Hospital. 

He  was  74  years  old  when  he  died ;  but, 
when  we  contemplate  the  amount  of  work  he 


accomplished,  his  life  seems  short  in  comparison. 
Nor  did  he  live  in  seclusion,  where  he  could 
command  all  his  time.  Gifted  with  abnormal 
bodily  strength,  and  with  an  industry  truly  cha- 
racteristic of  that  nation  'which'  (as  says  Chry- 
sander)  'has  laboured  more  than  any  other  to 
turn  into  a  blessing  the  curse  of  Adam,  In  the 
sweat  of  thy  brow  thou  shalt  eat  bread,'  he  ex- 
celled in  every  branch  of  his  art ;  but,  beside 
this,  he  was  a  teacher,  a  chapel-master,  an  opera- 
director,  and  an  impresario.  He  was,  with  the 
exception  of  J.  S.  Bach,  the  greatest  organist 
and  harpsichordist  of  his  age.  He  never  devoted 
much  time  to  the  violin;  but,  when  it  suited 
him  to  play,  his  tone  was  such  that  avowed  pro- 
fessors of  the  instrument  might  have  taken  him 
as  a  model.  He  had  but  little  voice,  yet  he  was 
an  excellent  singer  of  such  songs  as  required  an 
expressive  deb  very  rather  than  florid  execution. 
With  his  singers  he  was  sometimes  tyrannical, 
and  amusing  stories  are  told  of  his  passages  of 
arms  with  recalcitrant  -prime  donne ;  but  he  knew 
how  to  conciliate  them,  and  how  to  preserve  their 
respect ;  he  would  take  any  trouble,  and  go  any 
distance,  to  teach  them  their  songs  ;  and  all  the 
principal  artists  resident  in  London,  whom  he 
employed,  remained  permanently  with  him  to 
the  end  of  his  life. 

The  rapidity  with  which  he  composed  was  as 
wonderful  as  his  industry;  he  may  be  said  to 
have  improvised  many  of  his  works  on  paper. 
'Rinaldo'  was  written  in  14  days;  the  'Mes- 
siah' in  24 !  From  his  earliest  years  he  was 
remarkable  for  this  great  readiness  in  extera- 
porising ;  he  was  always  teeming  with  ideas,  to 
which  his  perfect  command  of  all  the  resources 
of  counterpoint  enabled  him  to  give  instanta- 
neous and  fluent  expression.  It  was  his  custom 
to  play  organ  concertos  between  the  acts  or  the 
pieces  of  his  oratorios ;  but  these  written  com- 
positions were  only  of  service  to  him  when  he 
felt  that  he  was  not  in  the  vein  ;  otherwise,  he 
gave  himself  up  to  the  inspirations  of  his  genius. 
This,  indeed,  was  almost  always  the  case  after  he 
became  blind,  when  all  that  was  given  to  the  or- 
chestra was  a  sort  of  ritornel,  between  the  recur- 
rences of  which  Handel  improvised  away  as  long 
as  it  pleased  him,  the  band  waiting  until  a  pause  or 
a  trill  gave  them  the  signal  for  recommencement. 
His  instrumental  compositions  have,  in  many  re- 
spects, such  as  their  lucid  simplicity  and  a  cer- 
tain unexpectedness  in  the  modulations  and  the 
entries  of  the  various  subjects,  the  character  of 
improvisations.  He  seems  to  have  regarded 
these  works  as  a  storehouse  for  his  ideas,  on 
which  he  often  drew  for  his  more  important 
compositions. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the 
speed  with  which  he  worked  argues  any  want  of 
care  in  the  workmanship,  nor  that  he  was  content 
always  to  leave  his  ideas  in  the  form  in  which 
they  first  occurred  to  him.  The  shortness  of 
time  occupied  in  the  completion  of  his  great 
masterpieces  is  to  be  explained,  not  merely  by 
the  ever-readine«s  of  his  inspiration,  but  also 
by  the  laboriousness  and  wonderful  power  of 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


653 


oncentration  which  enabled  him  actually  to 
get  through  more  work  in  a  given  time  than  is 
accomplished  by  ordinary  men.  Those  original 
sketches  of  his  works  that  are  extant,  while 
bearing  in  their  penmanship  the  traces  of  im- 
petuous speed,  yet  abound  in  erasures,  correc- 
tions and  afterthoughts,  showing  that  he  brought 
sound  judgment  and  stem  criticism  to  bear  on 
his  own  creations. 

In  gratitude  for  the  pension  allowed  him  by 
the  king  after  Handel's  death,  Smith,  his  amanu- 
ensis, to  whom  Handel  had  left  his  MSS.,  pre- 
sented them  all  to  George  III.  They  remain 
still  in  the  Musical  Library  of  Buckingham 
Palace,  and  are  as  follows : — Operas,  32  vols. ; 
Oratorios.  21  vols.;  Odes  and  Serenatas,  7  vols.; 
Sacred  Music,  12  vols.;  Cantatas  and  Sketches, 
1 1  vols. ;  and  Instrumental  Music,  5  vols.  Be- 
side these,  there  is  a  collection  of  copies  by  Smith 
(the  elder),  forming  a  continuation  to  the  original 
MSS.,  in  17  vols.  There  is  also  a  coUection  of 
copies,  partly  in  the  hand  of  Smith  (the  elder) 
and  partly  in  another  hand,  chiefly  of  the  Ora- 
torios, in  24  vols,  large  folio,  in  the  same  Library. 

Another,  smaller  collection  of  original  MSS. 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cam- 
bridge, consisting  of  7  vols,  of  the  greatest  inte- 
rest, containing  rough  draughts,  notes,  and 
sketches  for  various  works,  and  one  of  the 
Chandos  Anthems,  entire,  *  0  Praise  the  Lord 
with  one  consent.' 

Very  few  compositions  in  Handel's  writing  are 
in  private  collections. 

Tlie  original  MS.  score  of  the  work  alluded 
to  above  as  achieved  in  24  days,  the  'Messiah,' 
— the  greatest,  and  also  the  most  universally 
known  of  all  Handel's  oratorios, — has  been  fac- 
similed in  photo-lithography,  and  so  placed  with- 

6  -P-H^- 


His  orchestration  sounds,  of  course,  scanty  to 
modem  ears.  The  balance  of  the  orchestra  was 
very  different,  in  his  time,  from  what  it  is  now ; 
some  wind-instruments,  such  as  the  clarionet,  not 
being  yet  in  use,  while  others  were  then  employed 
in  greater  numbers  ;  and  some  stringed  instru- 
ments were  included  that  are  now  obsolete.  The 
wind-instruments  were  certainly  more  prominent 
in  the  band  than  they  now  are ;  he  used  the  haut- 
bois  freely,  seeming  to  have  a  particular  affection 
for  them,  and  sometimes  employed  them  in  large 
numbers,  as  a  '  wind-band,'  in  '  The  Fireworks 
Music,'  etc.  He  made,  in  fact,  abundant  use 
of  all  the  materials  at  his  command,  and,  in  his 
own  day,  was  regarded  as  noisy  and  even  sensa- 
tional. He  was  said  to  sir/h  for  a  cannon 
(worthy,  this,  of  Berlioz  in  later  times) ;  and 
there  is  extant  a  caricature  of  him,  by  Goupy, 
representing  him  at  the  organ,  with  a  boar's  head 


in  the  reach  of  all  who  may  wish  to  become 
familiar  with  Handel's  mode  of  working.  Here 
it  can  be  seen  how  much  the  work  differed  in  its 
first  form  from  what  it  finally  became, — the  work 
as  we  know  it.  Some  alterations  are  of  compara- 
tively slight  importance,  such  as  the  substitution 
of  one  kind  of  choral  voice  for  another  in  the 
*  lead '  of  a  fugue-subject, — the  alteration  of  the 
form  of  a  violin-figure,  and  so  on.  But  in  other 
cases  there  are  actually  two,  and  sometimes  even 
three,  different  settings  of  the  same  words,  show- 
ing that  Handel  himself  failed  occasionally  in  at 

'  once  grasping  the  true  realisation  of  his  own 
conceptions.  Among  many  instances  of  change 
of  purpose  which  might  be  given,  it  will  be 

!  suflBcient  to  quote  two.   In  the  '  Nativity  music' 

i  there  are  two  settings  of  the  words  '  And  lo  1  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  came  upon  them,'  the  first  of 
which  is  that  now  used,  and  the  second  an 
Andante  in  F  major,  which  bears  the  traces  of 
a  good  deal  of  labour,  but  which  was  finally  re- 
jected by  the  composer. 

The  second  case  is  that  of  the  air  '  How  beau- 
tiful are  the  feet,'  and  the  subsequent  chorus 
'  Their  sound  is  gone  out.'  At  first  the  air  was 
written  as  it  now  stands,  but  afterwards  its  theme 
was  taken  as  a  duet  in  F  minor  for  Alto  voices 
(appendix),  to  which  is  added  a  chorus  on  the 
words,  'Break  forth  into  joy,'  after  which  the 
duet  is  resumed.  As  to  'Their  sound  is  gone 
out,'  these  words  were  originally  set  as  a  second 
strophe  to  '  How  beautiful  are  the  feet '  (in  its 
first  form  as  an  air) ;  they  were  then  set  as  a 
tenor  solo  (appendix),  which  opens  with  the 
same  theme  as  that  of  the  chorus  which  after- 
wards took  its  place,  and  which  was  ultimately 
embodied  in  the  work.    We  give  a  fac-simUe  of 

I  Handel's  signature  at  the  end  of  this  MS.^ 


and  enormous  tusks  (alluding  to  his  passionate 
temper)  ;  the  room  is  strewn  with  horns,  trum- 
pets, and  kettle-drums ;  further  oflf  are  visible 
a  donkey  bra^nng,  and  a  battery  of  artillery, 
which  is  fired  by  the  blazing  music  of  the 
organist !  *  Mozart  reinstrumented  much  of  the 
'Messiah,'  to  suit  the  more  modem  orchestra; 
and  he,  as  well  as  Mendelssohn  and  other  mu- 
sicians, have  written  similar  additional  accom- 
paniments to  several  of  the  other  Oratorios  and 
Cantatas.  [See  Additional  Accompaniments.] 

»  The  iSgnre  which  Immediately  precedes  the  date  h  the  old 
astrological  or  chemical  sign  for  Saturn,  denoting  Saturday. 
Handel  was  in  the  frequent  habit  of  introducing  these  signs  into  his 
dates. 

*  Cannons  were  used  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  on  one  occasion,  with  no 
ba<l  effect,  and  also  at  the  Festival  at  Boston,  V.  S.  On  one  occasion. 
Handel  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  during  the  performance  of  one  of  his 
choruses, '  Oh  that  I  had  a  cannon ! '  Sheridan,  in  an  early  burlett*. 
'  Jupiter.'  makes  one  of  his  characters  say,  when  a  pistol  has  been  fired 
by  way  of  effect, '  This  hint  I  took  from  Handel '  (Townsend). 


654 


H.VXDEL. 


HANDEL. 


It  is  as  a  vocal  and,  above  all,  as  a  choral 
writer,  that  Handel  is  supreme.  No  one  ever 
developed  the  resources  of  the  chorus  as  he  did  ; 
and  his  compositions  of  this  class  remain  to  this 
day  unapproachable.  No  one,  before  or  since, 
has  so  well  understood  how  to  extract  from  a 
body  of  voices  such  grand  results  by  such  art- 
fully-simple means  as  those  he  used.  As  an 
example  of  the  union  of  broad  effect  with  science, 
the  chorus '  Envy !  eldest-bom  of  hell ! '  in  '  Saul' 
may  be  mentioned.  On  the  unskilled  hearer  this 
produces  the  impression  of  a  free  composition  in 
the  rondo-form,  with  a  strongly-contrasted  second 
strain,  and  a  very  remarkable  and  telling  accom- 
paniment. Each  phrase  seems  suggested  by  the 
words  that  are  sung;  while,  in  fact,  the  voices 
move,  in  strict  canonic  imitation,  on  a  ground- 
bass  which,  itself  one  bar  in  length,  recurs,  at 
the  outset,  sixteen  times  without  intermission. 
As  specimens  of  descriptive  choral  writing,  the 
grand  chains  of  choruses  in '  Israel'  and  in  '  Solo- 
mon' are  unmatched. 

Handel's  songs,  though  conventional  in  form, 
are  so  varied  in  idea,  so  melodious,  and  so  vocally- 
expressive,  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  Mattheson's 
statement,  that  in  his  early  years,  though  un- 
rivalled as  a  contrapuntist,  he  was  deficient  in 
melody.  The  vein  must  always  have  been  present 
in  him ;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  influence  i 
of  Keiser  and,  subsequently,  of  Steffani,  gave  a 
powerful  and  a  happy  impetus  to  his  genius  in 
this  direction.  It  is  nearly  certain,  too,  that  his 
experience  of  Italian  music  and  singers,  and  his 
long  career  as  an  operatic  composer,  had  the 
effect  of  influencing  his  subsequent  treatment  of 
sacred  subjects,  leading  him  to  give  to  the  words 
their  natural  dramatic  expression,  and  to  over- 
step the  bounds  of  stiff  conventional  formality. 

We  have  remarked  that  he  often  drew  themes 
for  his  choruses  from  his  instrumental  pieces  ; 
beside  this,  he  used  portions  of  his  earlier  vocal 
compositions  in  writing  his  later  works.  Thus, 
four  choruses  in  the  '  Messiah'  were  taken  from 
the  '  Chamber  Duets^  ;  so  was  the  second  part 
of  the  chorus  'Wretched  lovers!'  in  'Acis': 
the  'Magnificat,'^  furnished  subjects  for  several 
choruses  in  'Israel.'  It  is,  however,  an  undeniable 
fact  that,  beside  repeating  himself,  he  drew 
largely  and  unhesitatingly  on  the  resources  of 

1  It  has  been  doubted  whether  this  'Magnificat'  was  really  the  ori- 
ginal work  of  Handel,  on  the  ground  of  a  BIS.  copy  (very  incorrect)  in 
the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  having  the  words '  del 
Sig'.  Erba'  at  the  head  of  the  first  page.  This  MS.,  however,  is  by 
an  English  hand;  ' del '  does  not  imply  necessarily  the  authorship  of 
Erba.as '  dal '  would  have  done ;  and  the  MS.  is  on  English  I'Whatman) 
paper,  and  later  in  data  than  the  MS.  of  the  same  w  ork,  in  Handel's 
autograph,  which  is  in  Buckingham  Talace.  The  latter  is  not,  as  M. 
Schoelcher  thought,  on  the  thick  paper  used  by  Handel  in  Italy,  but  on 
English  paper  and  in  the  hand  he  wrote  about  the  time  of  the  com- 
position of  the  '  Messiah.'  It  is  almost  inconceivable  that  he,  having  an 
amanuensis,  should,  at  that  time,  copy  entire  the  unknown  work  of  an 
almost  unknown  composer,  though  we  may  admit  that  he  would  have 
condescended  to  borrow  from  it.  The  work  is  among  a  number  of 
sketches  and  rough  draughts  of  Handel's  own,  ideas  noted  and  com- 
positions projected  by  him,  some  of  which  have,  others  have  not,  been 
carried  out  to  completion. 

There  are  but  two  persons  of  the  name  of  Erba.Dionisio  and  Giorgio, 
mentioned  by  the  biographers  of  musicians.  The  former,  a  Milan- 
ese, flourished  about  1000;  but  few  of  his  compositions  have  been 
thought  worthy  of  being  chronicled.  The  latter,  a  violinist  of  Milan, 
according  to  some  writers,  or  of  Rome,  according  to  others,  was  the 
author  of  some  pieces  for  his  own  instrument.  It  Is  doubtful  whether 
either  of  these  artists  deserved,  as  an  ecclesiastic,  the  title  of '  B^.' 


his  predecessors  and  contemporaries.  And  yet 
his  own  powers  of  invention  were  such  as  must 
preclude  the  supposition  that  he  was  driven 
by  lack  of  ideas  to  steal  those  of  other  people. 
In  those  days  there  were  many  forms  of  borrowing 
which  were  not  regarded  as  thefts.  When  we 
find,  for  instance,  that  the  chorus  just  mentioned, 
'Wretched  lovers,'  has  for  its  first  theme  the 
subject  of  a  fugue  of  Bach's,  that  one  of  the 
most  charming  of  the  Chamber  Duets  was  taken 
from  a  similar  duet  by  Steffani,  that  the  subject 
of  the  clavier-fugue  in  Bb  (afterwards  used  for 
the  third  movement  of  the  second  Hautbois- 
concerto)  was  borrowed  note  for  note  from  a 
canon  by  Turini,  that,  among  the  subjects  which 
form  the  groundwork  of  many  of  his  choruses, 
themes  are  to  be  found,  taken  from  the  works  of 
Leo,  Carissimi,  Pergolesi,  Graun,  Muffat,  C'al- 
dara,  and  '^others, — it  can  only  be  urged  that  in 
an  age  of  conventionality,  when  musical  training: 
consisted  solely  of  exercise  in  the  contrapuntal 
treatment  of  given  themes,  originality  of  idea 
did  not  hold  the  place  it  holds  now.  Such 
themes  became  common  property ;  some  of  them 
might  even  have  been  given  to  Handel  by 
Zachau,  in  the  days  when  his  weekly  exercise 
consisted  of  a  sacred  motet,  and  he  would  have 
regarded  them  as  a  preacher  would  regard  a 
text, — merely  as  a  peg  on  which  he  or  any  other 
man  might  hang  a  homily.  But  Handel  did 
not  stop  here.  He  seems  to  have  looked  upon 
his  own  work  as  the  embodiment,  as  well  as  the 
culmination,  of  all  existing  music,  and  therefore 
to  have  employed  without  scruple  all  such 
existing  material  as  he  thought  worthy  to  serve 
his  purpose.  *  It  is  certain '  (to  quote  a  dis- 
tinguished writer  of  our  own  day)  '  that  many  of 
the  musical  forms  of  expression  which  the  un- 
technical  man  hears  and  admires  in  a  per- 
formance of  one  of  the  works  of  Handel,  the 
technical  man  may  see  in  the  written  scores  of 
his  predecessors  ;  and  that  innumerable  subjects, 
harmonic  progressions,  points  of  imitation,  se- 
quences, etc.,  which  the  unlearned  are  accus- 
tomed to  admire  (and  with  reason)  in  Handel, 
are  no  more  the  invention  of  that  master  than 
they  are  of  Auber  or  Eossini.'  In  some  cases, 
passages  of  considerable  length,  and  even  entire 
movements,  were  appropriated  more  or  less  un- 
altered by  Handel.  Two  compositions  we  may 
quote  especially,  as  having  been  largely  laid 
under  contribution  for  some  of  his  best-known 
works.  One  is  the  Te  Deum  by  Francesco  Antonio 
Uria  or  Urio.  No  less  than  nine  movements  in 
the  'Dettingen  Te  Deum '  and  six  in  the  oratorio 
'  Saul '  are  founded  wholly  or  in  part  on  themes, 
and  contain  long  passages,  taken  from  this  work. 
The  other  is  a  very  curious  piece  by  Alessandro 
StradeUa,  unpublished,  and  therefore  inaccessible 
to  musicians  in  general.  It  is  a  serenade,  in 
the  dramatic  form,  for  three  voices  and  a  double 
orchestra  (of  strings).  This  has  been  largely 
used  by  Handel  for  more  than  one  of  his  works, 
but  chiefly  for  *  Israel  in  Egypt,'  in  which 
instances  occur  of  large  portions  (in  one  instance 

2  See  Dr.  Crotch's  Lectures,  p.  122. 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


655 


as  much  as  27  bars)  being  transferred 
bodily  to  his  score  ^  *  Israel  in  Egypt '  contains 
another  still  more  flagrant  appropriation,  the 
transfer  of  an  Organ  Canzona  by  Jobann  Caspar 
Kerl  to  the  Chorus  '  Egypt  was  glad,'  the  only 
change  being  that  of  the  key,  from  D  minor 
to  E  minor.  The  Canzona  is  printed  by  Sir 
John  Hawkins  (chap.  1 24),  so  that  any  reader 
may  judge  for  himself. 

That  such  wholesale  pilfering  as  this  should 
have  been  possible  or  even  conceivable,  is  a  fact 
which  points  to  a  very  different  standard  of 
artistic  morality  from  that  of  the  present  day. 
Might,  in  fact,  was  right.  After  acknowledging 
this,  it  is,  at  first,  hard  to  see  why  so  great  an  out- 
cry should  have  been  made  against  Buononcini 
for  his  theft.  The  difference  seems  to  be  that 
the  latter  thought  it  sufficient  to  copy  another 
man's  work,  without  even  attempting  to  set  it  in 
any  framework  of  his  own.  In  Handel's  case,  the 
greater  part  of  the  music  he  '  adopted '  was,  no 
doubt,  saved  from  oblivion  by  the  fact  of  its 
inclusion  in  his  works.  The  only  possible  justifi- 
cation of  the  proceeding  is  afforded  by  success. 

Among  the  minor  instances  of  appropriation 
by  Handel  of  other  men's  themes,  it  has  been 
alleged  that  the  popular  air  known  as  *  The 
Harmonious  Blacksmith,'  which  figures  (with 
variations)  in  Handel's  'Suites  de  Pieces,'  was 
the  composition  of  Wagenseil,  or  of  some  still 
older  and  less  known  composer.  There  was 
republished  at  Paris  a  version  of  it,  adapted  to 
words  by  Clement  Marot,  which  was  said  to  be 
its  original  form  ;  but  no  copy  of  the  air,  in  any 
form,  is  extant  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  set  of 
*  Suites  de  Pieces '  in  which  it  appears  ;  there  is, 
therefore,  absolutely  nothing  to  show  that  it  is 
not  the  work  of  Handel. 

In  any  case,  musical  plagiarism  is  hard  to  define. 
The  gamut  is  limited ;  similarity  of  thought  is 
frequent,  and  coincidence  of  expression  must  be 
sometimes  inevitable  between  composers  of  the 
same  period.  Justification  can  only  be  afforded 
by  success.  We  are  irresistibly  reminded  of  the 
passage  in  which  Heine  speaks  of  the  philo- 
sopher Schelling,  who  complained  that  Hegel 
had  stolen  his  ideas  :  '  He  was  like  a  shoemaker 
accusing  another  shoemaker  of  having  taken  his 

leather  and  made  hoots  loith  it  Nothing  is 

more  absurd  than  the  assumed  right  of  property 
in  ideas.  Hegel  certainly  used  many  of  Schel- 
ling's  ideas  in  his  philosophy,  but  Schelling  him- 
self never  could  have  done  anything  with  them.' 

One  man  there  was, — J.  S.  Bach, — whose  fer- 
tility was  so  inexhaustible  that  he  invented  his 
own  fugal  subjects,  and  did  not  draw  on  the 
common  stock.  In  this  he  was, — with  all  his 
severe  science  and  seeming  fonnality, — the  true 
precursor  of  Beethoven  and  the  modern  romantic 
school  of  instrumental  music ;  while  Handel,  in 
spite  of  his  breadth  and  flow  of  melody,  and  the 
picturesqueness  of  his  grand  yet  simple  concep- 
tions, was  the  glorified  apotheosis  of  the  purely 
contrapuntal,  vocal  music. 

»  See  two  papers  by  Mr.  E.  Prout  In  the  Monthly  Musical  Record  for 
Not.  and  Dec.  1871, 


No  biographer  of  Bach  or  of  Handel  can  re- 
frain from  drawing  a  parallel  between  these  two 
gigantic,  contemporary  masters,  who  never  met, 
but  who,  in  their  respective  spheres,  united  in 
!  thefr  own  persons  all  the  influences  and  tenden- 
\  cies  of  modem  thought,  which  brought  about  the 
revolution  from  the  art  of  Palestrina  to  the  art 
of  Beethoven. 

Handel's  influence  over  the  men  who  were  his 
contemporaries  was  great  ;  yet  he  founded  no 
school.  All  his  works  were  performed  as  sotm  as 
they  were  written  ;  and,  thanks  to  the  constant 
I  opportunity  thus  afforded  to  him  of  comparing 
1  his  conceptions  with  their  realisation,  his  growth 
of  mind  was  such  that  he  surpassed  himself  more 
rapidly  than  he  influenced  others.  That  which 
is  imitable  in  his  work  is  simply  the  result  of 
certain  forms  of  expression  that  he  used  because 
he  found  them  ready  to  his  hand ;  that  which  is 
his  own  is  inimitable.  His  oratorios  are,  in  their 
own  style,  as  unapproached  now  as  ever ;  he 
seems  to  have  exhausted  what  art  can  do  in  this 
direction ;  but  he  has  not  swayed  the  minds  of 
modem  composers  as  Bach  has  done. 

Bach  lived  and  wrote  in  retirement ;  a  smaU. 
proportion  only  of  his  works  was  published  in 
his  lifetime,  nor  did  he  take  into  account  their 
effect  on  the  public  mind,  or  feel  the  public 
pulse,  as  Handel  did.  It  is  strange  that  he  in 
his  seclusion  should  have  preserved  a  keen  in- 
terest in  the  music  of  other  men,  whereas  Han- 
del's shell  of  artistic  egotism  seemed  hardened 
by  the  rough  contact  of  the  world  and  society ; 
music  for  him  existed  only  in  his  own  works. 
Bach  was  very  anxious  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  his  famous  contemporary  ;  and,  on  two  occa- 
sions, when  the  latter  visited  Halle,  made  efforts 
to  meet  him,  but  without  success.  When  Handel 
went  thither  the  third  time,  Bach  was  dead. 

Bach's  influence  began  to  be  felt  some  fifty 
years  after  his  death,  when  the  treasures  he  had 
left  behind  him  were  first  brought  to  light.  He 
was  a  thinker  who  traced  ideas  to  their  source, 
an  idealist  who  worshipped  abstract  truth  for  its 
own  sake.  His  works  are  close  chains  of  thought 
and  reasoning,  prompted  by  profound  feeling,  and 
infinitely  suggestive  ;  from  the  various  starting- 
points  which  they  offer,  we  go  on  arguing  to  this 
day ;  but  they  appeal  chiefly  to  the  reflective 
mind.  They  are  no  less  complete  as  wholes  than 
the  works  of  Handel,  but  they  are  far  more  complex; 
and  to  perceive  their  unity  requires  a  broad  scope 
of  judgment,  not  possessed  by  every  hearer. 

Handel's  works  appeal  to  all  alike.  He  was 
a  man  of  action ;  what  he  felt  and  what  he 
saw  he  painted,  but  did  not  analyse.  The  dif- 
ference is  the  same  as  that  which  lies  between  a 
great  philosopher  and  a  great  epic  poet, — be- 
tween Plato  and  Homer.  Who  shall  say  whether 
is  greater  ?  For  traces  of  the  influence  of  the 
one  we  must  seek  deeper  and  look  farther,  but 
the  power  of  the  other  is  more  consciously  felt 
and  more  universally  recognised. 

'The  figure  of  Handel,'  says  Bumey,  who 
knew  him  well,  '  was  large,  and  he  was  somewhat 
unwieldy  in  his  actions ;  but  his  countenance  was 


656 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL. 


full  of  fire  and  dignity.  His  general  look  was 
somewhat  heavy  and  sour,  but  when  he  did 
smile  it  was  the  sun  bursting  out  of  a  black 
cloud.  There  was  a  sudden  flash  .of  intelligence, 
wit,  and  good  humour,  beaming  in  his  countenance 
which  I  hardly  ever  saw  in  any  other.'  '  His 
smile  was  like  heaven.'  To  this  Hawkins  adds 
that  'his  gait  was  ever  sauntering,  with  some- 
what of  a  rocking  motion.' 

Of  portraits  of  Handel  there  is  a  multitude. 
Several  were  executed  in  marble  by  Eoubilliac ; 
one,  a  bust,  presented  to  George  III,  with  the 
original  MSS.  and  Handel's  harpsichord,^  by 
Smith;  another,  also  a  bust  (1738),  bought  by 
Bartleman  at  the  sale  of  the  properties  at  Vaux- 
hall,  and  bought  at  his  sale  again  by  Mr.  Pol- 
lock, who  presented  it  to  the  Foundling  Hospital ; 
another,  a  bust,  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Alfred 
Morrison;  fourthly,  the  Vauxhall  statue  (1738), 
now  the  property  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
Koubilliac's  first  work,  in  which  the  association 
of  the  commonplace  dress  of  the  figure  with  the 
lyre  and  naked  Cupid  is  very  ludicrous;  and 
lastly,  the  statue  in  the  monument  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  which,  in  spite  of  the  French 
affectation  of  the  pose,  is  one  of  the  best  portraits 
of  the  master,  the  head  having  been  taken  from 
a  mould  of  his  face  taken  after  death  by  Rou- 
billiac,  and  said  to  have  been  afterwards  touched 
upon  by  him,  the  eyes  opened,  etc.  A  repro- 
duction of  this  occurs  in  'The  Mirror'  for  July 
19,  1834,  from  which  it  is  here  engraved. 


Of  pictures,  the  one  by  Denner,  a  very  unsatis- 
factory portrait,  was  given  by  Lady  Rivers  to 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society;  another,  hardly 
more  trustworthy,  by  G.  A.  WolfFgang,  is  in  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Snoxell.  Two  by  Hudson  are  in 
the  possession  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians, 
while  another,  said  to  be  the  original,  was  de- 
scribed by  Forstemann  (1844)  as  belonging  to 
the  granddaughters  of  Handel's  niece,  Johanna 
Friderica  Florchen,  at  Halle.  It  is  doubtful  if 
this  latter  exists.  There  is,  however,  an  un- 
doubted original  by  Hudson,  signed,  1756,  at 
Gopsall,  and  a  duplicate  of  it,  slightly  different, 
in  Buckingham  Palace.  Another,  a  capital  little 

1  This  disposes  effectually  of  the  claim  of  the  harpsichord,  now  in 
the  South  KensiriKton  Museum,  to  be  considered  as  Handel's  harpsi- 
chord, unless  he  had  more  than  one. 


head,  by  Grafoni,  is  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum 
at  Cambridge,  to  which  it  was  presented  by 
the  Rev,  E.  Ward.  A  portrait  by  Thornhill  is  also 
in  that  Museum,  and  another  by  the  same  (i  720), 
representing  Handel  at  the  organ,  said  to  have 
been  painted  for  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  late  Mr.  Ellerton.  Lastly, 
a  little  picture,  signed  '  F,  Kyte,  1742,'  which  be- 
longed formerly  to  Mr,  Keith  Milnes,  who  gave  it 
to  Mr,  Rolfe,  from  whose  heirs  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  writer,  was  the  original  of 
Houbraken's  engraving,  and  probably  also  of 
that  by  Schmidt,  which  is  very  rare.  It  is 
reproduced  by  Hawkins,  who  pronounces  it  to 
be  *  the  only  good  one,  but  that  the  features  are 
too  prominent.' 

The  Vauxhall  statue  was  copied  by  Bartolozzi 
for  Dr.  Arnold's  edition  of  Handel's  works,  for 
which  Heath  engraved  an  apotheosis  for  which  the 
portrait  was  taken  from  another  picture  (said  tobe) 
by  Hudson  in  Dr.  Arnold's  possession.  The  bust 
was  copied  by  Chambars  for  Mainwaring's  '  Life 
of  Handel ; '  and  the  monument,  by  Delattre,  for 
Burney's  'Commemoration,'  Denner's  picture 
was  engraved  by  E.  Harding  for  the  *  Anecdotes 
of  G,  F,  Handel  and  J,  C,  Smith.'  Hudson's 
portrait  at  Gopsall  was  copied  in  mezzotint,  and 
very  badly,  for  Dr.  Arnold's  edition,  and  again  en- 
graved by  Thompson,  and  others ;  the  picture 
belonging  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians  was 
copied  in  mezzotint  by  J,  Faber  in  1 748,  and  again 
in  1 749,  the  first  being  now  very  rare.  This  was 
copied  by  Miller  (of  Dublin)  and  Hardy,  and  in 
line  by  W,  Bromley,  Sichling,  and  a  host  of  minor 
artists.  An  engraved  portrait  published  by 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel  is  also  scarce.  The  picture 
by  G,  A,  Wolffgang  was  engraved  by  J.  G, 
WolfFgang  at  Berlin,  the  name  being  spelled 
(in  the  first  state)  HENDEL.    A  good  profile, 


not  improbably  from  Mr.  Morrison's  bust,  was 
attached  to  the  word-books  of  the  Commemoration 
of  1784,  of  which  the  accompanying  cut  is  a 
faithful  copy,  slightly  reduced.  A  curious  but, 
probably,  untrustworthy  lithograph  was  pub- 


HANDEL. 


HANDEL  COMMEMORATION.  657 


.l  ihed  at  Vienna  byKiinike,  representing  Handel 
without  a  wig.  There  is  an  unfinished  plate, 
supposed  to  be  unique,  which  represents  him 
holding  a  scroll  of  music,  and  has  a  likeness  to 
the  portrait  by  Denner ;  and  another,  almost 
unique,  'Etch'd  by  D.  C.  Read  from  a  Picture 
by  Hogarth  in  his  possession,'  which  is  con- 
temptible as  a  portrait  and  as  a  work  of  art. 

Beside  these,  a  picture  said  to  be  by  Hogarth 
and  to  represent  Handel,  has  been  copied  in 
mezzotint  by  C.  Turner,  which  has  no  claim 
to  consideration  on  either  of  those  grounds. 

The  beat  are  the  two  prints  by  Faber  and 
Houbraken. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  works ' : — 


2  Italian  Oratorios;  'IlTrionfo  del 
Tempo  e  del  disinganno '  (1707-8), 
and  '  La  Reaurrezione "  a7u8). 

1  Genuaa  •  Passion  •  (\7\~-lS). 

19  English  Oratorios  ;  '  Esther '  * 
(ITiiiK  ■  Deborah  '  *  (1733).  *  Alha- 
lla  •  *  a733).  •  Sanl '  *  <1738),  •  Is- 
rael •  *  (1738).  •  Messiah '  *  (1741), 
'  Samson '  *  a741),  '  Joseph  '  * 
(1743>.  'Hercules'  *  a~U\  'Be\- 
«hazzar '  *  ?  1744),  '  Occasional '  * 
(174<i).  'Judas  Maccabaeus'* 
n746r.  'Alexander Bains'*  (1747*. 

*  Joshua  ■  *  i  1747 1,  •  Solomon  '  * 
a748),  •  Susanna '  *  (1748). '  Theo- 
dora* (1749\ 'Jephtha'*  (1751), 
'Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth' 
n757). 

5  Te  Deums :  '  Utrecht '  *  HTIS). 
2  'Chandos'*  (1718-'20),  Queen 
Caroline's*  (?1737),  'Detting- 
en  •  *  (1743). 

6  Psalms :  '  Dlilt  Domlnus '  *  et 
'  Gloria '  a707),  '  Laudate  '  *  et 
"Gloria*  mtn).  'Laudate"  et 
Gloria  •  a707-«),  '  Nisi  Dominns ' 
(1707-9),  Utrecht  "Jubilate" 
(1713).  Arrangement  of  Utrecht 
■  Jubilate "(?  1727). 

20  Anthems;  12  "Chandos  •(*  10) 
a718-20).  4 'Coronation'*  (1727). 
1  'Wedding'  (performed  1736', 
1  'Funeral'*  (1737).  1  'Dettin- 
gen"  (1743),  1  "Foundling  Hos- 
pital "  (1749). 

Arrangements  of  4  of  the  '(Than- 
doa""  Anthems  for  the  Chapel 
Royal  (?  1727). 

Some  Recits.  in  a  Wedding  An- 
them (pasticcio)  for  the  Marriage 
X>f  the  Princess  Anne,  taken  from 
Athalia,  and  from  the  seventh 
Chandos  Anthem  (1734). 

1  Motet ;  '  Silete,  venti "  *  a707-9). 

Miscellaneous  sacred  ;  a '  Gloria '  * 
(1707-9), '  Kj-rte  "(1707-9', '  Magni- 
ficat •  (?  171)7-9) :  3  HjTnns,  '  The 
Invitation,"  "  Desiring  to  love.' 
and  on  '  The  Resurrectimi"' 1742\ 

8  German  Operas;  'Almira "(17041. 
"Nero"  (performed  1705),  "Flo- 
rindo  und  Daphne '  (1708). 

39  Italian  Operas:  "Roderlgo"* 
0706).  "Agrippina"*.  1707).'  Pilla' 
(1707-8). '  Rinaldo "  (1711 ). "  Pastor 
Fldo"  0712),  'Teseo'  0712). 
'Amadlgi"  ("Oriana"  at  Ham- 
burg) (?  1715\  *  Radamisto  "  * 
('  Zenobia "  at  Hamburg)  (?  17'20). 

•  Muzio  Scaevola "  *  (1721), '  Flori- 
dante"*  (?17'21).  "Ottone'* 
(1722). 'Flavio"*  0?23),  "Giulio 
Cesare '  *  OT23),  '  Tamerlano "  * 
(17W).  "Rodelinda"*  072.-.\ 
•Sciplone"*  a72>)),  'Alessan- 
dro"*   (or    'Roiana")  (1726). 


•Admeto'  (?1727).  'Riccardo 
1"."*  0727),  'Siroe'*  (1728), 
'  Tolomeo  '  *  (1728),  '  Lotario '  * 
("Judith"  at  Hamburg)  (1729), 
"Partenope"*  (1730),  'Poro  "* 
CCleofida"  at  Hamburg)  (1731), 
'Ezlo'*  I?  1731).  '  Sosarme"* 
(1732).  "Orlando"*  (1732 >,  'Ari- 
anna "  *  (1733),  '  Ariodante  '  * 
0734),  "Alcina"*  (173.5),  Ata- 
lanta'*    (1736),  "Giustino"* 

(1736)  ,  "Arminio"  *  0736),  "Bere- 
nice "  *   (17371,  "Faramondo"* 

(1737)  ,  •  Serse  '  *  (1738),  Airs  in 
'Jupiter  in  Argos'  (pasticcio) 
(1739),  'Imeneo'*  (173S-40), 
"  Deidamia '  *  ( 1740). 

Fragments  of  'Flavio  Olibrio,'  an 
opera  which  Handel  abandoned 
after  the  beginning.  "Lucio 
Vero "  was  a  mere  pasticcio  (1747) 
containing  not  one  note  of  new 
music. 

Fragments  of  '  Titus '  (71731) ;  Re- 
cits,  to  'Semiramide,"  "Arbace,* 
and  "Caio  Fabrizio'  (pasticci, 
1733-4) ;  5  pieces  and  an  Overture 
to  'Orestes'  (pasticcio.  1734); 
Overture  to  '  Alessandro  Severe ' 
(pasticcio,  1738);  and  fragments 
of  an  Opera  without  name  or 
date. 

1  English  Opera,  '  Alcestes  "  0749) 
called  'Alcides'  by  Dr.  Arnold, 
partly  u.sed  in  'The  Choice  of 
Hercules.' 

2  Italian  Serenatas;  *Aci,  Galatea, 
e  Polifemo '  *  (1708),  13  Airs  and 
Choruses  for  '  Pamasso  in  Festa ' 
(performed  1734), 

2  English  Serenatas;  'Acis  and 
Galatea "  *  0721),  '  Semele '  * 
0743). 

1  English  Interlude,  'The  Choice 
of  Hercules '  *  O750). 

1  Italian  Intermezzo,'  Terpsichore* 
(performed.  1734). 

4  Odes;  Queen  Anne's  'Birthday 
Ode"*  0712),  'Alexander's 
Feast"*  0736),  'Dryden's  Ode,' 
on  'St.  Cecilia's  Day'*  (1739). 
'L'AUegro,  il  Penseroso,  ed  11 
Moderate'*  O740). 

2  Chamber  Trios ;  '  Se  tu  non  lasci 
amore."  'Quel  fior  che  all'  alba 
ride  •  07C8). 

24  Chamber  Duets;  13  called '  Han- 
over Duets "  0711) ;  2. '  Quel  fior," 
'No,  di  voi'  (1741);  3,  'Beato  in 
▼er."  'No.  dl  vol."  'Fronda  leg- 
giera*  0742);  1,  'Qual  saria' 
0745) ;  5. '  Giii  nei  Tartarei," '  Caro 
autor'  0).  'Caro  autor'  (2).  'Ah, 
nella  sorte,'  'Spero  indamo' 
(n.  d.). 

1  Italian  Duet,  'L'amore  inno. 


cente,"  unpublished  and  lost 
(performed  March  '28. 1738). 

94  Cantatas ;  1,  '  Fa.ssion.'  German 
(1704);  12,  called  'Hanover' 
(1711);  79  written  in  Italy,  un- 
published 0706-12);  2.  'Cecilia, 
volgi,' '  Sei  del  cielo '  0736;. 

7  French  Songs  O707-9). 

19  English  Songs  (v.d.),  found  se- 
parate or  in  various  Song-books 
0715-1756). 

1  English  Air,  unpublished,  'For 
ever  let  his  sacred  raptures' 
(n.  d.). 

16  Italian  Airs  and  Canzonets,  un- 
published fn.  d.). 

INSTRUMENTAL. 

6  Sonatas  (Trios  i,  lost,  0694). 

12  Sonatas  (Solos).  Op.  1  (pub- 
Ushed  1732). 

6  Sonatas  (Trios).  Op.  2  (published 
1732). 

6  Concertos  (Hoboy).  Op.  3  (pub- 
lished 1734). 

1st  Set.  6  Organ  Concertos*  (7 
parts).  Op.  4  (publLshed  1734). 

7  Sonatas  (Trios).  Op.  5  (published 
1735). 

12  Grand  Concertos.*  Op.  6  0739. 

Published  1739). 
2nd  Set.  6 Organ  Concertos*  (2 


with  7  Instrumental  parts)  (pub- 
lished 1741).  The  Instrumental 
parts  to  these  (published  1760). 
■3rd  Set.  6  Organ  Concertos*  (7 
Instrumental  parts).  Op.  7  (1740- 
51.  Published  1761). 

3  Organ  Concertos  (7  Instrumental 
parts)  (published  1797)  (Arnold). 

Concertante  in  9  parts  (1736), 
'  Water  Musick '  in  7  parts  (1715). 

Tunes  in  the  'Alchymist'  (1732), 
"Forest  Music'  (1741-3),  'Fire- 
works Music '  *  (1749),  Hornpipe 
(1740).  Sonata  for  2  Violins  (1736). 
Sonata  in  5  parts  0736) ;  Sonata 
for  Violin,  Sonata  for  Hoboy, 
Violin,  and  Viola,  and  an  Over- 
ture (n.  d.). 

MUSIC  FOR  HARPSICHORD. 

4  Pieces,  in  Holland  (91710). 

1st  Set.  Suites  de  Pieces  (published 
1720). 

4  Minuets  and  a  March  (published 
17C0). 

2nd  Set.  Suites  de  Pieces  (publLshed 
1733). 

6  Pieces  (published  1798),  4  Pieces 
(published  1859  by  the  German 
Handel  Society),  Six  Fugues  for 
Organ  or  Harpsichord*  (1720 
Published  1735).        r  j  -»  «-  -i 


HANDEL,  COMMEMORATION  OF.  Early 
in  17S3  three  musical  amateurs,  Viscount  Fitz- 
william,  Sir  Watkin  Williams  Wjim,  and  Joah 
Bates,  conceived  the  idea  of  celebrating  the 
centenary  of  the  birth  of  Handel  (1684-5)  by 
performing  some  of  his  works  on  a  scale  then 
unprecedented  in  England.  The  scheme  being 
supported  by  the  leading  musical  professors  and 
the  Directors  of  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music 
(who  undertook  the  arrangement  of  the  per- 
formances), and  warmly  entered  into  by  the 
King,  it  was  determined  to  carry  it  into  eflfect 
by  giving  two  performances  in  Westminster 
Abbey  (where  Handel  was  buried),  and  one  at 
the  Pantheon.  The  first  performance  was  given 
in  the  Abbey  on  Wednesday  morning,  May  26, 
1784  ;  it  consisted  of '  The  Dettingen  Te  Deum,' 
one  of  the  Coronation  Anthems,  one  of  the 
Chandos  Anthems,  part  of  the  Funeral  Anthem, 
and  a  few  other  fragments.  The  second  was  on 
Thursday  evening.  May  27,  at  the  Pantheon, 
and  comprised  various  songs  and  choruses,  sacred 
and  secular,  four  concertos  and  an  overture. 
The  third  was  at  the  Abbey  on  Saturday  morn- 
ing, May  29,  when  'Messiah'  was  given.  These 
performances  were  so  attractive  as  to  lead  to  a 
repetition  of  the  first  day's  music,  with  some 
little  variations,  at  the  Abbey,  on  Thursday 
morning,  June  3,  and  of  *  Messiah,'  at  the  same 
place,  on  Saturday  morning,  June  5.  The  or- 
chestra (erected  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave,  and 
surmounted  by  an  organ  built  for  the  occasion 
by  Green)  contained  525  performers,  viz.  59 
sopranos,  48  altos,  83  tenors,  and  84  basses; 
48  first  and  47  second  violins,  26  violas,  21 
violoncellos,  15  double  basses,  6  flutes,  26  oboes, 
26  bassoons,  i  double  bassoon,  12  trumpets, 
12  horns,  6  trombones,  4  drums,  and  the  con- 
ductor (at  the  organ),  Joah  Bates.  The  prin- 
cipal vocalists,  who  are  included  in  the  above 
enumeration,  were  Madame  Mara,  Miss  Har- 
wood.  Miss  Cantelo,  Miss  Abrams,  Miss  The- 

I  odosia  Abrams,  and  Signor  Bartolini ;  Rev.  Mr. 

j  Clerk,  Dyne,  and  Knyvett,  altos ;  Harrison, 

Uu 


1  Where  the  date  of  composition  Is  not  even  approximately  known, 
that  of  publication  has  been  given.  An  asterisk  is  added  to  the 
names  of  the  works  the  autographs  of  which  are  preserved  in  Buck- 
ingham Palace.  Pome  of  the  volumes  in  that  collection  contain 
Anthems.  Duets.  Sketches.  Fragments,  Sonatas,  *c.,  impossible  to 
designate  with  an  asterisk  in  the  above  short  list.  The  writer  desires 
to  express  his  obligation  to  M.  Schoelcher  for  the  first  draft  of  this 
useful  caulogue. 


658    HANDEL  COMMEMORATION. 


HANDEL-GESELLSCHAFT. 


Norris,  and  Corfe,  tenors  ;  Bellamy,  Champness, 
Reinhold,  Matthews,  and  Tasca,  basses.  The 
orchestra  at  the  Pantheon  consisted  of  200 
performers  selected  from  those  at  the  Abbey, 
and  also  included  Signor  Pacchierotti  among  the 
principal  sopranos.  The  total  receipts  were 
£12,736  I2S.  lod.,  and  the  total  expenses  £5,450 
6s.  4^.,  leaving  a  surplus  of  £7,286  66'.  6d., 
which,  after  retaining  £286  6s.  6c?.  to  meet 
subsequent  demands,  was  divided  between  the 
Society  of  Musicians  (£6,000),  and  the  West- 
minster Hospital  (£1,000).  A  mural  tablet 
recording  the  event  was  placed  in  the  Abbey 
above  Handel's  monument.  In  1785  Dr.  Burney 
published  a  quarto  volume  containing  an  Account 
of  the  Commemoration,  with  a  Sketch  of  the 
Life  of  Handel,  and  plates,  one  of  which  repre- 
sents his  monument.  In  this  the  inscription  is 
altered  to  support  the  assertion  in  the  Life 
(made  upon  the  alleged  authority  of  Dr.  Warren, 
who  is  asserted  to  have  attended  Handel  in  his 
last  illness),  that  Handel  died  on  Good  Friday, 
April  13,  and  not  on  Saturday,  April  14,  1759. 
Assuming  Burney  to  have  believed  the  unsup- 
ported statement  of  Dr.  Warren,  made  25  years 
after  the  event,  in  preference  to  the  unanimous 
contemporary  testimony  to  the  contrary,  still 
he  could  not  but  have  been  conscious  that  in 
putting  forth  that  engraving  of  the  monument 
he  was  circulating  a  misrepresentation.  The 
matter  is  important,  as  Burney's  date  has  been 
generally  accepted,  but  it  is  too  lengthy  to  be 
further  entered  upon  here.  The  evidence  proving 
Saturday,  April  14,  to  be  the  true  date  may  be 
seen  stated  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Word 
Book  of  the  Handel  Festival,  1862,  and  Notes 
and  Queries,  3rd  Series,  iii.  421. 

The  Conunemoration  of  1 784  was  followed  by 
similar  meetings  at  the  Abbey,  with  more  per- 
formers, in  1785,  86,  87,  and  91.  In  the  latter 
year  the  performers  are  said  to  have  numbered 
1068,  but  that  number  was  probably  made  up 
by  inserting  the  names  of  persons  who  performed 
alternately  with  others,  so  that  the  numbers  en- 
gaged in  any  one  performance  did  not  much 
exceed  those  on  the  former  occasions.  [W.H.  H.] 

HANDEL  FESTIVAL.  In  1856  Mr.  R.  K. 
BowLEY  [see  that  name]  conceived  the  idea  of 
commemorating  the  genius  of  Handel  on  the 
centenary  (in  1859)  of  his  death  by  performing 
some  of  his  works  on  a  scale  of  unprecedented 
magnitude.  On  Sept.  i,  1856,  he  communicated 
his  idea  to  the  Committee  of  the  Sacred  Har- 
monic Society,  by  whom  it  was  favourably  re- 
ceived. No  building  in  London  being  large 
enough  to  contain  the  necessary  orchestra,  the 
attention  of  the  Society  was  directed  towards  the 
Central  Transept  of  the  Crystal  Palace  (of  which 
they  had  already  had  experience  in  the  per- 
formance of  the  music  at  the  opening  of  the 
Palace,  May  10,  1854)  as  the  most  likely  place 
to  answer  the  desired  end.  The  Directors  of 
the  Crystal  Palace  Company  entered  warmly  into 
the  project,  and  it  was  determined  to  hold  a 
preliminary  festival  in  1857.  A  large  orchestra 
was  accordingly  erected,  with  a  grand  organ, 


built  by  Gray  and  Davison  expressly  for  the 
occasion.  With  the  chorus  of  the  Society  as  a 
nucleus,  a  choir  of  upwards  of  1 200  picked  singers 
was  formed  in  London,  which  was  supplemented 
by  others  from  the  principal  towns  in  the  United 
Kingdom  until  the  whole  numbered  2000.  The 
band,  similarly  constituted,  numbered  396.  The 
meeting,  under  the  title  of  'The  Great  Handel 
Festival,'  was  held  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and 
Friday,  15th,  17th,  and  19th  June,  1857,  with 
a  public  rehearsal  on  the  preceding  Saturday. 
The  sole  direction  of  the  musical  arrangements 
was  committed  to  the  Society,  the  Company 
taking  charge  of  the  other  arrangements.  The 
oratorios  of  'Messiah,'  'Judas  Maccabeus,'  and 
*  Israel  in  Egypt,'  were  performed,  the  principal 
singers  including  Clara  Novello,  Miss  Dolby, 
Mr.  Sims  Reeves  and  Herr  Formes,  and  the  con- 
ductor being  Mr.  (now  Sir  Michael)  Costa,  as 
conductor  of  the  Society. 

This  festival  having  established  the  fact  that 
the  Central  Transept  of  the  Palace  might  be 
made  a  fitting  locality  for  the  Commemoration  in 
1859,  took  place  under  the  same  management, 
on  the  20th,  22nd,  and  24th  June,  'Messiah' 
and  'Israel  in  Egypt'  again  occupying  the  first 
and  third  days,  the  second  being  devoted  to  '  The 
Dettingen  Te  Deum'  and  a  selection  from  various 
works.  The  band  was  augmented  to  460,  and 
the  chorus  to  upwards  of  2,700  performers  ;  Mr. 
Costa  was  conductor,  and  the  principal  singers 
included  Clara  Novello,  Sims  Reeves,  and  Signor 
Belletti.  The  orchestra  was  improved  by  inclosing 
it  with  wooden  screens,  and  covering  it  in  with  an 
enormous  awning  of  oiled  and  hardened  canvas. 
The  three  performances  and  the  public  rehearsal 
were  remarkably  successful,  and  attracted  8i,3K) 
visitors. 

This  success  led  to  the  determination  that 
similar  festivals  should  be  held  periodically 
under  the  name  of  the  Triennial  Handel  Festival. 
Six  have  been  held,  viz.  in  1862,  1865,  1868, 
1 87 1,  1874,  and  1877.  The  first  and  third  days 
have  invariably  been  occupied  by  'Messiah'  and 
'  Israel,'  the  intermediate  days  being  devoted  to 
varied  selections,  including  'The  Dettingen  Te 
Deum'  in  1 87 1 ;  the  Coronation  Anthems, '  Zadok 
the  Priest'  (1865),  and  'The  king  shall  rejoice' 
(1877) ;  and  the  First,  Fourth,  and  Second  Organ 
Concertos  respectively  in  1871,  1874,  i^?/- 
The  singers  who  appeared  at  these  festivals 
were  the  most  eminent  then  before  the  public. 
The  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  has  been  solely 
responsible  for  the  performances,  which  have 
been  all  conducted  by  Sir  M.  Costa  as  the  con- 
ductor of  the  Society.  The  band  was  augmented 
in  1865  to  495  performers,  and  the  chorus  in 
1874  to  nearly  3,200.  The  sonority  of  the 
orchestra  was  increased  by  the  erection  in  1862 
of  a  boarded  roof  covering  in  the  whole  space 
occupied  by  the  performers,  and  extending  24 
feet  beyond  the  front.  [W.  H.  H.] 

HANDEL-GESELLSCHAFT.  A  society  for 
the  publication  of  a  critical  and  uniform  edition 
of  the  whole  of  Handel's  works  in  fuU  score, 
with  pianoforte  arrangement  and  German  trans- 


HANDEL-GESELLSCHAFT. 


HANDEL  AND  HAYDN  SOCIETY.  659 


lation  of  the  text.  The  Prospectus  is  dated  15 
Aug.  1856,  and  has  35  names  appended  to  it, 
including  those  of  Chrysander,  Dehn,  Franz,  Ger- 
vinus,  Hauptmann,  Hiller,  Jahn,  Liszt,  Meyer- 
beer, Moscheles,  Neukomm,  Rietz.  A  second 
Prospectus  announcing  the  first  year's  issue  is 
dated  Leipzig,  I  June  1859,  and  signed  by  the 
Directoriuin,  viz.  Rietz,  Hauptmann,  Chrysander, 
Gervinus,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  For  the  editing — 
wtich  is  of  the  naost  thorough  character,  and 
based  in  every  possible  case  on  the  autograph 
MSS.  —  Dr.  Chrysander  is  understood  to  be 
responsible  ;  and  the  execution  is  all  that  might 
be  expected  from  the  well-known  efficience  and 
taste  of  the  firm  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  by  whom 
the  volumes  are  issued.  The  annual  subscription 
is  10  thalers,  or  30s.' 

The  following  works  have  been  published,  and 
it  is  intended  to  complete  the  whole  by  1885,  the 
second  centenary  of  Handel's  birth.  (Those 
marked  with  a  *  are  published  for  the  first 
time.) 

1.  1858.  1.  Susannah.  2.  Harpsichord  works,  3  Suites  de  Pieces  etc. 
3.  Acis. 

Z  1859.  4.  Hercules.     5.  Athaliah.     6.  Allegro,  Penseroso,  and 
Moderato. 

3.  1860.  7.  Semele.  8.  Theodora.  9.  *Passlon  (St.  John). 

4.  1861.  10.  Samson.  11.  Funeral  Anthem.  12.  Alexander's  Feast. 

5.  1862.  13.  Saul.  14.  Coronation  Anthems.  15.  *  Passion  (Broclies). 

6.  1863.  16.  Israel.  17.  Joshua.  18.  Choice  of  Hercules. 

7.  1864.  19.  Belshazzar.  20.  Time  and  Truth.   21.  Oboe  Concertos, 

Concertante,  etc. 

8.  1865.  22.  Judas.  23.  Ode  for  S.  CeciHa's  Day.  24.  *n  Triomfo  del 

Tempo.  25.  Dettingen  Te  Deum. 

9.  1866.  26.  Solomon.  27.  Alcina.  28.  12  Organ  Concertos. 
10.1867.  29.  Deborah.  30.  12  Grand  Concertos.  31.  Utrecht  Te  Deum 

and  Jubilate. 

11.  1868.  32.  Chamber  Duets.    83.  Alexander  Balus.    34.  Chandos 

Anthems. 

12.  1869.  35.  Chandos  Anthems.  36.  2  Wedding  Anthems,  Dettingen 

do.,  etc. 

13.  1870.  37.  Chandos  Te  Deum,  and  2  short  do.  38.  *Latin  Psalms 

and  Motets.  55.  *Almira.  56.  *Kodrigo.  Appendix  to 
Time  and  Tnith,  and  to  Deborah. 

14.  1871.  57.  Agrippina.    58.  *Binaldo.    60.  Teseo.    62.  *Amadigi. 

64.  *Muzio  Scevola. 

15.  1872.  61.  *Silla.  63.  *Eadamisto.  67.  *Flavio.  68.  GiulioCesare. 

16.  1873.  65.  *Floridante.    70.  *Kodelinda.  59.  *  Pastor  Fido.  69. 

*Tamerlano. 

17.  1874.  71.  *Scipione.  72.  *Alessandro.  73.  *Admeto.  74.  *Eic- 

cardo. 

18.  1875.  39.  *Resurrezione.    54.  *Parna5so  in  festa.    75.  *Siroe. 

76.  *Tolomeo. 

Many  things,  even  in  the  well-known  works, 
have  been  here  published,  and  indeed  revealed, 
for  the  first  time — such  as  the  trombone  parts  in 
Israel  in  Egypt  and  Saul,  the  organ  part  in  Saul, 
the  rescoring,  in  D,  for  Samson,  of  the  Dead 
March  in  Saul,  the  final  chorus  in  Belshazzar, 
etc.  etc.  [G.] 

HANDEL  SOCIETY,  THE.  A  society 
formed  in  1843  *  for  the  production  of  a  superior 
and  standard  edition  of  the  works  of  Handel.'  It 
was  suggested  by  Mr.  Macfarren,  senior,  who 
however  died  on  the  24th  April,  immediately 
after  the  first  meeting  convened  by  him.  The 
Prospectus  was  signed  by  George  A.  Macfarren 
as  Secretary,  on  behalf  of  the  Council,  and  was 
issued  from  his  residence  73  Berners  Street,  June 
16, 1843.  The  Council  for  the  first  year  consisted 
of  R.  Addison,  Treasurer ;  W.  Sterndale  Bennett ; 
Sir  H.  R.  Bishop ;  Dr.  Crotch ;  J.  W.  Davison ; 
E.  J. Hopkins ;  G.  A.  Macfarren,  Secretary ;  I.  Mos- 
cheles ;  T.  M.  Mudie;  E.  F.  Rimbault ;  Sir  George 
Smart,  and  Henry  Smart.  The  annual  subscription 


was  a  guinea,  and  the  Society  commenced  opera- 
tions with  icoo  members.  The  publications — in 
large  folio,  full  score,  each  with  P.  F.  arrangement 
and  editor's  preface — were  issued  by  Cramer, 
Addison,  and  Beale,  as  follows : — 

1843-  4.  4  Coronation  Anthems,  edited  by  Dr.  Crotch  ;  and  L'Allegro,  U 

Pensieroso,  ed  11  Moderato,  by  I.  Moscheles. 

1844-  5.  Esther,  by  diaries  Lucas;  and  Ode  for  S.Cecilia's  Day,  by 

T.  M.  Mudie. 

1845-  6.  Israel  in  Egypt,  by  Mendelssohn. 

1846-  7.  Acis  and  Galatea,  by  W.  Sterndale  Bennett ;  and  Dettingen  Te 

Deum,  by  Sir  G.  Smart. 

1847-  8.  Belshazzar,  Part  1,  by  G.  A.  Macfarren. 

1848-  9.       Do.       Part  2,  by  Do. 

1850.  Messiah,  by  Dr.  Eimbault. 

1851.  13  Chamber  Duets  and  2  Trios,  by  Henry  Smart. 

1852.  Samson,  by  Dr.  Kimbault. 

1853.  Judas  Maccabasus,  by  G.  A.  Macfarren. 

1854.  Saul,  by  Dr.  Kimbault. 

1855.  Jephthah,  by  G.  A.  Macfarren. 

The  Society  was  dissolved  in  Jan.  1848,  owing  to 
a  lack  of  subscribers ;  but  the  publication  of  the 
works  was  continued  by  Cramer  &  Co.  till  1858, 
when  the  last  volume  (for  1855)  was  issued.  [G.] 

HANDEL  AND  HAYDN  SOCIETY,  THE, 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  is  the  largest,  and,  with 
one  ^  exception,  the  oldest  living  musical  or- 
ganisation in  the  United  States.  It  dates  from 
March  30,  1815,  when  sixteen  gentlemen  met  in 
answer  to  an  invitation  dated  six  days  before, 
signed  by  Gottlieb  Graupner,  Thomas  Smith 
Webb,  and  Asa  Peabody,  to  consider  '  the  expe- 
diency of  forming  a  society  for  cultivating  and 
improving  a  correct  taste  in  the  performance  of 
sacred  music,  and  also  to  introduce  into  more 
general  practice  the  works  of  Handel,  Haydn, 
and  other  eminent  composers.'  At  a  second  meet- 
ing a  fortnight  later,  a  set  of  rules  was  adopted, 
and  Matthew  S.  Parker  was  elected  Secretary. 
The  first  board  of  government  was  completed  at 
the  third  meeting,  April  20, 1 81 5,  by  the  election 
of  Thomas  Smith  Webb  as  president,  Amasa 
Winchester  vice-president,  and  Nathaniel  Tucker 
treasurer,  and  nine  others  as  trustees. 

The  state  of  music  in  Boston  was  at  this  time 
very  low.  The  '  Massachusetts  Musical  Society,' 
formed  in  1807,  was  extinct.  The  Philo- 
harmonic  Society — for  orchestral  music  only — 
was  still  in  existence ;  but  of  professional 
musicians  there  were  prolaably  not  a  score  in  the 
town.  The  society's  first  musical  utterances  were 
from  the  '  Lock  Hospital '  and  other  collections  of 
hymn  tunes  then  in  general  use  in  New  England. 
By  degrees,  and  as  its  numbers  grew,  music  of 
a  higher  order  was  rehearsed.  Early  in  Sep- 
tember, 1815,  the  project  of  a  'public  exhibition' 
assumed  importance.  And  on  the  night  of  the 
following  Christmas,  at  the  Stone  Chapel,  in  the 
presence  of  a  thousand  auditors,  the  society  gave 
to  the  public  the  first  taste  of  its  quality.  The 
chorus  numbered  about  a  hundred,  of  which 
perhaps  ten  were  ladies ;  an  orchestra  of  less 
than  a  dozen  and  an  organ  furnished  the  accom- 
paniments ;  the  programme  was  long  and  varied, 
and  included  selections  from  *  The  Creation '  and 
'  The  Messiah,'  and  other  works  by  Handel.  An 
enthusiastic  journalist  declared  that  there  was 

'  The  Sloughion  Musical  Society,  formed  Nov.  7, 1786.  Stoughton  is 
an  inland  town,  about  twenty  miles  from  Boston.  The  Society's 
artistic  importance  has  been  much  less  than  that  of  the  sut)ject 
of  this  article. 

Uu2 


660  HANDEL  AND  HAYDN  SOCIETY. 


HANDEL  AND  HAYDN  SOCIETY. 


*  nothing  to  compare  with  it,'  and  that  the  society 
was  'now  the  wonder  of  the  nation.'  The  concert 
was  repeated  on  the  i8th  January  following. 

The  State  legislature  having  granted,  Feb.  9, 
1 816,  a  special  charter,  wherein  the  purpose  of 
the  society  'to  extend  the  knowledge  and  im- 
prove the  style  of  church  musick'  was  recog- 
nised, a  new  code  of  rules  was  framed,  and  other 
means  adopted  to  strengthen  the  efficiency  of  the 
organisation.  The  records  of  the  first  decade 
furnish  abundant  evidence  of  the  poverty  of  the 
musical  resources  of  Boston.  Wrth  the  hope  of 
securing  better  organists  than  were  available  at 
home,  liberal  offers  were  made  to  musicians  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  On  one  occasion 
there  was  an  undi.sguised  fear  that  a  certain  con- 
cert must  be  postponed  '  in  consequence  of  the 
want  of  an  organist.'  In  the  early  concerts  the 
solos  were  sung  by  members  of  the  choir.  The 
first  engagement  of  a  professional  vocalist  was 
that  of  Mr.  Thomas  Phillips,  in  April,  1818,  to 
whom  was  paid  the  extraordinary  sum  of  400 
dollars  for  two  concerts.  The  following  list  pre- 
sents the  names  of  eminent  artists  who  have  ap- 
peared at  the  society's  concerts :  English — Mmes. 
Anna  Bishop,  Patey,  Parepa-Rosa,  Catherine 
Hayes,  and  Edith  Wynne;  Messrs.  Braham,  Cura- 
mings,  Hatton,  Incledon,  Patey,  Henry  Phillips, 
and  Santley  ;  Continental — Mmes.  Alboni,  Cara- 
dori -Allan,  Grisi,  Nilsson,  Eudersdorf,  Sontag, 
and  Tietjens  (whose  last  appearance  in  America 
was  at  a  concert  by  the  society) ;  Messrs.  Formes, 
Stigelli,  Mario,  etc. ;  American — Mmes.  Clara 
Louise  Kellogg,  Antoinette  Sterling,  etc. ;  Messrs. 
Charles  P.  Adams,  Thomas  Ball  (the  eminent 
sculptor),  Myron  W.  Whitney — and  many  others. 

It  was  not  until  the  17th  concert,  Dec.  25, 
1818,  that  a  complete  oratorio  was  performed. 
This  was  '  The  Messiah.'  Liberal  selections  from 
the  work  had  however  been  given  at  the  pre- 
vious concerts.  The  following  list  of  works, 
with  the  year  of  first  performance,  contains  the 
most  important  choral  compositions  produced  in 
the  course  of  the  63  seasons  which  have  passed 
(181 5-1 878),  comprising  610  concerts.  Of  the 
compositions  named  few  had  been  heard  in 
Boston,  or  even  in  America,  before  their  per- 
formance by  the  society. 

Handel's  Messiah  (1818),  Detting- :  Bennett's  Woman  of  Sannaria 
en  Te  Deum  (1819),  Samson  (18ioK  jaSTlj:  Costa's  Eli  C1857;,  Xaaman 
Judas  (1847),  Solomon  (1855),  Israel  i  (1869) :  Verdi's  Requiem  (1878) :  be- 
imm),  St.  Cecilia  (1863),  Jephthah  sides  works  by  Marcello,yeukomm, 
(1867^  Joshua  Q876):  Haydn's Crea-  Romberg,  Killer,  Donizetti,  St. 
tion  (1819),  Mass  in  Bb  (1829),  j  Saens,  Buhler,  and  Xicolai;  by 
Seasons  (1875):  Bach's  Pa-ssion  Dudley  Buck,  Paine,  and  Parker, 
a874),  Christmas  Oratorio,  Parts  among  American,  and  Horn  and 
1  and  2  (1877;:  Mozart's  3Iass  in  C  M.  P.  King  amongst  English  com- 
(1829),  Eequiem  a857):  Beethoven's  posers— 17  works  In  all.  Of  these 
Slount  of  Olives  (1833J,  Ninth  the  Messiah  has  been  performed 
Symphony  (18.53;:  Spohr's  Last  68  times,  the  Creation  60,  Neu- 
.  Judgment  0842) :  Mendelssohn's  komm's  David  .57,  Moses  in  Egypt 
St.  Paul  a843),  Elijah  (1848;,  45,  Elijah 43,  Samson  33,  Lobgesang 
Lobgesang  0858;,  Psalm  xlii.  (1866).  12,  St.  Paul  10,  the  Xinth  Symphony 
do.  xcv.  (1868;,  Hear  my  Prayer  6,  Israel  In  Ejrvpt  5,  Mozart's 
(1874),  Ohristus  a874j:  Bossini's  Eequiem 2.  etc.  etc. 
Stabat  0843;,  Moses  ".n  Egypt  0845; : 

Excluded  from  this  enumeration  are  those 
occasions  when  selections  only  were  sung ;  as 
well  as  numerous  concerts  at  which  the  society 
formed  only  a  part  of  the  choir,  or  which  were 
noz  given  under  its  own  direction ;  the  most 


important  of  these  have  been  ceremonies  of 
public  rejoicing  or  mourning,  dedicatory  exercises, 
musical  festivals  at  New  York,  and  the  Peace 
Jubilees  at  Boston  in  1869  and  72.  The  number 
of  concerts  given  during  a  season  has  varied  in 
accordance  with  the  public  demand  :  it  has  been 
as  low  as  one  and  as  high  as  twenty-three.  Very 
rarely  during  the  past  twenty-five  years  has  a 
concert  been  omitted  at  Easter-tide ;  and  more 
rarely  still  has  Christmas  passed  without  a  per- 
formance of  '  The  Messiah.'  The  support  of  the 
society  is  nearly  all  derived  from  the  profits  of 
its  concerts.    New  members  pay  an  initiation 

i  fee  of  five  dollars,  and  it  has  sometimes  been 
necessary  to  levy  a  special  assessment  to  pay  off 

,  outstanding  debts.  There  is  a  permanent  trust 
fund,  the  nucleus  of  which  was  formed  from 
the  earnings  of  the  festival  of  1865,  and  which, 
by  subsequent  earnings,  interest,  bequests  and 
donations,  now  (1878)  amounts  to  12,000  dollars  ; 
the  income  is  available  at  the  discretion  of  the 

!  board  of  government. 

I     Six  festivals,  modelled  on  those  of  Birming- 
;  ham,  have  been  held.  The  first  occurred  in  1857. 
!  The  fiftieth  anniversary  was  celebrated  in  May 
1865,  by  a  week's  performances.  Triennial  festi- 
i  vals  have  since  been  regularly  held,  beginning 
I  in  1868.    On  each  of  these  occasions,  excepting 
the  last  (1877),  a  guarantee  fund  has  been  sub- 
scribed by  the  friends  of  the  society. 
I     In  pursuance  of  its  avowed  purpose  to  improve 
the  style  of  church-music,  the  society,  in  its 
earlier    days,    published    several   volumes  of 
anthems  and  hymn-tunes,  established  lectures  on 
musical  topics,  and  formed  singing  classes.  The 
publications  quickly  became  standard,  and  large 
profits  were  realised  from  their  sale.  Oratorios 
were  also  published  under  its  supervi.sion.  By 
these  means,  and  by  the  generally  high  standard 
of  its  concerts,  the  society  has  largely  contributed 
'  to  the  elevation  of  musical  taste  in  Boston,  and 
has  prompted  the  formation  of  similar  asso- 
ciations all  over  the  Union. 
1     The  number  of  members,  active  and  retired 
'  (the  latter  a  voluntary  condition,  after  twenty 
years'  service),  at  present  is  about  300.  The 
active  choral  force  is  600  strong.    The  female 
I  choristers  have  never  been  members,  technically, 
the  system  of  annually  inviting  the  aid  of  their 
voices  having  obtained  ah  initio.    Mr,  Qhas.  E. 
I  Horn  was  the  first   regularly  chosen  musical 
'  director  (1847),  the  president  having  until  then 
I  performed  the  duties  of  a  conductor,  in  accordance 
:  with  a  provision  in  the  by-laws.     In  1850,  Mr. 
Charles  C.  Perkins,  being  president,  assumed  the 
baton.    Since  then,  a  conductor  has  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  board  of  government  as  follows : 
J.  E.  Goodson,  1851;  G.  J.Webb,  1852;  Carl 
Bergmann^   1852  ;   Carl  Zerrahn,  the  present 
(1878)  conductor,  Aug.  24,  1854.    The  following 
have  been  appointed  organi.sts:  Samuel  Stock- 
well  ;  S.  P.  Taylor ;  S.  A.  Cooper  ;  J.  B.  Taylor ; 
Miss  Sarah  Hewitt ;  Charles  Zeuner ;   A.  U. 
Hayter;  G.  F.  Hayter ;  F.  F.  Mueller;  J.  C.  D. 
Parker.    The  position  is  now  held  by  Mr.  B.  J. 
]  Lang,  elected  September  15,  1859. 


HANDEL  AND  HAYDN  SOCIETY. 


HANSLICK. 


661 


Rehearsals  are  regularly  held  on  Sunday  nights 
during  the  season  (October  to  April  inclusive), 
and  the  majority  of  the  concerts  also  occur  on 
Sundays.  The  annual  election  of  officers  is 
lield  in  May.  The  following  gentlemen  now 
constitute  the  board  of  government : — C.  C.  Per- 
Idns,  president ;  G.  H.  Chickering,  vice-president ; 
G.  W.  Palmer,  treasurer;  A.  P.  Browne,  secre- 
tary ;  J.  H.  Stickney,  librarian,  and  eight  others, 
directors.  [F.H.J.] 

HANDL,  Jacob,  also  Handl  and  Hiihnel,  an 
old  German  master  of  the  first  class  (1550-1 591), 
whose  name,  after  the  punning  fashion  of  those 
days,  was  latinised  into  Gallus,  under  which 
head  he  is  noticed  in  this  work.  Handel  has 
done  him  the  favour  to  transfer  a  very  character- 
istic and  evidently  favourite  passage  which  winds 
up  both  portions  of  his  motet  *  Ecce  quomodo 
moritur  Justus,'  to  the  same  position  in  his 

*  Funeral  Anthem'  ('  But  their  name ').  [G.] 

HANNIBALI.   See  Anxibali. 

HANOVER  SQUARE  ROOMS.  In  1773 
a  piece  of  ground  on  the  east  side  of  Hanover 
Square  at  the  north-west  corner  of  Hanover 
Street,  formerly  part  of  a  field  called  the  Mill 
Field,  alias  Kirkham  Close,  and  described  as 

*  containing  in  breadth  from  north  to  south  in 
the  front  next  the  Square  as  well  as  in  the  rear 
40  feet  of  assize,  more  or  less,  and  in  depth  from 
west  to  east  on  the  north  side  as  well  as  on  the 
south,  135  feet  more  or  less,'  was  occupied  by  a 
house,  garden,  and  office,  then  in  the  occupation 
of  Lord  Dillon.  The  freehold  belonged  to  the 
Earl  of  Plymouth.  On  June  28,  1774,  Lord 
Plymouth  sold  the  freehold  for  £5000^  to  Vis- 
count Wenman,  who  on  the  same  day  conveyed 
the  whole  to  Giovanni  Andrea  -Gallini,  John 
Christian  Bach,  and  Charles  Frederick  Abel. 
Gallini  owned  one-half,  and  the  others  each  one 
fourth.  They  erected  on  the  site  of  the  garden 
and  office,  and  joining  on  to  the  house,  rooms  for 
the  purposes  of  concerts,  assemblies,  etc.,  consist- 
ing of  a  principal  room,  95  ft,  by  35,  on  the  level 
of  the  first  floor  ;  a  small  room  on  the  north  side, 
originally  used  as  a  tea-room ;  and  one  on  the 
ground  floor  beneath  the  principal  room.  The 
ceiling  of  the  principal  room  was  arched,  and 
decorated  with  paintings  by  Cipriani.  The 
orchestra  stood  at  the  east  end.  The  rooms 
were  opened  on  Feb,  i,  1775,  with  one  of  Bach 
and  Abel's  Subscription  Concerts,  established 
by  them  in  1 763  :  later  in  the  month  Sub- 
scription '  Festinos '  were  announced ;  on  May  4, 
'Mr.  Gallini's  Annual  Ball,'  and  on  May  22, 
the  first  'Grand  Subscription  Masquerade.'  On 
Nov.  12,  1776,  Gallini  purchased  the  shares  of 
Bach  and  Abel,  and  became  sole  proprietor. 
Bach  and  Abel's  concerts  continued  to  be  held 
there  until  1782,  when  the  withdrawal  by  Lord 
Abingdon  of  the  pecuniary  aid  he  had  thereto- 
fore given,  led  to  their  discontinuance.  There- 

1  Being  at  the  rate  of  very  nearly  1/.  per  square  foot  of  ground. 

2  Gallini  was  a  Swiss  of  Italian  extraction,  who  had  taught  the 
children  of  George  III  to  dance,  and  amassed  a  fortune,  became 
manager  of  the  Opera-house  (1776  ',  was  knighted  as  Sir  John  Gallini. 
and  married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Abingdon, 


upon  some  professors  of  music  established  similar 
concerts  under  the  name  of  '  The  Professional 
Concert,'  which  were  given  in  the  room  from 
1783  to  1793.  In  1786  Salomon,  the  violinist, 
piqued  at  being  left  out  of  the  Professional 
Concert,  established  concerts  here,  at  which  in 
1791  and  1792,  and  again  in  1794  and  1795, 
Haydn  directed  the  performance  of  his  12 
'grand'  symphonies.  At  the  8th  concert  in 
1792,  'Master  Hummel'  played  a  concerto  on 
the  pianoforte,  and  in  1796  John  Braham  was 
introduced  to  the  public  as  a  tenor  singer. 
In  1804  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music  was 
removed  to  these  rooms,  the  Directors  having 
taken  a  lease  from  Gallini  at  a  rental  of  £  1 000 
■  per  annum,  and  they  continued  to  be  held  here 
until  184S,  the  last  year  of  their  existence, 
i  The  Directors  made  considerable  alterations ; 

the  orchestra  was  removed  to  the  west  end, 
:  three  boxes  were  erected  across  the  east  end 
j  for  the  royal  family  and  their  attendants,  and 
the  rooms  were  newly  fitted  up  in  a  splen- 
did manner.    On  the  death  of  Gallini  (Jan.  5, 
I  1S05),  the  freehold  passed  to  his  two  nieces, 
who  leased  the  rooms  to  Wallace  and  ISEaitin, 
I  and  Martin  and  Son  successively.    In  December 
!  1832  alterations  were  made  in  the  great  room 
j  by  the  enlargement  of  the  windows  so  as  to 
render  it  available  for  morning  concerts ;  and 
many  mirrors  w'ere  introduced.    The  concerts 
of  the  Vocal  Society  were  given  in  these  rooms 
from  its  foundation  in  1832  to  its  dissolution 
in  I  S3  7.    A  new  Vocal  Society  gave  conceits 
here  in  1838,  but  its  existence  was  of  very  brief 
duration.    In  1833  the  concerts  of  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  were  removed   here  from  the 
Concert  Room  of  the  King's  Theatre,  and  con- 
tinued here  until  their  departure  to  St.  James's 
Hall  in  1866.    Both  the  Misses  Gallini  dying 
in  1845,  the  freehold  was  sold  by  auction  to 
Robert  Cocks,  the  music  publisher,  under  whom 
the  younger  Martin  held  it  by  lease  until  De- 
cember 1 861,    Extensive  alterations  and  deco- 
rations were  then  made  in  the  rooms,  which 
were  re-opened  Jan.  8,  1862,  by  Mr.  Henry 
Leslie's  Choir;  the  concerts  of  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Music  were  also  removed  there.  The 
annual  performance  of  Handel's  '  Messiah '  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians 
was  given  there  from  1785  to  1S48,  after  which 
it  was  given  fii-st  at  Exeter  Hall,  and  afterwards 
!  at  St.  James's  Hall.    In  1874  the  premises  were 
let  on  lease  for  the  purpose  of  being  converted 
into  a  club  house.    The  last  concert  was  given 
in  the  rooms  on  Saturday,  Dec.  19,  1874,  and  the 
j  building,  after  undergoing  an  entire  transform- 
!  ation,  was  opened  early  in  1876  as  *  The  Hanover 
Square  Club.'  It  must  not  be  omitted  to  be  men- 
tioned that  the  great  room  was  remarkable  for 
its  excellent  acoustic  properties.  [W.H.H.] 
HANSLICK,  Eduard,  musical  critic  and 
writer  on  aesthetics,  bom  at  Prague  Sept.  11,1825, 
son  of  a  well-known  bibliographer,  studied  law 
and  philosophy  in  Prague  and  in  Vienna,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor.    In  1856  he  was 
appointed  tutor  of  aesthetics  and  musical  history 


662 


HANSLICK. 


HARMONICA. 


at  the  university;  in  6i  professor  extraordinary, 
ftnd  in  70  regular  professor.  His  love  of  music 
had  been  fostered  at  home,  and  under  Tomaschek 
he  became  an  excellent  pianist.  In  Vienna  he 
had  ample  opportunities  of  becoming  a  critic  of 
no  ordinary  merit,  and  his  keen  insight  and 
cogent  logic,  and  the  elegance  and  versatility  of 
his  style,  make  his  literary  productions  of  lasting 
value.  As  a  juror  for  the  musical  department 
ofthe  Exhibitions  of  Paris  (1867),  Vienna  (1873), 
and  Paris  (1878),  he  did  everything  in  his  power 
to  further  the  interests  ofthe  musical  instrument 
makers  of  Austria.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  Imperial  Council,  having  some 
time  before  received  the  order  of  the  Iron  Crown, 
During  the  years  1859-63  he  gave  public  lectures 
on  the  history  of  music  in  Vienna,  and  occasion- 
ally in  Prague,  Cologne,  etc.  He  has  been  musi- 
cal critic  successively  to  the  'Wiener  Zeitung,' 
1848-49,  the  'Presse,'  1855-64,  and  the  'Neue 
freie  Presse.'  Hanslick  has  published  the  fol- 
lowing books  :  —  '  Vom  musikalisch  -  Schonen ' 
(Leipzig,  1854,  5th  ed.  1876,  also  translated  into 
French),  a  work  which  marks  an  epoch;  'Ge- 
schichte  des  Concertwesens  in  Wien'  (Vienna, 
1S69) ;  *  Aus  dem'  Concertsaal '  (Vienna,  1870); 
'Die  moderne  Oper'  (Berlin,  1875,  2nd  ed.  1876, 
sequel  1877) ;  and  has  written  the  text  for  the  '(Va- 
lerie deutscher  Tondichter'  (Munich,  1873),  and 
the  '  Galerie  franz.  und  ital.  Tondichter '  (Berlin, 
1874).  In  music  Hanslick  is  a  Conservative. 
His  resistance  to  the  Liszt -Wagner  movement  is 
well  known.  On  the  other  hand  he  was  an  early 
supporter  of  Schumann  and  is  a  strong  adherent 
of  Brahms.  [C.  F.  P.] 

HARMONICA.  The  power  of  producing 
musical  sounds  from  glass  basons  or  drinking 
glasses  by  the  application  of  the  moistened  finger, 
and  of  tuning  them  so  as  to  obtain  concords  from 
two  at  once,  was  known  as  early  as  the  middle  of 
the  1 7th  century,  since  it  is  alluded  to  in  Hars- 
dorfer's  '  Mathematische  und  philosophische  Er- 
quickungen,'  ii.  147  (Nuremberg,  1677).  Gluck, 
the  great  composer,  when  in  England,  played  '  at 
the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,'  April  23, 
1746 — 'a  concerto  on  26  drinking  glasses  tuned 
with  spring  water,  accompanied  vdth  the  whole 
band,  being  a  new  instrument  of  his  own  inven- 
tion ;  upon  which  he  performs  whatever  may  be 
done  on  a  violin  or  ^  harpsichord.'  This  or  some 
other  circumstance  made  the  instrument  fashion- 
able, for  15  years  later,  in  1 761,  Goldsmith's 
fine  ladies  in  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  who  con- 
fined their  conversation  to  the  most  fashionable 
topics,  '  would  talk  of  nothing  but  high  life  and 
high  lived  company  .  .  .  pictures,  taste,  Shak- 
speare,  and  the  musical  glasses.'  That  they  oc- 
cupied the  attention  of  better  persons  than  Lady 
Blarney  and  the  Hon.  Carolina  Wilelmina  Amelia 
iSkeggs  is  evident  from  the  testimony  of  Franklin. 
He  came  to  London  in  1757,  and  writing  on 
July  13,  1762,  to  Padre  Beccaria  at  Turin,  he 

1  Two  exhaustive  and  accurate  works  indispensable  to  the  student 
of  musical  history. 

2  hee  General  Advertiser'  of  this  date,  and  Walpole's  letter  to 
Hanu,  March  28. 


tells  him  of  the  attempts  of  Mr.  Puckeridge  and 
of  Mr.  Delaval,  F.R.S.  who  fixed  their  glasses 
in  order  on  a  table,  tuned  them  by  putting  in 
more  or  less  water,  and  played  them  by  passing 
the  finger  round  the  brims.  Franklin's  practical 
mind  saw  that  this  might  be  greatly  improved, 
and  he  accordingly  constructed  an  instrument  in 
which  the  bells  or  basons  of  glass  were  ranged 
or  strung  on  an  iron  spindle,  the  largest  and 
deepest-toned  ones  on  the  left,  and  gradually 
mounting  in  pitch  according  to  the  usual  musical 
scale.  The  lower  edge  of  the  basons  dipped  into 
a  trough  of  water.  The  spindle  was  made  to 
revolve  by  a  treadle.  It  carried  the  basons 
round  with  it,  and  on  applying  a  finger  to  their 
wet  edges  the  sound  was  produced.  The  follow- 
ing cut  is  reduced  from  the  engraving  in  Frank- 
lin's letter  (Sparks's  ed.  vi.  245). 


The  essential  difference  between  this  instru- 
ment and  the  former  ones  was  (i)  that  the  pitch 
of  the  tone  was  produced  by  the  size  of  the 
glasses,  and  not  by  their  containing  more  or  less 
water;  and  (2)  that  chords  could  be  produced 
of  as  many  notes  as  the  fingers  could  reach  at 
once.  Franklin  calls  it  the  'Armonica,'  but  it 
seems  to  have  been  generally  known  as  '  Har- 
monica.' The  first  great  player  on  the  new  in- 
strument was  Miss  Marianne  Davies,  who  had  a 
European  fame,  and  played  music  composed  for 
her  by  Hasse.  Another  celebrated  performer  was 
Marianna  KLrchgassner,  a  blind  musician.  She 
visited  Vienna  in  1791,  and  interested  Mozart  so 
much  that  he  wrote  an  Adagio  and  Rondo  in  C 
for  harmonica,  flute,  oboe,  viola,  and  cello,  which 
she  played  at  her  concert  on  June  19  (Kochel, 
No.  61 7).  Sketches  of  his  for  another  Quintet  in 
the  same  key  are  also  in  existence.  Kirchgassner 
was  in  London  in  1794,  and  a  new  harmonica 
is  said  to  have  been  built  for  her  by  Froschel 
a  German  mechanician.  In  England  the  in- 
strument appears  to  have  been  little  if  at  all 
used  during  the  present  century.  In  Saxony  and 
Thuringia  however  it  was  widely  popular  ;  at 
Dresden,  Naumann  played  it,  and  wrote  6  sonatas 
for  it.  At  Darmstadt  a  harmonica  formed  a 
part  of  the  Court  orchestra  ;  the  Princess  Louise, 
afterwards  Grand  Duchess,  was  a  proficient  upon 
it,  and  C.  F.  Pohl,  sen.,  the  Princess's  master, 


HARMONICA. 


HAEMONICS. 


663 


was  engaged  ej^clusively  for  the  instrument  as 
late  as  1818. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  or  modify 
the  harmonica  by  substituting  a  violin  bow  for 
the  hand,  or  by  reducing  the  peculiarly  pene- 
trating and  exciting  tone  which  is  said  to  be  so 
prejudicial  to  the  nerves  of  players — but  without 
success.  An  account  of  these  and  of  much  more 
than  can  be  included  in  this  short  statement  will 
be  found  in  C.  F.  Pohl's  '  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Glasharmonica'  (Vienna,  1862).  One  Method 
only  exists  for  this  instrument,  that  of  J.  C. 
Miiller,  Leipzig,  1788.  A  specimen  of  the  har- 
monica, built  by  Emanuel  Pohl  of  Kreibitz, 
Bohemia,  is  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

The  following  little  piece  for  the  Harmonica 
was  composed  by  Beethoven  for  the  *  Leonora 
Prohaska'  of  his  friend  Duncker  in  181 4  or  15. 
The  autograph  is  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the 
Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  at  Vienna,  and 
has  not  before  been  published. 


Feierlich  dock  nickt  schleppend 


rr 

'  c 
-•- 

r  i ' 

•es. 

P 

Du  dem  sie 
gewunden 

f  f-  r- 

Es  bliihen  drin  zwei 
Blumen  fiir  Liebe 
und  Treue 


Jetzt  kann  ich  nur 
Todtenblumen 
dir  vreihn 


(aushallen) 
Doch  vrachsen 
an  meinem 
Leichenstein 


die  Lilie  und 
Eose  auf 'sneue. 


I     1  I 


The  name  Harmonica  is  now  used  for  a  toy- 
instrument  of  plates  of  glass  hung  on  two  tapes 
and  struck  with  hammers.  [G.] 

HARMONICHORD.  A  keyed  instrument 
invented  in  iSio  by  Friedrich  Kaufmann,  the 


celebrated  musical  instrument  maker  of  Dresden. 
In  its  form  it  resembled  a  small  square  piano  ; 
but  the  sound  was  obtained  not  by  striking  the 
wires  with  hammers,  but  by  the  friction  against 
them  of  a  revolving  cylinder  (as  in  the  ordinary 
hurdy-gurdy),  covered  with  leather,  and  rosined. 
This  cylinder,  which  in  the  effect  it  produced 
somewhat  resembled  the  bow  of  a  violin,  was  set 
in  motion  by  a  pedal  worked  by  the  foot  of  the 
player.  All  gradations  of  tone,  as  well  as  the 
power  of  swelling  or  diminishing  the  sound  upon 
a  sustained  note  were  produced  by  the  pressure 
of  the  finger.  For  this  instrument  Weber  com- 
posed in  the  year  1811  a  very  interesting  adagio 
and  rondo,  with  orchestral  accompaniment,  which 
is  published  by  Peters,  of  Leipzig.  Weber  wrote 
concerning  this  composition — *  It  was  an  infernal 
piece  of  work  to  write  for  an  instrument  whose 
tone  is  so  peculiar  and  strange  that  one  has  to 
call  to  one's  aid  the  liveliest  imagination  to  bring 
it  suitably  forward  in  combination  with  other  in- 
struments. It  is  a  cousin  of  the  harmonica,  and 
has  this  peculiarity,  that  with  every  sustained  note 
its  octave  is  prominently  heard.'  On  the  printed 
title-page  it  is  said  to  be  'for  Harmonichord  or 
Harmonium.^  This,  however,  is  an  addition  of 
the  publisher ;  as  not  only  are  the  two  instru- 
ments totally  distinct,  but  the  physharmonica,  the 
predecessor  of  the  harmonium,  was  not  invented 
till  about  fifteen  years  later.  [E.  P.] 

HARMONICON,  The,  a  monthly  musical 
periodical  edited  by  W.  Ayrton,  commenced 
January  1823,  and  continued  until  September 
1833.  It  contained  ably  written  memoirs  of 
eminent  musicians,  some  of  the  earlier  being  ac- 
companied by  engraved  portraits,  essays,  reviews 
of  new  music,  correspondence,  criticisms  of  musi- 
cal performances  of  all  kinds,  foreign  musical 
news,  information  on  all  subjects  interesting  to 
musicians,  and  original  and  selected  vocal  and 
instrumental  music.  It  was  of  quarto  size,  in 
22  vols.,  and  is  the  best  musical  periodical  ever 
published  in  England.  [W.  H.  H.] 

HARMONICS,  tones  of  higher  pitch  which 
accompany  every  perfect  musical  sound  in  a 
regular  series.  As  they  ascend  they  diminish  in 
intensity,  and  approximate  in  pitch.  If  the 
piano  be  opened  and  a  note — say  J)  in  the  bass — 
be  struck  smartly  and  kept  down,  on  listening 
attentively  a  succession  of  faint  sounds  will  be 
heard,  apparently  rising  out  of  the  principal 
sound  and  floating  round  it.  These  are  the 
harmonics.  They  are  really  constituents  of  the 
main  musical  tone,  and  are  produced  by  the 
concurrent  vibration  of  the  aliquot  parts  of  the 
string.  Hence  Helmholtz  proposes  to  call  them 
'partial  tones'  (Partialtdne).  This  term  is  no 
doubt  more  appropriate,  inasmuch  as  above  the 
tenth  degree  most  of  these  notes  form  intervals 
dissonant  from  the  prime  note  and  also  from  each 
other,  and  thus  become  perceptibly  ztj harmonic. 
On  the  best  musical  instruments,  however,  these 
high  inharmonic  tones  are  not  reached,  the 
vibratory  impulse  being  exhausted  on  the  prime 
note  and  the  lower  harmonics,  which  are  consonant 


664 


HARMONICS. 


HARMONICS. 


both  with  the  prime  note  and  among  themselves. 
At  the  same  time  the  smaller  the  aliquot  parts 
become  in  the  ascending  series,  the  less  easily 
are  they  set  in  a  state  of  separate  vibration. 
Consequently  these  high  dissonant  harmonics  are 
distinctly  audible  only  on  highly  resonant  metallic 
instruments,  such  as  the  cymbals,  bell,  and 
triangle,  and  for  practical  purposes  the  old  term 
harmonic  answers  as  well  as  the  term  *  partial.' 

A  few  instruments,  such  as  the  tuning-fork 
and  the  wide  stopped  organ  pipe,  practically 
jdeld  no  harmonics.  The  human  voice,  the 
harmonium,  and  all  orchestral  instruments,  are 
rich  in  them — the  human  voice  probably  the 
richest  of  all;  but  nature  has  so  admirably 
compounded  them  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
analyse  them  scientifically.  Rameau  disting  uished 
harmonics  in  the  human  voice  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century. 

Harmonics  naturally  reinforce  the  fundamental 
sound,  in  which  case  their  extent  and  distribution 
largely  influence  the  intensity  and  the  quality  of 
the  sound.  They  may,  however,  in  many  instances, 
be  produced  singly  by  mechanically  checking  the 
vibration  of  the  fundamental  note.  In  this 
relation  they  constitute  an  important  practical 
department  in  most  orchestral  instruments. 

Law  of  Harmonics.  A  sonorous  body  not 
only  vibrates  as  a  whole  but  in  each  of  its 
several  fractions  or  aliquot  parts,  ^,  ^,  \,  -^j  ^, 
y ,  and  so  on  at  the  same  time ;  and  each  of 
these  parts  gives  a  separate  note,  the  ^  yield- 
ing the  octave,  the  -i  the  fifth,  the  \  the  double 
octave,  the  the  third  above  the  double  octave, 
and  so  on.  The  following  scheme  or  diagram, 
taken  from  Momigny,  shows  the  harmonics  of 
the  open  string  G  on  the  violoncello  up  to  thir- 
teen places  :•*— 


Here  the  bottom  G  is  produced  by  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  whole  string.  The  two  Gs  next 
above  are  produced  by  the  vibration  of  the  two 
halves.  The  three  Ds  next  above  by  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  three  thirds  ;  and  so  on.  Thus  the 
diagram  represents  the  whole  of  the  notes  pro- 
duced by  the  vibrations  of  the  whole  string  and 
its  various  sections  up  to  its  one-fourteenth  part. 

In  this  scheme  the  first  F  (counting  upwards), 
the  C  a  fifth  above  it,  and  the  topmost  notes  E 
and  F,  are  more  or  less  faulty.  In  practically 
deducing  the  diatonic  scale  from  this  scheme, 
these  intervals  have  to  be  corrected  by  the  ear. 
By  inspection  of  this  scheme  we  discover  the 
intervals  of  the  diatonic  scale  in  the  following 
order : — 


0              ^  f"  ^ 

5.  £  etc. 

From  this  scale  may  obviously  be  deduced  the 
chords  of  the  third,  fifth,  seventh,  and  ninth. 


By  combining  and  transposing  these  notes  into*- 
one  octave  we  get  the  following  scale  : — 


^z— ,  1  1     '  =3=  

which  is  the  scale  of  C  major  ascending  from 
dominant  to  dominant.  As  the  same  thing 
happens  in  other  keys,  we  have  thus  proved  the 
law  that  the  intervals  of  each  scale  are  generated 
by  its  dominant.  The  dominant,  not  the  tonic, 
is  therefore  the  true  root  of  the  whole  scale. 

Practical  effect  of  Harmonics  heard  simul- 
taneously with  the  fundamental  note.  The  har- 
monics not  only  determine  the  diatonic  intervals, 
but  to  some  extent  the  intensity  and,  as  has  been 
lately  proved  by  Helmholtz,  the  quality  of  musical 
tones.  On  applying  the  ear  to  the  soundhole  of 
a  violin  during  a  long  crescendo  on  one  note,  the 
reinforcement  of  the  tone  by  the  gradual  addition 
of  the  higher  and  more  piercing  harmonics  is 
distinctly  perceptible.  The  principle  and  the 
eSect  are  precisely  the  same  in  a  crescendo- 
produced  by  the  addition  of  the  mixture  stops 
on  an  organ.  The  loudest  musical  instruments, 
cceteris  paribus,  are  those  in  which  the  highest 
harmonics  predominate,  e.g.  the  cymbals,  triangle, 
bell,  and  gong. 

The  effect  of  harmonics  on  the  quality  of 
musical  sounds  is  easily  tested  by  carefully  com- 
paring the  tones  of  an  old  and  a  new  violin.  In 
the  former  the  strong  vibrations  of  the  funda- 
mental note  and  the  lower  harmonics  leave  but 
little  force  to  be  expended  on  the  higher  and 
noisier  harmonics  :  in  the  latter  the  fundamental 
note  and  lower  harmonics  are  capable  of  absorb- 
ing less  of  the  force,  which  is  transmitted  to  the 
upper  harmonics,  and  produces  a  harsh  quality  of 
sound.  When  the  fundamental  note  and  lowest 
harmonics  predominate  in  the  tone,  the  quality  is 
soft  and  flute-like ;  when  the  combination  is  well 
balanced  by  the  addition  of  the  intermediate  har- 
monics up  to  the  sixth,  the  quality  is  rich  and 
sonorous ;  when  the  highest  harmonics,  above 
the  sixth  and  seventh,  predominate,  the  quality 
is  harsh  and  screaming.  When  the  high  disso- 
nant harmonics  are  produced  in  a  tolerably  even 
and  continuous  stream  of  sound,  the  quality  is 
said  to  be  'metallic'  If  an  instrument  is  ill- 
strung  or  out  of  order  the  harmonic  scale  is 
disturbed  ;  and  the  harsh,  uncertain,  and  irregular 
tones  which  it  yields  consist  of  harmonics  out  of 
their  true  place.  Less  varied  comparisons  may  be 
obtained  on  the  stops  of  an  organ.  Wide  pipes, 
yielding  a  dull,  heavy  tone,  have  virtually  no 
harmonics.  In  the  tone  of  narrower  open  pipes 
the  harmonics  up  to  the  sixth  can  be  detected 
by  the  aid  of  Helmholtz's  resonators.  Pipes 
conically  narrowed  at  the  upper  end,  such  as 
compose  the  stops  called  Gemshom,  Salicional, 
and  Spitz  flute,  yield  strong  intermediate  har- 
monics, which  render  the  tone  bright,  though 
perceptibly  thin.  The  Rohr- flute  is  so  con- 
structed as  greatly  to  reinforce  the  fifth  harmonic 
(2|  octaves  above  the  prime  note).  The  nasal 
quality  of  sound,  such  as  is  yielded  by  the  softer 


HARMONICS. 


HARMONIC  STOPS. 


665 


reed-stops,  by  violins  of  a  certain  build,  and  by 
the  clarinet,  bassoon,  etc.,  is  produced  by  the 
predominance  of  the  uneven  harmonics  (i,  ^,  j-, 
etc.).  On  the  harmonium  these  uneven  har- 
monics are  stronger  than  the  even  ones.  The 
peculiar  tinkling  tones  of  the  zither  arise  from 
the  high  uneven  harmonics  yielded  by  its  com- 
paratively thick  metal  strings. 

If  a  singer  produces  a  low  note  crescendo 
against  a  reflecting  surface,  the  harmonics  become 
distinctly  audible.  If  the  note  is  produced  partly 
through  the  nose,  the  uneven  harmonics  per- 
ceptibly predominate.  The  number  of  upper 
harmonics  in  the  human  voice  is  very  great : 
and  they  are,  according  to  Helmholtz,  distinct 
and  powerful  in  their  whole  range. 

Practical  use  of  single  Harmonic  tones  on 
stringed  instrianents.  Harmonics  may  be  singly 
produced  (i)  by  varying  the  point  of  contact 
with  the  bow,  or  (2)  by  slightly  pressing  the 
string  at  the  nodes,  or  divisions  of  its  aliquot 
parts  ("i,  ^,  J,  etc.).  (i)  In  the  first  case,  ad- 
vancing the  bow  fi-om  the  usual  place  where 
the  fundamental  note  is  produced,  towards  the 
bridge,  the  whole  scale  of  harmonics  may  be 
produced  in  succession,  on  an  old  and  highly 
resonant  instrument.  The  emplo}nnent  of  this 
means  produces  the  effect  called  'sul  ponticello.' 
[See  Ponticello.]  (2)  The  production  of  har- 
monics by  the  slight  pressure  of  the  finger  on 
the  open  string  is  more  useful.  When  produced 
by  pressing  slightly  on  the  various  nodes  of  the 
open  strings  they  are  called  '  Natural  harmonics.' 
In  the  following  example  the  lower  notes  repre- 
sent the  fingering,  the  upper  ones  the  effect : — 


Scotch  A  ir 

Third  Position 

♦  i  A  £i£ 


Carnaval  de  Venise. 


Artificial  Hm-monics, 
Uh  string. 

For  the  entire  theory  of  artificial  harmonics  in 
single  and  double  scales  see  *  L' Art  de  Jouer  du 
Violon  de  Pagauini'  by  Guhr.  They  can  how- 
ever only  be  produced  by  using  thin  strings,  and 
are  little  employed  by  the  best  writers.  In 
modern  music  they  are  designated  by  an  open 
note  of  this  ^  form.  (See  the  Andante  of 
Joachim's  Concerto,  etc.) 

Practical  use  of  single  harmonic  tones  on  ivind 
instruments.  As  in  the  case  of  stringed  in- 
strimients,  the  harmonics  of  wind  instruments 
naturally  reinforce  the  prime  note,  but  are 
separable  from  it  by  artificial  means.  In  wind 
instruments  this  is  done  by  A'arying  the  intensity 
or  the  direction  of  the  air  current  from  the 
mouth,  which  sets  in  vibration  the  air-column  in 
the  tube,  so  as  to  throw  the  air-column  into 
vibrating  portions  of  different  lengths,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  aliquot  parts  of  a  string.  The  falsetto 
voice  consists  of  harmonic  octaves  of  the  natural 
voice.  All  the  notes  of  the  flute  above  the  lowest 
octave  are  harmonic  octaves,  twelfths,  and  double 
octaves  of  the  lower  notes.  Like  the  coiTe- 
sponding  harmonics  on  the  oboe  and  clarinet, 
these  tones  are  produced  by  overblowing.  Brass 
instruments  are  richest  in  the  practical  employ- 
ment of  harmonics.  Any  brass  instrument,  such 
as  the  hunting  horn  or  military  bugle,  yielding 
one  fundamental  note,  yields  the  familiar  har- 
monic scale 


Natural  Harmonics. 


etc. 


Natural  harmonics  are  occasionally  employed 
pizzicato  on  the  violin  and  violoncello,  and  are  an 
important  resource  in  harp  music.  Accurate 
violinists  are  disinclined  to  use  them,  because 
the  player  has  no  control  over  their  exact  in- 
tonation, which  is  rigidly  determined  by  that 
of  the  open  string;  and  the  tones  of  the  open 
strings,  which  are  tuned  by  perfect  fifths,  are  in 
certain  scales  slightly  dissonant.  In  the  key  of 
G,  for  instance,  the  harmonics  of  the  first  or  E 
string  are  slightly  dissonant,  though  they  are 
perfect  in  the  key  of  A. 

Artificial  harmonics  are  produced  by  stopping 
the  string  with  the  first  or  second  finger,  and 
thus  making  an  artificial  *  nut,'  and  then  slightly 
pressing  the  node  with  the  fourth  finger.  By 
this  means  harmonics  in  perfect  intonation  can 
be  produced  in  all  scales.    Example — 


Violinists  are  well  aware  that  the  longer  the 
string  in  proportion  to  its  thickness,  the  greater 
the  number  of  upper  harmonics  it  can  be  made 
to  }neld.  Similarly,  the  longer  the  tube  of  a  brass 
instrument,  the  higher  does  the  series  of  its 
practicable  harmonic  tones  ascend.  The  old 
French  horn  consists  simply  of  a  conical  tube  of 
great  length,  which  readily  yields  the  scale  of 
harmonic  intervals.  They  are  produced  by  gently 
varying  the  degree  and  direction  of  the  cuiTent 
of  air.  The  dissonant  notes  (f,  ~,  y'-^,  ^)  in 
the  scale  are  to  some  extent  corrected,  and  some 
of  the  missing  tones  are  supplied  by  introducing 
the  hand  into  the  bell.  Mechanical  appliances 
have  been  contrived  for  the  same  purposes.  On 
the  trumpet  the  tube  is  extended  for  the  same 
purposes  bv  means  of  a  slide.  [See  HoRX, 
Thcmpet,  etc.]  [E.J. P.] 

HARMONIC  INSTITUTION.  [See  Argyll 
Rooms.] 

HARMONIC  STOPS  are  organ  stops,  the 
upper  pipes  of  which  do  not  produce  the  sound 
that  would  be  expected,  having  regard  to  their 


666  HARMONIC  STOPS. 


HARMONIUM. 


length,  but  the  octave  to  that  sound.  They  have 
been  known  in  Germany  for  nearly  two  hundred 
years.  The  '  violoncello,  8  feet  pitch '  on  the 
Pedal  organ  at  Weingarten,  made  in  the  first 
half  of  last  century,  is  in  reality  i6  feet  in 
length,  of  tin,  and  3j  inches  in  diameter. 

Harmonic  stops  have  in  recent  years  come 
into  great  favour,  in  the  first  instance  through 
the  careful  and  successful  experiments  of  the 
eminent  French  builder,  M.  Cavaill^-Coll,  of  Paris. 
Guided  by  the  fact  that  performers  upon  wind  ■ 
instruments  exercise  a  greater  pressure  of  wind 
for  the  production  of  the  higher  notes  than 
the  lower,  the  above  ingenious  builders  applied 
the  same  principle  to  some  of  their  organ  regis- 
ters, with  the  most  excellent  result.  In  this 
manner  they  produced  the  stops — most  of  which 
have  been  naturalised  in  England — called  '  Flute 
Harmonique,  8  pieds,'  *  Flute  Octaviante,  4  pieds,' 
*  Trompette  Harmonique,  8  pieds,'  etc.  At  first 
only  a  few  experimental  pipes  were  made  to 
test  the  soundness  of  the  theory,  for  the  re- 
sistance presented  to  the  finger  by  the  highly 
compressed  air  was  so  excessive  as  to  prevent 
their  adoption  in  practice  ;  but  the  invention  of 
the  Pneumatic  lever  removed  this  objection,  and 
Harmonic  Stops  and  the  Pneumatic  attachment 
were  introduced  together  for  the  first  time,  in 
Cavaille's  fine  organ  in  the  abbey  church  of 
St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  finished  in  1841.  Very 
eflFective  Harmonic  Flutes,  though  naturally  less 
powerful,  are  frequently  voiced  upon  a  wind  of 
the  ordinary  strength  when  there  is  a  copious 
supply  of  it.  [E.  J.H.] 

HARMONIC  UNION,  THE.  A  society  based 
on  subscriptions,  'for  the  performance  of  sacred 
and  secular  music  both  of  the  Ancient  and 
Modem  Schools,'  and  particularly  of  living  com- 
posers, with  Solos,  Chorus  and  Orchestra.  The 
first  proposal  was  issued  in  July,  1852,  Mr. 
Benedict  was  chosen  conductor,  and  Mr.  Blagrove 
leader ;  the  concerts  took  place  at  Exeter  Hall, 
and  the  subscription  was  £33  per  head.  The 
first  was  held  on  Dec.  17,  1852,  the  programme 
being  Motet  No.  6,  J.  S.  Bach,  and  the  oratorio 
of  Joseph  by  C.  E.  Horsley.  Others  followed 
at  about  a  month's  interval  until  Feb.  23,  1854, 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  date  of  the  last. 
Many  new  works  were  brought  forward,  such  as 
Horsley's  Joseph  ;  Macfarren's  Lenora  ;  Pierson's 
Jerusalem;  F.  Mori's  Fridolin;  Symphony  (G 
minor)  by  C.  E.  Stephens — besides  the  Messiah, 
Acis  and  Galatea  (with  Mozart's  accompani- 
ments), Alexander's  Feast,  Ruins  of  Athens, 
Elijah,  Walpurgisnight,  Midsunmier  Night's 
Dream,  etc.  [G.] 

HARMONIE,  the  French  and  German  word 
for  the  wind  instruments  of  the  orchestra.  Mu- 
sique  d  'harmonie  or  Harmonie  musik  is  music 
written  for  wind-band  alone,  such  as  Mendels- 
sohn's overture  in  C,  op.  24,  Meyerbeer's  Fackel- 
tanze,  etc.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  not 
known.  [G.] 

HARMONIUM  (French,  alBoOrgueexpressif). 
A  well-known  popular  keyed  instrument,  the  tones 


of  which  are  produced  by  thin  tongues  of  brass  or 
steel,  set  in  periodic  motion  by  pressure  of  air, 
and  called  'vibrators.'  They  are  known  also 
as  '  free  reeds' ;  reeds,  because  their  principle  is 
that  of  the  shepherd's  pipe  ;  free,  because  they 
do  not  entirely  close  the  openings  in  which  they 
vibrate  at  any  period  of  their  movement,  while 
those  generally  used  in  the  organ,  known  as 
'beating  or  striking  reeds,'  close  the  orifice  at 
each  pulsation.  It  is  not  however  the  vibra- 
•  tion  of  the  tongue  itself  that  we  hear  as  the 
tone  :  according  to  Helmholtz  this  is  due  to  the 
escape  of  the  air  in  pus's  near  its  point,  the 
rapidity  of  alternation  of  the  puff's  determining 
the  pitch.  The  timbre  of  the  note  is  conditioned 
in  the  first  place  by  this  opening,  and  then  by  the 
size  and  form  of  the  channel  above  the  tongue 
and  its  pallet  hole,  through  which  the  air  im- 
mediately passes.  The  Harmonium  is  the  most 
modern  of  keyed  instruments,  if  we  include  the 
nearly  related  American  Organ,  in  which  the 
vibrator  is  set  in  motion  by  reverse  power,  that 
is  by  drawing  in  the  air ;  for  if  we  go  back 
to  the  earliest  attempts  to  make  instruments  of 
I  the  kind  we  are  still  within  the  19th  century. 
The  usefulness  and  convenience  of  the  harmo- 
nium have  gone  far  to  establish  it,  almost  as  a 
rival,  in  a  commercial  sense,  to  the  pianoforte. 
It  has  been  too  much  the  practice  to  regard  the 
harmonium  only  as  a  handy  substitute  for  the 
organ,  and  this  has  been  fostered  by  interested 
persons  to  the  detriment  of  its  individuality  and 
the  loss  of  the  perception  that  it  has  reason  to 
exist  from  its  own  merits  as  a  musical  instru- 
ment. It  is  true  that  like  the  organ  the  tones 
of  the  harmonium  may  be  sustained  at  one  power 
so  long  as  the  keys  are  kept  down,  and  variety 
of  tiiiibre  is  obtained  by  using  the  stops  ;  but 
when  the  Expression  stop  is  used,  by  which  the 
air  reservoir  is  cut  off  and  the  pressure  made 
to  depend  entirely  upon  the  management  of  the 
bellows,  the  harmonium  gains  the  power  of  in- 
crease and  decrease  of  tone  under  the  control  of 
the  player,  who  by  the  treadles  can  graduate  the 
condensation  of  the  wind  almost  as  a  violin- 
player  manages  his  tone  by  the  bow.  To  use 
this  power  artistically  the  harmonium  -  player 
must  have  skill ;  and  few  take  to  this  instru- 
ment with  anything  like  the  high  technical  aim 
with  which  the  pianoforte  and  violin  are  studied. 
There  is  however  no  reason  that  there  should 
not  be  a  school  of  composers  and  players  com- 
petent to  realise  and  develop  the  individual 
character  of  the  instrument. 

The  history  of  the  harmonium  is  intimately 
connected  w^th  that  of  the  different  wind  har- 
monicas which  from  the  musical  fruit  and  baby 
trumpets  of  Nuremberg,  to  accordions  and  con- 
certinas, have  during  the  past  fifty  years  had 
such  extensive  popularity.  Unlike  as  the  whole 
tribe  of  reed  organs  have  been  to  any  notion  of 
music  that  pertained  to  ancient  Greece,  it  is  not 
a  little  surprising  that  a  large  vocabulary  of 
Greek  names  should  have  been  adopted  to  de- 
scribe them.  The  first  name,  and  one  still  in 
use,  that  of  Orgue  expressif,  was  due  to  a  French- 


HARMONIUM. 


HARMONIUM.  667 


man,  Greni^,  who,  according  to  Fetis  (Fabrica- 
tion des  Instruments  de  Musique,  Paris  1855), 
very  early  in  this  century  imagined  the  construc- 
tion of  a  keyboard  instrument,  which,  by  tongues 
of  metal  vibrating  under  variable  pressures  of 
atmosphere,  should  give  nuances,  or  varying  in- 
tensities of  sound.  His  tongues  were  not  '  beat- 
ing' but  'free'  reeds,  having  an  alternative 
movement,  the  energy  depending  upon  the  den- 
sity of  the  air-current  affecting  them.  It  was 
not  a  novel  principle,  for  the  Chinese  cheng  might 
have  suggested  the  employment  of  it ;  but  be 
this  as  it  may,  Fetis  informs  us  that  Greni^ 
never  assumed  that  he  was  the  inventor  of  it. 
The  experiments  of  Sebastian  Erard  with  free 
reeds,  of  which  Gretry  thought  so  much,  were 
already  known.  A  few  years  later  than  these, 
about  1 814  some  say,  and  quite  independently, 
P^schenbach  of  Koenigshoven  in  Bavaria  invented 
a  keyboard  instrument  with  vibrators,  which  he 
named  '  Organo-violine.'  Then  began  the  Greek 
era.  In  1 81 6  Schlimbach  of  Ohrdruff,  improving 
upon  Eschenbach,  produced  the  ^oline.  The 
next  step  was  an  apparatus  for  continuous  wind, 
l)y  Voit  of  Schweinfurt,  who  called  his  instru- 
ment ^olodicon.  In  1818  Anton  Hackel  of 
Vienna  constructed  a  diminutive  seoline  as  an 
instrument  to  be  used  with  a  pianoforte,  bring- 
ing it  out  as  Physharraonica.^  This  bellows- 
harmonica  Professor  Payer  took  with  him  to  Paris 
in  1823,  and  several  imitations  were  made  of  it, 
one  of  which,  the  Aerophone  of  Christian  Dietz, 
was  described  by  him  in  the  6th  volume  of  the 
Revue  Musicale  (Paris  1829).  Returning  to 
Germany,  Reich  of  Fiirth,  near  Nuremberg,  pro- 
duced at  Munich  in  1820  timbre  registers  imi- 
tating the  clarinet  and  bassoon.  The  16-foot  or 
octave-deeper  register  F^tis  attributes  to  Four- 
neaux  pfere  of  Paris,  1836.  The  Melophone 
tame  out  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1834,  and 
was  probably  made  by  Jacquet,  whom  the  same 
authority  quotes  as  the  only  maker  of  melo- 
phones  in  1855.  Elsewhere  we  read  of  an  ^o- 
L)dicon  with  bent  tongues,  and  of  a  Terpodion 
with  tongues  of  wood ;  of  an  ^olophone,  an 
Adelphone,  an  Adiaphonon,  an  Harmonikon, 
and  a  Harmonine ;  of  Melodiums,  ^olians,  and 
Panorgues ;  of  the  Poikilorgue  of  M.  Cavaill^- 
CoU,  etc.  In  England  keyboard  harmonicas 
with  bellows  were  known  by  the  name  of  Sera- 
phine,  which  was  not  a  harmonium,  for  it  had 
no  channels  for  the  tongues.  The  oldest  English 
patent  for  a  seraphine  is  that  of  Myers  and 
Storer,  dated  July  20,  1839. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  nearly  all  these 
instruments  had  but  one  complete  set  of  vibrators 
to  a  keyboard.  The  Organino,  a  tentative  in- 
strument of  Alexandre  Debain  (born  1809,  died 
1877),  had  two  notes  an  octave  apart  on  each 
key.  To  this  remarkable  mechanician  was  due 
the  gathering  up  the  work  of  all  his  predecessors 
and  uniting  four  stops  on  one  keyboard  to  pro- 
duce the  Harmonium.    His  first  patent  for  this 

'  This  name  is  still  retained  for  a  free-reed  stop  in  the  organ,  with 
tremolo  and  swell  box  of  Its  own,  by  Walcker  of  Ludwlgsburg  and 
others. 


instrument,  in  Paris,  is  dated  Aug.  9,  1840 
(Notabilit^s  de  la  Facture  Instrumentale,  Paris 
1857).  Inventor  or  improver,  Debain  had  the 
great  merit  of  opening  the  path  to  contrasts  in 
colour  of  free -reed  tone,  by  means  of  various  sized 
channels  to  the  vibrators,  submitted  in  different 
registers,  to  one  keyboard.  It  was  however  un- 
fortunate that  in  the  defence  of  his  rights  he  was 
induced  to  secure  to  himself  the  sole  privilege 
of  using  the  name  Harmonium  in  France,  thus 
forcing  other  makers  to  use  the  name  Organ, 
and  thus  to  add  another  stone  to  the  cairn  of 
confusion  in  musical  instrument  nomenclature. 
Of  late  the  name  Reed-organ  has  been  used  to 
express  both  the  harmonium  and  the  American 
organ,  and  is  perhaps  the  best  way  out  of  a 
difficulty.  The  next  great  invention  after  Debain 
— attributed  by  Fetis  to  the  Alexandres,  father 
and  son — was  the  Expression,  already  mentioned, 
the  creation  of  a  new  and  aesthetically  more 
valuable  harmonium.  Another  major  invention 
was  that  of  Martin,  who  gave  the  harmonium, 
to  use  a  technical  term,  *  quicker  speech,'  i.  e. 
made  the  sound  more  quickly  follow  the  descent 
of  the  key.  The  invention  is  known  as  'per- 
cussion,' and  is  an  adaptation  of  the  pianoforte 
escapement,  by  which  a  little  hammer  strikes 
the  tongue  at  the  same  moment  that  it  receives 
the  impact  of  the  wind.  Another  invention  of 
Martin's,  termed  '  prolongement, '  enables  the 
player  to  prolong  certain  notes  after  the  fingers 
have  quitted  the  keys.  Martin  governed  this 
by  knee  pedals,  but  it  is  now  usually  effected 
by  a  stop,  and  knocked  off  at  will  by  a  little  heel 
movement.  The  'melody-attachment'  of  William 
Dawes,  patented  in  London  1864,  has  the  effect 
of  making  the  melody-note,  or  air,  when  in  the 
highest  part,  predominate,  by  a  contrivance  that 
shuts  off  all  notes  below  the  highest  in  certain 
registers  of  a  combination.  In  the  '  pedal- 
substitute'  of  Dawes  and  Ramsden  this  is 
reversed,  and  the  lowest  notes  can  be  made  to 
predominate  over  the  other  notes  of  a  left  hand 
chord.  An  important  invention,  and  curious  as 
bringing  the  pianoforte  touch  to  a  certain  extent 
upon  the  harmonium  keyboard,  is  the  'double 
touch,'  invented  by  an  English  musician,  Mr. 
Augustus  L.  Taraplin,  before  1855,  and  now 
introduced  systematically  in  the  famous  harmo- 
niums of  Mustel  of  Paris,  and  of  Mr.  Gilbert  L. 
Bauer,  an  artistic  London  maker,  and  producing 
emphasised  or  strengthened  tones  by  a  greater 
depression  of  the  key.  Another  important  in- 
vention of  the  greatest  delicacy  is  Mustel's 
'pneumatic  balance'  (French  Double  Expres- 
sion)— valves  of  delicate  construction  acting  in 
the  wind  reservoir,  and  keeping  the  pressure  of 
air  in  it  practically  equal,  so  that  it  cannot 
possibly  be  overblown. 

Proceeding  now  to  the  structure  of  the  harmo- 
nium it  is  sufficient  to  notice  externally  the 
keyboard  and  treadles  as  prominent  features. 
The  latter  (a),  moved  by  the  feet  of  the  player, 
feed  the  bellows  (6) ;  the  air  is  by  them  forced 
up  the  wind-trunk  {g)  into  the  wind-chest  (i), 
and  from  thence,  while  the  expression-stop  is  not 


668 


HARMONIUM. 


HARMONIUM. 


drawn,  into  the  re- 
servoir (/),  in  a 
continuous  and  equal 
stream,  excess  in 
which  is  obviated  by 
a  discharge  pallet  (e) 
acting  as  a  safety 
valve.  But  when 
the  expression  -  stop 
is  drawn  and  the 
expression  -  hole  {h) 
to  the  reservoir  is 
consequently  closed, 
the  air  acts  directly 
upon  the  vibrators 
or  tongues  {m),  from 
the  feeders  (c).  The 
entire  apparatus  for 
the  wind  is  covered 
by  the  bellows-board 
(Ic),  containing  the 
valves  (j)  that  admit 
the  wind  to  the 
different  rows  of  vi- 
brators or  reed  com- 
partments, as  the 
stops  (t)  may  be 
drawn.  Above  the 
bellows-board  is  the 
'pan'  (I),  sometimes 
erroneously  called 
the  soundboard,  a 
board  of  graduated 
thickness  in  which 
are  the  channels  (w) 
— separate  chambers 
of  air  to  each  vibra- 
tor, determining,  as 
said  before,  the  dif- 
ferent timbres.  The 
proportions  of  the  channels  and  size  of  the  pallet- 
holes  are  found  empirically.  The  air  within  the 
channels,  set  in  vibration  by  the  tongues,  is  highly 
compressed.  Sometimes,  to  gain  space  and  a 
different  quality,  the  channels 
with  their  tongues  are  placed 
upright.  A  stop  (t)  being 
drawn  and  a  key  (g)  depressed, 
wind  is  admitted  by  the  ac- 
tion to  the  tongue  or  vibrator, 
and  escapes  by  the  pallet -hole 
(o) — at  a  comparatively  even 
pressure  if  it  comes  from  the 
reservoir,  or  at  a  varying 
pressure  if,  as  already  ex- 
plained, the  expression- stop 
is  drawn  and  the  wind  comes 
from  the  feeders  direct. 

We  give  a  cut  of  the  per- 
cussion action  already  alluded 
to.  Here  q  is  the  key,  which 
on  being  depressed  sends 
down  a  'plunger'  (a),  which 
acts  upon  a  little  escapement 
action,  with  lever  (b),  ham- 
mer (c),  and  set-off  {d) ;  m  is 


the  reed,  which  by 
this  arrangement  ia 
struck  by  the  ham- 
mer and  assisted  to 
move  at  the  moment 
the  wind  is  admitted. 

The  harmonium 
has  a  keyboard  of 
five  octaves  at  8-ft. 
pitch.      The  bass 

stops  range  up  to 
and  include  the  e  on 
the  first  line  of  the 
treble  stave ;  and  the 
treble  stops  range 
from  the  /  upwards 
— 29  and  32  notes  re- 
spectively— a  wider 
compass  than  any 
other  wind  instru- 
ment. In  an  ordin- 
ary harmonium  the 
registers  or  rows  of 
vibrators  are  four  in 
number,  divided,  as 
just  stated,  into  bass 
and  treble,  and  again 
into  front  and  back 
organs  as  they  are 
technically  called. 
The  front  organ  has 
the  foundation  and 
fuller  toned  stops, 
the  back  organ  the 
imitation  and  more 
reedy  stops.  Thus,  adding  the  French  names  as 
they  are  frequently  to  be  met  with — 

Front.  No.  i.  Diapason  bass  and  Diapason 
treble — Cor  Anglak  and  FlUte,    8-ft.  pitch. 

No.  2.  Bourdon  bass  and 
Double  Diapason  treble — 
Bourdon  and  Clarinette.  16- 
ft.  pitch. 

Back.  No.  3.  Clarion  bass 
and  Principal  treble — Clarion 
and  Fifre.    4-ft.  pitch. 

No.  4.  Bassoon  bass  and 
Oboe  treble  —  Basson  and 
Hauthois.    8-ft.  pitch. 

M.  Mustel  retains  this  ar- 
rangement of  the  foundation 
stops  in  all  harmoniums  ;  Mr. 
Bauer  in  large  harmoniums 
has  doubled  them.  In  the 
large  Mustel  instruments 
other  stops  of  great  beauty 
are  added,  the  indisputable 
introduction  of  their  ingeni- 
ous maker — 

Ilarpe  Eolienne.  Bass. 
2 -ft.  pitch.    Two  ranks  of 


HARMONIUM. 


HARMONY. 


669 


vibrators,  out  of  tune,  the  one  a  beat  sharp,  the 
other  a  beat  flat,  producing  a  tremulous  effect. 

Musette.  Treble.   i6-ft.  pitch.  Nasal  quality. 

Voix  Celeste.  Treble.  i6-ft.  pitch.  Two 
ranks  with  soft  quality. 

Baryton.  Treble.  32-ft.  pitch.  Nasal  quality 
like  the  Musette,  but  broader. 

The  'full  organ'  {grand  jeu)  is  a  drawstop 
giving  instantly  the  full  power  of  the  harmonium 
without  the  out-of-tune  ranks.  The  'percussion' 
has  to  do  with  the  diapason  only,  and  not  with 
all  four  rows,  as  originally  applied  by  Martin. 
Two  mechanical  stops — the  Tremolo,  which  sets 
the  wind  in  motion  before  it  reaches  the  vibra- 
tors, and  the  Sourdine,  which  shuts  off"  a  portion 
of  the  wind  that  would  reach  them,  may  be 
regarded  now  as  discarded  in  all  harmoniums 
of  good  manufacture.  The  Swell  (recit)  is 
like  the  Venetian  swell  in  the  organ.  It  is 
usually  placed  over  the  back  organ,  and  is  con- 
trolled by  the  'Pneumatic  Fortes,'  set  in  motion 
by  knee  pedals,  which  opens  the  louvres  by  extra 
pressure  of  wind  acting  upon  pneumatic  levers. 
The  front  organ  in  foreign  harmoniums  is  usually 
subdued  by  a  thin  board  the  under  surface  of 
which  is  covered  with  swansdown  or  other  soft 
material ;  this  is  replaced  in  England  by  a 
covering  of  . brown  sheepskin  or  basil,  also  lined 
with  swansdown.  The  tongues  are  not  made 
of  ordinary  sheet-rolled  brass ;  but  of  a  metal 
prepared  expressly,  and  with  some  secrecy.  The 
best  is  believed  to  be  from  hammered  wire  re- 
duced by  continued  hammering  to  the  thickness 
required.  A  broader  tongue  is  found  to  give  a 
bolder  tone,  but  sacrifices  quickness  of  speech ; 
a  narrower  tongue  is  shriller.  The  tongues  are 
bent  in  various  ways,  longitudinally  and  late- 
rally, to  gain  sweetness,  but  the  speech  suffers. 
Tuning  is  effected  by  scraping  near  the  shoulder 
to  flatten  the  tongue,  or  near  the  point  to  sharpen 
it.  The  air  pressure  somewhat  affects  the  tuning 
of  the  larger  vibrators,  but  it  is  a  merit  in  the 
harmonium  that  it  alters  little  in  comparison 
with  the  pianoforte  or  flue- work  of  an  organ. 
Double  touch  is  produced  by  causing  the  back 
organ  to  speak  first,  and  is  divided  technically 
into  the  'upper'  and  'deep' touches.  The  har- 
monium has  been  combined  in  construction  with 
the  pianoforte  by  Debain  and  other  makers.  The 
timbres  and  nature  of  the  two  instruments  are 
so  dissimilar,  not  to  say  antagonistic,  that  no 
real  benefit  is  to  be  gained  by  yoking  them 
together.  [A.J.H.] 

HARMONY.  The  practice  of  combining 
sounds  of  different  pitch,  which  is  called  Har- 
mony, belongs  exclusively  to  the  music  of  the 
most  civilised  nations  of  modem  times.  It  seems 
to  be  sufficiently  proved  that  the  ancient  Greeks, 
though  they  knew  the  combinations  which  we 
call  chords  and  categorised  them,  did  not  make 
use  of  them  in  musical  performance.  This  reti- 
cence probably  arose  from  the  nature  of  their 
scales,  which  were  well  adapted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  effective  resources  of  melody,  but 
were  evidently  inadequate  for  the  purposes  of 
harmony.    In  looking  back  over  the  history  of 


music  it  becomes  clear  that  a  scale  adapted  for 
any  kind  of  elaboration  of  harmony  could  only 
be  arrived  at  by  centuries  of  labour  and  thought. 
In  the  search  after  such  a  scale  experiment  has 
succeeded  experiment,  those  which  were  success- 
ful serving  as  the  basis  for  further  experiments 
by  fresh  generations  of  musicians  till  the  scale 
we  now  use  was  arrived  at.  The  ecclesiastical 
scales,  out  of  which  our  modem  system  was  gradu- 
ally developed,  were  the  descendants  of  the  Greek 
scales,  and  like  them  only  adapted  for  melody, 
which  in  the  dark  ages  was  of  a  sufficiently  rude 
description.  The  people's  songs  of  various  nations 
also  indicate  characteristic  scales,  but  these  were 
equally  unfit  for  purposes  of  combination,  unless 
it  were  with  a  drone  bass,  which  must  have 
been  a  very  early  discovery.  In  point  of  fact 
the  drone  bass  can  hardly  be  taken  as  repre- 
senting any  idea  of  harmony  proper  ;  it  is  very 
likely  that  it  originated  in  the  instruments  of 
percussion  or  any  other  form  of  noise-making 
invention  which  served  to  mark  the  rhythms  or 
divisions  in  dancing  or  singing ;  and  as  this  would 
in  most  cases  (especially  in  barbarous  ages)  be 
only  one  note,  repeated  at  whatever  pitch  the 
melody  might  be,  the  idea  of  using  a  continuous 
note  in  place  of  a  rhythmic  one  would  seem 
naturally  to  follow ;  but  this  does  not  necessarily 
imply  a  feeling  for  harmony,  though  the  prin- 
ciple had  certain  issues  in  the  development  of 
j  harmonic  combinations,  which  will  presently  be 
I  noticed.  It  would  be  impossible  to  enter  here 
into  the  question  of  the  construction  and  gradual 
modification  of  the  scales.  It  must  suffice  to 
point  out  that  the  ecclesiastical  scales  are  tolerably 
well  represented  by  the  white  notes  of  our  keyed 
instruments,  the  different  ones  commencing  upon 
each  white  note  successively,  that  commencing  on 
D  being  the  one  which  was  more  commonly  used 
than  the  others.  In  these  scales  there  were  only 
two  which  had  a  leading  note  or  major  seventh 
from  the  tonic.  Of  these  the  one  beginning  on 
F  (the  ecclesiastical  Lydian)  was  vitiated  by 
having  an  augmented  fourth  from  the  Tonic, 
and  the  one  commencing  on  C  (the  ecclesiastical 
Ionic,  or  Greek  Lydian)  was  looked  upon  with 
disfavour  as  the  'modus  laspivus.'  These  cir- 
cumstances affected  very  materially  the  early  ideas 
of  harmony;  and  it  will  be  seen  that,  conversely, 
the  gradual  growth  of  the  perception  of  harmonic 
relations  modified  these  ecclesiastical  scales  by  very 
slow  degrees,  by  the  introduction  of  accidentals, 
so  that  the  various  modes  were  by  degrees  fused 
into  our  modern  major  and  minor  scales. 

The  earliest  attempts  at  harmony  of  which 
there  are  any  examples  or  any  description,  was 
the  Diaphony  or  Organum  which  is  described  by 
Hucbald,  a  Flemish  monk  of  the  tenth  century, 
in  a  book  called  '  Enchiridion  Musicae.'  These 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  successions  of  fourths 
or  fifths,  and  octaves.  Burney  gives  an  example 
from  the  work,  and  translates  it  as  follows  : — 


i 

iX  ^  ^          dl^           <^           ^   IS^-  ^ 

lu    pa  -  tris  senip  -  i  -  tur    nus    es      ft  -  li  -  us. 

670 


HAEMONY. 


HARMONY. 


The  practice  of  adding  extra  parts  to  a  Canto 
fenno  at  the  distance  of  a  fourth  or  fifth,  with 
an  octave  to  make  it  complete,  seems  to  have 
been  common  for  some  time,  and  was  expressed 
by  such  terms  as  '  diatessaronare,'  or  in  French 
*  quintoier.'  This  however  was  not  the  only 
style  of  combination  known  to  Hucbald,  for  in 
another  example  which  consists  chiefly  of  suc- 
cessions of  fifths  and  octaves  the  parallelism  is 
interrupted  at  the  close,  and  the  last  chord  but 
one  contains  a  major  sixth.  Further  than  this, 
Burney  gives  an  example  in  which  the  influence 
of  a  drone  bass  or  holding  note  is  apparent, 
whereby  the  origin  of  passing  notes  is  indicated, 
as  will  be  observed  in  the  use  of  a  ninth  tran- 
sitionally  between  the  combinations  of  the  octave 
and  the  tenth  in  the  following  example  at  *. 


The  use  of  tenths  in  this  example  is  remarkable, 
and  evidently  unusual,  for  Guido  of  Arezzo,  who 
lived  full  a  century  later,  speaks  of  the  '  sym- 
phonia  vocum '  in  his  Antiphonarium,  and  men- 
tions only  fourths,  fifths,  and  octaves.  This 
might  be  through  Hucbald's  notions  of  com- 
bination being  more  vague  than  those  of  Guido, 
and  his  attempts  at  harmony  more  experimental; 
for,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered  fi-om  the  documents, 
the  time  which  elapsed  between  them  was  a 
period  of  gradual  realisation  of  the  qualities  of 
intervals,  and  not  of  progress  towards  the  use  of 
fresh  ones.  Guide's  description  of  the  Organ um 
is  essentially  the  same  as  the  succession  of  fourths 
and  fifths  given  by  Hucbald ;  he  does  not  how- 
ever consider  it  very  satisfactory,  and  gives  an 
example  of  what  was  more  musical  according  to 
his  notions  ;  but  as  this  is  not  in  any  degree 
superior  to  the  second  example  quoted  from  Huc- 
bald above,  it  is  clear  that  Guide's  views  on  the 
subject  of  Harmony  do  not  demand  lengthy  con- 
sideration here.  It  is  only  necessary  to  point  out 
that  he  seems  to  have  more  defined  notions  as  to 
what  is  desirable  and  what  not,  and  he  is  re- 
markable also  for  having  proposed  a  definition  of 
Harmony  in  his  Antiphonarium  in  the  following 
terms — 'Armenia  est  diversarima  vocum  apta 
coadunatio.' 

The  Diaphony  or  Organum  above  described 
■was  succeeded,  perhaps  about  Guide's  time,  by 
the  more  elaborate  system  called  Discantus. 
This  consisted  at  first  of  manipulation  of  two 
diflPerent  tunes  so  as  to  make  them  tolerably 
endurable  when  sung  together.  Helmholtz  sug- 
gests that  '  such  examples  could  scarcely  have 
been  intended  for  more  than  musical  tricks  to 
amuse  social  meetings.  It  was  a  new  and 
amusing  discovery  that  two  totally  independent 
melodies  might  be  sung  together  and  yet  sound 
well.'  The  principle  was  however  early  ado])ted 
for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  is  described  under 
the  name  Discantus  by  Franco  of  Cologne,  who 
lived  but  little  after  Guido  in  the  eleventh 
century.    From  this  Discantus  sprang  counter- 


point and  that  whole  genus  of  polyphonic  music, 
which  was  developed  to  such  a  high  pitch  of 
perfection  between  the  14th  and  the  17th 
centuries ;  a  period  in  which  the  minds  of  suc- 
cessive generations  of  musicians  were  becoming 
vmconsciously  habituated  to  harmonic  combina- 
tions of  greater  and  greater  complexity,  ready  for 
the  final  realisation  of  harmony  in  and  for  itself, 
which,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  appears  to  have 
been  achieved  about  the  year  1600.  Franco  of 
Cologne,  who  as  above  stated  describes  the  first 
forms  of  this  Descant,  is  also  somewhat  in  ad- 
vance of  Guido  in  his  views  of  harmony.  He 
classifies  concords  into  perfect,  middle,  and 
imperfect  consonances,  the  first  being  the  octaves, 
the  second  the  fourths  and  fifths,  and  the  third 
the  major  and  minor  thirds.  He  puts  the  sixths 
among  the  discords,  but  admits  of  their  use  in 
Descant  as  less  disagreeable  than  flat  seconds  or 
sharp  fourths,  fifths,  and  sevenths.  He  is  also 
remarkable  for  giving  the  first  indication  of  a 
revulsion  of  feeling  against  the  system  of  '  Or- 
ganising' in  fifths  and  fourths,  and  a  tendency 
towards  the  modem  dogma  against  consecutive 
fifths  and  octaves,  as  he  says  that  it  is  best  to 
mix  imperfect  concords  with  perfect  concords 
instead  of  having  successions  of  imperfect  or 
perfect. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
[  examples  of  the  secular  music  of  these  early 
times,  as  it  must  inevitably  have  been  among 
!  the  unsophisticated  geniuses  of  the  laity  that  the 
'  most  daring  experiments  at  innovation  were 
j  made  ;  and  it  would  be  very  interesting  to  trace 
the  process  of  selection  which  must  have  uncon- 
sciously played  an  important  part  in  the  survival 
of  what  was  fit  in  these  experiments,  and  the 
non-survival  of  what  was  unfit.    An  indication 
of  this  progress  is  given  in  a  work  by  Marchetto 
of  Padua,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century,  in 
which  it  appears  that  secular  music  was  much 
cultivated  in  Italy  in  his  time,  and  examples  of 
the  chromatic  progressions  which  were  used  are 
given  ;  as  for  instance — 


Marchetto  speaks  also  of  the  resolutions  of  Dis- 
cords, among  which  he  classes  fourths,  and 
explains  that  the  part  which  oSends  the  ear  by 
one  of  these  discords  must  make  amends  by 
passing  to  a  concord,  while  the  other  part  stands 
still.  This  classification  of  the  fourth  among 
discords,  which  here  appears  for  the  first  time, 
marks  a  decided  advance  in  refinement  of  feeling 
for  harmony,  and  a  boldness  in  accepting  that 
feeling  as  a  guide  in  preference  to  theory.  As 
far  as  the  ratios  of  the  vibrational  numbers  of 
the  limiting  sounds  are  concerned,  the  fourth 
stands  ne.vt  to  the  fifth  in  excellence,  and  above 
the  third ;  and  theoretically  this  was  aU  that 
the  mediaeval  musicians  had  to  guide  them. 
But  they  were  instinctively  choosing  those  con- 
sonances which  are  represented  in  the  compovmd 


HAEMONT. 


671 


:  ne  of  the  lower  note,  that  is  in  the  series  of 
hannonica  of  which  jt  is  the  prime  tone,  or 
'generator,'  and  among  these  the  fourth  does  not 
occur;  and  they  had  not  yet  learnt  to  feel  the 
significance  of  inversions  of  giren  intervals ;  and 
Uierefore  the  development  of  their  perception  of 
harmonies,  dealing  as  yet  only  with  combinations 
of  two  different  notes  at  a  time,  would  lead  them 
to  reject  the  fourth,  and  put  it  in  the  categosy  of 
disotmiant  intervals,  in  which  it  has  ever  since 
remained  as  far  as  contrapuntal  music  is  con- 
cerned, while  eren  in  harmonic  music  it  cannot 
be  said  to  be  at  all  on  an  equality  with  other 


Hie  next  writer  on  mnsie  of  any  prominent 
importance  after  Marchetto  was  Jean  de  Muris, 
who  lived  in  the  14th  century.    In  his  'Ara 
Contrapuncti '  he  systematises  concords,  as  the 
previous  writers  had  done,  into  perfect  and  im- 
perfect :  but  his  distribution  is  different  finom 
Franco's,  and  indicates  advance.    He  calls  the 
octave  and  the  fifth  the  perfect,  and  the  major 
and  minor  thirds  and  major  sixths  the  imperfect 
concords.     The  minor  sixth  he  still  exclndes. 
Similariy  to  Franco  he  gives  directions  for  inter- 
mingling the  |)erfect  and  imperfect  concords,  and 
further  states  that  parts  should  not  ascend  or 
descend  in  p^fect  concords,  but  that  they  may 
in  imperfect.    It  is  clear  that  individual  caprice 
was  playing  a  considerable  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  musical  resources  in  de  Muris's  time,  as 
he  speaks  with  great  bittames  of  extempore  des- 
canters.  He  says  of  this  new  mode  of  descanting, 
in  which  they  professed  to  use  new  consonances, 
*0  magnus  abusus,  TTiagrnj  ruditas,  magna  be- 
stiaHtas.  ut  asinus  sumatur  pro  homine,  capra 
pro  leone,'  and  so  on,  concluding.  '  sic  enim  con- 
oordiae  confunduntur  cum  discordiis  ut  nullaten'os 
una  distinguatur  ab  aUa.'    Such  wildness  may 
be  aggravating  to  a  theorist,  but  in  early  stages 
of  art  it  must  be  looked  upon  with  satisfaction 
by  the  student  who  sees  therein  the  elements  of 
progress.    Fortunately,  after  de  Muris's  time, 
<»iginal  examples  begin  to  multiply,  and  it 
bea>mes  less  necessary  to  refer  to  reporters  for 
evidaioe,  as  the  facts  remain  to  speak  for 
themselves.    Baese wetter  gives  an  example  of 
.four-part  counterpoint  by  Dufay,  a  Xetherland^, 
who  was  bom  about  1 360.    This  is  supposed  to 
be  the  earliest  example  of  its  kind  extant,  and 
is  a  very  considerable  advance  on  anything  of 
which  there  is  any  previous  account  or  existing 
examples,  as  there  appears  in  it  a  frequent  nse 
of  what  we  call  the  complete  common  chord 
with  the  third  in  it,  and  also  its  first  inversion : 
and  in  technical  construction  especially  it  shows 
great  advance  in  comparison  with  previous 
examines,  and  approaches  much  nearer  to  what 
we  should  call  real  music.    It  requires  to  be 
noted  moreover  that  this  improvement  in  techni- 
cal constructiosi  is  the  m>>st  striking  feature  of 
the  progress  of  music  in  the  next  two  centuries, 
rather  than  any  large  extension  of  the  actual 
harmonic  combinations. 

The  w(»ks  of  Ockeghem,  who  lived  in  the  next 
century  to  Du£ay,  do  not  seem  to  present  much 


that  is  worthy  of  remark  as  compared  with  him. 
He  occaskmally  oaes  sn^eoded  diaoords  in  chords 
of  more  than  two  parts,  as — 


from  a  canon  quoted  by  Eumey ;  but  discords  are 
of  rare  occurrence  in  Ms  works,  as  they  are  also 
in  those  of  his*  great  pupil  Josqnin  de  F^es.  For 
instance,  in  the  first  part  of  the  Stabat  Mater  by 
the  latter  (in  the  Haccolta  Generate  d^e  Opere 
Classiche,  edited  by  Choron),  there  are  only  ten 
examples  of  such  discords  in  the  whole  eighty- 
eight  bars,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  was  a 
liberal  snj^y  for  the  time  when  it  was  written. 

Ambros  says  that  Josqnin  was  the  first  to  use 
accident^  to  indicate  the  modificstkois  of  notes, 
whidi  we  are  tolerably  certain  most  hare  been 
modified  according  to  fixed  mles  before  his  time 
without  actual  indicatioQ  in  the  o^ies.  Jos- 
qnin c^tainly  made  nse  of  them  also  to  obtain 
effects  which  could  not  hare  been  derived  from 
the  ordinary  principles  of  r^dering  the  music, 
and  ^us  took  an  important  step  in  the  direction 

assimilating  the  ecclesiastical  scales  in  the 
manner  whicb  gradually  resulted  in  the  musical 
system  we  now  use.  A  remarkable  instance  of 
tnij<  is  his  use  more  than  once  of  a  omcluding 
chord  with  a  major  third  in  it,  the  major  third 
being  indicated  by  an  accidentaL  Prior  to  him 
the  concluding  chord  had  contained  only  a  bare 
fiiih  at  most,  and  of  this  there  are  examples  in 
his  works  also,  as — 


fr<?m  the  Benedictas  of  the  Mas.3  '  Faysans  re- 
grets' quoted  by  Bumey  ,iL  50c  — in  which  pro- 
gression the  use  of  the  is  wor:Ly  of  nodee  ; 
but  his  use  of  the  major  third  shows  a  remarkable 
advance,  especially  in  the  direction  of  feeling  for 
tonality,  which  is  one  of  the  esential  features  of 
modem  music. 

This  use  of  the  major  third  in  the  final  chord 
of  a  piece  in  a  minor  key  became  at  a  later 
time  almost  universal,  the  only  alternative  being 
a  bare  filfth,  as  in  the  last  example;  and  the 
practice  was  continued  far  on  into  modem  music  ; 
as  by  Bach  and  Handel,  in  the  former  of  whose 
works  it  is  very  common  even  in  instrumental 
music.  And  still  later  we  find  it  in  Mozart, 
as  at  the  end  of  the  '  Quam  olim  Abraha'  in  the 
Requiem  Mass.  On  the  other  hand,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Chorus  '  Dies  Irae'  of  the  same 
mass  the  final  chord  appears,  as  far  as  the  voices 
are  concerned,  with  only  a  fifth  in  it,  as  in  the 
example  from  Josquin  above.  However  with 
composers  of  the  harmonic  period  such  as  these 
it  has  not  been  at  all  a  recognized  rule  to  avoid 
the  minor  third  in  the  final  chord,  its  employment 
or  avoidance  being  rather  the  result  of  charac- 


672 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


teristic  qualities  of  the  piece  which  it  concludes. 
But  with  composers  of  the  prehannonic  period 
it  was  clearly  a  rule  ;  and  its  origin  depended 
on  the  same  feeling  as  that  which  caused  them 
to  put  the  fourth  in  the  category  of  the  dis- 
cords ;  for  like  the  fourth,  the  minor  third  does 
not  exist  as  a  part  of  the  compound  tone  of  the 
lower  note,  and  its  quality  is  veiled  and  unde- 
fined ;  and  it  was  not  till  a  totally  new  way  of 
looking  at  music  came  into  force  .that  it  could 
stand  on  its  own  basis  as  final ;  for  among 
other  considerations,  the  very  vagueness  of  tona- 
lity which  characterised  the  old  polj'phonic 
school  necessitated  absolute  freedom  from  any- 
thing approaching  to  ambiguity  or  vagueness  in 
the  concluding  combination  of  sounds.  In  mo- 
dern music  the  passage  preceding  the  final  ca- 
dence is  likely  to  be  all  so  consistently  and 
clearly  in  one  key,  that  the  conclusion  could 
hardly  sufi'er  in  definition  by  the  use  of  the  veiled 
third  ;  but  if  the  following  beautiful  passage 
from  the  conclusion  of  Josquin's  '  Deploration  de 
Jehan  Okenheim'  be  attempted  with  a  minor 
third  instead  of  his  major  third  for  the  conclusion, 
the  truth  of  these  views  will  be  more  strongly 
felt  than  after  any  possible  argument : — 

-i-l,  J  J  1  ,1  '  ' 


In  this  case  it  is  quite  clear  that  a  minor 
third  would  not  seem  like  any  conclusion  at 
all ;  even  the  bare  fifth  would  be  better,  since  at 
least  the  harmonic  major  third  of  the  three  A's 
would  sound  unembarassed  by  a  contiguous  semi- 
tone, for  each  of  the  A's  in  the  chord  would  have 
a  tolerably  strong  harmonic  Cff,  with  which  the 
presence  of  a  C  b  would  conflict.  But  the  major 
third  has  in  this  place  a  remarkable  finality, 
without  which  the  preceding  progressions,  so  en- 
tirely alien  to  modern  theories  of  tonality,  would, 
be  incomplete,  and,  as  it  were,  wanting  a  bound- 
ary line  to  define  them. 

This  vagueness  of  tonality,  as  it  is  called, 
which  is  so  happily  exemplified  in  the  above 
example,  especially  in  the  'Amen,'  is  one  of  the 
strongest  points  of  external  difference  between 
the  mediaeval  and  modern  musical  systems.  The 
vagueness  is  to  a  great  extent  owing  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  ecclesiastical  scales,  which  gives 
rise  to  such  peculiarities  as  the  use  of  a  common 
chord  on  the  minor  seventh  of  the  key,  as  in  the 
following  example  from  Bird's  Anthem,  'Bow 


thine  ear,'  where  at  *  there  is  a  common  chord 
on  Eb  in  a  passage  which  in  other  respects  is  all 
in  the  key  of  F  major. 


-  -  -    ed      and  brought 


But  the  actual  and  vital  difference  between 
the  two  systems  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  old 
musicians  regarded  music  as  it  were  horizon- 
tally, whereas  the  moderns  regard  it  perpen- 
dicularly. The  former  looked  upon  it  and  taught 
it  in  the  sense  of  combined  voice  parts,  the  har- 
monic result  of  which  was  more  or  less  a  matter 
of  indifference  ;  but  the  latter  regard  the  series 
of  harmonies  as  primary,  and  base  whole  move- 
ments upon  their  interdependent  connection,  ob- 
taining unity  chiefly  by  the  distribution  of  the 
keys  which  throws  those  harmonies  into  groups. 
In  the  entire  absence  of  any  idea  of  such  prin- 
ciples of  construction,  the  mediaevalists  had  to 
seek  elsewhere  their  bond  of  connection,  and 
found  it  in  Canonic  imitation,  or  Fugue,  though 
it  must  be  remembered  that  their  idea  of  Fugue 
was  not  of  the  elaborate  nature  denoted  by  the 
term  at  the  present  day.  As  an  example  of  this 
Canonic  form,  the  famous  secular  song,  '  Sumer 
is  icumen  in,'  will  serve  very  well ;  and  as  it  is 
printed  in  score  in  both  Burney's  and  Hawkins's 
Histories,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon 
it  here,  since  its  harmonic  construction  does  not 
demand  special  notice.  In  all  such  devices  of 
Canon  and  Fugue  the  great  early  masters  were 
proficients,  but  the  greatest  of  them  were  not 
merely  proficient  in  such  technicalities,  but  were 
feeling  forward  towards  things  which  were  of 
greater  importance,  namely,  pure  harmonic  effects. 
This  is  noticeable  even  as  early  as  J osquin,  but 
by  Palestrina's  time  it  becomes  clear  and  indu- 
bitable. On  the  one  hand,  the  use  of  note  against 
note  counterpoint,  which  so  frequently  occurs  in 
Palestrina's  works,  brings  forward  prominently 
the  qualities  of  chords  ;  and  on  the  other,  even 
in  his  polv^hony  it  is  not  uncommon  to  meet 
with  passages  which  are  as  clearly  founded  on  a 
simple  succession  of  chords  as  anything  in  modern 
music  could  be.  Thus  the  following  example  from 
the  motet, '  Haec  dies  quam  fecit  Dominus' — 


HAKMONY. 


HARMONY. 


673 


is  simply  an  elaboration  of  the  progression  :- 
-g-  -)^- 


In  fact,  Palestrina's  success  in  the  attempt  to 
revivify  Church  Music  lay  chiefly  in  the  recog- 
nition of  harmonic  principles  ;  and  in  many  cases 
this  recognition  amounts  to  the  use  of  simple 
successions  of  chords  in  note  against  note  coun- 
terpoint, as  a  contrast  to  the  portion  of  the  work 
which  is  polyphonic.  His  success  also  depended 
to  a  great  degree  on  a  very  highly  developed 
sense  for  qualities  of  tone  in  chords  arising  from 
the  distribution  of  the  notes  of  which  they  are 
composed.  He  uses  discords  more  frequently 
than  his  predecessors,  but  still  with  far  greater 
reticence  than  a  modern  would  do  ;  and  in  order 
to  obtain  the  necessary  eflfects  of  contrast,  he 
uses  chords  in  various  positions,  such  as  give 
a  variety  of  qualities  of  softness  or  roughness. 
This  question,  which  shows  to  what  a  high  de- 
gree of  perfection  the  art  was  carried,  is  unfor- 
tunately too  complicated  to  be  discussed  here, 
and  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  part  ii, 
chap.  1 2  of  Helmholtz's  work  on  the  '  Sensa- 
tions of  Tone  as  a  physiological  basis  for  the 
theory  of  Music,'  where  it  is  completely  in- 
vestigated. As  an  example  of  the  freedom  with 
which  accidentals  were  used  in  secular  music  in 
Palestrina's  time  may  be  taken  the  following  pas- 
sage from  a  madrigal  by  Cipriano  Rore,  which  is 
quoted  by  Burney  (Hist.  iii.  319)  : — 


It  will  have  been  remarked  from  the  above 
survey,  that  from  the  dawn  of  any  ideas  of  com- 
bination of  notes,  musicians  were  constantly  ac- 
cepting fresh  facts  of  harmony.  First  perfect 
consonances,  then  imperfect,  and  then  suspended 
discords,  which  amounted  to  the  delaying  of  one 
note  in  passing  from  one  concord  to  another; 
then  modifications  of  the  scales  were  made  by 
the  use  of  accidentals,  and  approaches  were  by 
that  means  made  towards  a  scale  which  should 
admit  of  much  more  complex  harmonic  combina- 
tions. But  before  it  could  be  further  modified, 
it  was  necessary  that  a  new  standpoint  should 
be  gained.  The  great  musicians  of  the  i6th 
century  had  carried  the  art  to  as  high  a  pitch 
of  perfection  in  the  pure  polyphonic  style  as 
seems  to  us  possible,  and  men  being  accustomed 
to  hear  in  their  works  the  chords  which  were 
the  result  of  their  polyphony  were  ready  for  the 
first  steps  of  transition  from  that  style  to  the 
harmonic.  Palestrina,  the  hero  of  the  old  order, 
died  in  1592,  and  in  1600  the  first  modem 
opera,  the  '  Euridice'  of  Giacomo  Peri,  was  per- 


formed at  Florence.  It  is  impossible  to  point 
definitely  to  any  particular  time  and  say  '  Here 
the  old  order  ended  and  the  new  began,'  for  in 
point  of  fact  the  periods  overlap  one  another. 
A  species  of  theatrical  performance  accompanied 
by  music  had  been  attempted  long  before  this, 
and  secular  music  had  long  displayed  very  free 
use  of  chromaticisms  similar  to  the  modern  style 
of  writing;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  fine  exam- 
pies  of  polyphony  may  be  found  later ;  but 
nevertheless  the  appearance  of  this  opera  is  a 
very  good  typical  landmark,  since  features  of  the 
modern  school  are  so  clearly  displayed  in  it, 
such  as  arias  and  recitatives  accompanied  har- 
monically after  the  modern  manner  ;  moreover 
in  these  the  harmonies  are  indicated  by  figures, 
which  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance,  as 
it  implies  a  total  change  of  position  relative  to 
the  construction  of  the  music.  As  long  as  har- 
mony was  the  accidental  result  of  the  com- 
bination of  different  melodies,  the  idea  of  using 
abbreviations  for  a  factor  which  was  hardly  a 
recognized  part  of  the  effect  would  not  have 
occurred  to  any  one,  but  as  soon  as  harmony  came 
to  be  recognized  as  a  prominent  fact,  the  use  of 
signs  to  indicate  the  grouping  of  notes  into  these 
chords  would  naturally  suggest  itself,  especially 
as  in  the  infancy  of  these  views  the  chords  were 
of  a  simple  description.  That  the  system  of 
figuring  a  bass  was  afterwards  largely  employed 
in  works  founded  exclusively  on  the  old  theory 
of  counterpoint  is  no  argument  against  this  view, 
as  no  one  can  fail  to  see  how  entirely  inadequate 
the  figuring  is  to  supply  any  idea  whatever  of 
the  effects  of  contrapuntal  music.  With  Peri 
are  associated  the  names  of  Cavaliere,  Viadana, 
Caccini,  and  Monteverde.  To  Caccini  the  in- 
vention of  recitative  is  attributed,  to  Viadana 
that  of  the  '  basso  continue,'  and  to  Monteverde 
the  boldest  new  experiments  in  harmony ;  and  to 
the  present  question  the  last  of  these  is  the  most 
important.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that 
during  the  previous  century  progress  had  been 
rather  in  technical  expression  and  perfection  of 
detail  than  in  new  harmonies.  Palestrina's 
fame  does  not  rest  upon  elaborate  discords,  but 
upon  perfect  management  of  a  limited  number 
of  different  combinations.  Monteverde  evidently 
abandoned  this  ideal  refinement,  and  sought  for 
harsher  and  more  violent  forms  of  contrast. 
Thus  in  a  madrigal  '  Straccia  me  pur,'  quoted  in 
Burney's  History  (iii.  239),  the  following  double 
suspensions  occur  : — 


But  a  far  more  important  innovation,  which 
there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  attributing  to  him, 
as  he  was  personally  blamed  for  it  by  the  dogma- 
tists of  his  time,  was  the  use  of  the  minor  seventh, 
which  we  call  the  Dominant  seventh,  without 
preparation.    There  is  more  than  one  example 

Xx 


674 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


of  this  in  Lis  works,  but  one  which  occurs  in  a 
madrigal,  '  Cruda  Amarilli,'  is  specially  remark- 
able, as  it  is  preceded  by  a  ninth  used  evidently 
as  a  grace-note  in  a  manner  which  for  his  time 
must  have  been  very  daring.   It  is  as  follows  : — 


This  independent  manner  of  using  the  Domi- 
nant seventh  shows  an  appreciation  of  the  princi- 
ple of  the  relation  of  chords  through  a  common 
tonic  :  that  is  to  say,  the  connection  and  rela- 
tive importance  of  chords  founded  on  different 
root  notes  of  a  scale  according  to  the  modern 
and  not  the  old  ecclesiastical  principle.  It  is 
true  that  the  very  idea  of  roots  of  chords  did 
not  suggest  itself  as  a  realisable  conception  till 
nearly  a  century  later ;  but  as  is  usual  in  these 
cases,  artistic  instinct  was  feeling  its  way  slowly 
and  surely,  and  scientific  demonstration  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  discovery  till  it  came 
in  to  explain  the  results  when  it  was  all  ac- 
complished. The  development  of  this  principle 
is  the  most  important  fact  to  trace  in  this  period 
of  the  history  of  music.  Under  the  ecclesiastical 
system  one  chord  was  not  more  important  than 
another,  and  the  very  existence  of  a  Dominant 
seventh  according  to  the  modern  acceptation  of 
the  term  was  precluded  in  most  scales  by  the 
absence  of  a  leading  note  which  would  give  the 
indispensable  major  third.  The  note  immediately 
below  the  Tonic  was  almost  invariably  sharpened 
by  an  accidental  in  the  cadence  in  spite  of  the 
prohibition  of  Pope  John  XXII,  and  musicians 
were  thereby  gradually  realizing  the  sense  of  the 
dominant  harmony  ;  but  apart  from  the  cadence 
this  note  was  extremely  variable,  and  many 
chords  occur,  as  in  the  example  already  quoted 
from  Byrd,  which  could  not  occur  in  that  manner 
in  the  modern  scales,  where  the  Dominant  has 
always  a  major  third.  Even  considerably  later 
than  the  period  at  present  under  consideration 
— as  in  Carissimi  and  his  contemporaries,  who 
represent  very  distinctly  the  first  definite  harmonic 
period — the  habits  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  style 
reappear  in  the  use  of  notes  and  chords  which 
would  not  occur  in  the  same  tonal  relations  in 
modem  music  ;  and  the  effect  of  confusion  which 
results  is  all  the  more  remarkable  because  they 
had  lost  the  nobility  and  richness  which  cha- 
racterised the  last  and  greatest  period  of  the 
polyphonic  style.  The  deeply  ingrained  habits 
of  taking  the  chords  wherever  they  lay,  according 
to  the  old  teaching  of  Descant,  retarded  con- 
siderably the  recognition  of  the  Dominant  and 
Tonic  as  the  two  poles  of  the  harmonic  circle  of 
the  key ;  but  Monteverde's  use  of  the  seventh, 
above  quoted,  shows  a  decided  approach  to  it. 
Moreover  in  works  of  this  time  the  universality 
of  the  harmonic  Cadence  as  distinguished  from 


the  cadences  of  the  ecclesiastical  modes  becomes 
apparent.  The  ecclesiastical  cadences  were  no- 
minally defined  by  the  progressions  of  the  indi- 
vidual voices,  and  the  fact  of  their  collectively 
giving  the  ordinary  Dominant  Cadence  in  a  large 
proportion  of  instances  was  not  the  result  of 
principle,  but  in  point  of  fact  an  accident.  The 
modern  Dominant  Harmonic  Cadence  is  the  pas- 
sage of  the  mass  of  the  harmony  of  the  Domi- 
nant into  the  mass  of  the  Tonic,  and  defines  the 
key  absolutely  by  giving  successively  the  har- 
monies which  represent  the  compound  tone  of 
the  two  most  important  roots  in  the  scale,  the 
most  important  of  all  coming  last. 

The  following  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  character  of  the  transition.  The  conclusion 
of  Palestrina's  Motet,  '  0  bone  Jesu,'  is  as 
follows : — 


r 

In  this  a  modern,  regarding  it  in  the  light  of 
masses  of  harmony  with  a  fundamental  bass, 
would  find  difficulty  in  recognising  any  parti- 
cular key  which  would  be  essential  to  a  modem 
Cadence ;  but  the  melodic  progressions  of  the 
voices  according  with  the  laws  of  Cadence  in 
Descant  are  from  that  point  of  view  sufficient. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  following  conclusion  of 
a  Canzona  by  Frescobaldi,  which  must  have 
been  written  within  fifty  years  after  the  death 
of  Palestrina,  fully  illustrates  the  modern  idea, 
marking  first  the  Dominant  with  great  clear- 
ness, and  passing  thence  firmly  to  the  chord  of 
the  Tonic  F  : — 

sf  ^  


It  is  clear  that  the  recognition  of  this  relation 
between  the  Dominant  and  Tonic  harmony  was 
indispensable  to  the  perfect  establishment  of 
the  modern  system.  Composers  might  wake  to 
the  appreciation  of  the  eff  ects  of  various  chords 
and  of  successions  of  full  chords  (as  in  the  first 
chorus  of  Carissimi's  'Jonah'),  but  inasmuch  as 
the  Dominant  is  indispensable  for  the  definition  of 
a  key  (hence  called  'der  herrschende  Ton'),  the 
principle  of  modulation,  which  is  the  most  impor- 
tant secondary  feature  of  modern  music,  could  not 
be  systematically  and  clearly  carried  out  till  that 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


675 


means  of  defining  the  transition  from  one  key  to 
another  had  been  attained.  Under  the  old  system 
there  was  practically  no  modulation.  The  impres- 
sion of  change  of  key  is  not  unfrequently  produced, 
and  sustained  for  some  time  by  the  very  scarceness 
of  accidentals ;  since  a  single  accidental,  such  as 
Fjf  in  the  progress  of  a  passage  in  C,  is  enough  to 
give  to  a  modern  musician  the  impression  of 
change  to  G,  and  the  number  of  chords  which  are 
common  to  G  and  C  would  sustain  the  illusion. 
Sufficient  examples  have  already  been  given  to 
show  that  these  impressions  are  illusory,  and 
reference  may  be  made  further  to  the  commence- 
ment of  Palestrina's  *  Stabat  Mater '  in  8  parts, 
and  his  Motet  '  Hodie  Christus  natus  est,'  and 
Gibbons's  Madrigal  'Ah,  dear  heart,'  which  will 
also  further  show  that  even  the  use  of  accidentals 
was  not  the  fruit  of  any  idea  of  modulation.  The 
frequent  use  of  the  perfect  Dominant  Cadence  or 
*  full  Close,'  must  have  tended  to  accustom 
composers  to  this  important  point  in  modern 
harmony,  and  it  is  inevitable  that  musicians  of 
such  delicate  artistic  sensibility  as  the  great 
composers  of  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  century 
should  have  approached  nearer  and  nearer  to  a 
definite  feeling  for  tonality,  otherwise  it  would 
be  impossible  to  account  for  the  strides  which 
had  been  made  in  that  direction  by  the  time  of 
Carissimi.  For  in  his  works  the  principle  of 
tonality,  or  in  other  words  the  fact  that  a  piece 
of  music  can  be  written  in  a  certain  key  and  can 
pass  from  that  to  others  and  back,  is  certainly 
displayed,  though  the  succession  of  these  keys  is 
to  modern  ideas  irregular  and  their  individuality 
is  not  well  sustained,  owing  partly  no  doubt  to 
the  lingering  sense  of  a  possible  minor  third  to 
the  Dominant. 

The  supporters  of  the  new  kind  of  music  as 
opposed  to  the  old  polyphonic  style  had  a  great 
number  of  representative  composers  at  this  time, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  examples  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  Burney's  History ;  and  among  them  a 
revolutionary  spirit  was  evidently  powerful,  which 
makes  them  more  important  as  innovators  than  as 
great  musicians.  The  discovery  of  harmony  seems 
to  have  acted  in  their  music  for  a  time  unfavourably 
to  its  quality,  which  is  immensely  inferior  to  that 
of  the  works  of  the  polyphonic  school  they  were 
supplanting.  Their  harmonic  successions  are  poor, 
and  often  disagreeable,  and  in  a  large  number 
of  cases  purely  tentative.  The  tendency  was 
for  some  time  in  favour  of  the  development  of 
tunes,  to  which  the  new  conceptions  of  harmony 
supplied  a  fresh  interest.  Tunes  in  the  first 
instance  had  been  homophonic — that  is,  absolutely 
devoid  of  any  sense  of  relation  to  harmony;  and 
the  discovery  that  a  new  and  varied  character 
could  be  given  to  melody  by  supplying  a  har- 
monic basis  naturally  gave  impetus  to  its  cul- 
tivation. This  ako  was  unfavourable  to  the 
development  of  a  high  order  of  art,  and  it  was 
only  by  the  re-establishment  of  polyphony  upon 
the  basis  of  harmony,  as  we  see  it  displayed  to 
perfection  in  the  works  of  Bach,  that  the  art 
could  regain  a  lofty  standard  comparable  to  that 
of  Palestrina,  Lasso,  Byrd,  Gibbons,  and  the 


many  great  representatives  of  the  art  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  centuries.  In  point  of  fact  harmonic 
music  cannot  be  considered  apart  from  the  parts 
or  voices  of  which  it  is  composed.  It  consists  of 
an  alternation  of  discord  and  concord,  and  the 
passage  of  one  to  the  other  cannot  be  conceived 
except  through  the  progression  of  the  parts.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  with  respect  to  the  dis- 
covery of  harmonic  or  tonal  form  in  musical 
composition  in  the  article  Form,  the  effect  of 
the  new  discovery  was  at  first  to  make  com- 
posers lose  sight  of  the  important  element  of  pro- 
gression of  parts,  and  to  look  upon  harmony 
as  pre-eminent ;  consequently  the  progressions  of 
parts  in  the  works  of  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  seem  to  be  dull  and  uninteresting. 
Many  composers  still  went  on  working  in  the 
light  of  the  old  system,  but  they  must  be  re- 
garded in  relation  to  that  system,  and  not  as 
representatives  of  the  new ;  it  was  only  when 
men  strong  enough  to  combine  the  principles  of 
both  schools  appeared  that  modern  music  sprang 
into  full  vigour.  The  way  was  prepared  for  the 
two  great  masters  who  were  to  achieve  this  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  the 
constant  labours  and  experiments  of  the  com- 
posers of  the  seventeenth.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  trace  the  appearance  of  fresh  harmonic 
material,  as  the  composers  were  so  numerous, 
and  many  of  their  works,  especially  in  the 
early  period,  are  either  lost  or  unattainable. 
But  in  surveying  the  general  aspect  of  the 
works  which  are  available,  a  gradual  advance 
is  to  be  remarked  in  all  departments,  and 
from  the  mass  of  experiments  certain  facts  are 
established.  Thus  clearness  of  modulation  is 
early  arrived  at  in  occasional  instances ;  for 
example,  in  an  opera  called  '  Orontea'  by  Cesti, 
which  was  performed  at  Venice  as  early  as  1 649, 
there  is  a  sort  of  short  Aria,  quoted  by  Burney 
(iv.  67),  which  is  as  clearly  defined  in  this  respect 
as  any  work  of  the  present  day  would  be.  It 
commences  in  E  minor,  and  modulates  in  a 
perfectly  natural  and  modern  way  to  the  relative 
major  G,  and  makes  a  full  close  in  that  key. 
From  thence  it  proceeds  to  A  minor,  the  sub- 
dominant  of  the  original  key,  and  makes  another 
full  close,  and  then,  just  touching  G  on  the  way, 
it  passes  back  to  E  minor,  and  closes  fully  in 
that  key.  This  is  all  so  clear  and  regular 
according  to  modern  ideas  that  it  is  difficult  to 
realise  that  Cesti  wrote  within  half  a  century 
of  Palestrina,  and  of  the  first  recognition  of  the 
elements  of  modern  harmony  by  Caccini,  Mon- 
teverde,  and  their  fellows.  The  clearness  of 
each  individual  modulation,  and  the  way  in 
which  the  different  keys  are  rendered  distinct 
from  one  another,  both  by  the  use  of  appropriate 
Dominant  harmony,  and  by  avoiding  the  ob- 
scurity which  results  from  the  introduction  of 
foreign  chords,  is  important  to  note,  as  it  indi- 
cates so  strongly  the  feeling  for  tonality  which 
by  constant  attention  and  cultivation  culminated 
in  the  definite  principles  which  we  now  use.  That 
the  instance  was  tentative,  and  that  Cesti  was 

Xx2 


676 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


guided  by  feeling  and  not  rule,  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  fact  that  not  only  contemporary 
musicians,  but  successive  generations  up  to  the 
end  of  the  century,  and  even  later,  frequently 
fell  into  the  old  habits,  presenting  examples  of 
successions  of  harmony  which  are  obscure  and 
confused  in  key. 

It  is  not  possible  to  discover  precisely  when 
the  use  of  the  seventh  in  the  Dominant  Cadence 
came  into  use.  It  has  been  already  pointed  out 
that  Monte verde  hazarded  experimentally  the 
use  of  the  Dominant  seventh  without  preparation, 
but  nevertheless  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
used  with  any  obvious  frequency  by  musicians  in 
the  early  part  of  the  17th  century;  but  by  the 
middle  and  latter  part  it  is  found  almost  as  a 
matter  of  course,  as  in  the  works  of  the  dis- 
tinguished French  instrumental  composers  Du- 
mont,  Jacques  de  Chambonnieres,  and  Couperin. 
The  following  is  an  example  from  the  second  of 
these — 


which  shows  how  easily  it  might  have  been  in- 
troduced in  the  first  instance  as  a  passing  note 
between  the  root  of  the  first  chord  and  the  third 
of  the  next,  and  its  true  significance  have  been 
seen  afterwards. 

This  use  of  the  seventh  in  the  Dominant  chord 
in  the  Cadence  makes  the  whole  effect  of  the 
Cadence  softer  and  less  vigorous,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  defining  the  key  it  makes  the  Cadence 
as  strong  as  possible ;  and  this,  in  consideration 
of  the  great  latitude  of  modulation  and  the 
great  richness  and  variety  of  harmony  in  modem 
music,  becomes  of  great  importance.  It  does  this 
in  three  ways.  First,  by  simply  adding  another 
note  to  the  positive  representative  notes  of  the 
key  which  are  heard  in  the  Cadence,  in  which 
in  this  form  the  submediant  (as  A  in  the  key  of 
C)  will  be  the  only  note  of  the  scale  which  will 
not  be  heard.  Secondly,  by  giving  a  very  com- 
plete representation  of  the  compound  tone  of  the 
root-notes  as  contained  in  the  Diatonic  scale ;  since 
the  seventh  harmonic,  though  not  absolutely  exact 
with  the  minor  seventh  which  is  used  in  harmony, 
is  so  near  that  they  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  one  another,  as  is  admitted  by  Helmholtz. 
And  thirdly,  by  presenting  a  kind  of  additional 
downward-tending  leading-note  to  the  third  in 
the  Tonic  chord,  to  which  it  thereby  directs  the 
more  attention.  In  relation  to  which  it  is  also 
to  be  noted  that  the  combination  of  leading  note 
and  subdominant  is  decisive  as  regards  the  key, 
since  they  cannot  occur  in  combination  with  the 
Dominant  as  an  essential  Diatonic  chord  in 
any  other  key  than  that  which  the  Cadence 
indicates.  The  softness  which  characterises  this 
form  of  the  Cadence  has  led  to  its  avoidance 


in  a  noticeable  degree  in  many  great  works, 
notwithstanding  its  defining  properties  —  as  in 
both  the  first  and  last  movements  of  Beetho- 
ven's C-minor  Symphony,  the  first  movement  of 
his  Symphony  in  A,  and  the  Scherzo  of  the 
Ninth  Symphony.  In  such  cases  the  definition 
of  key  is  obtained  by  other  means,  as  for  ex- 
ample in  the  last  movement  of  the  C-minor 
Symphony  by  the  remarkable  reiteration  both 
of  the  simple  concordant  cadence  and  of  the 
Tonic  chord.  In  the  first  movement  of  the  A 
Symphony  and  the  Scherzo  of  the  Ninth,  the  note 
which  represents  the  seventh,  although  omitted 
in  the  actual  harmony  of  the  Cadence,  appears 
elsewhere  in  the  passage  preceding.  In  respect 
of  definition  of  key  it  will  be  apposite  here  to 
notice  another  form  of  Cadence,  namely  that 
commonly  called  Plagal,  in  which  the  chord  of 
the  sub-dominant  (as  F  in  the  key  of  C)  precedes 
the  final  Tonic  chord.  This  Cadence  is  chiefly 
associated  with  ecclesiastical  music,  to  which 
it  was  more  appropriate  than  it  is  in  more 
elaborate  modern  music.  On  the  one  hand  it 
avoided  the  difficulty  of  the  Dominant  chord 
which  resulted  from  the  nature  of  most  of  the 
ecclesiastical  scales,  while  its  want  of  capacity  for 
enforcing  the  key  was  less  observable  in  relation 
to  the  simpler  harmonies  and  absence  of  modula- 
tion of  the  older  style.  This  deficiency  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  chord  of  the  Subdominant 
already  contains  the  Tonic  to  which  it  is  finally 
to  pass,  and  its  compound  tone  which  also  con- 
tains it  does  not  represent  a  position  so  com- 
pletely in  the  opposite  phase  to  the  Tonic  as  the 
Dominant  does ;  whence  the  progression  is  not 
strongly  characteristic.  It  also  omits  the  cha- 
racteristic progression  of  the  leading  note  up  to 
the  Tonic,  and  does  not  represent  so  many 
positive  notes  of  the  scale  as  the  Dominant 
Cadence.  For  these  various  reasons,  though  not 
totally  banished  from  modern  music,  it  is  rare, 
and  when  used  appears  more  as  supplementary  to 
the  Dominant  Cadence,  and  serving  to  enforce 
the  Tonic  note,  than  as  standing  on  its  own  basis. 
Moreover,  as  supplementary  to  the  Dominant 
Cadence  it  offers  the  advantage  of  giving  tlie 
extra  note  in  the  scale  which,  as  has  been 
remarked,  is  almost  inevitably  omitted  in  the 
Dominaiit  Cadence.  Hence  an  extended  type  of 
Cadence  is  given  by  some  theorists  as  the  most 
complete,  which,  as  it  were,  combines  the  pro- 
perties of  the  two  Cadences  in  this  form — 


In  this  the  sub-dominant  chord  of  the  weaker 
Cadence  comes  first,  and  a  chord  of  6-4,  as  it  is 
called,  is  inserted  to  connect  it  with  the  Domi- 
nant chord,  (as  otherwise  they  would  have  no 
notes  in  common  and  the  connection  between 
them  harmonically  would  not  be  ostensible,)  and 
then  the  Dominant  chord  passes  into  the  Tonic 


HARMONY. 


HAKMONY. 


677 


.liter  the  usual  fashion.  Other  methods  of  joining 
the  Subdominant  chord  to  the  Dominant  chord 
are  plentifully  scattered  in  musical  w  orks,  as  for 
instance  the  use  of  a  suspended  fourth  in  the 
place  of  the  6-4 ;  but  as  a  type  the  above  answers 
very  well,  and  it  must  not  be  taken  as  more 
than  a  type,  since  a  bare  theoretical  fact  in  such 
a  form  is  not  music,  but  only  lifeless  theory.  As 
an  example  of  the  theory  vitalised  iji  a  modem 
form  may  be  given  the  conclusion  of  Schumann's 
Toccata  in  C  for  pianoforte  (op.  7),  as  follows  : — 


TT~f 


in  the  works  of  Rogers,  will  be  remembered  by 

musicians  acquainted  with  that  branch  of  the  art 
as  a  proof  that  the  case  is  not  over-stated.  It 
was  no  doubt  necessary  for  the  development  of 
Form  in  musical  works  that  this  phase  should 
be  gone  through,  and  the  part  it  played  in  that 
development  is  considered  under  that  head,  and 
therefore  must  not  be  further  dwelt  upon  here. 
The  use  of  imperfect  and  interrupted  Cadences, 
as  above  alluded  to,  appears  in  works  early  in 
the  1 7th  century,  being  used  relatively  to  perfect 
Cadences  as  commas  and  semicolons  are  used  in 
literature  in  relation  to  full  stops.  The  form  of 
the  imperfect  Cadence  or  half-close  is  generally 
a  progression  towards  a  pause  on  the  Dominant 
of  the  key.  The  two  following  examples  from 
Carissimi  will  illustrate  his  method  of  using 
them, — 


In  this  the  weak  progression  of  the  6-4  is  happily 
ob\-iated  by  connecting  the  Subdominant  and 
Dominant  chords  by  the  minor  thii-d  of  the  former 
becoming  the  minor  ninth  of  the  latter  ;  and  at  the 
same  time  the  novelty  of  using  this  inversion  of  the 
Dominant  minor  ninth  as  the  penultimate  chord, 
and  its  having  also  a  slight  flavour  of  the  old 
plagal  Cadence,  gives  an  additional  vitality  and 
interest  to  the  whole.  Composers  of  the  early 
harmonic  period  also  saw  the  necessity  of  putting 
recognised  facts  in  some  form  which  presented 
novelty  and  individuality,  and  their  efforts  in  that 
direction  will  be  shortly  taken  notice  of.  ]Mean- 
while,  it  must  be  observed  that  the  discovery 
of  the  harmonic  Cadence  as  a  means  of  taking 
breath  or  expressing  a  conclusion  of  a  phrase 
and  binding  it  into  a  definite  thought,  affected 
music  for  a  time  unfavourably  in  respect  of  its 
continuity  and  breadth.  In  Polyphonic  times, 
if  it  was  desirable  to  make  a  break  in  the  pro- 
gi*ess  of  a  movement,  the  composers  had  to  devise 
their  own  means  to  that  end,  and  consequently 
a  great  variety  is  observable  in  the  devices  used 
for  that  purpose,  which  being  individual  and 
various  have  most  of  the  elements  of  vitality  in 
them.  But  the  harmonic  Cadence  became  every- 
body's property;  and  whenever  a  composer's 
ideas  failed  him,  or  his  imagination  became 
feeble,  he  helped  himself  out  by  using  the 
Cadence  as  a  full  stop  and  beginning  again ; 
a  proceeding  which  conveys  to  the  mind  of  a 
cultivated  modern  musician  a  feeling  of  weakness 
and  inconsequence,  which  the  softness  and  refine- 
ment of  style  and  a  certain  sense  of  languor  in 
the  works  of  the  early  Italian  masters  rather 
tend  to  aggravate.  Thus  in  the  first  part  of 
Carissimi's  Cantata  *  Deh  contentate\-i,'  which 
is  only  74  bars  in  length,  there  are  no  less  than 
10  perfect  Dominant  Cadences  with  the  chords  in 
their  first  positions,  besides  interrupted  Cadences 
and  imperfect  Cadences  such  as  are  sometimes 
called  half-closes.  This  is  no  doubt  rather  an 
excessive  instance,  but  it  serves  to  illustrate  the 
effect  which  the  discovery  of  the  Cadence  had  on 
music ;  and  its  effect  on  English  ecclesiastical  , 
music  of  a  slightly  later  period,  as  for  instance  j 


in  which  the  key  is  C,  and- 


in  which  the  key  is  Ei7.  The  form  of  the  In- 
terrupted Cadence  which  is  usually  quoted  as 
typical  is  that  where  the  progression  which 
seems  to  tend  through  the  Dominant  chord  to 
the  concluding  Tonic  chord  is  made  to  diverge 
to  some  other  position,  such  as  a  chord  on  the 
submediant  of  the  key,  as  on  A  in  the  key  of  C. 
This  form  also  appears  in  Carissimi,  but  not 
with  any  apparent  definiteness  of  purpose.  In 
fact,  as  a  predetermined  effect  the  Interrupted 
Cadence  belongs  to  a  more  advanced  condition 
of  ideas  in  music  than  that  illustrated  by  Caris- 
simi and  his  followers  and  contemporaries,  and 
only  demands  a  passing  notice  here  from  the  fact 
that  it  does  occur,  though  rarely.  Composers  in 
those  times  were  more  in  the  habit  of  concluding 
with  the  Cadence,  and  repeating  part  of  what 
they  had  said  before  over  again  with  another 
Cadence ;  which  answers  the  same  requirements 
of  form  as  most  of  the  uses  of  Interrupted 
Cadences  by  Bach  and  Handel,  but  in  a  much 
less  refined  and  artistically  intelligent  manner. 

In  order  to  see  the  bearings  of  many  of  the 
experiments  which  were  made  by  the  early 
representatives  of  harmonic  music  it  will  be 
necessary  to  return  for  a  short  space  to  their 
predecessors.  The  basis  which  the  old  contra- 
puntists had  worked  upon — which  we  express, 
for  bre%-ity's  sake,  in  the  language  which  is  con- 
sistently only  applicable  to  harmonic  music,  as 
concords  and  their  first  inversions  and  simple 
discords  of  suspension — had  been  varied  and 
enriched  by  them  by  the  use  of  passing  notes. 
In  the  use  of  these  a  great  deal  of  ingenuity  was 


678 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


exercised,  and  the  devices  which  resulted  were 
in  some  instances  looked  upon  as  everybody's 
property,  and  became  quite  characteristic  of  the 
particular  form  of  art.  As  a  type  of  these  may 
be  taken  the  following  from  Dufay,  who  lived  in 
the  14th  century,  and  has  already  been  spoken 
of  as  being  quoted  by  Kiesewetter — 


In  this  the  F  is  clearly  taken  as  a  passing  note 
between  G  and  E,  and  a  note  on  the  other  side 
of  the  E  is  interpolated  before  the  legitimate 
passage  of  the  passing  note  is  concluded.  This 
particular  figure  reappears  with  astonishing  fre- 
quency all  through  the  polyphonic  period,  as  in 
Josquin's  Stabat  Mater,  in  Palestrina's  Missa 
Papae  Marcelli,  in  Gibbons's  Hosanna,  and  in 
Byrd's  Mass.  But  what  is  particularly  notice- 
able about  it  is  that  it  gets  so  thoroughly  fixed 
as  a  figure. in  the  minds  of  musicians  that  ulti- 
mately its  true  significance  is  sometimes  lost 
sight  of,  and  it  actually  appears  in  a  form  in 
which  the  discord  of  the  seventh  made  by  the 
passing  note  is  shorn  of  its  resolution.  As  an 
example  of  this  (which  however  is  rare)  may 
be  taken  the  following  passage  from  the  Credo 
in  Byrd's  Mass — 


In  this  the  seventh  in  the  treble  and  its  counter- 
part in  the  bass  never  arrive  at  the  Bb  on  which 
they  should  naturally  resolve,  and  musicians  were 
probably  so  accustomed  to  the  phrase  tha.t  they 
did  not  notice  anything  anomalous  in  the  pro- 
gression. It  is  probable,  moreover,  that  the 
device  in  the  first  instance  was  not  the  result  of 
intellectual  calculation  —  such  as  we  are  forced 
to  assume  in  analysing  the  progression — but 
merely  of  artistic  feeling  ;  and  in  point  of  fact 
such  artistic  feeling,  when  it  is  sound,  is  to  all 
appearances  a  complex  intellectual  feat  done 
instinctively  at  a  single  stroke  ;  and  we  estimate 
its  soundness  or  unsoundness  by  applying  intel- 
lectual analysis  to  the  result.  The  first  example 
given  above  stands  this  test,  but  the  latter, 
judged  by  the  light  of  the  rules  of  Descant, 
does  not ;  hence  we  must  regard  it  as  an  arbi- 
trary use  of  a  well-known  figure  which  is  j  ustifiable 
only  because  it  is  well-known ;  and  the  principle 
will  be  found  to  apply  to  several  peculiar  features 
which  presently  will  be  observed  as  making 
their  appearance  in  harmonic  music.  The  early 
harmonists  proceeded  in  a  similar  direction  in 
their  attempt  to  give  richness  to  the  bare  outline 
of  the  harmonic  substructure  by  the  use  of 


grace -notes,  appoggiaturas,  anticipatory  notes  and 
the  like,  and  by  certain  processes  of  condensation 
or  prolongation  which  they  devised  to  vary  the 
monotony  of  uniform  resolution  of  discords.  Of 
these  some  seem  as  arbitrary  as  the  use  of  the 
characteristic  figure  of  the  polyphonic  times  just 
quoted  from  Byrd,  and  others  were  the  fruit  of 
that  kind  of  spontaneous  generalisation  which  we 
recognise  as  sound.  It  is  chiefly  important  to 
the  present  question  to  notice  the  principles 
which  guided  or  seem  to  have  guided  them  in 
that  which  seems  to  us  sound.  As  an  example 
of  insertion  betweeti  a  discord  and  its  resolution, 
the  following  passage  from  a  Canzona  by  Fresco- 
baldi  may  be  taken — 


in  which  the  seventh  (a)  is  not  actually  resolved 
till  (b) ;  the  principle  of  the  device  being  the 
same  as  in  the  early  example  quoted  above  from 
Dufay.  Bach  carried  this  principle  to  a  remark- 
able pitch,  as  for  instance 


r  1 


from  the  Fugue  in  B  minor.  No.  24  in  the 
'  Wohltemperirte  Clavier.' 

The  simple  form  of  anticipation  which  appears 
with  so  much  frequency  in  Handel's  works  in 
the  following  form — 


i 


I 

is  found  commonly  in  the  works  of  the  Italian 
composers  of  the  early  part  of  the  1 7th  century. 
Several  other  forms  also  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, but  it  is  likely  that  some  of  them  were  not 
actually  rendered  as  they  stand  on  paper,  since 
it  is  clear  that  there  were  accepted  principles 
of  modification  by  which  singers  and  accom- 
panyists  were  guided  in  such  things  just  as  they 
are  now  in  rendering  old  recitatives  in  the  tra- 
ditional manner,  and  had  been  previously  in 
sharpening  the  leading  note  of  the  ecclesiastical 
modes.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  real 
value  of  some  of  the  anticipations  as  they  appear 
in  the  works  themselves,  since  the  traditions  have 
in  many  instances  been  lost.  An  anticipation 
relative  melodically  to  the  general  composition 
of  the  tonic  chord,  which  is  also  characteristic 
of  modem  music,  occurs  even  as  early  as  Peri, 
from  whose  'Eurydice'  the  following  example 
is  taken — 


HAKMONY. 


HAEMONY. 


679 


tf — r 


\s  feature  has  a  singular  counterpart  in  the 
.  uidelian  recitative,  e.g. — 
* 

I      of  -  fer    up    my  vow 


The  following  examples  are  more  characteristic 
of  the  1 7th  century. 


is  quoted  by  Bumey  (iv,  34)  from  Peri.  In  Ca- 
rissimi  and  Cesti  are  found  characteristic  closes 
of  recitative  in  this  manner — 


but  in  this  case  the  actual  rendering  is  par- 
ticularly doubtful,  and  the  passage  was  probably 
modified  after  the  manner  in  which  recitatives 
are  always  rendered.  A  less  doubtful  instance, 
in  which  there  is  a  string  of  anticipations,  is 
from  a  fragment  quoted  also  by  Bumey  (iv.  147) 
from  a  Cantata  by  Carissimi  as  follows : — 


: — 1 

— ^ — 

etc. 

The  use  of  combinations  which  result  from  the 
simultaneous  occurrence  of  passing  notes,  a  prac- 
tice so  characteristic  of  Bach,  cannot  definitely 
be  traced  at  this  early  period.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
certain  that  the  musicians  had  discovered  the 
principle  which  is  most  prolific  in  these  effects — 
namely,  the  use  of  preliminary  notes  a  semitone 
above  or  below  any  note  of  an  essential  chord, 
irrespective  of  what  precedes,  and  at  any  position 
relative  to  the  rhythmic  divisions  of  the  music, 
as — 


in  which  Bt|.  GjJ,  and  Db,  which  seem  to  con- 
stitute an  actual  chord,  are  merely  the  result  of  the 


simultaneous  occurrence  of  chromatic  preliminary 
passing  notes  before  the  essential  notes  C,  A, 
and  C  of  the  common  chord  of  F  major.  But 
there  is  a  combination  which  is  very  common  in 
the  music  of  the  17th  century,  which  has  all 
the  appearance  of  being  derived  from  some  such 
principle,  and  demands  notice.  It  appears  in 
Cesti's  'Orontea'  (Bumey,  iv.  68)  as  follows  : — 


i 


and,  however  preceded,  it  always  amounts  to  the 
same  idea — namely,  that  of  using  an  unprepared 
seventh  on  the  subdominant  of  the  key  (major 
or  minor)  preceding  the  Dominant  chord  of 
the  Cadence,  This  may  be  explained  as  a 
passing  note  downwards  towards  the  uppermost 
note  of  the  succeeding  concord  on  the  Dominant, 
which  happens  to  coincide  with  the  passing  note 
upwards  between  the  third  of  the  tonic  chord 
and  the  root  of  the  Dominant  chord,  —  as  C 
between  Bb  and  D  in  the  example ;  in  which 
case  it  would  be  derived  from  the  principle  above 
explained ;  or  on  the  other  hand  the  passage 
may  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  the  old  theory 
of  passing  notes  in  a  way  which  is  highly  illus- 
trative of  the  methods  by  which  novelty  is 
arrived  at  in  music.  Composers  were  accustomed 
to  the  progression  in  which  a  chord  of  6-4  pre- 
ceded the  Dominant  chord,  as — 

—J- 


i 


 r 

and  having  the  particular  melodic  progression 
which  results  from  this  well  fixed  in  their  minds, 
they  inserted  a  passing  note  on  the  strong  beat  of 
the  bar  in  the  bass  without  altering  the  treble, 
as  in  the  example  quoted  above  from  Cesti,  and 
thereby  added  considerably  to  the  vigour  of  the 
passage.  This  particular  feature  seems  to  have 
been  accepted  as  a  musical  fact  by  composers, 
and  appears  constantly,  from  Monteverde  till  the 
end  of  the  century,  among  French  and  Italians 
alike ;  and  it  is  invested  with  the  more  interest 
because  it  is  found  in  Lully  in  an  improved  form, 
which  again  renewed  its  vitality.  It  stands  as 
follows  in  a  Sarabande  by  him — 


L-t-=  \  ^ 

r-                     -A  1 

[Z, — _D  

1 

'    ^  r 

^11  = 

and  this  form  was  adopted  by  Handel,  and  will  be 
easily  recognised  as  familiar  by  those  acquainted 
with  his  works.  Corelli  indicates  the  firm 
hold  which  this  particular  seventh  had  obtained 


680 


HAEMONY. 


HARMONY. 


on  the  minds  of  musicians  by  using  it  in  imme- 
diate succession  to  a  Dominant  7  th,  so  that  the 
two  intervals  succeed  each  other  in  the  following 


in  the  Sonata  II  of  the  Opera  2nda,  published  in 
Home,  1685.  These  methods  of  using  passing 
notes,  anticipations,  and  like  devices,  are  extremely 
important,  as  it  is  on  the  lines  thereby  indicated 
that  progress  in  the  harmonic  department  of 
music  is  made.  Many  of  the  most  prolific  sources 
of  variety  of  these  kinds  had  descended  from  the 
contrapuntal  school,  and  of  these  their  immediate 
successors  took  chief  advantage ;  at  first  with 
moderation,  but  with  ever  gradually  increasing 
complexity  as  more  insight  was  gained  into  the 
opportunities  they  offered.  Some  devices  do  not 
appear  till  somewhat  later  in  the  century,  and 
of  this  kind  were  the  condensation  of  the  resolution 
of  suspensions,  which  became  very  fruitful  in 
variety  as  music  progressed.  The  old-fashioned 
suspensions  were  merely  temporary  retardations 
in  the  progression  of  the  parts  which,  taken 
together  in  their  simplicity,  constituted  a  series 
of  concords.    Thus  the  succession — 


is  evidently  only  a  sophisticated  version  of  the 
succession  of  sixths — 


1 

& — ' 

and  the  principle  which  is  applied  is 
to  the  other  devices  for  sophisticating  the  sim- 
plicity of  concords  which  have  been  analysed 
above  ;  and  the  whole  shewing  how  device  is 
built  upon  device  in  the  progress  of  the  art. 
Sometime  in  the  1 7th  century  a  composer,  whose 
name  is  probably  lost  to  posterity,  hit  upon  the 
happy  idea  of  making  the  concordant  notes  move 
without  waiting  for  the  resolution  of  the  dis- 
cordant note,  so  that  the  process — 

-^--^  f  


in  which  there  are  three  steps,  is  condensed  into 
the  following  (from  Alessandro  Scarlatti) — 


in  which  there  are  only  two  to  gain  the  same 
end.  This  device  is  very  common  at  the  end  of 
the  17th  century,  as  in  Corelli,  and  it  imme- 
diately bore  fresh  fruit,  as  the  possibility  of  new 


successions  of  suspensions  interlaced  with  one 
another  became  apparent,  such  as — 


in  which  each  shift  of  a  note  which  would  be 
considered  as  part  of  the  implied  concord  creates 
a  fresh  suspension.  And  by  this  process  a  new 
and  important  element  of  effect  was  obtained,  for 
the  ultimate  resolution  of  discord  into  concord 
could  be  constantly  postponed  although  the 
harmonies  changed;  whereas  under  the  old 
system  each  discord  must  be  resolved  into  the 
particular  concord  to  which  it  belonged,  and 
therefore  the  periods  of  suspense  caused  by  the 
discords  were  necessarily  of  short  duration.  In 
dealing  with  discords  attempts  were  occasionally 
made  to  vary  the  recognized  modes  of  their 
resolutions ;  for  instance,  there  are  early  examples 
of  attempts  to  make  the  minor  seventh  resolve 
upwards  satisfactorily,  and  both  Carissimi  and 
Purcell  endeavoured  to  make  a  seventh  go 
practically  without  any  resolution  at  all,  in  this 
form — 

m 


1— t- 


from  Purcell's  'Dido  and  Eneas' — where  the 
resolution  is  only  supplied  by  the  second  violins — 


r- 


and  from  Carissimi — in  which  it  is  not  supplied 
at  all,  if  Barney's  transcription  (iv.  147)  is 
correct.  Another  experiment  which  illustrates  a 
principle,  and  therefore  demands  notice,  is  the 
following  from  Purcell's  service  in  Bb,  in  which 
the  analogue  of  a  pedal  in  an  upper  part  is  used 
to  obtain  a  new  harmonic  effect : — 


etc. 

'II 

About  this  time  also  a  chord  which  is  ex- 
tremely characteristic  of  modern  music  makes 
its  appearance,  namely,  the  chord  of  the  di- 
minislied  seventh.  This  appears  for  example, 
unprepared  in  Corelli's  Sonata  X  of  the  '  Opera 
Terza,'  published  in  1689,  as  follows- 


HAKMONY. 


HARMONY. 


681 


In  this  and  in  other  instances  of  his  use  of  it, 
it  occupies  so  exactly  analogous  a  position  to  the 
familiar  use  of  the  seventh  on  the  subdominant 
which  has  already  been  commented  upon  at 
length,  that  the  inference  is  almost  unavoidable 
that  composers  first  used  the  diminished  seventh 
as  a  modification  of  that  well-known  device  in  a 
minor  key,  by  sharpening  its  bass  note  to  make 
it  approach  nearer  to  the  dominant,  and  also  to 
soften  its  quality. 

It  will  be  necessary  at  this  point  to  turn 
again  for  a  short  space  to  theorists,  for  it 
was  in  relation  to  the  standard  of  harmony 
which  characterises  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
that  Rameau's  attempt  was  made  to  put  the 
theory  of  music  on  some  sort  of  philosophical 
basis.  He  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a 
tone  consists  not  only  of  the  single  note  which 
everybody  recognizes,  which  he  calls  the  prin- 
cipal sound,  but  also  of  harmonic  sounds  corre- 
sponding to  notes  which  stand  at  certain  de- 
finite distances  from  this  lower  note,  among 
which  are  the  twelfth  and  seventeenth,  corre- 
sponding to  the  fifth  and  third  ;  that  as  there 
is  a  perfect  correspondence  between  octave  and 
octave  ^these  notes  can  be  taken  either  as  the 
major  common  chord  in  its  first  position,  or  its 
inversions ;  and  that  judged  from  this  point  of 
view  the  lower  note  is  the  root  or  fundamental 
note  of  the  combination.  This  was  the  basis  of 
his  theory  of  harmony,  and  it  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  have  been  the  first  explicit  statement 
of  the  theory  of  chords  in  connection  wdth  roots  or 
fundamental  notes.  Eameau  declines  to  accept 
the  minor  seventh  as  part  of  the  compound  tone 
of  the  root,  and  he  does  not  take  his  minor  third 
as  represented  by  the  19th  '  upper  partial,'  which 
is  very  remote,  but  j  ustifies  the  minor  chord  on  the  | 
principle  that  the  minor  third  as  well  as  the  root  \ 
note  generates  the  fifth  (as  both  C  and  Eb  would  | 
generate  G),  and  that  this  community  between 
them  makes  them  prescribed  by  nature.  D'Alem- 
bert  took  the  part  of  expositor,  and  also  in  some 
slight  particulars  of  modifyer,  of  Rameau's  prin- 
ciples, in  his  '  Elements  de  Musique.'  It  is  not 
the  place  here  to  enter  into  details  with  respect 
to  the  particulars  resulting  from  the  theory,  1 
which  was  applied  to  explain  the  construction  of 
scale,  temperament,  and  many  other  subordinate 
matters,  and  to  discover  the  proper  progTessions 
of  roots,  and  the  interconnection  between  chords. 
But  a  passage  in  D'Alembert's  book  deserves 
especial  notice  as  illustrating  modern  harmonic 
as  distinguished  from  the  old  contrapuntal  ideas 
with  respect  to  the  nature  of  discords  ;  since  it  ! 
shows  how  completely  the  old  idea  of  suspen-  | 
sions  as  retardations  of  the  parts  had  been  lost  I 
sight  of :  '  En  general  la  dissonance  etant  un 
ouvrage  de  I'art,  suttout  dans  les  accords  qui  ne  i 
Bont  point  de  dominant,  tonique,  ou  de  sous- 
dominant  ;  le  seul  moyen  d'empecher  qu'elle  ne 
deplaise  en  paroissant  trop  etrangfere  k  I'accord, 
c'est  qu'elle  soit,  pour  ainsi  dire,  annonct^e  a 
I'oreille  en  se  trouvant  dans  I'accord  prt^cedent, 
et  qu'elle  serve  par  la  a  licr  les  deux  ac- 
cords.'   The  sole  exception  is  in  respect  of  the 


dominant  seventh,  which,  apparently  as  a  mere 
matter  of  expei-ience,  does  not  seem  to  require 
this  preparatoi-y  announcement.  Tartini  pub- 
lished his  theories  about  the  same  time  as  Ra- 
meau,  and  derived  the  effect  of  chords  from  the 
combinational  tones,  of  which  he  is  reputed  to 
have  been  the  discoverer.  Helmholtz  has  lately 
shewn  that  neither  theory  is  complete  without 
the  other,  and  that  together  they  are  not  com- 
plete without  the  theory  of  beats,  which  really 
aflFords  the  distinction  between  consonance  and 
dissonance  ;  and  that  all  of  these  principles  taken 
together  constitute  the  scientific  basis  of  the 
facts  of  harmony.  Both  Rameau  and  Tartini 
were  therefore  working  in  the  right  direction ; 
but  for  the  musical  world  Rameau's  principles 
were  the  most  valuable,  and  the  idea  of  sys- 
tematising  chords  according  to  their  roots  or 
fundamental  basses  has  been  since  generally 
adopted. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  1 8th  century  the 
practice  of  grouping  the  harmonic  elements  of 
music  or  chords  according  to  the  keys  to  which 
they  belong,  which  is  called  observing  the  laws 
of  tonality,  was  tolerably  universal.  Composers 
had  for  the  most  part  moved  sufficiently  far 
away  from  the  influence  of  the  old  ecclesiastical 
system  to  be  able  to  realise  the  first  principles  of 
the  new  secular  school.  These  principles  are 
essential  to  instrumental  music,  and  it  is  chiefly 
in  relation  to  that  large  department  of  the  mo- 
dern art  that  they  must  be  considered.  Under 
the  conditions  of  modem  harmony  the  harmonic 
basis  of  any  passage  is  not  intellectually  appre- 
ciable unless  the  principle  of  the  relations  of  the 
chords  composing  it  to  one  another  through  a 
common  tonic  be  observed.  Thus  if  in  the 
middle  of  a  succession  of  chords  in  C  a  chord 
appears  which  cannot  be  referred  to  that  key, 
the  passaoe  is  inconsistent  and  obscure ;  but  if 
this  chord  is  followed  by  others  which  can  with 
it  be  referred  to  a  dijfferent  key,  modulation  has 
been  effected,  and  the  succession  is  rendered  in- 
telligible by  its  relation  to  a  fresh  tonic  in  the 
place  of  C.  The  range  of  chords  which  were 
recognized  as  characteristic  of  any  given  key 
was  at  first  very  limited,  and  it  was  soon  per- 
ceived that  some  notes  of  the  scale  served  as  the 
bass  to  a  larger  number  and  a  more  important 
class  of  them,  the  Dominant  appearing  as  the 
most  important,  as  the  generator  of  the  larger 
number  of  diatonic  chords ;  and  since  it  also  con- 
tains in  its  compound  tone  the  notes  which  are 
most  remote  from  the  chord  of  the  tonic,  the 
artistic  sense  of  musicians  led  them  to  regard 
the  Dominant  and  the  Tonic  as  the  opposite 
poles  of  the  harmonic  circle  of  the  key,  and  no 
progression  was  sufficiently  definable  to  stand  in 
a  position  of  tonal  importance  in  a  movement 
unless  the  two  poles  were  somehow  indicated. 
That  is  to  say,  if  a  movement  is  to  be  cast  upon 
certain  prominent  successions  of  keys  to  which 
other  keys  are  to  be  subsidiary,  those  which  are 
to  stand  prominently  forward  must  be  defined 
by  some  sort  of  contrast  based  on  the  alterna- 
tion of  Tonic  and  Dominant  harmony.     It  is 


682 


HAEMONY. 


HARMONY. 


probably  for  this  reason  that  the  key  of  the 
Subdominant  is  unsatisfactory  as  a  balance  or 
complementary  key  of  a  movement,  since  in  pro- 
gressing to  its  Dominant  to  verify  the  tonality, 
the  mind  of  an  intelligent  listener  recognises  the 
original  Tonic  again,  and  thus  the  force  of  the 
intended  contrast  is  weakened.  This,  as  has 
been  above  indicated,  is  frequently  found  in 
works  of  the  early  harmonic  period,  while  com- 
posers were  still  searching  for  the  scale  which 
should  give  them  a  major  Dominant  chord,  and 
the  effect  of  such  movements  is  curiously  wan- 
dering and  vague.  The  use  of  the  Dominant  as 
the  complementary  key  becomes  frequent  in 
works  of  the  latter  portion  of  the  1 7th  century, 
as  in  Corelli ;  and  early  in  the  next,  as  in  Bach 
and  Handel,  it  is  recognised  as  a  matter  of 
course  ;  in  the  time  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  so 
much  strain  was  put  upon  it  as  a  centre,  that 
it  began  to  assume  the  character  of  a  conven- 
tionalism and  to  lose  its  force.  Beethoven 
consequently  began  very  early  to  enlarge  the 
range  of  harmonic  bases  of  the  key  by  the  use 
of  chords  which  properly  belonged  to  other 
nearly  related  keys,  and  on  his  lines  composers 
have  since  continued  to  work.  The  Tonic  and 
Dominant  centres  are  still  apparently  inevitable, 
but  they  are  supplemented  by  an  enlarged  range 
of  harmonic  roots  giving  chromatic  combina- 
tions which  are  affiliated  on  the  original  Tonic 
through  their  relations  to  the  more  important 
notes  of  the  scale  which  that  Tonic  represents, 
and  can  be  therefore  used  without  obscuring  the 
tonality.  As  examples  of  this  may  be  taken 
the  minor  seventh  on  the  tonic,  which  properly 
belongs  to  the  nearly  allied  key  of  the  subdo- 
minant ;  a  major  concord  on  the  supertonic, 
with  the  minor  seventh  superimposed,  which 
properly  belong  to  the  Dominant  key  ;  the 
major  chord  on  the  mediant,  which  properly  be- 
longs to  the  key  of  the  relative  minor  repre- 
sented by  the  chord  of  the  submediant,  and 
so  on. 

Bach's  use  of  harmony  was  a  perfect  adapta- 
tion to  it  of  the  principles  of  polyphony.  He 
resumed  the  principle  of  making  the  harmony 
ostensibly  the  sum  of  the  independent  parts, 
but  with  this  difference  from  the  old  style,  that 
the  harmonies  really  formed  the  substratum, 
and  that  their  progressions  were  as  intelligible 
as  the  melodies  of  which  they  seemed  to  be  the 
result.  From  such  a  jjrinciple  sprang  an  im- 
mense extension  of  the  range  of  harmonic  com- 
binations. The  essential  fundamental  chords 
are  but  few,  and  must  remain  so,  but  the  com- 
binations which  can  be  made  to  represent  tliem 
on  the  polyphonic  principle  are  almost  infinite. 
By  the  use  of  chromatic  passing  and  preliminary 
notes,  by  retardations,  and  by  simple  chromatic 
alterations  of  the  notes  of  chords  according  to 
their  melodic  significance,  combinations  are  ar- 
rived at  such  as  puzzled  and  do  continue  to 
puzzle  theorists  who  regard  harmony  as  so  many 
unchangeable  lumps  of  chords  which  cannot  be 
admitted  in  music  unless  a  fundamental  bass 
can  be  found  for  them.    Thus  the  chord  of  the 


augmented  sixth  is  probably  nothing  more  than 
the  modification  of  a  melodic  progression  of  one 
or  two  parts  at  the  point  where  naturally  they 
would  be  either  a  major  or  minor  sixth  from 
one  another,  the  downward  tendency  of  the 
one  and  the  upward  tendency  of  the  other 
causing  them  to  be  respectively  flattened  and 
sharpened  to  make  them  approach  nearer  to 
the  notes  to  which  they  are  moving.  In  the 
case  of  the  augmented  sixth  on  the  flat  second 
of  the  key,  there  is  only  one  note  to  be 
altered  ;  and  as  that  note  is  constantly  altered 
in  this  fashion  in  other  combinations — namely  by 
substituting  the  flattened  note  for  the  natural 
diatonic  note,  as  Db  for  D  in  the  key  of  C,  by 
Cari.ssimi,  Bach,  Beethoven,  Chopin,  in  all  ages  of 
harmonic  music — it  seems  superfluous  to  consider 
whether  or  no  it  is  a  chord  with  a  double  root  as 
theorists  propose,  in  which  one  note  is  the  minor 
ninth  of  one  root,  and  the  other  the  major  third 
of  another.  The  way  in  which  ideas  become 
fixed  by  constant  recurrence  has  already  (p.  678) 
been  indicated  in  the  case  of  a  figure  which  was 
very  characteristic  of  the  polyphonic  school,  and 
in  that  of  the  subdominant  seventh  with  the 
early  harmonists  ;  in  like  manner  modifications, 
such  as  the  augmented  sixth,  and  the  sharp  fifth 
(which  is  merely  the  straining  upwards  of  the 
upper  note  of  a  concord  in  its  melodic  progression 
to  the  next  diatonic  note),  become  so  familiar  by 
constant  recurrence,  that  they  are  accepted  as 
facts,  or  rather  as  representatives,  by  association, 
of  the  unmodified  intervals,  and  are  used  to  all 
intents  as  essential  chords  ;  and  moreover  being 
so  recognised,  they  are  made  liable  to  resolu- 
tions and  combinations  with  other  notes  which 
would  not  have  been  possible  while  they  were 
in  the  unaltered  condition  ;  which  is  not  really 
more  to  be  wondered  at  than  the  fact  that 
Bach  and  his  contemporaries  and  immediate  pre- 
decessors habitually  associated  tunes  originally 
cast  in  the  old  ecclesiastical  modes  with  harmonies 
which  would  have  been  impossible  if  those  modes 
had  not  been  superseded  by  the  modern  system 
of  scales.  The  inversion  of  the  above-mentioned 
augmented  sixth  as  a  diminished  third  is  re- 
markable for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place, 
because  when  used  with  artistic  purpose  it  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  chords  in  modern  music, 
owing  to  the  gradual  contraction  towards  the 
resolution — as  is  felt  in  the  employment  of  it 
by  both  Bach  and  Beethoven  to  the  words 
'  et  sepultus  est'  in  the  'Crucifixus'  of  their 
masses  in  B  minor  and  D  respectively ;  and 
in  the  second,  because  a  distinguished  modern 
theorist  (whose  work  is  in  many  respects  very 
valuable)  having  discovered  that  the  augmented 
sixth  is  a  double  rooted  chord,  says  that  it 
'  should  not  be  inverted,  because  the  upper  note, 
being  a  secondary  harmonic,  and  capable  of  be- 
longing only  to  the  secondary  root,  should  not  be 
beneath  the  lower,  which  can  only  belong  to  the 
primary  root.'  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, in  considering  the  opinions  of  theorists  on 
the  origin  of  chords  such  as  these,  that  their 
explanations  are  not  unfrequently  given  merely 


HAEMONY. 


HARMONY, 


683 


for  the  purpose  of  classifying  the  chords,  and  of 
expounding  the  laws  of  their  resolutions  for  the 
benefit  of  composers  who  might  not  be  able 
otherwise  to  employ  them  correctly. 

The  actual  number  of  essential  chords  has 
remained  the  same  as  it  was  when  Monteverde 
indicated  the  nature  of  the  Dominant  seventh 
by  using  it  without  preparation,  unless  a  single 
exception  be  made  in  favour  of  the  chord  of  the 
major  ninth  and  its  sister  the  minor  ninth,  both  of 
which  Helmholtz  acknowledges  may  be  taken  as 
representatives  of  the  lower  note  or  root ;  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  they  are  both  used  with 
remarkable  freedom,  both  in  their  preparation 
and  resolution,  by  the  great  masters.  Haydn, 
for  instance,  who  is  not  usually  held  to  be  guilty 
of  harmonic  extravagance,  uses  the  major  ninth 
on  the  Dominant  thus  in  his  Quartet  in  G, 
Op.  76- 


and  the  minor  ninth  similarly,  and  \vith  as  great 
freedom,  as  follows,  in  a  Quartet  in  F  minor 
(Trautwein,  No.  3). 

1   I  ^ 
I   I     I   'J*  ^ 


which  can  in  the  first  place  be  possibly  prepared 
even  by  passing  notes,  or  in  the  second  place  be 
possibly  resolved  even  by  causing  a  fresh  discord, 
so  long  as  the  ultimate  resolution  into  concord  is 
feasible  in  an  intelligible  manner.  Thus  AVagner's 
Meistersinger  opens  with  the  phrase — 
I- 


in  which  B  is  a  suspended  passing  note  resolving 
so  as  to  make  a  fresh  discord  with  the  treble, 
which  in  reality  is  resolved  into  another  discord 
made  by  the  appearance  of  a  chromatic  passing 
note,  and  does  not  find  its  way  into  an  essential 
concord  till  three  chords  further  on ;  but  the 
example  is  sufiicient  to  show  the  application  of 
both  principles  as  above  expressed.  One  of  the 
most  powerful  suspensions  in  existence  is  the 
following  from  Bach's  Organ  Toccata  in  D 
minor — 

I 


Of  strongly  accented  passing  notes  the  following 
are  good  examples — 


It  is  not  possible  to  enter  here  into  discussion 
of  particular  questions,  such  as  the  nature  of  the 
chord  frequently  called  the  '  Added  Sixth,'  to 
which  theorists  have  proposed  almost  as  many 
roots  as  the  chord  has  notes  ;  Rameau  originally 
suggesting  the  Subdominant,  German  theorists 
the  Supertonic  as  an  inversion  of  a  seventh,  Mr. 
Alfred  Day  the  Dominant,  as  an  inversion  of  a 
chord  of  the  eleventh,  and  Helmholtz  returning 
to  the  Subdominant  again  in  support  of  Rameau. 
Neither  is  it  necessary  to  enter  into  particulars 
on  the  subject  of  the  diminished  seventh,  which 
modern  composers  have  found  so  useful  for  pur- 
poses of  modulation,  or  into  the  devices  of  en- 
harmonic changes,  which  are  so  fruitful  in  novel 
and  beautiful  effects,  or  into  the  discordance  or 
non-discordance  of  the  fourth.  It  is  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  bre%'ity  to  restrict  ourselves 
as  far  as  possible  to  things  which  illustrate 
general  principles ;  and  of  these  none  are  much 
more  remarkable  than  the  complicated  use  of 
suspensions  and  passing  notes,  which  follow  from, 
the  principles  of  Bach  in  polyphony  as  applied 
to  harmony,  and  were  remarked  on  above  as 
laying  the  foundations  of  all  the  advance  that 
has  been  made  in  Harmony  since  his  time.  Sus- 
l^ensiona  are  now  taken  in  any  form  and  position 


col.  8vi. 

from  the  Overture  to  the  Messiah;  and 


from  Brahms's  Ballade  in  D,  which  is  practically 
the  same  passing  note  as  that  in  the  example  from 
Handel,  but  passing  in  the  opposite  direction. 

A  g.iod  example  of  a  succession  of  combinations 
resulting  from  the  principles  above  enumerated 
with  regard  to  the  modification  of  diatonic  notes, 
and  the  use  of  chromatic  passing  notes,  occurs  in 
Bach's  Cantata, '  Christ  unser  Herr'  (p.  208) — 


684 


HARMONY. 


HARMONY. 


In  the  and  scene  of  the  2nd  act  of  'Tristan 
and  Isolde '  the  combination  given  theoretically 
above  (p.  679a)  actually  occurs,  and  two  of  the 
preliminary  chromatic  notes  (*)  are  sustained  as 
a  suspension  into  the  next  chord — 


In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  Act  of  the  same 
work  are  some  extremely  remarkable  examples 
of  the  adaptation  of  the  polyphonic  principle  to 
harmonv,  entailing  very  close  modulations,  for 
which  there  is  not  space  here. 

The  principle  of  persistence  was  early  recog- 
nised in  the  use  of  what  were  called  Diatonic  suc- 
cessions or  sequences.  They  are  defined  by  Prof. 
Macfarren  as  '  the  repetition  of  a  progression  of 
harmony,  upon  other  notes  of  the  scale,  when 
all  the  parts  proceed  by  the  same  degrees  in 
each  repetition  as  in  the  original  progression,' 
irrespective  of  augmented  or  diminished  intervals, 
or  doublings  of  notes  which  in  other  cases  it  is 
not  desirable  to  double.  And  this  may  be  ex- 
panded into  the  more  general  proposition  that 
when  a  figure  has  been  established,  and  the 
principle  and  manner  of  its  repetition,  it  may 
be  repeated  analogously  without  any  considera- 
tion of  the  resulting  circumstances.  Thus  Bee- 
thoven having  established  the  form  of  his  ac- 
companiment— 


goes  through  with  it  in  despite  of  the  consecutive 
fifths  which  result — 


±  ^  ^  *  J  ^ 


Again,  a  single  note  whose  stationary  character  . 
has  been  established  in  harmony  of  which  it 
actually  forms  a  part,  can  persist  through  har- 
monies which  are  othen\-ise  alien  to  it,  and 
irrespective  of  any  degree  of  dissonance  which 
results.    This  was  early  seen  in  the  use  of  a 
Pedal,  and  as  that  was  its  earliest  form  (being 
the  immediate  descendant  of  the  Drone  bass 
mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  Article)  the 
singular  name  of  an  inverted  Pedal  was  applied 
to  it  when  the  persistent  note  was  in  the  treble, 
as  in  an  often-quoted  instance  from  the  slow 
movement  of  the  C-minor  Symphony  of  Bee- 
thoven, and  a  fine  example  in  the  Fugue  which 
stands  as  Finale  to  Brahms's  set  of  Variations  j 
on  a  Theme  by  Handel,  and  in  the  example  1 
quoted  from  Purcell's  Service  above.      Bee-  ! 
thoven  even  makes  more  than  one  note  i>ersist,  i 
as  in  the  first  variation  on  the  Diabelli  Valse 
(op  lai)— 


Another  familiar  example  of  persistence  is  per- 
sistence of  direction,  as  it  is  a  well-known  device 
j  to  make  parts  which  are  progressing  in  opposite 
j  directions  pereist  in  doing  so  irrespective  of  tlic 
combinations  which  result.    For  the  limitati'jn< 
which  may  be  put  on  these  devices  referenc-r 
must  be  made  to  the  regular  text-books,  as  tL-v 
are  many  of  them  principles  of  expediency  ai.  l 
I  custom,  and  many  of  them  depend  on  laws  f 
melodic  progression,  the  consideration  of  which  it 
is  necessary  to  leave  to  its  own  particular  head, 
j     It  appears  then,  finally,  that  the  actual  ba- 
,  of  harmonic  music  is  extremely  limited,  consisti; 
1  of  concords  and  their  inversions,  and  at  best  n>  : 
more  than  a  few  minor  sevenths  and  major  aii  ;1 
I  minor  ninths ;    and  on  this  basis  the  art  of 
i  modern  music  is  constructed  by  devices  and 
principles  which  are  either  intellectually  conceived 
or  are  the  fruit  of  highly  developed  musical 
instinct,  which  is  according  to  vulgar  phrase 
'  inspired,'  and  thereby  discovers  truths  at  a 
single  leap  which  the  rest  of  the  world  recognise 
as  e^-idently  the  result  of  so  complex  a  gen-r- 
ralisation  that  they  are  unable  to  .imagine  h  . 
it  was  done,  and  therefore  apply  to  it  the  usci  : 
term '  inspiration. '  But  in  every  case,  if  a  novel:  v 
is  sound,  it  must  answer  to  verification,  and  t:  e 
verification  is  to  be  obtained  only  by  intellect  lu  J 
analysis,  which  in  fact  may  not  at  first  be  aM-; 
to  cope  with  it.     Finally,  ever\'thing  is  ad- 
missible which  is  intellectually  verifiable,  and 
what  is  inadmissible  is  so  relativelv  only.  Tor 
instance,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the 
simultaneous  occmrence  of  all  the  diatonic  notes 
of  the  scale  would  be  quite  inadmissible,  b  n 
composers  have  shown  how  it  can  be  done,  and 
there  is  no  reason  why  some  other  composer 
should  not  show  hov/  all  the  chromatic  notes  crm 
be  added  also  ;  and  if  the  principles  by  which 
arrived  at  the  combination  stand  the  ultimate 
test  of  analysis,  musicians  must  bow  and  ac  - 
knowledge his  right  to  the  combination.  T:.- 
history  of  harmon}'  is  the  history  of  ever-increas- 
ing richness  of  combination,  from  the  use,  first, 
of  simple  consonances,  then  of  consonances  super- 
imposed on  one  another,  which  we  call  common  | 
chords,  and  of  a  few  simple  discords  simply* 
contrived  ;  then  of  a  system  of  classification  of  | 
these  concords  and  discords  by  key  relationship,  f 
which  enables  some  of  them  to  be  used  with 
greater  freedom  than  formerly ;  then  of  the  use 
of  combinations  which  were  specially  familiar  as 
analogues  to  essential  chords ;  then  of  enlargement 
of  the  bounds  of  the  keys,  so  that  a  greater  number 
and  variety  of  chords  could  be  used  in  relation  to 
one  another,  and  finally  of  the  recognition  of  the 
principle  that  harmony  is  the  result  of  combined 


HARMONY. 


HARP. 


685 


melodies,  through  the  treatment  of  the  pro- 
urcssions  of  which  the  limits  of  combination 
l)ecome  practically  co-extensive  with  the  number 
of  notes  in  the  musical  system.  [C.H.H.P.] 
HAROLD  EN  ITALIE.  The  4th  of  Berlioz's 
5  symphonies,  op.  16,  dedicated  to  Humbert 
Ferrand ;  for  full  orchestra  with  sola  viola ;  in 
4  movements — (i)  'Harold  aux  montagnes. 
Scenes  de  mdlancolie,  de  bonheur  et  de  joie.' 
Adagio  and  Allegro;  in  G.  (2)  'Marche  de 
Pdlerins  chantant  la  prifere  du  soir.'  Allegretto  ; 
in  E.  (3)  'Serenade  d'un  Montagnard  des 
Abbruzes  k  sa  maitresse.'  Allegro  assai ;  in  C. 
(4)  'Orgie  de  Brigands.  Souvenirs  des  Scenes 
prdcMentes.'  Allegro  frenetico;  in  G.  It  was 
composed  in  1834,  and  originated  in  a  request 
of  Paganini's  that  Berlioz  should  write  a  solo  in 
which  he  could  display  the  qualities  of  his 
Stradivarius  viola.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  it 
did  not  fulfil  that  intention.  The  idea  of  the 
work  is  based  on  Childe  Harold.  (See  Berlioz's 
M^moires,  chap.  45,)  It  was  first  performed  at 
the  Conservatoire  Nov.  23,  1834,  but  has  been 
much  altered  since.  Score  and  parts  are  pub- 
lished by  Schlesinger.  It  was  played  for  the 
first  time  in  England  at  the  New  Philharmonic 
Concert,  July  4,  1855.  Berlioz  conducted  and 
Ernst  played  the  viola  part.  [G.] 

HARP  {Yr.Harpe ;  Ital.  Arpa ;  Germ.  Harfe). 
A  musical  instrument  of  great  antiquity ;  in  its 
modern  development,  by  means  of  the  ingenious 
mechanism  of  the  double  action,  distinguished  as 
the  only  instrument  with  fixed  tones  not  formed 
by  the  ear  and  touch  of  the  player,  that  has 
separate  notes  for  sharps,  flats,  and  naturals, 
thus  approaching  written  music  more  nearly 
than  any  other. 

The  harp  presents  a  triangular  form  of  singular 
beauty,  the  gi'aceful  curve  of  the  neck  adding 
to  the  elegance  of  its  appearance.  Although 
the  outline  has  varied  at  different  epochs  and  in 
different  countries,  the  relation  of  its  proportions 
to  the  musical  scale — a  condition  of  symmetry  in 
musical  instruments — is  in  the  harp  very  close ; 
so  that  whether  it  be  Egyptian,  Persian,  Mediaeval, 
or  Keltic,  it  is  always  fashioned  in  beauty  of 
line,  and  often  characteristically  adorned. 

Jn  looking  at  a  harp  we  recognise  at  once  the 
varied  funcbions  of  its  structure.  The  resonant 
instrument  is  the  soundboard,  forming  with  its 
body  the  angle  next  the  player.  The  opposite 
angle  is  the  pillar.  Both  support  the  neck,  a 
curved  bracket  between  which  and  the  sound- 
board the  strings  aie  stretched.  In  modern 
harps  the  neck  includes  the  'comb'  containing 
the  mechanism  for  raising  the  pitch  of  the  strings 
one  half  tone  by  the  single  action,  or  two  half 
tones  by  the  double  action.  The  pillar  is  hollow 
to  include  the  rods  working  the  mechanism. 
The  pedestal,  where  pillar  and  soundboard  unite, 
is  the  frame  for  the  pedals,  levers  acted  upon  by 
the  feet  and  moving  the  rods  in  the  pillar. 

The  wood  used  in  a  harp  is  chiefly  sycamore, 
but  the  soundboard  is  of  pine,  and  in  old  harps 
was  frequently  ornamented  with  painted  devices. 


The  dimensions  of  soundboard  and  body  increase 
downwards.  Along  the  centre  of  the  soundboard 
is  glued  a  strip  of  beech,  or  other  hard  wood,  in 
which  are  inserted  the  pegs  that  hold  the  lower 
ends  of  the  strings,  the  upper  ends  being  wound 
round  tuning-pins  piercing  the  wrestplank  which 
forms  the  upper  part  of  the  neck.  The  sound- 
board is  ribbed  underneath  by  two  narrow  bars, 
crossing  the  grain  of  the  pine,  their  duty  being 
to  drive  the  soundboard  into  nodes  and  figures 
of  vibration.  The  strings  are  of  catgut,  coloured 
to  facilitate  the  recognition  of  8va. 
the  notes  by  the  player,  the  ^ 
lowest  eight  being  spun  over,  ...  n  y  • 

wire  upon  silk  or  wire  upon  ^  ^  (^) 
wire.  The  compass  of  an  Erard  ^  *J 
double-action  harp  is  6|  octaves.  8va. 

The  apparently  slight  resistance  offered  by  the 
bridge  to  the  tension  of  the  strings,  inadequate 
if  their  drawing  power  were  perpendicular,  is 
sufficient  because  they  are  placed  at  an  angle. 
There  is  also  a  lateral  angle  in  the  position  of 
the  neck  and  strings,  to  allow  for  the  strain  on 
the  side  the  strings  are  attached  to. 

The  origin  of  the  harp  must  be  put  back 
anterior  to  the  earliest  rect)rds  of  civilisation. 
It  was  possibly  suggested  by  the  stretched  string 
of  the  bow.  The  addition  of  several  strings 
would  be  analogous  to  binding  several  reeds  or 
whistles  together  to  form  a  syrinx,  both  con- 
trivances apparently  preceding  the  shortening  to 
different  lengths  by  the  finger  of  a  single  vibrating 
string,  as  in  a  lute,  or  the  shortening  of  the 
vibrating  column  of  air  in  a  pipe  by  means  of 
holes  perforated  in  it  to  be  stopped  also  by  the 
fingers.  The  oldest  monuments  of  the  harp  are 
Egyptian.  Those  first  seen  by  Bruce,  painted 
on  the  wall  of  a  burying-place  at  Thebes,  are 
supposed  to  be  as  old  as  the  1 3th  century  B.C. 
These  are  very  large  harps,  richly  ornamented, 
and  standing,  to  judge  from  the  players,  more 
than  six  feet  high.  These  instruments,  which 
have  been  often  described,  having  no  front  pil- 
lar, could  have  had  no  great  tension,  and  were 
probably  of  a  low  and  sweet  tone.  But  while 
all  Egyptian  harps  wanted  this  important  mem- 
ber for  support,  they  were  not  limited  to  one 
size.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  great  variety 
in  dimensions,  number  of  strings,  and  amount  of 
ornament.  Some,  like  Bruce's,  were  placed  upon 
the  ground ;  others  were  upon  rests  or  stools, 
to  admit  of  the  player's  standing.  Those  held 
by  seated  players  were  more  like  the  Greek 
trigonon,  a  link  between  the  harp  and  lyre. 

The  Assyrian  harps  resembled  the  Egyptian  in 
having  no  front  pillar,  but  differed  in  the  sound- 
board being  uppermost,  the  lower  angle  being 
a  simple  bar  for  the  attachment  of  the  strings. 
Mr.  Engel  ('  Music  of  the  most  Ancient  Nations,' 
London,  1864)  regards  the  absence  or  presence  of 
the  front  pillar  as  distinguishing  the  Eastern 
harp  from  the  Western,  but  it  may  be  that  the 
distinction  is  rather  that  of  ancient  and  modern, 
for  the  very  earliest  Western  harp  of  which  a 
representation  exists,  that  in  Bunting's  '  Ancient 
Music  of  Ireland,'  attributed  by  him  to  an  earlier 


686 


HARP. 


HARP. 


date  than  a.d.  830,  Las  no  front  pillar.  The 
beautiful  form  of  the  more  modern  Irish  harp  is 
well  known  from  its  representation  in  the  royal 
coat  of  arms.  Two  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in 
South  Kensington  Museum  :  one  is  a  cast  of  the 
ancient  harp  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  said  to 
have  belonged  to  Brian  Boiroimhe.  In  these 
the  body  is  perpendicular,  or  nearly  so,  instead 
of  slanting,  as  in  modem  harps ;  the  front  pillar 
being  curved  to  admit  of  this,  and  the  neck — in  the 
Irish  harp  called  the  Harmonic  Curve — descend- 
ing rather  to  meet  it.  This  form  gives  a  more 
acute  angle  to  the  strings,  which  were  of  brass, 
two  to  each  note,  the  sounds  being  produced  by 
the  pointed  finger-nails  of  the  player.  The  number 
of  strings  is  uncertain,  but  the  fragments  of  the 
*  Dalway '  harp,  shown  in  the  Special  Exhibition 
at  South  Kensington  in  1872,  inscribed  'Ego 
Bum  Regina  Cithararura,'  and  dated  A.D.  1621, 
justify  our  assuming  the  large  scale  of  fifty-two 
for  this  instrument. 

The  Irish  Gaelic  harp  must  have  been  the 
Scotch  Gaelic  one  also.  According  to  Gunn  (His- 
torical Inquiry,  etc.,  Edinburgh  1807)  a  lady  of 
the  clan  Lamont  in  Argyle  took  a  harp  with  her 
on  her  marriage  in  1640  to  Robertson  of  Lude, 
which  had  for  several  centuries  been  the  harp  of 
a  succession  of  Highland  bards.  Gunn  described 
it  as  then  existing,  38  inches  high  and  16  broad, 
with  30  strings.  Another,  also  then  existing 
and  in  excellent  preservation,  he  stated  to  have 
been  the  gift  of  Queen  Mary  to  Miss  Gardyn  of 
Banchory.  It  was  smaller  than  the  Lude  harp, 
and  could  only  have  carried  tw-eiity-eight  strings. 

The  Welch  Harp  has  likewise  a  perpendicular 
body,  but  is  larger  than  the  Irish,  increasing 
considerably  downwards.  The  neck  ascends,  the 
front  pillar  being  longer.  The  Welch  harp  has 
three  rows  of  gut  strings,  the  outer  rows  being 
unisons  in  diatonic  series,  the  inner  the  chromatic 
semitones.  There  is  one  at  South  Kensington, 
lent  by  Lady  Llanover. 

The  earliest  representation  of  the  portable 
mediaeval  harp,  which  so  many  painters  loved 
to  delineate  along  with  lutes  and  viols,  is  perhaps 
that  in  Gerbert's  'De  Cantu  et  Musica  Sacra,' 
copied  from  a  MS.  of  the  9th  century  in  the 
Monastery  of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Black  Forest, 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1768.  The  form  of  this 
instrument  is  preserved  in  the  modern  harp,  the 
front  pillar  only  differing  in  being  straight  in- 
stead of  slightly  curving,  to  admit  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  rods  for  working  tlie  pedals. 

That  the  \^  estem  harp  belon-^s  to  Northern 
Europe  in  its  origin  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt. 
Mr,  Max  Miiller  claims  the  name  as  Teu- 
tonic, and  has  contributed  thes^e  historic  and 
dialectic  forms  : — Old  High  German,  Harwpha  ; 
Middle  do.,  Ilarpfe;  Modem  do.,  Ilarfe;  Old 
Norse,  JIarpa.  From  the  last  were  derived  the 
Spanish  and  Italian  Arpa,  the  Portuguese 
Harpa,  and  the  French  IJarpe — the  aspirate 
showing  the  Teutonic  origin.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
form  was  Bearpe.  The  Basque  and  Sclavonian, 
as  well  as  the  Romance,  took  the  name  with  the 
instrument,  but  there  is  a  rem  .rkable  exception 


in  the  fact  of  the  Keltic  peoples  having  their 
own  names,  and  these  again  divided  according 
to  the  Gaelic  and  Cambric  branches.  Prince 
Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte  has  supplied  the  fol- 
lowing illustration  : — Irish  Gaelic,  Cldirseach  ; 
Scotch  do.,  Clarsach ;  Manx,  Claasagh  ;  Welch, 
Telyn  ;  Comish,  Telein ;  Breton,  Telen. 

The  Mediaeval  harp,  a  simple  diatonic  instm- 
ment»,  was  sufficient  in  its  time,  but  when  modern 
instrumental  music  arose,  its  limits  were  found 
too  narrow,  and  notwithstanding  its  charm  of 
tone  it  would  have  fallen  into  oblivion.  It  had 
but  one  scale,  and  to  obtain  an  accidental  semi- 
tone the  only  resource  was  to  shorten  the  string 
as  much  as  was  needed  by  firmly  pressing  it  with 
the  finger.  But  this  was  a  poor  expedient,  as  it 
robbed  the  harpist  for  the  time  of  the  use  of 
one  hand.  Chromatic  harps  were  attempted  by 
German  makers  in  the  last  century  and  early 
in  this,  but  it  was  found  impracticable  through 
difficulty  of  execution  to  give  the  harp  thirteen 
strings  in  each  octave,  by  which  each  would 
have  been  a  sharp  to  its  next  lower  and  a  flat 
to  its  next  higher  string.  The  first  step  towards 
the  reconstruction  of  the  harp  was  due  to  a  Ty- 
rolese,  who  came  upon  the  idea  of  screwing  little 
crooks  of  metal  (crotchets)  into  the  neck,  which 
when  turned  against  the  string  would  cause  the 
shortening  necessary  for  a  chromatic  interval. 
Still  the  harpist  lost  the  use  of  one  hand  while 
placing  or  releasing  a  crook,  and  one  string  only 
was  modified,  not  its  octaves.  About  the  year 
1720,  one  Hochbrucker,  a  native  of  Donauworth 
in  Bavaria,  conceived  and  executed  the  fir.st 
pedal  mechanism,  and  rendered  the  harp  fit  for 
modulation,  by  using  the  foot  to  raise  each  open 
string,  at  will  and  instantaneously,  half  a  tone 
higher,  and  leaving  the  player's  hands  free. 
This  brought  about  a  very  remarkable  revolution 
in  harp -playing,  giving  the  instrument  eight 
major  scales  and  five  minor  complete,  besides 
three  minor  scales  descending  only.  Hoch- 
brucker's  mechanism  acted  upon  crooks  which 
pressed  the  strings  above  nuts  projecting  from 
the  neck.  But  there  w^ere  inconveniences  arising 
from  this  construction;  each  string  acted  upon 
by  a  crook  was  removed  from  the  plane  of  the 
open  strings,  an  impediment  to  the  fingering, 
and  frequent  cause  of  jarring,  and  the  stopped 
strings  were  less  good  in  tone  than  the  open. 
A  fault  no  less  serious  was  due  to  the  mechanism 
being  adjusted  to  the  wooden  neck,  which  was 
intractable  for  the  curving  required ;  if  too  much 
bent  it  was  liable  to  break,  and  if  not  bent  enough 
the  middle  strings  would  break  when  tuned  up 
from  being  too  long. 

The  fir.Ct  to  make  harps  without  crooks,  and  yet 
to  stop  half  tones,  were  Frenchmen — the  Cou- 
sineauf?,  father  and  son.  They  passed  each  string 
between  two  small  pieces  of  metal  {heguilles) 
placed  beneath  the  bridge-pin.  Then  by  the 
pedal  action  these  metal  pieces  were  made  to  grasp 
the  string,  and  shorten  it  the  distance  required. 
The  Cousineaus  alf-o  introduced  a  slide  to  raise 
or  lower  the  bridge-pin  regulating  the  length 
of  the  string,  and  placed  each  system  of  levers 


HARP. 


HARPER. 


687 


belonging  to  strings  of  the  same  name  between 
metal  plates  which  were  bevelled  to  make  them 
lighter.     Thus  the  neck  could  be  curved  at 
})loasure,  and  its  solidity  being  assured,  the 
})roportions  of  the  strings  could  be  more  accurately 
established.  About  1782  they  doubled  the  pedals 
j  and  connected  mechanism,  and  thus  constructed 
i  the  first  double-action  harp.    The  pedals  were 
I  arranged  in  two  rows,  and  the  tuning  of  the 
1  open  strings  was  changed  to  the  scale  of  Cb 
j  instead  of  Eb,  as  in  the  single  -  action  harps. 
I  But  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Cousineaus  made 
many  double  action  harps ;  they  were  still  too 
imperfect ;  and  the  Revolution  must  have  closed 
their  business,  for  we  hear  no  more  of  them. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  perfecting  of  the  harp 
by  that  great  mechanician  Sebastian  Erard, 
whose  merit  it  was  to  leave  this  instrument  as 


I.  Cb.  2.  Ctj.  3.  en. 


complete  as  the  Cremona  school  of  luthiers  left 
the  violin.  His  earliest  essays  to  improve  the 
harp  date  about  1786,  and  were  confined  to  the 
single  action.  He  worked  upon  a  new  principle, 
the  fork  mechanism,  and  in  his  harps  which 
were  finished  about  1789,  the  arrangement  of 
it  was  chiefly  internal ;  the  studs  that  shorten 
the  strings  alone  performing  their  functions  ex- 
ternally. He  patented  in  London  in  1794  a 
fork  mechanism  external  to  the  plate.   He  made 


a  double-action  harp  in  1801,  patenting  it  in 
1809,  but  it  was  not  until  18 10  that  he  produced 
the  culmination  of  his  beautiful  contrivance, 
which  has  since  been  the  model  for  all  harp 
makers.  In  this  harp,  as  in  the  single  action  one, 
Erard  maintained  seven  pedals  only,  and  simply 
augmented  the  extent  of  movement  of  the  cranks 
and  tringles  (or  levers)  acted  upon  by  the  pillar- 
rods,  to  give  successively  a  portion  of  revolution  to 
the  disks  from  which  the  studs  project ;  the  first 
movement  of  the  pedal  serving  to  shorten  string2 
of  the  same  name,  to  produce  the  first  half  tone, 
the  second  movement  of  the  pedal  for  the  second 
half  tone,  the  contrivance  being  so  ingenious 
that  the  position  of  the  upper  disk — the  second 
to  move  but  the  first  to  act  upon  the  strings — is 
not  changed  when  the  lower  disk  completes  its 
movement  of  revolution  and  acts  upon  the  strings 
also. 

The  drawing  represents  3  sections  of  the  neck 
of  Erard's  double  action  harp,  and  shows  the 
position  of  the  forks  and  external  levers,  ( I )  when 
the  strings  are  open,  (2)  when  stopped  for  the 
first  half  tone,  and  (3)  when  stopped  for  the 
.second.    Two  strings  are  shewn  for  each  pitch. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  foot  upon  a 
pedal,  as  it  may  be  fixed  in  a  notch  and  set  free 
when  not  required  ;  spiral  springs  with  two  arms 
fixed  beneath  the  pedestal  accelerate  the  return 
of  the  pedals.  Unlike  the  weighty  expedient  of 
the  Cousineaus,  there  are  but  two  brass  plates 
which  form  the  comb  concealing  the  greater  part 
of  the  action.  Lastly,  Erard  made  the  convex 
body  bearing  the  soundboard  of  one  piece,  doing 
away  with  the  old  lute-like  plan  of  building  it 
up  with  staves. 

As  already  stated,  the  double-action  harp  is 
tuned  in  Cb.  By  taking  successively  the  seven 
pedals  for  the  half-tone  transposition,  it  can  be 
played  in  Gb,  Db,  Ab,  Eb,  Bb,  F,  and  Ctj.  By 
the  next  action  of  the  pedals,  completing  the  rise 
of  the  whole  tone,  the  harp  is  set  successively  in 
G,  D,  A,  E,  B,  FjJ,  and  Cff.  The  minor  scales 
can  only  be  set  in  their  descending  form,  the 
ascending  requiring  change  of  pedals.  Changes 
by  transposition  constitute  a  formidable  diflBcidty 
in  playing  keyed  instruments  through  the  altered 
fingering  required.  On  the  harp  passages  may 
be  repeated  in  any  key  with  fingering  absolutely 
the  same.  The  complication  of  scale  fingering, 
so  troublesome  to  pianoforte  playing,  is  with  the 
harp  practically  unknown. 

The  harmonics  of  the  harp  are  frequently  used 
by  solo  players,  and  'the  sonorousness  of  these 
mysterious  notes  when  used  in  combination  with 
flutes  and  clarinets  in  the  medium'  called  for*h 
the  admiration  of  Berlioz.  ('Modem  Instru- 
mentation,' Novello  1858.) 

In  describing  the  Double  -  action  Harp  of 
Sebastian  Erard,  the  writer  has  been  much 
helped  by  a  report,  read  before  the  French 
Institute  in  181 5,  and  lent  to  him  by  Mr.  George 
Bruzaud.  [A.J.H.] 

HARPER,  Thomas,  bom  at  Worcester  May 
3,  1787  ;  when  about  ten  years  of  age  came  to 
Ijondon  and  learnt  the  horn  and  trumpet  under 


688 


HARPER. 


HARPSICHORD. 


Eley,  then  master  of  the  East  India  Volunteer 
Band.    He  soon  afterwards  became  a  member 
of  the  band  and  a  great  proficient  on  the  trumpet. 
He  continued  in  the  band  nearly  1 8  years,  during 
the  first  7  of  which  he  also  performed  in  the 
orchestras  of  some  of  the  minor  theatres.  About 
1 8o6  he  was  appointed  principal  trumpet  at  Drury 
Lane,  and  the  English  Opera  House,  Lyceum. 
In  1820  he  was  engaged  in  the  same  capacity  at 
the  Birmingham  Musical  Festival,  and  in  the 
following  year  succeeded  the  elder  Hyde  at  the 
Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  the  Italian  Opera, 
and  all  the  pricipal  concerts  and  festivals,  a 
position  which   he   retained   for  upwards  of 
a  quarter  of  a  century.    The  East  India  Com- 
pany nominated  him  inspector  of  the  musical 
instruments  supplied  to  their  bands,  an  appoint- 
ment which  he  held  until  his  death.  Harper 
played  on  the  slide  trumpet,  and  produced  a 
pure,  brilliant,  and  even  tone,  with  a  command 
of  execution  which  enabled  him  to  surmount 
the  greatest  difficulties  on  his  most  difficult  in- 
strument. He  was  stricken  with  mortal  sickness 
at  a  rehearsal  in  Exeter  Hall  for  a  concert  of 
the  Harmonic  Union,  and  died  in  a  few  hours 
afterwards  on  Jan.  20,  1853.    He  was  author  of 
an  Instruction  Book  for  the  Trumpet.  Harper 
left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Thomas, 
succeeded  his  father  in  all  his  appointments  as 
principal  trumpet,  a  position  he  still  holds  ;  the 
second,  Charles,  long  filled  the  place  of  prin- 
cipal horn  in   the   best   orchestras ;  and  the 
youngest,  Edmund,  also  a  horn  player,  settled  at 
Hillsborough,  Ireland,  as  pianist  and  organist, 
and  died  there,  May  18,  1869.  [W.H.H.] 
HARPSICHORD  (Fr.  aavecin ;  Ital.  Clavi- 
cembalo,  Gravicemhalo,  not  unfrequently  Cemhalo 
only,  also  Ha  r pi  cor  do ;  Germ.  Clavicymhel,  Kiel- 
fliigel,  Fliigel).    The  most  important  of  the  group 
of  keyed  instruments  that  preceded  the  piano- 
forte, holding  during  the  i6th,  17th,  and  iSth 
centuries  a  position  analogous  to  that  now  ac- 
corded to  the  grand  pianoforte.    It  had  a  place 
in  the  orchestra  as  an  accompanying  instrument 
when  the  first  opera  and  the  first  oratorio  were 
performed  (Florence  and  Rome,  about  a.d.  1600), 
and  during  the  time  of  Handel  and  Bach  was 
the  constant  support  to  the  recitativo  secco,  its 
■weak  bass  notes  being  reinforced  by  large  lutes 
and  viols,  and  ultimately  by  violoncellos  and 
double  basses.     Towards  the  end  of  the  iSth 
century  the  instrument  w^as  withdrawm\  and 
the  big  fiddles  were  left  by  themselves  to  accom- 
pany the  ordinary  recitative  in  a  fashion  more 
peculiar  than  satisfactory. 

The  name  harpsichord  is  the  English  variant 
of  the  original  harpicordo,  which,  like  clavicem- 
balo, clavicordo,  spinetto,  and  pianoforte,  betrays 
its  Italian  origin.  The  clavicordo  was  a  table- 
shaped,  five-cornered  harpicordo,  rectangular,  like 
the  German  clavichord,  but  otherwise  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  instrument,  which  was  made  to 
sound  by  'tangents,'  or  simple  brass  uprights 

1  The  King's  Birthday  Ode  vas  accompanied  by  the  harpsichord 
until  June  4th.  1705,  when  a  grand  piano  was  substituted,  a  harpsi- 
o'jord  having  been  used  at  the  rehearsaU 


from  the  keys.  All  instruments  of  the  harpsi- 
chord, clavicembalo,  or  spinet  family  were  on 
the  plectrum  principle,  and  therefore  were  in- 
capable of  dynamic  modification  of  tone  by 
difference  of  touch.  The  strings  were  set  in 
vibration  by  points  of  quill  or  hard  leather, 
elevated  on  wooden  uprights,  known  as  jacks,  and 
twitching  or  plucking  them  as  the  depression 
of  the  keys  caused  the  points  to  pass  upwards. 
[J ACK.]  Leather  points  were  probably  used  first, 
since  we  learn  from  Scaliger,  who  lived  1484- 
1550  (Poetices, lib. i.  cap.  48),  that  crowquills  were 
introduced  in  keyed  instruments  subsequent  to 
his  boyhood,  and  he  informs  us  that  through  them 
the  name  'spinet'  (from  spine,  a  thorn  or  point) 
became  applied  to  what  had  been  known  as  the 
'  clavicymbal'  and  '  harpichord.'  The  Canon  Paul 
Belisonius,  of  Pavia,  is  said  to  have  introduced 
quills :  the  use  of  leather  is  shown  in  a  harpsi- 
chord by  Baffo,  dated  a.d.  1574,  and  presently 
to  be  referred  to ;  and  in  one  by  the  elder  An- 
dreas Ruckers  of  Antwerp,  dated  A.D.  1614,  now 
in  the  possession  of  Col.  Hopkinson. 

It  is  the  principle  of  the  plectrum  that  derives 
the  descent  of  the  harpsichord  from  the  psaltery, 
just  as  the  pianoforte  is  derived,  by  analogy  at 
least,  from  the  dulcimer,  and  the  clavichord  from 
the  moveable-bridged  monochord  ;  the  model  for 
the  shape  of  the  long  harpsichord  being  that 
kind  of  psaltery  which  the  common  people  called 
'  istromento  di  porco'  —  from  a  supposed  re- 
semblance between  the  trapeze  form  and  a  pig's 
head.  [See  Psaltery.]  There  is  an  interesting 
suggestion  of  this  connection  of  the  harpsichord 
with  the  psaltery  preserved  in  the  church  of  the 
Certosa,  near  Pavia,  built  about  a.d.  1475.  King 
David,  who  in  the  Middle  Ages  always  played 
a  psaltery,  is  there  shown  holding  an  '  istromento 
di  porco.'  The  body  of  the  psaltery  is  open,  and 
shows  eight  keys,  lying  parallel  with  the  eight 
strings.  David  touches  the  keys  with  his  right 
hand,  and  uses  the  left  to  damp  the  strings. 
All  this  may  be  the  sculptor  s  fancy,  but  Dr. 
Ambros  (Geschichte  der  Musik,  1864)  regards  it 
as  a  recollection  of  a  real  instrument,  although 
obsolete,  somewhere  seen  by  him. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  harpsichord  is 
under  the  name  of  clavicjmibolum,  in  the  rules 
of  the  Minnesingers,  by  Eberhard  Cersne,  a.d. 
1404,  With  it  occur  the  clavichord,  the  mono- 
chord  and  other  musical  instruments  in  use  at 
that  time.  [See  Clavichord.]  The  absence 
of  any  prior  mention  or  illustration  of  keyed 
stringed  instruments  is  negative  evidence  only, 
but  it  may  be  assumed  to  prove  their  invention 
to  have  been  shortly  before  that  date— say  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century,  especially  as 
Jean  de  Muris,  writing  in  A.D.  1323  (Musica 
speculativa),  and  enumerating  musical  instru- 
ments, makes  no  reference  to  either  clavicem- 
balo or  clavichord,  but  de.'^cribes  the  monochord 
(recommending  four  strings  however)  as  in  use 
for  measuring  intervals  at  that  time.  Moreover 
there  was  no  music  wire  before  this  epoch  ;  the 
earliest  record  of  wire  drawing  being  a.d.  1351, 
at  Augsburg.    It  may  occur  to  the  reader — why 


HARPSICHORD. 


HARPSICHORD.  689 


were  hammers  not  sooner  introduced  after  the 
natural  suggestion  of  the  Dulcimer,  instead  of 
the  field  being  so  long  occupied  by  the  less 
effective  jack  and  tangent  contrivances?  The 
chasm  untraversable  by  all  forgotten  Cristoforis 
and  Schroters  was  the  gap  between  wrestplank 
and  soundboard,  for  the  passage  of  the  hammers, 
which  weakened  the  frame  and  prohibited  the 
introduction  of  thicker  strings  strong  enough  to 
withstand  the  impact  of  hammers.  It  took  more 
than  three  hundred  years  to  bridge  this  chasm 
by  stronger  framing,  and  thus  render  hammers 
possible. 

As  pianofortes  have  been  made  in  three  quite 
different  shapes,  the  grand,  the  square,  and  the 
upright,  there  were  as  many  varieties  of  the 
jack  instruments — to  wit,  the  harpsichord  proper 
(clavicembalo,  clavecin,  or  flugel)  of  trapeze 
form ;  the  clavicordo,  of  oblong  or  pentangular 
form,  frequently  called  spinet  or  virginal ;  and 
the  upright  harpsichord,  or  clavicytherium.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  long  harpsichords 
were  often  described  as  spinet  or  virginal,  from 
their  plectra  or  their  use  by  young  ladies ;  but 
11   the  table-shaped  ones  known  commonly  by  the 
latter  names  were  never  called  harpsichords. 
|{   No  specimen  of  the  upright  harpsichord  seems 
i  to  exist,  yet  the  instrument  has  been  made  in  a 

I comparatively  recent  period,  since  a  receipt  for 
one,  dated  1 753,  and  signed  by  the  maker,  Samuel 
Blumer, '  Harpsichord  and  Spinet  Maker  in  Great 

iPoultney  Street,  near  Golden  Square,  London. 
N.B,  Late  foreman  to  Mr.  Shudi,'  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  Messrs.  Broadwood. 

We  are  spared  the  necessity  of  reconstructing 
the  older  harpsichords  from  the  obscure  and 
often  inaccurate  allusions  of  the  older  writers, 
,  such  as  Virdung  and  Kircher,  by  the  valuable 
i  collection  now  in  South  Kensington  Museum, 
that  includes  instruments  of  this  family  dating 
from  A.D.  1555  to  Pascal  Taskin,  a.d.  1786.  In 
private  hands,  but  accessible  to  the  enquirer,  are 
'  large  harpsichords  by  Tschudi  and  by  Kirkman, 
'  still  playable.    The  oldest  harpsichord  in  the 
I   Museum  is  a  Venetian  clavicembalo,  signed  and 
I  dated  'Joanes  Antonius  BafFo,  Venetus,  1574.' 
I  It  has  a  compass  of  4^  octaves,  • 

from  C  to  F,  the  extreme  limits 
j  of  the  human  voice.    Raising  the    ^     Jf  — 
top  and  looking  inside,  we  ob-        _[  ^  — '■ 
serve  the  harp-like  disposition  of 
the  strings  as  in  a  modern  grand  piano,  which 
led  Galilei,  the  father  of  the  astronomer  Galileo, 
to  infer  the  direct  derivation  of  the  harpsichord 
from  the  harp.  In  front,  immediately  over  the 
keys,  is  the  wrestplank,  with  the  tuning-pins 
inserted,  round  which  are  wound  the  nearer 
ends  of  the  strings — in  this  instrument  two  to 
each  note — the  further  ends  being  attached  to 
hitchpins,  driven  into  the  soundboard  itself, 
'i  and  following  the  angle  of  the  bent  side  of  the 
j  case  to  the  narrow  end,  where  the  longest 
strings  are  stretched.   There  is  a  straight  bridge 
along  the  edge  of  the  wrestplank,  and  a  curved 
)j  bridge  upon  the  soundboard.    The  strings  pass 
I  over  these  bridges,  between  which  they  vibrate, 


and  the  impulse  of  their  vibrations  is  commu- 
nicated by  the  curved  bridge  to  the  soundboard. 
The  plectra  or  jacks,  with  the  exception  that 
they  carry  points  of  leather  instead  of  quill,  are 
the  same  as  in  later  instruments.  [See  Jack.] 
This  Venetian  harpsichord  has  a  separate  case, 
from  which  it  could  be  withdrawn  for  perform- 
ance, a  contrivance  usual  in  Italy,  the  outer 
case  being  frequently  adorned  with  painting. 
The  raised  blocks  on  each  side  the  keys,  by 
which  the  instrument  was  drawn  out  of  the 
case,  survived  long  after,  when  there  was  no 
outer  case.  Lastly,  the  natural  keys  are  white 
and  the  sharps  black,  the  rule  in  Italian  keyed 
instruments,  the  German  practice  having  been 
the  reverse. 

Reference  to  the  oblong  '  clavicordi,'  in  which 
South  Kensington  Museum  is  rich,  will  be  found 
under  Spinet.  The  actual  workmanship  of  all 
these  Italian  keyed  instruments  was  indifferent ; 
we  must  turn  to  the  Netherlands  for  that  care 
in  manipulation  and  choice  of  materials  which, 
united  with  constructive  ingenuity  equalling  that 
of  the  best  Italian  artists,  culminated  in  the 
Double  Harpsichords  of  the  Ruckers  family  of 
Antwerp.^    [See  Ruckers.] 

Of  this  family  there  were  four  members  living 
and  working  between  1579  1^5^  or  later, 
who  achieved  great  reputation.  Their  instru- 
ments are  known  by  their  signatures ;  and  by 
the  monograms  forming  the  ornamental  rosette 
or  soundhole  in  the  soundboard — a  survival  from 
the  psaltery.  The  great  improvement  of  the 
harpsichord  is  attributed  to  Hans,  the  eldest, 
who,  by  adding  to  the  two  unison  strings  of 
each  note  a  third  of  shorter  length  and  finer  wire 
tuned  an  octave  higher,  increased  the  power  and 
brilliancy  of  the  tone.  To  employ  this  addition 
at  will,  alone,  or  with  one  or  both  the  unison 
strings,  he  contrived,  after  the  example  of  the 
organ,  a  second  keyboard,  and  stops  to  be  moved 
by  the  hand,  for  the  control  of  the  registers  or 
slides  of  jacks  acting  upon  the  strings.  By 
these  expedients  all  the  legitimate  variety  ever 
given  to  the  instrument  was  secured.  The 
Ruckers  harpsichord  given  by  Messrs.  Broadwood 
to  South  Kensington  Museum,  signed  and  dated 
'Andreas  Ruckers  me  fecit  Antverpise  1651'  (see 
next  page),  said  to  have  been  left  by  Handel  to 
Christopher  Smith,  shows  these  additions  to  the 
construction,  and  was,  in  the  writer's  remem- 
brance, before  the  soundboard  gave  way,  of  deli- 
ciously  soft  and  delicately  reedy  timbre.  The 
tension  being  comparatively  small,  these  harpsi- 
chords lasted  much  longer  than  our  modern 
pianofortes,  even  of  the  best  construction.  J ames 
Shudi  Broadwood  ('Notes,'  1838)  states  that 
many  Ruckers  harpsichords  were  in  existence  and 
good  condition  until  nearly  the  end  of  the  last 
century,  and  fetched  high  prices  ;  one  having 
sold  in  1770  for  3000  francs  (£120). 

When  the  Ruckers  family  passed  away  we  hear 
no  more  of  Antwerp  as  the  city  of  harpsichord 

>  The  oldest  trace  in  the  Netherlands  of  the  harpsichord  or  clavecin 
•is  that  a  house  in  Antwerp,  in  the  parish  of  Notre  Dame,  bore  in 
1532  the  name  of '  de  Clavizimbele." 

Yy 


690  HARPSICHORD. 


HARPSICHORD. 


makers ;  London  and  Paris  took  up  the  tale.  But 
all  these  Antwerp  workmen  belonged  of  right  to 
the  Guild  of  St.  Luke,  the  artist's  corporation,  to 
which  they  were  in  the  first  instance  introduced 
by  the  practice  of  ornamenting  their  instruments 
with  painting  and  carving.  In  1557  ten  of  the 
Antwerp  harpsichord  makers  petitioned  the  deans 
and  masters  of  the  guild  to  be  admitted  without 
submitting  masterpieces,  and  the  chiefs  of  the 
commune  consenting,  in  the  next  year  they  were 
received.  The  responsibility  of  signing  their  work 
was  perhaps  the  foundation  of  the  great  reputation 
afterwards  enjoyed  by  Antwerp  for  harpsichords 
and  similar  musical  instruments.  (' Recherches,' 
etc.,  Ldon  de  Burbure,  Brussels,  1863.) 

The  earliest  historical  mention  of  the  harpsi- 
chord in  England  occurs  under  the  name  of 


Claricymball,  a.d,  1502.  The  late  Dr.  Rimbault 
('The  Pianoforte,'  London  i860)  collected  this 
and  other  references  to  old  keyed  instruments 
from  records  of  Privy  Purse  expenses  and  from 
contemporary  poets.  The  house  -  proverbs  of 
Leckingfield,  the  residence  of  Algernon  Percy 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VII,  preserved  (for  the 
house  was  burnt)  in  a  MS.  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, named  it  *  clarisymbalis.'  For  a  long 
while  after  this,  if  the  instrument  existed,  it  was 
known  under  a  general  name,  as  '  virginalls.'  It 
was  the  school  of  Ruckers,  transferred  to  this 
country  by  a  Fleming  named  Tabel,  that  was  the 
real  basis  of  harpsichord  making  as  a  distinct 
business  in  this  country,  separating  it  from  organ 
building  with  which  it  had  been,  as  in  Fland- 
ers, often  combined,    Tabel's  pupils,  Burkhard 


Tschudi  (anglzcS  Shudi)  and  Jacob  Kirchmann 
{anglice  Kirkman),  became  famous  in  the  last 
century,  developing  the  harpsichord  in  the  di- 
rection of  power  and  majesty  of  tone  to  the 
farthest  limit.  The  difference  in  length  between 
a  Ruckers  and  a  Shudi  or  Kirkman  harpsichord, 
— viz.  from  6  or  7|  feet  to  nearly  9  feet,  is 
in  direct  proportion  to  this  increase  of  power. 
Stronger  framing  and  thicker  stringing  helped 
in  the  production  of  their  pompous,  rushing- 
sounding  instruments.  Perhaps  Shudi's  were 
the  longest,  as  he  carried  his  later  instruments 
down  to  C  in  the  bass,  while  Kirkman  remained 
at  F  ;  but  the  latter  set  up  one  row  /  ^. 
of  jacks  with  leather  instead  of  v^'  . — qrz: 
quills,  -and  with  due  increase  in  ^ 
the  forte  combination.  Shudi,  in  8ra. 
his  last  years  (a.d.  1769),  patented  a  Venetian 


Swell,  an  adaptation  from  the  organ  to  the 
harpsichord.  Kirkman  added  a  pedal  to  raise 
a  portion  of  the  top  or  cover.  Both  used  two 
pedals ;  the  one  for  the  swell,  the  other  by  an 
external  lever  apparatus  to  shut  off  the  octave 
and  one  of  the  unison  registers,  leaving  the 
player  with  both  hands  free,  an  invention  of 
John  Hayward's,  described  in  Mace's  '  Musick's 
Monument/  A.D.  1676,  p.  235. 

In  these  1 8th-century  harpsichords,  the  Flemish 
practice  of  ornamenting  with  painting — often  the 
cause  of  an  instrument  being  broken  up  when  no 
longer  efficient — was  done  away  with ;  also  the 
laudable  old  custom  of  mottoes  to  remind  the 
player  of  the  analogous  brevity  of  life  and  sound, 
of  the  divine  nature  of  the  gift  of  music,  or  of 
dead  wood  reviving  as  living  tone.  But  it  was 
when  the  instrument  went  out  altogether  that 


HAKPSICHORD. 


HARRIS.. 


691 


this  enrichment  of  picture  galleries  by  the 
demolition  of  harpsichords  was  most  effected. 
The  number  of  Ruckers  however  known  to  exist 
has  been  extended  by  research  to  upwards  of  thirty. 
Still  there  was  great  care  in  the  artistic  choice 
of  wood  and  in  the  cabinet-work  of  Tschudi's 
beautiful  instruments.  One  in  the  possession  of 
Her  Majesty  the  Queen,  and  long  preserved 
in  Kew  Palace,  is  quite  a  masterpiece  in  these 
respects.  It  bears  Tschudi's  name,  spelt,  as 
was  usual,  Shudi ;  the  date  1 740  and  maker's 
number  94  are  inside.  The  compass  is  as  in  the 
South  Kensington  Ruckers,  G  to  F,  without  the 
lowest  Gj.  Two,  of  1758  (probably)  and  1766, 
are  in  the  New  Palace  at  Potsdam,  and  were 
Frederick  the  Great's.  Messrs.  Broadwood  have 
one  dated  1771,  with  five  and  a  half  octaves, 
C  to  F,  Venetian  Swell  and  five  stops,  comprising 
the  two  unisons  and  octave  of  the  Ruckers,  with 
j  a  slide  of  jacks  striking  the  strings  much  nearer 
11  to  the  bridge  (also  a  Ruckers  contrivance),  and 
producing  a  more  twanging  quality  of  tone,  the 
I  so-called  'lute '-stop  and  a  'buff '-stop  of  small 
pieces  of  leather,  brought  into  contact  with  the 
strings,  damping  the  tone  and  thus  giving  a  kind  of 
pizzicato  effect.  This  fine  instrument  was  used 
by  Moscheles  in  his  Historical  Concerts  in  1837, 
and  by  Mr.  Pauer  in  similar  performances  in 
1862,  63,  and  67.  There  is  also  one  in  the 
Musik  Verein  at  Vienna  of  similar  construction, 
made  by  '  Burkat  Shudi  et  Johannes  Broadwood,' 
and  dated  1775,  which  belonged  to  Joseph 
Haydn.  This  was  the  young  Shudi ;  it  is  very 
doubtful  if  another  harpsichord  exists  with 
Broadwood's  name  upon  it. 

The  variety  of  stops  and  combinations  intro- 
duced by  different  makers  here  and  abroad  at  last 
became  legion,  and  were  as  worthless  as  they  were 
numerous.  Pascal  Taskin,  a  native  of  Theux 
in  Li^?ge  and  a  famous  Parisian  harpsichord 
maker,  is  credited  with  the  reintroduction  of 
leather  as  an  alternative  to  quills ;  his  Clavecin 
'  en  peau  de  buffle'  made  in  1 768  was  pronounced 
superior  to  the  pianoforte  (De  la  Borde,  '  Essai 
«ur  la  musique,'  1773).  Taskin's  were  smaller 
scale  harpsichords  than  those  in  vogue  in  England, 
and  had  ebony  naturals  and  ivory  sharps,  and 
a  Japanese  fashion  of  external  ornamentation. 
There  is  one  at  South  Kensington,  dated  1786. 
In  the  Liceo  Communale  di  Musica  at  Bologna 
there  is  a  harpsichord  with  four  rows  of  keys, 
called  an  '  Archicembalo.'  This  instrument,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Engel,  was  made  by  a  Venetian, 
Vito  Trasuntino,  after  the  invention  of  Nicolo 
Vicentino,  who  described  it  in  his  work  'L'Antica 
Musica  ridotto  alia  moderna  prattica'  (Rome 
1555).  The  compass  comprises  only  four  octaves, 
but  in  each  octave  are  thirty-one  keys.  A '  Tetra- 
t  ordo'  was  made  to  facilitate  the  tuning  of  these 
minute  intervals.  Thus  early  were  attempts  made 
to  arrive  at  purity  of  intonation  by  multiplying  the 
number  of  keys  within  the  bounds  of  the  octave. 
Another  of  the  curiosities  of  harpsichord  making 
was  the  '  Transponiclavicymbel'  described  by 
J'raetorius  (1614  -18).  By  shifting  the  keyboard 
the  player  could  transpose  two  tones  higher  or 


I  lower,  passing  at  pleasure  through  the  inter- 
mediate half  tones.  Arnold  Schlick,  however, 
had  achieved  a  similar  transposition  with  the 
organ  as  early  as  151 2  (Monatshefte  fiir  Musik - 
Geschichte,  Berlin,  1869).  A  harpsichord  peda- 
lier — Clavicymbelpedal — according  to  Dr.  Oscar 
Paul,  an  independent  instrument  with  two  octaves 
of  pedals,  was  used  by  J.  S.  Bach,  notably  in  his 
Trios  and  the  famous  '  Passacaille ' ;  and  in  his 
transcriptions  of  Vivaldi's  Concertos.  Lastly  a 
'Lautenwerke'  must  be  noticed,  a  gut-string 
harpsichord,  an  instrument  not  worth  remem- 
bering had  not  Bach  himself  directed  the  making 
of  one  by  Zacharias  Hildebrand  of  Leipsic.  It 
was  shorter  than  the  usual  harpsichord,  had  two 
unisons  of  gut  strings,  and  an  octave  register  of 
brass  wire,  and  was  praised  as  capable,  if  heard 
concealed,  of  deceiving  a  lute-player  by  pro- 
fession (Paul,  Gesch.  des  Claviers,  Leipsic  1868). 
[See  Clavichobd,  Ruckers,  Spinet,  Virgi- 
nal.] [A.J.H.] 

HARINGTON,  Henry,  M.D.,  born  ini72  7 
at  Kelston,  Somersetshire  ;  in  1745  entered  at 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  with  the  view  of  taking 
orders.  He  used  to  pass  his  vacations  with  his 
uncle,  William,  vicar  of  Kingston,  Wilts,  from 
whom  he  imbibed  a  taste  for  music  and  poetry. 
He  resided  there  during  8  years,  and  wrote 
some  unimportant  pieces  of  music  and  poetry. 
In  1748  he  took  his  B.A.  degree,  abandoned  his 
intention  of  taking  orders,  and  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine.  He  remained  at  Oxford 
until  he  took  his  M.A.  and  M.D.  degrees. 
Whilst  there  he  joined  an  amateur  musical 
society  established  by  Dr.  W.  Hayes,  to  which 
those  only  were  admitted  who  were  able  to 
play  and  sing  at  sight.  On  leaving  Oxford  he 
established  himself  as  a  physician  at  Bath,  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  composition,  and  founded 
the  Harmonic  Society  of  Bath.  In  1797  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  glees,  catches,  etc.,  and  after- 
wards joined  Edmund  Broderip,  organist  of 
Wells,  and  Rev.  William  Leeves,  composer  of 
'  Auld  Robin  Gray,'  in  the  publication  of  a 
similar  volume.  In  1 800  he  published  '  Eloi ! 
Eloi !  or.  The  Death  of  Christ,'  a  sacred  dirge 
for  Passion  Week.  Harington  was  an  alderman 
of  Bath,  and  served  the  office  of  mayor  with 
credit.  He  died  Jan.  15,  181 6,  and  was  buried 
in  Bath  Abbey.  His  compositions  are  '  distin- 
guished for  originality,  correct  harmony  and 
tenderness,  and  he  was  remarkably  successful 
in  some  humorous  productions'  {Harmonicon). 
His  round  '  How  great  is  the  pleasure '  used  to 
be  well  known.  [W.H.H.] 

HARRIS,  Joseph  John,  born  in  London  in 
1799,  was  chorister  in  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
John  Stafford  Smith.  In  1823  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  St.  Olave's  Church,  Southwark.  In 
1827  he  published  'A  Selection  of  Psalm  and 
Hymn  Tunes,  adapted  to  the  psalms  and  hymns 
used  in  the  church  of  St.  Olave,  Southwark.' 
In  Feb.  1828  he  quitted  Southwark  to  become 
organist  of  Blackburn,  Lancashire;  in  1831 
was  made  'lay  precentor,'  or  choir  master  at 
the  collegiate  church  (now  the  cathedral)  at 


692 


HARRIS. 


HART. 


Manchester,  deputy  organist,  and  on  March  25, 
1848,  organist.  Harris  composed  some  cathedral 
music  and  a  few  glees,  songs,  etc.  He  died  at 
Manchester,  Feb.  10,  1869.  [W.H.H.] 

HARRIS,  Joseph  Macdonald,  was  born  in 
1 789,  and  at  an  early  age  became  a  chorister  of 
Westminster  Abbey  under  Richard  Guise.  On 
quitting  the  choir  on  the  breaking  of  his  voice, 
he  became  a  pupil  of  Robert  Cooke,  then  or- 
ganist of  the  Abbey.  Harris  was  employed  as  a 
teacher,  and  occasional  conductor  at  minor  con- 
certs. His  compositions  are  songs,  duets,  trios, 
and  pianoforte  pieces.  He  died  in  May  i860, 
aged  71.  [W.H.H.j 

HARRIS,  Rene,  or  Renatus,  is  the  most 
celebrated  member  of  this  family  of  English 
organ  builders.  His  grandfather  had  built  an 
organ  for  Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  but  his 
father,  Thomas,  appears  to  have  emigrated  to 
France,  for  Dr.  Burney  says  that  Renatus  came 
to  England  with  his  father  a  few  months  after 
Father  Smith's  arrival  (1660).  To  Smith,  Rena- 
tus Harris  became  a  formidable  rival,  especially 
in  the  competition  for  building  an  organ  in  the 
Temple  Church.    [Schmidt,  Beenakd.] 

Thomas  Harris  of  New  Sarum  in  1666  con- 
tracted to  build  an  organ  for  Worcester  Cathedral. 
Renatus  Harris  in  1690  agreed  to  improve  and 
enlarge  his  grandfather's  organ  in  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  Dr.  Rimbault  gives  a  list  of 
39  organs  built  by  this  eminent  artist.  He  had 
two  sons — Renatus,  jun.,  who  built  an  organ 
for  St.  Dionis  Backchurch,  London,  in  1724,  and 
John,  who  built  most  of  his  organs  in  conjunction 
with  his  son-in-law,  John  Byfield. 

The  firm  of  Harris  (John)  &  Byfield  (John) 
carried  on  business  in  Red  Lion  St.,  Holbom. 
In  1729  they  built  an  organ  for  Shrewsbury, 
and  in  1740  one  for  Doncaster,  which  cost 
£525,  besides  several  others.  [V.  deP.] 

HARRISON,  Samuel,  born  at  Belper,  Der- 
byshire, Sept.  8,  1760.  He  received  his  musical 
education  from  Burton,  a  well-known  bass  chorus 
singer,  probably  the  same  whose  nervous  system 
was  so  powerfully  affected  by  the  music  on  the 
first  day  of  the  Commemoration  of  Handel,  in 
1784,  as  to  occasion  his  death  in  the  course  of 
a  few  hours.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Con- 
cert of  Ancient  Music  in  1776,  Harrison  ap- 
peared as  a  solo  soprano  singer,  and  continued 
so  for  two  years  afterwards.  But  in  1778,  being 
engaged  to  sing  at  Gloucester,  his  voice  suddenly 
failed  him.  After  an  interval  of  six  years, 
during  which  he  most  assiduously  cultivated  his 
voice  and  style,  George  III.  heard  him  sing  at 
one  of  Queen  Charlotte's  musical  parties,  and 
caused  him  to  be  engaged  for  the  Commemoration 
of  Handel  in  1784,  at  which  he  sang  'Rend'  il 
sereno  al  ciglio '  from  '  Sosarme,'  and  the  opening 
recitative  and  air  in  'Messiah,'  He  was  next 
engaged  as  principal  tenor  at  the  Concert  of 
Ancient  Music,  and  from  that  time  took  his 
place  at  the  head  of  his  profession  as  a  concert 
singer.  Harrison's  voice  had  a  compass  of  two 
octaves  (A  to  A).    It  was  remarkably  sweet. 


pure  and  even  in  tone,  but  deficient  in  power. 
His  taste  and  judgment  were  of  a  high  order, 
and  in  the  cantabile  style  he  had  no  equal. 
Compelled  by  the  exigences  of  his  engagements 
to  sing  songs  which  demanded  greater  physical 
power  than  he  possessed,  he  always  sang  them 
reluctantly.  On  Dec.  6,  1 790,  Harrison  married 
Miss  Cantelo,  for  some  years  principal  second 
soprano  at  all  the  best  concerts,  etc.  In  1791 
he  and  Knyvett  established  the  Vocal  Concerts, 
which  were  carried  on  to  the  end  of  1794,  and 
revived  in  1801.  Harrison's  last  appearance  in 
public  was  at  his  benefit  concert,  May  8,  181 2, 
when  he  sang  Pepusch's  'Alexis,'  and  Handel's 
'Gentle  airs.'  On  June  25  following,  a  sudden 
inflammation  carried  him  off.  He  was  buried  in 
the  graveyard  of  the  old  church  of  St.  Pancras. 
The  inscription  on  his  tombstone  includes  an 
extract  from  an  elegiac  ode  on  Harrison,  written 
by  Rev.  Thomas  Beaumont,  and  set  to  music  by 
William  Horsley,  but  the  lines  are  so  inaccurately 
given  as  completely  to  mar  the  allusion  to  the 
song,  '  Gentle  airs.'  Mrs.  Harrison  survived  her 
husband  19  years.  [W.H.H] 

HARRISON,  William,  bom  in  Marylebone 
parish,  181 3.  Being  gifted  with  a  tenor  voice 
of  remarkable  purity  and  sweetness,  he  appeared 
in  public  as  an  amateur  concert  singer  early  in 
1836.  He  then  entered  as  a  pupil  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  in  1837  appeared  as 
a  professional  singer  at  the  concerts  of  the  Aca- 
demy, and  subsequently  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society.  On  Thursday,  May  2,  1839,  he  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at  Covent  Gar- 
den, in  Rooke's  opera,  '  Henrique.'  A  few  years 
later  he  was  engaged  at  Drury  Lane,  where  he 
sustained  the  principal  tenor  parts  in  Balfe's 
'Bohemian  Girl,'  Wallace's  'Maritana,'  and 
Benedict's  '  Brides  of  Venice,'  and  '  Crusaders,' 
on  their  first  production.  In  1851  he  performed 
at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  in  Mendelssohn's 

*  Son  and  Stranger,'  and  other  operas.  In  1856, 
in  conjunction  with  Miss  Louisa  Pyne,  he  esta- 
blished an  English  Opera  Company,  and  for 
several  years  gave  performances  at  the  Lyceum, 
Drury  Lane,  and  Covent  Garden  Theatres. 
During  their  management  the  following  new 
operas  were  produced  :  Balfe's  *  Rose  of  Castille  * 
1857,  '  Satanella '  1858,  'Bianca,  the  Bravo's 
Bride'  i860;  'Puritan's  Daughter'  1861,  and 
'Armourer  of  Nantes,'  1863  ;  Wallace's  'Lurline,' 
]86o,  and  'Love's  Triumph'  1862;  Benedict's 

•  Lily  of  Killarney '  1862  ;  Mellon's  *  Victorine  ' 
1859  ;  and  Howard  Glover's  'Ruy  Bias'  1861. 
In  the  winter  of  1 864  Harrison  opened  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  for  the  performance  of  Eng- 
lish operas.  He  translated  Mass^'s  operetta, 
'  Les  Noces  de  Jeannette,'  and  produced  it  at 
Covent  Garden  Theatre  in  Nov.  i860,  under 
the  title  of  'Georgette's  Wedding.'  Harrison, 
in  addition  to  his  vocal  qualifications,  was  an 
excellent  actor.  He  died  at  his  residence  in 
Kentish  Town,  Nov.  9,  18C8.  [W.H.H.] 

HART,  Charles,  born  May  19,  1797,  pupil 
of  tlie  Royal  Academy  of  Music  under  Crotch. 


HAFcT. 


HASLINGER. 


693 


yvom  1829  to  1833  organist  to  St.  Dunstan's, 
pney,  and  subsequently  to  the  church  in 
ilegar  Square,  Mile  End.  and  St.  George's, 
ckenham.    In  1830  he  published  '  Three  An- 
ms,'  and  in  1832  a  'Te  Deum  and  Jubilate,' 
.io  latter  of  which  had  gained  the  Gresham 
I'rize  Medal  in  1831.    In  April  1839  ^®  produced 
an  oratorio  entitled  'Omnipotence.'     He  was 
author  of  a  motet  which  gained  a  premium  at 
Crosby  Hall,  '  Sacred  Harmony,'  and  other  com- 
positions. He  died  March  29,  1859.  [W.H.H.] 

HART,  J OSEPH,  bom  in  London  in  1 794,  be- 
came in  1801  a  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  under 
John  Sale.  Whilst  in  the  choir  he  was  taught 
the  organ  by  Samuel  Wesley  and  Matthew 
Cooke,  and  the  piano  by  J.  B.  Cramer.  At  11 
he  acted  as  deputy  for  Attwood  at  St.  Paul's. 
He  remained  in  the  choir  nearly  9  years,  and  on 
([uitting  it  became  organist  of  Walthamstow, 
and  private  organist  to  the  Earl  of  Uxbridge. 
He  left  Walthamstow  to  become  organist  of 
Tottenham.  At  the  termination  of  the  war  in 
1815,  when  quadrille  dancing  came  into  vogue, 
Hart  became  an  arranger  of  dance  music,  and 
his  'Lancers'  Quadi-ille'  has  continued  in  use 
ever  since.  From  1818  to  1820  he  was  chorus 
master  and  pianist  at  the  English  Opera  House, 
Lyceum.  He  composed  the  music  for  '  Ama- 
teurs and  Actors,'  1818  ;  'A  Walk  for  a  Wager,' 
and  'The  Bull's  Head,'  1819,  all  musical  farces  ; 
and  'The  Vampire,'  melodrama,  1820.  In  1829 
he  removed  to  Hastings,  commenced  business 
as  a  music  seller,  and  was  appointed  organist  of 
St.  Mary's  Chapel.  Hart  produced  48  sets  of 
quadrilles,  waltzes  and  galopades,  and  '  An  Easy 
Mode  of  teaching  Thorough-bass  and  Compo- 
sition.* He  died  in  December,  1844.  [W.H.H.] 

HART,  Philip  (conjectured  by  Hawkins  to 
be  the  son  of  James  Hart),  bass  singer  at 
York  Minster  until  1670,  and  thereafter  to  his 
death.  May  8,  1718,  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey,  was 
the  composer  of  several  songs  published  in 
'  Choice  Ayres,  Songs  and  Dialogues,'  1676-84  ; 
'  The  Theater  of  Musick,'  1685-87  ;  'The  Ban- 
quet ofMusick,'  1688-92,  and  other  collections 
of  that  period.  Philip  Hart  was  organist  of  St. 
Andrew  Undershaft,  and  St.  Michael,  Comhill. 
In  1703  he  composed  the  music  for  Hughes's 
'  Ode  in  Praise  of  Musick,'  performed  at  Sta- 
tioners' Hall  on  St.  Cecilia's  day,  1703.  On 
May  28,  1724,  he  was  appointed  the  first  or- 
ganist of  St.  Dionis  Backchurch,  at  a  salary  of 
30?.  In  1729  he  published  his  music  to  'The 
Morning  Hymn  from  the  Fifth  Book  of  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost.'  He  also  published  a  Collection 
of  Fugues  for  the  Organ.  Two  anthems  by  him 
are  included  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl. 
MS.  7341).  From  Hawkins's  account  of  him 
(chap.  175)  he  appears  to  have  been  a  sound 
and  very  conservative  musician,  and  a  highly 
respectalDle  man.  Sir  Jolin  elsewhere  mentions 
his  excessive  use  of  the  shake  in  his  organ 
playing.  Hart  died,  at  a  very  advanced  age, 
in  or  about  1 749.  [W,  H.  H.] 


HARVARD  MUSICAL  ASSOCIATION, 
THE,  Boston,  U.S.A.,  sprang  in  1837  from  a  half 
social,  half  musical  club  formed  in  1808  among 
the  undergraduates  in  Harvard  University,  and 
known  as  the  '  Pierian  Sodality.'  Besides 
strengthening  the  ties  of  friendship,  it  was  the 
hope  of  the  founders  to  raise  the  standard  of 
musical  taste  in  the  college  ;  to  prepare  the  way 
for  a  musical  professorship  there  ;  and  to  collect 
a  library  which  should  contain  both  music  and 
musical  literature  in  all  its  branches.  These 
hopes  have  all  been  fulfilled.  Furthermore,  by 
means  of  its  public  concerts,  the  taste  of  music- 
lovers  in  Boston  has  been  elevated,  and  a  marked 
influence  exercised  on  the  composition  of  concert- 
programmes  throughout  a  large  part  of  the 
Union.  Fourteen  series  of  concerts,  of  from  six 
to  ten  each,  have  been  given,  beginning  in  1865, 
all,  with  a  few  exceptions,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Carl  Zerrahn.  The  programmes  have  included 
the  standard  orchestral  compositions  of  the  great 
masters,  varied  by  instrumental  and  vocal  solos 
and  choral  performances.  The  library  of  the 
Association,  selected  with  great  care,  and  with 
special  attention  to  the  collection  of  complete  sets, 
in  the  best  editions,  of  the  works  of  the  greatest 
composers,  now  numbers  about  2,500  volumes. 
Of  the  original  members  but  three  survive — 
Mr.  John  S.  D wight,  president  ;  Mr.  Henry  W. 
Pickering,  ex-president ;  and  Mr.  Henry  Gassett. 
Among  its  members  have  been  included  many 
distinguished  graduates  from  the  University  to 
which  it  owes  its  name  and  origin,  as  well  as 
numerous  musical  professors  and  amateurs  who 
have  not  walked  in  the  academic  groves.  The 
head-quarters  of  the  Association  are  at  12,  Pem- 
berton  Square,  Boston,  and  the  Concerts  are  held 
at  the  Music  Hall.  [F.H.J.] 

HASLINGER.  A  well-known  music  firm  in 
Vienna,  originally  the  '  Bureau  des  arts  et  d'in- 
dustrie,'  next  S.  A.  Steiner  &  Co.,  and  since  1826 
Tobias  Haslinger.  Tobias,  bom  March  i,  1787, 
at  Zell,  in  Upper  Austria,  was  an  energetic 
intelligent  man  of  business,  on  intimate  terms 
with  the  best  musicians  of  Vienna.  Beethoven 
and  he  were  in  constant  communication,  and  the 
numerous  letters  to  him  from  the  great  composer, 
which  have  been  preserved  (probably  only  a 
small  proportion  of  those  which  were  written), 
each  with  its  queer  joke  or  nickname,  show  the 
footing  they  were  on — Adjutant,  or  Adjutanterl, 
or  Bestes  kleines  Kerlchen,  or  Tobiasserl,  or  To- 
bias Peter  Philipp,  or  Monsieur  de  Haslinger, 
G^n^ral  Musicien  et  General  Lieutenant— such 
are  the  various  queer  modes  in  which  Beethoven 
addresses  him.  In  a  letter  to  Schott  (Nohl,  No. 
328)  he  sketches  a  comic  biography  of  his  friend, 
with  illustrative  canons.  Another  canon,  '  0 
Tobias  Dominus  Haslinger,'  occurs  in  a  letter 
of  Sept.  10,  1821 ;  and  one  of  his  very  last  notes 
contains  a  flourish  on  his  name,  added,  with  the 
signature,  by  the  hand  of  the  master  : — 


Bester  To 


694 


HASLINGER. 


HASSE. 


Haslinger  prepared  a  complete  copy  of  Bee- 
thoven's compositions  in  full  score,  beautifully 
written  by  a  single  copyist.  This  was  purchased 
by  the  Archduke  Rudolph,  and  bequeathed  by 
him  to  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikt'reunde,  in 
whose  library  it  now  is.  He  was  one  of  the  36  > 
torch-bearers  who  surrounded  the  bier  of  his  great 
friend,  and  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  hand  the  three  j 
laurel  wreaths  to  Hummel,  by  whom  they  were 
placed  on  the  coffin  before  the  closing  of  the 
grave.  He  died  at  Vienna,  June  18,  1842,  and 
the  business  came  into  the  hands  of  his  son 
Karl,  a  pupil  of  Czerny  and  Seyfried,  a  remark-  , 
able  pianoforte-player,  and  an  industrious  com-  [ 
poser.  His  soirt^es  were  well  known  and  much 
frequented,  and  many  a  young  musician  has 
made  his  first  appearance  there.  He  died  Dec.  | 
26,  1868,  leaving  as  many  as  100  published 
works  of  all  classes  and  dimensions.  The  con- 
cern was  carried  on  by  his  widow  till  Jan.  1875, 
when  it  was  bought  by  the  firm  of  Schlesinger  of 
Berlin,  by  whom  it  is  maintained  under  the  style 
of  '  Carl  Haslinger,  quondam  Tobias.'  Among 
the  works  published  by  this  establishment  may  be  [ 
named  Schubert's  'Winterreise'  and  'Schwanen- 
gesang';  Beethoven's  Symphonies  2,  3,  4,  7, 
8,  Overtures  to  Coriolan,  Ruins  of  Athens,  op. 
115,  King  Stephen,  Leonora  *  No.  i,'  Violin  Con- 
certo, Battle  Symphony,  P.  F.  Concertos  i ,  3,  4,  5, 
Trio  in  Bb,  Sonatas  and  Variations,  Liederkreis, 
etc, ;  Spohr  s  Symphonies  4  (Weihe  der  Tone) 
and  5  ;  Liszt's  Concerto  in  Eb  ;  Moscheles'  ditto 
2,  3 J  5,  6,  7 ;  Hummel's  ditto  in  C,  G,  A  minor, 
and  Ab,  4  Sonatas,  etc.  The  dance  music  of 
Lanner  and  the  Strausses  forms  an  important 
part  of  the  repertoire  of  the  firm,  which  under 
the  new  proprietorship  has  received  a  great 
impulse.  [C.F.P.] 

HASSE,  JoHANN  Adolph,  who  for  a  third  part 
of  the  1 8th  century  was  the  most  popular  dramatic 
composer  in  Europe,  was  born  on  March  25, 
1699,  at  ^Bergedorf,  Hamburg,  where  his  father 
was  organist  and  schoolmaster.  At  18  years 
of  age  he  went  to  Hamburg,  where  his  musical 
talent  and  fine  tenor  voice  attracted  the  notice 
of  Ulrich  Konig,  a  German  poet  attached  to  the 
Polish  court,  through  whose  recommendation  he 
was  engaged  as  tenor  singer  by  Keiser,  director 
of  the  Hamburg  Opera,  and  the  most  famous 
dramatic  composer  of  the  day.  At  the  end  of 
four  years  Konig  procured  for  Hasse  a  like  en- 
gagement at  the  Brunswick  theatre,  where,  a 
year  later,  was  produced  his  first  opera,  '  Anti- 
gonus.'  This  (the  only  opera  he  ever  composed 
to  a  German  libretto)  was  very  well  received, 
but  as,  while  evincing  great  natural  facility  in 
composition,  it  also  betrayed  a  profound  ignor- 
ance of  the  grammar  of  his  art,  it  was  decided 
that  he  must  go  to  Italy,  then  the  musical 
centre  of  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  serious 
study.  Accordingly,  in  1724,  he  repaired  to 
Naples,  and  became  the  pupil  of  Porpora,  for 
whom,  however,  he  had  neither  liking  nor  sym- 
pathy, and  whom  he  soon  deserted  for  the  veteran 

1  Now  the  residence  of  Dr.Chrysander. 


Alessandro  Scarlatti.  In  1725  he  received  the 
commission  to  compose  a  serenade  for  two  voices. 
In  this  work,  which  had  the  advantage  of  being 
performed  by  two  great  singers,  Farinelli  and 
Signora  Tesi,  Hasse  acquitted  himself  so  well 
that  he  was  entrusted  with  the  composition  of 
the  new  opera  for  the  next  year.  This  was 
'  Sesostrato,'  performed  at  Naples  in  1726,  and 
which  extended  its  composer  s  fame  over  the 
whole  of  Italy.  In  1727  he  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Scuola 
degl'  Incurabili,  for  which  he  wrote  a  '  Miserere ' 
for  two  soprani  and  two  contralti,  with  accom- 
paniment of  stringed  instruments,  a  piece  which 
long  enjoyed  a  great  celebrity.  He  was  now  the 
most  popular  composer  of  the  day.  His  fine  per- 
son and  agreeable  manners,  his  beautiful  voice 
and  great  proficiency  on  the  clavecin  caused  him 
to  be  much  sought  after  in  society,  and  he  was 
known  throughout  Italy  by  the  name  of  II  caro 
Sassone.  In  1 728  he  produced,  at  Naples,  another 
opera,  '  Attalo,  re  di  Bitinia,'  as  successful  as  its 
predecessor.  In  1729  he  returned  to  Venice, 
where  he  met  with  the  famous  cantatrice,  Faustina 
Bordoni  (see  next  article),  then  at  the  zenith  of 
her  powers  and  her  charms,  who  shoi'tly  after- 
wards became  his  wife.  For  her  he  composed 
the  operas  'Dalisa'  and  'Artaserse'  (No.  1),  the 
latter  of  which  is  one  of  his  best  works. 

In  1 731  this  celebrated  couple  were  summoned 
to  Dresden,  where  August  II.  reigned  over  a 
brilliant  court.  Hasse  was  appointed  Capell- 
meister  and  Director  of  the  Opera.  His  first 
opera  produced  in  Dresden,  'Alessandro  nell' 
Indie,'  had  an  unprecedented  success,  owing  not 
only  to  its  own  merits,  but  to  the  splendid 
performance  by  Faustina  of  the  principal  part. 
Hasse's  position,  however,  as  the  husband  of  the 
most  fascinating  prima  donna  of  the  day,  was, 
at  this  time,  far  from  being  an  easy  one.  His 
life  was  embittered  also  by  his  enmity  to  his  old 
master,  Porpora,  whom  he  found  established  in 
Dresden,  and  patronised  by  some  members  of  the 
royal  family,  and  by  jealousy  of  Porpora's  pupil, 
Regina  Mingotti.  This  excellent  singer  was  a 
dangerous  rival  to  Faustina,  and  Hasse  neglected 
no  opportunity  of  manifesting  his  spite  against 
her.  In  '  Demofoonte '  he  introduced  into  her 
part  an  air  written  entirely  in  what  he  thought 
a  defective  part  of  her  voice,  while  the  accompani- 
ment was  artfully  contrived  to  destroy  all  effect 
while  giving  no  support.  Mingotti  was  obliged 
to  sing  it,  but  like  the  great  artist  that  she  was, 
she  acquitted  herself  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
disappoint  Hasse,  and  this  very  air  became  one 
of  her  most  successful  show-pieces,  lliis  com- 
bination of  causes  seems  to  have  made  Hasse's 
footing  in  Dresden  uncertain,  and  up  to  1740  he 
absented  himself  as  much  as  possible,  while 
Faustina  remained  behind.  He  revisited  Venice, 
Milan,  and  Naples,  and  also  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  pressed  to  undertake  the  direction 
of  the  opera  established  in  opposition  to  Handel. 
His  '  Artaserse  '  met  with  a  brilliant  reception, 
but  he  had  no  wish  to  support  the  rivalry  with 
Handel ;  besides  which  he  disliked  England,  and 


HASSE. 


HASSE. 


695 


■  )on  quitted  the  country.  He  returned,  in  I739. 
to  Dresden,  where  he  was  no  longer  vexed  by 
the  presence  of  Porpora,  and  where  August  III. 
'lad  succeeded  his  father.  Here,  with  the  ex- 
ption  of  a  short  sojourn  in  Venice  in  1740, 
he  and  Faustina  remained  till  1763.  In  1745, 
on  the  very  evening  of  Frederick  the  Great's 
entry  into  Dresden  after  the  battle  of  Kessels- 
dorf,  Hasse's  opera  *  Arminio '  was  performed  by 
coramand  of  the  conqueror,  who  graciously  com- 
mended the  work  and  its  performance,  especially 
the  part  of  Faustina.  During  Frederick's  nine 
days'  stay  in  the  Saxon  capital  Hasse  had  to 
attend,  at  court  every  evening  and  superintend 
the  musical  performances,  and  was  rewarded  by 
the  present  of  a  magnificent  diamond  ring  and 
1000  thalers  for  distribution  among  the  musi- 
cians of  the  orchestra.  In  1760  occurred  the 
siege  of  Dresden,  in  which  Hasse  lost  most  of 
his  property,  and  during  which  his  collected 
MSS.,  prepared  for  a  complete  edition  of  his 
A  orks,  to  be  published  at  the  expense  of  the 
King  of  Poland,  were  nearly  all  destroyed. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  the  king  was  obliged, 
from  motives  of  economy,  to  suppress  both  opera 
and  chamber  music.  The  Capellmeister  and  his 
wife  were  pensioned,  and  retired  to  Vienna, 
where  Hasse,  in  conjunction  with  the  poet  Metas- 
tasio,  was  soon  engaged  in  active  opposition  to  a 
more  formidable  rival  than  Porpora,  viz.  Christoph 
Gluck.  Although  he  was  64  years  old,  he  now 
composed  several  new  operas.  His  last  dramatic 
work,  'Ruggiero,'  was  produced  at  Milan  in 
1774  for  the  marriage  of  the  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand. On  this  same  occasion  was  performed 
a  dramatic  serenade,  '  Ascanio  in  Alba,'  the  work 
of  Wolfgang  Mozart,  then  13  years  of  age. 
After  hearing  it,  old  Hasse  is  said  to  have  ex- 
claimed, 'This  boy  will  throw  us  all  into  the 
shade,'  a  prediction  which  was  verified  within  a 
few  years  of  its  utterance.  The  remainder  of 
Hasse's  life  was  passed  at  Venice,  where  he  died 
at  the  age  of  85,  on  Dec.  16,  1783. 

Owing  to  the  destruction  of  Hasse's  works  at 
Dresden,  his  autograph  scores  are  exceedingly 
rare ;  scarcely  a  MS.  or  even  a  letter  of  his 
being  found  in  any  collection,  public  or  private  ; 
though  contemporary  copies  are  common  enough. 
The  following  compositions  of  Hasse's  are  the 
chief  of  those  which  are  published,  and  accessible 
at  the  present  day  : — 

1 .  '  Miserere '  for  2  Soprani  and  2  Alti  (Ber- 
lin, Trautwein). 

2.  '113th  Psalm';  for  Bass  solo  and  Chorus, 
with  orchestra  (Elberfeld,  Arnold). 

3.  'Alcide  al  Bivio,'  opera,  P.  F.  score  (Leip- 
zig, Breitkopf). 

4.  Te  Deum  in  D  for  Soli  and  Chorus,  with 
Orchestra  and  Organ  (Leipzig,  Peters). 

5.  'Die  Pilgrimme  auf  Golgatha'  ('Pellegrini 
al  Sepolcro,'  German  translation),  Oratorio,  P.  F. 
score  (Leipzig,  Schwickert). 

6.  Quintet,  from  the  above,  2  Sopr.,  2  Altos, 
and  Bass  (Berlin,  Damkohler;  Breslau,  Leuc- 
kard). 

7.  Air  for  Alto,  from  Oratorio '  Die  Bekehrung 


des  heiligen  Augustins'  (Berlin,  Damkohler,  & 
Schlesinger). 

8.  Portions  of  a  Te  Deum  and  a  Miserere,  and 
two  other  pieces  in  Rochlitz's  Sammlung,  vol.  iv. 

9.  A  vocal  fugue,  'Christe,'  No.  19  in  the 
'Auswahl  vorziigl.  Musikwerke'  (Trautwein). 

10.  A  Sonata  in  D,  in  Pauer's  Alte  Clavier- 
musick  (Part  44). 

There  is  a  fine  portrait  of  Hasse,  oval,  in  folio, 
engraved  by  L.  Zucchi  at  Dresden  from  a  picture 
by  C.  P.  Rotavi,  representing  him  as  a  middle 
aged  man,  with  pleasing  features  and  expression. 

Hasse's  facility  in  composition  was  astonishing. 
He  wrote  more  than  a  hundred  operas,  besides 
oratorios,  masses,  cantatas,  psalms,  symphonies, 
sonatas,  concertos,  and  a  host  of  smaller  com- 
positions. He  set  to  music  the  whole  of  Metas- 
tasio's  dramatic  works,  several  of  them  three 
or  four  times  over.  His  career  was  one  long 
success :  few  composers  have  enjoyed  during 
their  lifetime  such  world-wide  celebrity  as  he ; 
of  those  few  none  are  more  completely  forgotten 
now.  Great  as  was  his  personal  popularity,  it  is 
insufl&cient  to  account  for  the  universal  accept- 
ance of  his  music.  The  secret  probably  lay  in 
the  receptivity  of  his  nature,  which,  joined  to  the 
gift  of  facile  expression,  caused  some  of  the  most 
genial,  though  not  the  deepest,  influences  of  his 
time  to  find  in  him  a  faithful  echo.  First  among 
these  was  the  spreading  fascination  of  modern 
Italian  melody.  It  is  as  an  Italian,  not  a  Ger- 
man composer  that  Hasse  must  take  rank, 
although,  innocent  as  he  was  of  contrapuntal 
science,  he  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  ma- 
jesty, profound  in  its  simplicity,  of  the  early 
Italian  writers.  He  began  life  as  a  singer,  in  an 
age  of  great  singers,  and  must  be  classed  among 
the  first  representatives  of  that  modern  Italian 
school  which  was  called  into  existence  by  the 
worship  of  vocal  art  for  its  own  sake.  His  har- 
monies, though  always  agreeable,  sound  poor  to 
ears  accustomed  to  the  richer  combinations  of 
the  German  composers  who  were  his  contem- 
poraries and  immediate  successors.  Yet  even  as 
a  harmonist  he  is  linked  to  modern  times  by  his 
fond  and  frequent  use  of  the  diminished  seventh 
and  its  inversion,  as  an  interval  both  of  melody 
and  of  harmony ;  while  his  smooth  and  somewhat 
cloying  successions  of  thirds  and  sixths  may  have 
afforded  delight  to  hearers  inured  to  the  stern 
severities  of  counterpoint.  He  had  an  inexhaust- 
ible flow  of  pleasing  melody,  which,  if  it  is  never 
grand  or  sublime,  is  never  crabbed  or  ugly. 
Many  of  his  best  airs  are  charming  even  now, 
and,  if  in  some  respects  they  appear  trite,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  we  have  become 
familiar  with  the  type  of  which  they  are  ex- 
amples through  the  medium  of  compositions 
which,  in  virtue  of  other  qualities  than  his,  are 
longer-lived  than  Hasse's,  though  written  at 
a  later  date.  A  few  have  been  republished  in 
our  own  day,  among  which  we  may  quote  '  Ri- 
tomerai  fra  poco,'  from  a  Cantata  (to  be  found 
in  the  series  called  'Gemme  d'Antichitk,'  pub- 
lished by  Lonsdale),  which  has  real  beauty.  As 
a  fair  specimen  of  his  style,  exhibiting  all  the 


696 


HASSE. 


HASSLER. 


qualities  which  made  him  popular,  we  will 
mention  the  opening  symphony  and  the  first 
air  in  the  oratorio  '  I  Pellegrini  al  Sepolcro/ 
written  for  the  Electoral  Chapel  at  Dresden, 
To  appreciate  the  deficiencies  which  have  caused 
him  to  be  forgotten,  we  have  only  to  proceed 
a  little  further  in  this  or  any  other  of  his 
works.  They  are  inexpressibly  monotonous.  In 
the  matter  of  form  he  attempted  nothing  new. 
All  his  airs  are  in  two  parts,  with  the  inevitable 
Da  Capo,  or  repetition  of  the  first  strain.  All  his 
operas  consist  of  such  airs,  varied  by  occasional 
duets,  more  rarely  a  trio,  or  a  simple  chorus,  all 
cast  in  the  same  mould.  His  orchestra  consists 
merely  of  the  string  quartet,  sometimes  of  a 
string  trio  only ;  if  now  and  then  he  adds 
hautboys,  flutes,  bassoons,  or  horns,  there  is 
nothing  distinctive  in  his  writing  for  these  wind 
instruments,  and  their  part  might  equally  well 
be  played  by  the  violins.  Nor  is  there  any- 
thing distinctive  in  his  writing  of  Church  music, 
which  presents  in  all  respects  the  same  charac- 
teristics as  his  operas.  His  Symphonies  are  for 
three,  or  at  the  most  four,  instruments.  The 
harmonic  basis  of  his  airs  is  of  the  very  slightest, 
his  modulations  the  most  simple  and  obvious, 
and  these  are  repeated  with  little  variety  in  all 
his  songs.  The  charm  of  these  songs  consists  in 
the  elegance  of  the  melodic  superstructure  and 
its  sympathetic  adaptation  to  the  requirements 
of  the  voice.  Singers  found  in  them  the  most 
congenial  exercise  for  their  powers,  and  the  most 
perfect  vehicle  for  expression  and  display.  For 
ten  years  Farinelli  charmed  away  the  melancholy 
of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  by  singing  to  him  every 
evening  the  same  two  airs  of  Hasse  (from  a  second 
opera,  '  Artaserse'),  'Pallido  e  il  sole'  and  'Per 
questo  dolce  amplesso.' 

The  source  of  Hasse's  inspiration  lay,  not  in 
intuition,  but  in  his  susceptibility  to  external 
impressions.  In  Art,  the  universally  pleasing  is 
the  already  familiar ;  so  long  as  nothing  is  re- 
cognised, nothing  is  understood.  Recognition 
may  come  as  revelation  ;  but,  for  a  great  original 
work  to  find  acceptance,  the  truth  of  which  it  is 
the  first  expression  must  be  latent  in  the  minds 
of  those  who  have  to  receive  it.  Hasse  was  no 
prophet,  but  in  his  works  his  contemporaries 
found  fluent  utterance  given  to  their  own  feelings. 
Such  men  please  all,  while  they  offend  none ;  but 
when  the  spirit  and  the  time  of  which  they  are 
at  once  the  embodiment  and  the  reflection  passes 
away,  so,  with  it,  must  they  and  their  work  pass 
away  and  be  forgotten.  [F.  A.M.] 

HASSE,  Faustina  Bordoni,  the  wife  of  the 
foregoing,  was  born  at  Venice,  1700,  of  a  noble 
family,  formerly  one  of  the  governing  families  of 
the  republic.  Her  first  instruction  was  derived 
from  Gasparini,  who  helped  her  to  develop 
a  beautiful  and  flexible  voice  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  In  1716  Bordoni  made  her  debut 
in  '.  Ariodante '  by  C.  F.  PoUarolo,  achieved  at 
once  a  reputation  as  a  great  singer,  and  was 
soon  known  as  the  'New  Syren.'  In  17 19  she 
sang  again  at  Venice  with  Cuzzoni  and  Bemacchi, 
whose  florid  style  her  own  resembled.    In  1722 


she  sang  at  Naples,  and  at  Florence  a  medal  was 
struck  in  her  honour.  She  visited  Vienna  in 
1724,  and  was  engaged  for  the  Court  Theatre  at 
a  salary  of  15,000  florins.  Here  she  was  found 
by  Handel,  who  immediately  secured  her  for 
London,  where  she  made  her  dehid  May  5,  1726, 
in  his  *  Alessandro.'  Her  salary  was  fixed  at 
£2000.  'She,  in  a  manner,'  says  Burney,  'in- 
vented a  new  kind  of  singing,  by  running  divi- 
sions with  a  neatness  and  velocity  which  aston- 
ished all  who  heard  her.  She  had  the  art  of 
sustaining  a  note  longer,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
public,  than  any  other  singer,  by  taking  her 
breath  imperceptibly.  Her  beats  and  trills  were 
strong  and  rapid  ;  her  intonation  perfect ;  and 
her  professional  perfections  were  eiJ:ianced  by  a 
beautiful  face,  a  symmetric  figure,  though  of 
small  stature,  and  a  countenance  and  gesture  on 
the  stage,  which  indicated  an  entire  intelligence 
of  her  part.'  Apostolo  Zeno,  in  speaking  of  her 
departure  from  Vienna,  says — 'But,  whatever 
good  fortune  she  meets  with,  she  merits  it  all 
by  her  courteous  and  polite  manners,  as  well  as 
talents,  with  which  she  has  enchanted  and  gained 
the  esteem  and  aff'ection  of  the  whole  Court'. 

In  London  she  stayed  but  two  seasons,  and 
then  returned  to  Venice,  where  she  was  married 
to  Hasse.  In  1731  she  went  to  Dresden,  and 
remained  there  till  1756.  During  the  war,  she 
and  her  husband  went  to  Vienna,  and  resided 
there  until  1775,  when  they  retired  to  Venice, 
where  they  ended  their  days,  she  in  1783  at  the 
age  of  90,  and  Hasse  not  long  after,  at  nearly 
the  same  age. 

Faustina  has  seldom  been  equalled  in  agility 
of  voice  ;  '  a  matchless  facility  and  rapidity  in 
her  execution  ;  dexterity  in  taking  breath,  exqui- 
site shake,  new  and  brilliant  passages  of  embel- 
lishment, and  a  thousand  other  qualities  contri- 
buted to  inscribe  her  name  among  the  first  singers 
in  Europe'  (Stef,  Arteaga).  In  London  she  di- 
vided the  popular  favour  with  Cuzzoni.  '  When 
the  admirers  of  the  one  began  to  applaud,  those 
of  the  other  were  sure  to  hiss  ;  on  which  account 
operas  ceased  for  some  time  in  London'  (Quantz). 
In  a  libretto  of  'Admeto,'  Lady  Cowper,  the 
original  possessor,  has  written  opposite  to  Faus- 
tina's name,  'she  is  the  devil  of  a  singer.' 

F^tis  mentions  her  portrait  in  Hawkins's  His- 
tory; but  he  seems  not  to  have  known  the  fine 
print,  engraved  by  L.  Zucchi  after  S.  Torelli, 
which  is  a  companion  to  that  of  Hasse  by  the 
same  engraver,  and  represents  Faustina  as  an 
elderly  person,  handsomely  dressed,  and  with  a 
sweet  and  intelligent  countenance.  This  portrait 
is  uncommon.  [ J .  M.  ] 

HASSLER  or  HASLER,  Hans  Leonhard, 
eldest  of  the  3  sons  of  Isaac  Hassler — a  musician 
of  the  Joachimsthal  who  settled  in  Nuremberg — 
and  the  ablest  of  the  three.  Of  his  life  little  is 
known.  He  is  said  to  have  been  bom  in  1564 : 
he  received  his  instruction  from  his  father  and 
from  A.  Gabrieli,  with  whom  he  remained  in 
Venice  for  a  year,  after  which  he  found  a  home 
in  the  house  of  the  Fuggers  at  Augsburg,  There 
he  composed  his  famous  'xxiv  Canzonetti  a  4 


HASSLER. 


HAUPTMANN. 


697 


voci'  (Norimberga,  1590)  and  his  'Cantiones 
sacrae  de  festis  praRcipuis  totius  anni  4,  ,5,  8  et 
plurium  vocum'  (Augsburg,  1591) — 28  Latin 
motets.  These  were  followed  by  his  '  Concentus 
ecclesiastici'  (Augsburg,  1596);  '  Neue  teutsche 
Gesaeng'  (1596) ;  ' Madrigali '  (ibid.),  and  'Can- 
tiones novae'  (1597).  The  statement  so  often 
repeated  by  the  Lexicons  that  Hassler  entered 
the  Imperial  chapel  at  Vienna  in  1601  is  in- 
accurate, and  arises  from  the  fact  that  a  cer- 
tain Jacob  Hasler  joined  that  establishment  on 
July  I,  1602.  (See  Kochel  'Kais.  Hofkapelle,' 
p.  53.)  At  a  later  time  Hassler  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Christian  II.  of  Saxony,  and  died  probably 
on  June  5,  161 2. 

Besides  the  works  already  named  there  exist 
8  Masses  of  his  (1599);  four-part  Psahns  and 
Gesange  (Nm-emberg  1607,  republished  by 
Breitkopfs  in  score,  1777) ;  and  five  collections 
of  German  and  Latin  secular  songs.  Many 
single  pieces  are  given  in  Bodenschatz's  '  Flo- 
rilegium '  and  in  Schadaeus's  '  Promptuarium 
Musicum.'  (See  Eitners  Bibliographic  of  his 
compositions  in  the  '  Monatshefte  fiir  Musik- 
gelehrte,'  1871.)  Proske  (Musica  Divina)  gives 
3  Masses  and  7  other  pieces  of  his,  and  says  of 
his  style  that  *  it  unites  all  the  greatest  beauty 
and  dignity  that  can  be  found  in  both  the  Italian 
and  Gennan  art  of  that  day.'  Rochlitz  includes 
a  Pater  Noster  for  7  voices  in  his  '  Sammlung,' 
vol.  3.  The  well-known  chorale  'Herzlich  thut 
mich  verlangen '  or  *  Befiehl  du  deine  Wege,'  so 
much  used  by  Bach  in  the  Passion,  was  originally 
a  love  song,  '  Mein  Gemuth  is  mir  verwirret,'  in 
his  '  Lustgarten  deutscher  Gesange'  (1601). 

His  younger  brother,  Jacob,  a  meritorious 
church  composer,  is  probably  the  Hasler  already 
mentioned  as  having  joined  the  Chapel  at  Vienna : 
it  is  at  least  certain  that  he  was  organist  to  Graf 
Eytel  Friedrich  von  Hohenzollern  Herbingen  in 
1 60 1.  The  third  brother,  Caspar,  born  probably 
1570,  acquired  a  reputation  for  pla3dng  the  organ 
and  clavier,  and  was  one  of  the  musicians  appointed 
to  try  the  organ  at  Groningen,  near  Halberstadt. 
Some  of  his  vocal  pieces  are  found  in  '  Symphoniae 
sacrae'  (Nuremberg,  1 598-1 600).  [E.G.] 

HATTON,  John  Liphot,  born  in  Liverpool 
1809,  received  in  his  youth  a  small  rudimentary 
instruction  in  music,  but  was  otherwise  entirely 
self-taught.  He  settled  in  London  in  1832, 
and  soon  became  known  as  a  composer.  In  1842 
he  was  engaged  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  at 
which  house,  in  1844,  he  produced  an  operetta 
called  '  The  Queen  of  the  Thames.'  In  the 
same  year  he  went  to  Vienna  and  brought  out 
his  opera,  'Pascal  Bruno.'  On  his  return  to 
England  he  published,  under  the  pseudonym  of 
'  Czapek,'  several  songs  which  met  with  consider- 
able success.  In  1848  he  visited  America.  Hatton 
was  for  some  years  director  of  the  music  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre  under  Chas.  Kean,  and  whilst 
there  composed  music  for  'Macbeth'  and  'Sar- 
danapalus,'  1853  ;  'Faust  and  Marguerite,'  over- 
ture and  entr'actes,  54;  'King  Henry  VIII,' 
55  ;  '  Pizarro,'  56  ;  'King  Richard  II,'  57;  and 
'King  Lear,'  'The  Merchant  of  Venice,'  and 


'  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,'  58.  He  has  also  com- 
posed two  Cathedral  services  ;  several  anthems  ; 
'  Rose,  or,  Love's  Ransom,'  opera,  Covent  Garden, 
1864 ;  '  Robin  Hood,'  cantata,  Bradford  Musical 
Festival,  1856  ;  several  books  of  part  songs,  and 
upwards  of  150  songs  ('Good  bye,  sweetheart,' 
etc.).  One  of  his  latest  achievements  was  the 
'sacred  drama'  of  '  Hezekiah,'  produced  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  Dec.  15,  1877.  [W.H.H.] 

HAUCK,  Minnie,  bom  (of  a  German  father) 
at  New  York  Nov.  16,  1852,  made  her  first 
appearance  at  a  concert  at  New  Orleans  about 
1865.  She  was  then  placed  under  the  care  of 
Signor  Errani  in  New  York,  and  made  her  debut 
on  the  stage  of  that  city  as  Amina  in  1868. 
After  a  successful  tour  in  the  States  with  a  large 
repertoire  of  characters  she  came  to  London,  and 
appeared  at  Covent  Garden  as  Amina  (Oct.  26, 
1868)  and  Margherita.  Ini869  she  was  engaged 
by  the  Grand  Opera,  Vienna,  and  sang  there 
and  at  Moscow,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Brussels,  with 
great  success  for  several  years  in  a  large  range 
of  parts.  On  April  27,  1878,  she  reappeared 
here  at  Her  Majesty's  as  Violetta  in  the  Traviata. 
She  sustained  the  part  of  Carmen  in  Bizet's 
opera  of  that  name  at  Brussels,  and  on  its  pro- 
duction in  London  by  Mr.  Mapleson  at  Her 
Majesty's  on  June  22,  thus  making  the  success 
of  the  piece,  which  had  not  pleased  in  Paris  and 
showing  herself  to  be  not  only  a  high -class 
singer,  but  also  possessed  of  no  ordinary  dramatic 
power.  Her  voice  is  a  mezzo  soprano  of  great 
force  and  richness,  and  she  is  said  to  sing 
Italian,  German,  French  and  Hungarian  with 
equal  facility.  [G.] 

HAUPT,  Carl,  a  very  distinguished  German 
organist,  born  Aug.  25, 1810,  at  Cunau  in  Silesia  ; 
pupil  of  A.  W.  Bach,  Klein,  and  Dehn,  and  at 
a  later  date  of  the  two  Schneiders.  In  1832  he 
obtained  his  first  post  at  the  French  convent  in 
Berlin,  from  which  he  gradually  rose  to  the 
parish  church  of  the  city,  where  he  succeeded 
Thiele  in  1849.  His  reputation  spread  far  beyond 
his  native  country,  and  in  1854  he  was  consulted 
by  Professors  Donaldson,  Ouseley,  and  Willis,  the 
committee  appointed  to  draw  up  a  scheme  for  a 
gigantic  organ  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  In  1870 
he  succeeded  his  old  master  Bach  as  Director  of 
the  Konigliche  Kirchenmusik  Institut  at  Berlin, 
over  which  he  still  continues  (1878)  to  preside. 
Haupt  is  remarkable  for  his  fine  extempore 
variations  in  the  style  of  J.  S.  Bach — close  and 
scientific,  and  increasing  in  elaboration  with  each 
fresh  treatment  of  the  theme ;  and  in  that  master's 
organ  music  he  is  probably  unsurpassed.  [G.] 

HAUPT,  Leopold,  a  clergyman  of  Gorlitz, 
author  of  '  Volkslieder  der  Wenden '  (Grimme, 
1 841),  a  collection  of  the  melodies  sung  in  the 
district  round  Dantzig,  the  ancient  seat  of  the 
Wends.  [M.C.C.] 

HAUPTMANN,  Moritz,  Doctor  of  Philoso- 
phy, German  composer  and  eminent  theorist,  and 
Cantor  of  the  Thomas  School  at  Leipsic,  born 
at  Dresden  Oct.  13,  1792.  His  education  was 
conducted  mainly  with  a  view  to  his  father's 


698  HAUPTMANN. 


HA  WES. 


profession  of  architecture  ;  but  he  was  also  well 
grounded  in  music  at  an  early  age.  He  studied 
the  violin  under  Scholz,  and  harmony  and  com- 
position under  various  masters,  concluding  with 
Morlacchi.  As  Hauptmann  grew  up  he  deter- 
mined to  adopt  music  as  a  profession.  To  perfect 
himself  in  the  violin  and  composition,  he  went  in 
1811  toGotha,  where  Spohr  was  concert-meister, 
and  the  two  then  contracted  a  life-long  friendship. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  violinist  in  the  court 
band  at  Dresden  (181 2),  and  soon  afterwards 
entered  the  household  of  Prince  Repnin,  Russian 
Governor  of  Dresden,  with  whom  he  went  to 
Russia  for  four  years  in  18 15,  On  his  return  to 
Germany  he  became  violinist  (1822)  in  Spohr's 
band  at  Cassel,  and  here  gave  the  first  indications 
of  his  remarkable  faculty  for  teaching  the  theory 
of  music.  F.  David,  Curschmann,  Burgmiiller, 
Kufferath  and  Kiel,  are  among  the  long  list  of 
his  pupils  at  that  time.  In  1842,  on  Mendels- 
sohn's recommendation,  he  was  appointed  Cantor 
and  Musik-director  of  the  Thomas-Schule,  and 
professor  of  counterpoint  and  composition  at  the 
new  Conservatorium  at  Leipsic,  where  he  thence- 
i  forward  resided.  Here  he  became  the  most  cele- 
brated theorist  and  most  valued  teacher  of  his 
day.  Not  only  are  there  very  few  of  the  fore- 
most musicians  in  Germany  at  the  present  mo- 
ment who  do  not  look  back  with  gratitude  to 
his  instructions,  but  pupils  flocked  to  him  from 
England,  America  and  Russia.  Among  his  pupils 
will  be  found  such  names  as  J oachim,  von  Biilow, 
Cossmann,  the  Baches,  Sullivan,  Cowen,  etc.  etc. 
(See  the  list  at  the  end  of  his  letters  to  Hauser.) 
He  died  at  Leipsic  Jan.  3,  1868,  loaded  with 
decorations  and  diplomas. 

In  teaching,  Hauptmann  laid  great  stress  on 
the  two  fundamental  sesthetical  requirements 
in  all  works  of  art,  unity  of  idea  and  symmetry 
of  form,  and  his  compositions  are  admirable 
examples  of  both.  With  such  views  he  naturally 
had  little  sympathy  with  the  new  destructive 
school,  but  he  was  always  courteous  to  those 
who  differed  from  him.  His  respect  for  classical 
forms  never  trammelled  him ;  and  this  very  in- 
dependence kept  him  free  from  party  spirit  and 
personal  animosity.  Altogether  he  offers  a  beau- 
tiful example  of  a  life  and  work  the  value  of 
which  was  acknowledged  even  by  his  bitterest 
controversial  opponents.  Nothing  but  a  life  of 
single  devotion  to  the  cause  of  art,  could  have 
exacted  such  universal  homage.  His  works 
are  characterised  by  deep  thought,  philosophic 
treatment,  imagination,  and  much  sense  of  humour. 
His  chief  work  is  'Die  Natur  der  Harmonik  und 
Metrik'  (1853,  2nd  ed,  1873).  His  mathemati- 
cal and  philosophical  studies  had  given  a  strictly 
logical  turn  to  his  mind,  and  in  this  book  he 
applies  Hegel's  dialectic  method  to  the  study 
of  music.  Gifted  with  an  ear  of  unusual  delicacy, 
he  speculated  deeply  on  the  nature  of  sound, 
applying  to  the  subject  Hegel's  formulas  of 
proposition,  counter-proposition,  and  the  ultimate 
unity  of  the  two.  The  book  is  not  intended  for 
practical  instruction,  and  is  indeed  placed  beyond 
the  reach  of  ordinary  musicians  by  its  difficult 


terminology.  But  by  those  who  have  mastered 
it,  it  is  highly  appreciated,  and  its  influence  on 
later  theoretical  works  is  undeniable.  The  ob- 
vious endeavour  of  recent  authors  to  treat  the 
theory  of  music  on  a  really  scientific  basis,  is 
mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the  impetus  given  by 
Hauptmann.  His  other  works  are — an  '  Erlau- 
terung*^^  der  Kunst  der  Fuge  von  J.  S.  Bach' ; 
various  articles  on  acoustics  in  Chrysander's 
*  Jahrbiicher '  ;  *  Die  Lehre  von  der  Harmonik,'  a 
posthumous  supplement  to  the  *  Harmonik  und 
Metrik,'  edited  by  his  pupil  Dr.  Oscar  Paul ; 
'  Opuscula,'  a  small  collection  of  articles  musical 
and  philosophical,  edited  by  his  son ;  and  his 
'Letters,'  of  which  2  vols.  (1871)  are  addressed 
to  Hauser,  late  director  of  the  Munich  Con- 
servatoire, and  the  third,  edited  by  Hiller  (1876), 
to  Spohr  and  others.  Hauptmann  published 
some  60  compositions,  mainly  interesting  from 
the  characteristic  harmony  between  the  whole 
and  its  parts,  which  pervades  them.  Idea  and 
execution  are  alike  complete  ;  the  thought  is 
clear,  the  style  correct ;  while  their  symmetry 
of  form  and  purity  of  expression  make  them 
true  works  of  art  and  perfect  reflections  of  the 
harmonious  graceful  nature  of  their  author.  In 
early  life  he  wrote  chiefly  instrumental  music — 
Sonatas  for  P.  F.  and  violin  (op.  5,  23)  ;  Duos 
for  2  violins  (op.  2,  16,  17)  etc.,  which  betray 
the  influence  of  Spohr.  During  the  latter  half 
of  his  life  he  wrote  exclusively  for  the  voice. 
Among  his  vocal  compositions,  more  important 
as  well  as  more  original  than  the  instrumental — 
may  be  named,  a  Mass  (op.  1 8) ;  a  Mass  with  orch. 
(op.  43) ;  Choruses  for  mixed  voices  (op.  25,  32, 
47),  perfect  examples  of  this  style  of  writing ; 
2-part  songs  (op.  46) ;  and  3-part  canons  (op.  50). 
Op.  33,  six  sacred  songs,  were  published  in  Eng- 
lish by  Ewer  &  Co.  Early  in  life  he  composed 
an  opera,  '  Mathilde,'  which  was  repeatedly  per- 
formed at  Cassel.  His  part-songs  are  eminently 
vocal,  and  widely  popular,  and  are  stock -pieces 
with  all  the  Associations  and  church  -  choirs 
throughout  Germany.  [A.M.] 

HAUTBOY,  The  English  transference  of 
the  French  Haut-bois,  i,  e,  a  tcooden  instrument 
with  a  high  tone.  The  word  is  used  by  Shak- 
speare.  In  Handel's  time  it  was  phoneticised 
into  Hoboy,  The  Italians  spell  it  Oboe,  which 
form  (occasionally,  as  by  Schumann,  Hoboe)  is  now 
adopted  in  Germany  and  England.  Under  that 
head  the  instrument  is  described.  [Oboe,]  [G.] 

HAWES,  William,  bom  in  London  in  1785, 
from  1793  to  1801  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  In  1802  he  was  engaged  as  a  violinist 
in  the  band  of  Covent  Garden,  and  about  the 
same  time  began  to  teach  singing.  In  1803  he 
officiated  as  deputy  lay  vicar  at  Westminster 
Abbey.  On  July  15,  1805,  he  was  appointed 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on  the  form- 
ation of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in  1 81 3  was 
elected  an  associate.  In  18 14  he  was  appointed 
almoner,  master  of  the  choristers  and  vicar-choral 
of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  181 7  master  of  the  children 
and  lutenist  of  the  Chapel  Royal.    In  the  same 


HAWES. 


HAWKINS. 


699 


y.  ar  he  became  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey, 
iiiit  resigned  his  appointment  in  1820.  He  was 
'lie  first  promoter  of  the  Harmonic  Institution 
e  Argyll  Rooms],  and  after  the  breaking  up 
that  establishment  carried  on  for  some  years 
the  business  of  a  music  publisher  in  the  Strand, 
lie  was  for  several  years  director  of  the  music 
at  the  English  Opera,  Lyceum  ;  and  it  was  at 
his  instance  that  Weber's  '  Der  Freischiitz '  was 
tirst  performed  in  England,  July  24,  1824,  an 
event  which  forms  an  era  in  the  history  of 
the  opera  in  this  country.  Hawes  did  not  at 
fii  bt  venture  to  perform  the  entire  work,  the 
liuale  being  omitted  and  ballads  for  the  soprano 
and  tenor  interpolated,  but  he  had  soon  the 
satisfaction  of  discovering  that  the  opera  would 
be  accepted  without  curtailment.  The  great 
success  of  the  work  induced  him  subsequently 
to  adapt  the  following  operas  to  the  English 
stage  : — Salieri's  '  Tarrare/  1825  ;  Winter's  '  Das 
Uuterbrochne  Opferfest'  ('The  Oracle,  or,  The 
Interrupted  Sacrifice'),  1826;  Paer's  '1  Fuo- 
rusciti'  ('The  Freebooters'),  1827;  Mozart's 
'Cosi  fan  tutte'  ('Tit  for  Tat'),  1828;  Ries' 
'  Die  Raiiberbraut'  ('The  Robber's  Bride'),  and 
]\larschner's  '  Der  Vampyr,'  1S29.  Hawes  com- 
posed or  compiled  music  for  the  following  pieces: 
—  'Broken  Promises'  (compiled),  1825;  'The 
Sister  of  Charity,'  1829  ;  '  The  Irish  Girl,'  1830  ; 
•  Comfortable  Lodgings,'  '  The  Dilosk  Gatherer,' 
and  'The  Climbing  Boy,'  1832  ;  '  The  Mummy,' 
'  The  Quartette,'  and  'The  Yeoman's  Daughter,' 
1833;  and  'The  Muleteer's  Vow'  (partly 
selected),  1S35.  He  was  the  composer  of  'A 
Collection  of  five  Glees  and  one  Madrigal,'  and 
'  Six  Glees  for  three  and  four  voices ' ;  and  the 
arranger  of  '  Six  Scotch  Songs,  harmonized  as 
Glees.'  His  glee,  '  The  bee,  the  golden  daughter 
of  the  spring,'  gained  the  prize  given  by  the 
Glee  Club  on  its  50th  anniversary  in  April  1836. 
He  edited  the  publication  in  score  of  '  The 
Triumphs  of  Oriana';  of  a  collection  of  madrigals 
by  composers  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries; 
a  collection  of  the  then  unpublished  glees  of 
liegiuald  SpofiForth  ;  and  a  collection  of  Chants, 
Sanctuses,  and  Responses  to  the  Commandments. 
In  1830  he  gave  oratorio  performances  in  Lent 
at  both  the  patent  theatres,  but  with  heavy  loss. 
He  was  for  many  years  conductor  of  the  Madrigal 
Society,  and  organist  of  the  German  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  Savoy.  Hawes  died  Feb.  18, 1846. 
His  daughter,  Maria  Billington  Hawes,  after- 
wards Mrs,  Merest,  for  some  years  occupied  a 
liigh  position  as  a  contralto  singer,  and  was  the 
composer  of  several  pleasing  ballads.  [W.H.H,] 
HAWKINS,  James,  Mus.  Bac,  was  a  cho- 
rister of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
afterwards  organist  of  Ely  Cathedral  from  1682 
until  his  death  in  1729.  He  was  a  voluminous 
composer  of  church  music,  and  17  services  and 
75  anthems  by  him  are  preserved  (more  or  less 
complete)  in  MS.  in  the  library  of  Ely  Cathedral. 
Two  services  and  9  anthems  (part  of  those)  are 
also  included  in  the  Tudway  collection  (Harl. 
JNISS.  7341,  7342).  Hawkins  transcribed  and 
presented  to  the  library  of  Ely  Cathedral  many 


volumes  of  cathedral  music.  He  took  Ills  degree 
at  Cambridge  in  1719.  He  was  a  nonjuror,  as  ap- 
pears by  an  autograph  copy  of  one  of  his  anthems 
in  the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 
(No.  1 719),  the  words  of  which  are  applicable 
to  party  purposes,  and  which  has  a  manuscript 
dedication  '  to  the  Very  Revi*  Mr.  Tomkinson 
and  the  rest  of  the  Great,  Good,  and  Just  Non- 
jurors of  St.  John's  College  in  Cambridge.' 

James  Hawkins,  his  son,  was  organist  of 
Peterborough  Cathedral  from  1714  (when  he 
was  appointed  at  a  salary  of  £20  per  annum)  to 
1759,  He  composed  some  church  music.  One 
of  his  anthems  is  included  in  the  Tudway  col- 
lection (Harl.  MSS.  7342).  [W.H.H.] 

HAWKINS,  Sir  John,  Knight,  born  Mar.  30, 
1 719,  originally  intended  for  the  profession  of  his 
father,  an  architect  and  surveyor,  but  eventually 
articled  to  an  attorney.  He  was  duly  admitted 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession,  devoting  his 
leisure  hours  to  the  cultivation  of  literature  and 
music.  On  the  formation  of  the  Madrigal  Society 
(1741),  Hawkins,  at  the  instance  of  Immyns, 
its  founder,  a  brother  attorney,  became  one  of 
the  original  members.  About  the  same  time  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Antient 
Music.  Hawkins  wrote  the  words  of  Six  Can- 
tatas, which  were  set  to  music  for  a  voice  and 
instruments,  by  John  Stanley,  and  published  at 
their  joint  risk  in  1742.  Tliese  succeeded  so 
well  that  the  authors  were  induced  to  publish, 
a  few  months  afterwards,  a  similar  set,  which 
met  with  equal  success.  Hawkins  was  also  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  '  Gentleman's  Mag- 
azine' and  other  periodicals.  In  1749  he  was 
invited  by  Samuel  Johnson  to  be  one  of  the  nine 
members  who  formed  his  Thursday  evening  club 
in  Ivy  Lane.  In  1753  he  married  Miss  Sidney 
Storer,  with  whom  he  received  a  considerable 
fortune,  which  was  greatly  increased  on  the 
death  of  her  brother  in  1759.  Hawkins  then 
purchased  a  house  at  Twickenham,  to  which 
he  retired.  In  1 760  he  published  an  edition  of 
Walton  and  Cotton's  *  Complete  Angler,'  with  a 
life  of  Walton  and  notes  by  himself,  and  a  life 
of  Cotton  by  WiUiam  Oldys.  The  publication 
involved  him  in  a  dispute  with  Moses  Browne, 
who  had  shortly  before  put  forth  an  edition  of 
the  '  Angler.'  Hawkins's  edition  was  thrice  re- 
produced by  him  in  his  lifetime,  and  again  by 
his  son,  John  Sidney  Hawkins,  after  his  death. 
He  was  an  active  magistrate,  and  in  1 765  became 
Chairman  of  the  Middlesex  Quarter  Sessions. 
In  1770,  with  a  view  of  assisting  the  Academy, 
he  wrote  and  published  anonymously  a  pamphlet 
entitled,  '  An  A/Jcount  of  the  institution  and  pro- 
gress of  the  Academy  of  Ancient  Music'  In 
1772,  on  Oct.  23,  he  was  knighted.  In  1776 
he  gave  to  the  world  the  work  on  which  his  fame 
rests — his  'General  History  of  the  Science  and 
Practice  of  Music,'  in  5  vols.  4to.,  on  which  he 
had  been  engaged  for  16  years.  In  the  same 
year  Dr.  Burney  published  the  first  volume  of 
his  '  General  History  of  Music ' ;  the  other  three 
appearing  at  intervals  between  that  date  and 
1789.  Contemporary  j  udgment  awarded  the  palm 


700 


HAWKINS. 


HAYDN. 


of  superiority  to  Burney  and  neglected  Hawkins. 
Evidence  of  the  feeling  is  found  in  a  catch  which 
was  formerly  better  known  than  it  is  now  : — 

'Have  you  Sir  John  Hawkins'  History? 
Some  folks  think  it  quite  a  mystery. 
Musick  fill'd  his  wondrous  brain. 
How  d'ye  like  him  ?  is  it  plain  ? 
Both  I've  read  and  must  agree, 
That  Bxirney's  history  pleases  me.' 

Which  in  performance  is  made  to  sound  : — 
'Sir  John  Hawkins! 

Burn  his  history ! 

How  d'ye  like  him? 

Burn  his  history! 

Burney's  history  pleases  me.' 
Posterity,  however,  has  reversed  the  decision 
of  the  wits  ;  Hawkins'  History  has  been  re- 
printed (Novello,  1875,  2  vols.  8vo.),  but  Bur- 
ney's never  reached  a  second  edition.  The  truth 
lies  between  the  extremes.  Burney,  possessed 
of  far  greater  musical  knowledge  than  Hawkins, 
better  judgment,  and  a  better  stvle,  frequently 
wrote  about  things  which  he  had  not  suffi- 
ciently examined ;  Hawkins,  on  the  other  hand, 
more  industrious  and  painstaking  than  Burney, 
was  deficient  in  technical  skill,  and  often  in- 
accurate. In  1784  Dr.  Johnson  appointed  Sir 
John  Hawkins  one  of  his  executors,  and  left 
to  him  the  care  of  his  fame.  Sir  John  ful- 
filled this  trust  by  writing  a  life  of  Johnson, 
and  publishing  an  edition  of  his  works  in  1 1  vols. 
Svo.  in  1787.  Whilst  engaged  on  the  work  the 
library  at  his  house  in  Queen  Square,  West- 
minster, was  destroyed  by  fire.  Fortunately  he 
had,  soon  after  the  publication  of  his  History, 
presented  the  fine  collection  of  theoretical  trea- 
tises and  other  works  formed  by  Dr.  Pepusch, 
and  which  he  had  acquired,  to  the  British 
Museum,  so  that  the  loss,  although  severe,  was 
much  less  than  it  might  have  been.  On  May 
14,  1789,  Hawkins  was  attacked  by  paralysis, 
from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  on  2 1  st  of  the 
same  month.  He  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  under  a  stone  on  which 
was  inscribed,  pursuant  to  his  own  wish,  only 
the  initials  of  his  name,  the  date  of  his  death, 
and  his  age. 

The  following  pieces  are  printed  by  Hawkins 
in  his  History.  The  reference  is  to  the  chapter, 
in  the  Appendix  to  the  No. 


Allwoode.  A  Voluntary,  App.  11. 
Aretinus,  Guido.  Cantilena,  55. 
Bach,  J.  S.  Aria,  182. 
Baltzar.  AUemande,  142. 
Banister,  J.   '  Hedpe  lane,'  App.  26 
Bateson.  Your  shining  eyes,  103. 
'  Bellamira,'  App.  23. 
Bell  tune,  160. 

Bennet,  J.  '  Ye  restless  thoughts, 
105. 

Pevin.  Canon,  103. 
'Black  Sanctus,'  App.  ?. 
Blithennan.   A  Meane.  App.  9. 
Bononciiii.  '  In  vain  is  delay,'  1V2. 

Do.  '  Deh  lascia,"  186. 
Bradley,  K.   Smoking  catch,  159. 
Bull.   Canons,  67. 
Byrd.  W.  Canon. '  0  Lux,'  66. 

Do.  Miserere,  66. 

Do.  Canon,  67. 

Do.  'Venite,'96. 

Do.  '  Diliges,'  96. 

Do.  The  eagle's  force,  App.  3. 
Birds,  songs  of,  1. 
Canon,  5  In  2. 
Canons,  various,  119. 
Canto  figurato,  51. 
Carissimi.  '  DIte  o  clell,'  154. 


Cebell,  the  old.  App.  22. 
Cesti,  M.  A.  '  Cara,  cara,'  124. 
Clayton,  Thos.  ■  Overture  to  Kosa- 

mond,  171. 
Clemens  non  Papa.  Canon,  66. 
'  Cock  Lorrel.'  App.  30. 
'  Cold  and  raw.'  App.  20. 
'  Come  follow  me,'  Canon,  67. 
'  Conditor  alme.'  57. 
Contrapunctus,    '  Simplex  and 

Diminutus,'  51. 
Corelli.  Solo  in  A,  196. 
Gornyshe,  W.  '  Ahbeshrewyou,'78. 

Do.  '  Hoyday,'  7h. 
Couperin.  '  Les  Gouts  reunis.'  162. 
Croft,  Dr.  '  My  time,  O  ye  muses,' 

167. 

Dorian,  motet  in,  70. 
Drat'hi.   The  old  Cebell,  App.  22. 
Drum,  voluntary  and  march,  ,51. 
Dunstable,  '  Nesciens  virgo,  61 
Dygon,  J.  '  Ad  lapidis,'  70. 
Eccles,  J.  '  A  soldier  and  a  sailor,' 
164. 

(Cedes,  .T.   A  rope  dance,  App.  34. 
Kccles,  Sol.  'Bellamira,' App.  23. 
Edwards,    K.     '  Where  griping 
grief,"  App.  4. 


Mouton.  '  Salve  mater,'  74. 
Musica  ficta,  68. 

Ockeghem.    Fuga  in  Epidiapente, 
73. 

'  Old  Simon  the  king,'  App.  16. 
'  0  my  fearful  dreams,'  canon,  67. 
'  Ora  et  labora,'  canon,  119. 
Palestrina.   "  Sicut  cervus,'  88. 

Do.  '  Credo  gentil,'  88. 
'  Parthenia,'  152. 
'Paul's  steeple,'  App.  15. 
Phillips,  Peter.   '  Voi  volete,'  98. 
Porta,  Cost.,  8. 
Purcell,  H.  '^olus,'155. 

Do.  '  Golden  sonata,'  156. 
'  Quicquid,'  canon,  119. 
Kavenscroft.  Hornpipe,  194. 
liedford.  '  Kejoice,'  App.  8. 
'  Koger  of  Coverley,'  App.  19. 
Kogers,  B.    'Te  Deum  patrem,' 
App.  12, 

Rore,Cipnano.  'Ancorchecol.'?  . 
Rossi,  Emilio.  Canon,  67. 
Scacchi,  '  Vobis  dotum  est,'  123. 
'  Sellenger's  Round,'  90. 
'  Shaking  of  the  sheets,'  App.  13. 
Shephard,  J.  '  Stev'n  first,"  70. 

Do.  A  point,  App.  10. 
Sloth,  cry  of  the,  1. 
Steffani.   '  Forma  uu  mare.'  140. 
Sternhold  &  Hopkins.    5  Psalms, 
117. 

Striggio,  A.  '  All'  acqua,'  64. 
Subligny's  minuet,  App.  27. 
Sumer  is  i  cumen  in,  45. 
Sympson,  Chr.  Division,  149. 
Tallis.   'Absterge,' 95. 
Do.  '  Miserere,'  95. 
Do.  '  Like  as  the  doleful,'  .\pp.  6. 
Taverner,  J.  '  O  splendor,'  75. 
Theobald  of  Navarre.   Song,  41. 
•  There  lies  a  pudding,"  119. 
Thome,  J.  '  Stella  coeli."  77. 
'  Toilet's  ground,"  App.  17. 
Tye.  '  It  chanced  in  Iconium,"  95. 
■  Uxor  mea,'  App.  29. 
Valentin!.  Canon,  67. 
Venosa,  Prince  of.  '  Baci  soavi.'  90, 
Vicentino.    'Alleluia,'  Madrigals, 
etc.,  8. 

'  We  be  soldiers  three,'  119. 
Weelkes.   'Aye  me ! '  102. 
Weldon.  '  From  grave  lessons,'  144, 
Whitelocke.  Coranto,  121. 
Wilbve.    'Lady,  when  I  behold,* 
104. 

Willaert,  A.  Quem  dicunt,  73. 

[W.H.H.] 

HAYDEE  OU  LE  SECKET.  Opera  comique 
in  3  acts ;  words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber. 
Produced  at  the  Op^ra  Comique  Dec.  28,  1847. 
It  was  produced  in  English  (same  title)  at  the 
Strand  Theatre  April  3,  48,  and  at  Covent  Garden 
(Pyne  and  Harrison)  Nov.  4,  48  (ist  appearance 
of  Miss  Lucombe).  [G.] 

HAYDEN,  Geokge,  organist  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalen,  Bermondsey,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
1 8th  century.  About  1723  he  published  Three 
Cantatas,  which  displayed  considerable  ability. 
He  also  composed  a  song  called  '  New  Mad  Tom,' 
commencing  'In  my  triumphant  chariot  hurl'd,' 
which  was  afterwards  tacked  on  to  the  former 
part  of  the  older  song  '  Forth  from  my  dark  and 
dismal  cell,'  instead  of  the  latter  verses  begin- 
ning 'Last  night  I  heard  the  dog -star  bark,' 
and  was  often  sung  with  it.  His  two-part  song, 
'As  I  saw  fair  C'lora  walk  alone,'  was  long  a 
favourite.  [W.H.H.] 

HAYDN,  JoHANN  Michael,  born,  like  his 
brother  Joseph,  at  Rohrau,  Sept.  14,  1737;  was 
grounded  in  music  by  the  village  schoolmaster, 
and  at  eight  became  chorister  at  St.  Stephen's, 
Vienna.  His  voice  was  a  pure  soprano  of  great 
compass,  and  his  style  so  good  that,  as  soon  as 


Edwards,  K.  By  painted  words. 
App.  5. 
Do.  '  In  going  to.'  Arp.7. 
'  Exaudi,'  canon,  U9. 
Fa-burden,  .57. 
Fandango,  App.  33. 
Farinel's  ground,  App.  24. 
Farmer.  '  You  pretty  flowers.'  105. 
Fayrfax,  Dr.  '  Ave  summe.'  75. 
Frescobaldi.  Canzona,  130. 
Galliard.  '  Ye  that  in  waters,'  177. 
Geminiani    Solo,  181. 
Goes,  D.  a.  '  Ne  Iseteris,'  71. 
'  Green  sleeves.'  App.  21. 
Greene,  Dr.  '  By  the  streams,'  191. 
Gregorian  Tones,  27,  28. 
Harrington.  '  Black  sanctus,'  App, 
2. 

Haym.  '  Too  lonely,'  174. 
Hedge  Lane,'  App.  26. 
Henry  VIII.  '  Quam  pulcra,'  77. 
'  Hey  boys,'  App.  3L 
'  Hold  thy  peace,'  canon,  67. 
'  How  should  we  sing? '  canon.  67. 
Humfrey,  P.  '  I  pass  all  my  hours, 

App.  32. 
'  In  te,'  canon,  119. 
Isaac,  H.  '  Conceptio,'  70. 
Isham.  J.   '  Bury  delights,'  168. 
■  John,  come  kiss  me,'  App.  18, 
'  John  Dory,"  App.  28. 
'  Johnny,  cock  thy  beaver,*  App. 

25. 

Johnson.  'Defyled  is  my  name," 

App.  1. 
Jopquin.  King's  Canon,  70. 

Do.  '  O  Jesu  fill,'  72. 
Kerl,  J.  C.  Organ  canzona,  124. 
Lasso,  O.   '  0  d'amarissime,"  74. 

Do.  '  Quand  mon  mary,'  88. 
Lawes,  H.  '  Sweet  echo,'  121. 
Louis  XIII.  '  Tu  crois,'  133. 
Lully.   'Roland,' 136. 
Mace,  Lesson,  1.51. 
Marbeck.  '  A  virgine  and  mother,' 
94. 

Do.  Our  Father,  etc.,  112. 113. 
Marcello.  '  Dall'  Tribunal,'  180. 
Marenzio,  L.  '  Dissi  a  I'amata,'  89. 
Milton.  '  0  had  I  wings,'  102. 
Miserere,  canon,  119. 
'  Miserere  nostri,'  Tallis,  95. 
Monte,  F.  de.  '  Da  bei  rami.'  74. 
Monteverde.    'Perch'  a'  (Orfeo), 
108. 

Do.  Moresca  (do.),  108. 
Morley,  T. '  Beside  a  fountain,'  100. 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


701 


Joseph's  voice  began  to  change  Michael  took  all 
the  principal  parts.  He  played  the  violin  and 
organ,  and  was  soon  able  to  act  as  deputy 
organist  at  St.  Stephen's.  He  was  fond  of  his- 
tory, geography,  and  the  classics.  In  music  he 
aimed  at  originality  from  the  first,  and  formed 
■  a  sort  of  society  among  his  school-fellows  for 
I  detecting  plagiarisms.  Like  his  brother  he  had 
no  regular  instruction  in  composition,  but  taught 
himself  from  i  ux's  '  Gradus,'  which  he  copied  ^ 
entire  in  1757.  His  first  known  mass  is  dated 
Temesvar,  1754;  other  works  were  composed 
at  Warasdin  and  Belenyes ;  but  how  he  came 
to  be  in  Hungary  is  not  known.  In  1757 
was  Capellmeister  at  Grosswardein  to  the  bishop 
Count  Firmian,  whose  uncle  Archbishop  Sigis- 
mund  of  Salzburg  appointed  him,  in  1762,  his 
director  and  concertmeister.  In  1777  he  also 
became  organist  at  the  churches  of  Holy  Trinity 
and  St.  Peter.  On  the  17th  of  August,  1768, 
he  married  Maria  Magdalena  Lipp,  daughter 
of  the  cathedral  organist,  and  a  singer  at  the 
archbishop's  court,  who  took  the  principal  parts 
in  several  of  Mozart's  juvenile  operas,  and  is 
mentioned  by  him  as  leading  a  peculiarly  strict 
life.  They  had  one  child,  a  daughter,  born  1770, 
died  the  following  year.  The  wife  lived  to  be 
82,  and  died  in  June  1827.  Michael's  salary, 
at  first  300  florins  (£24)  with  board  and  lodging, 
was  afterwards  doubled ;  and  this  modest  pittance 
was  sufficient  to  retain  him  for  the  whole  of  his 
life  at  Salzburg.  His  attachment  to  the  place 
was  extraordinary,  one  attraction  being  the  proxi- 
mity of  his  great  friend,  a  clergyman  named 
Kettensteiner.  In  1783  the  then  archbishop, 
Hieronymus  Count  CoUoredo,  commissioned  him 
to  compose  some  vocal  pieces  to  be  used  instead 
of  the  instrumental  music  between  the  Gloria  and 
Credo  at  high  mass.  Michael  selected  w^ords 
from  the  Roman  Missal,  and  his  first  Graduale — 
first  of  114 — was  performed  on  Dec,  24.  In  1 798 
he  visited  Vienna,  and  was  cordially  received  by 
his  brother,  and  by  Eybler,  Sussmayer,  Henne- 
berg,  Hummel,  and  von  Keich  the  amateur, 
who  pressed  him  to  settle  among  them,  but  in 
vain.  In  Dec.  1800  he  lost  his  property  through 
the  taking  of  Salzburg  by  the  French,  but  his 
brother  and  friends  came  liberally  to  his  assis- 
tance. The  Empress  Maria  Theresa^  hearing  of 
his  losses  commissioned  him  to  compose  a  mass, 
which  he  presented  to  her  in  person.  The  per- 
foi-mance  took  place  at  Laxenburg,  Oct.  4,  1801, 
under  his  own  direction ;  the  Empress  sang  the 
soprano  solos,  rewarded  him  munificently,  and 
commanded  another  mass  for  the  Emperor  and  a 
requiem.  Accompanied  by  his  friend  Retten- 
steiner  he  visited  Eisenstadt,  where  for  the  first 
and  only  time  in  their  lives  the  three  Haydns 
spent  some  happy  days  together.  Michael  much 
enjoyed  the  canons  which  decorated  the  walls  of 
J oseph's  study  in  Vienna,  and  asked  leave  to  copy 
some  of  them,  but  Joseph  replied,  *  Get  away  with 
your  copies ;  you  can  compose  much  better  for 

'  His  MS.  copy,  like  the  autograph  of  his  first  mass.  1754,  is  in  the 
Hofbibliothek. 

t'econd  wife  of  Francis  IL 


yourself.*  Michael  however  carried  his  point,  and 
even  added  a  fourth  part  to  '  Die  Mutter  an  ihr 
Kind.'  Prince  Esterhazy  commissioned  Michael 
to  compose  a  mass  and  vespers,  and  offered  him 
the  vice-capellmeistership  of  his  chapel,  but  he 
twice  refused,  in  the  hope  that  the  chapel  at  Salz- 
burg would  be  reorganised  and  his  salary  raised. 
His  hopes  were  deceived,  but  meantime  the  post 
at  Eisenstadt  had  been  filled  ^up,  and  he  wrote 
to  his  brother  complaining  bitterly  of  the  disap- 
pointment. Joseph  thought  Michael  too  straight- 
forward for  Eisenstadt :  '  Ours  is  a  court  life,' 
said  he,  '  but  a  very  diflTerent  one  from  yours  at 
Salzburg  ;  it  is  uncommonly  hard  to  do  what 
you  want.'  At  this  time  Michael  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  at  Stockholm,  and  sent 
in  exchange  for  his  diploma  a  Missa  Hispanica 
for  two  choirs  (comp.  1786),  and  other  church 
works.  In  Dec.  1 805  he  finished  his  last  mass, 
for  two  sopranos  and  alto,  written  for  his  choristers. 
He  made  some  progress  with  the  requiem  for  the 
Empress,  but  was  unable  to  finish  it.  While  on 
his  deathbed  his  beautiful  'Lauda  Sion'  was 
sung  at  his  request  in  the  next  room,  and  soon 
after,  on  August  10,  1806,  he  expired.  The 
requiem  was  completed  by  portions  from  his  earlier 
one  in  C  minor,  and  performed  at  his  funeral. 
He  lies  in  a  side  chapel  of  St.  Peter's  Church. 
A  well-designed  monument  was  erected  in  1821, 
and  over  it  is  an  urn  containing  his  skull.  In 
the  tavern  of  St.  Peter's  monastery  is  still  shown 
the  *  Haydn-Stiibchen,'  his  almost  daily  resort. 
His  widow  received  from  the  Empress  600  florins 
for  the  score  of  the  requiem ;  from  Prince 
Esterhazy  30  ducats  for  the  opera  '  Andromeda 
and  Perseus,'  and  an  annuity  of  36  gold  ducats 
for  all  his  MS.  compositions.  His  brother  several 
times  sent  him  money,  and  in  his  first  will  (1801) 
left  4000  florins  to  him,  and  in  his  second  (1809) 
1000  to  the  widow.  His  likeness,  with  regular, 
steady  features,  exists  in  many  oil-portraits, 
engravings,  lithographs,  and  drawings. 

In  character  Slichael  was  upright,  good-tem- 
pered, and  modest ;  a  little  rough  in  manners, 
and  in  later  life  given  to  drink.  His  letters 
show  him  to  have  been  a  warm-hearted  friend, 
and  that  he  was  devout  may  be  inferred  from 
his  habit  of  initialling  all  his  MSS.  with  '  0.  a. 
M.  D.  Gl.'  {Omnia  ad  Majorem  Dei  Gloriam). 
As  a  composer  he  was  overshadowed  by  the  fame 
of  his  brother.  His  own  words  'Give  me  good 
librettos,  and  the  same  patronage  as  my  brother, 
and  I  should  not  be  behind  him,'  could  scarcely 
have  been  fulfilled,  since  he  failed  in  the  very 
qualities  which  ensured  his  brother's  success. 
On  the  other  hand,  Joseph  professed  that  Michael's 
church  compositions  were  superior  to  his  own  in 
earnestness,  severity  of  style,  and  sustained  power. 
They  are  however  very  unequal ;  many  are  anti- 
quated from  the  monotony  of  the  accompani- 
ment, while  others — the  Mass  in  D  minor,  the 
Graduale  '  Tres  sunt,'  the  '  Lauda  Sion.'  the  well- 
known  'Tenebrae'  in  Eb,  etc. — are  still  highly 

'  The  Vice-Capellmeistership  wa^  bestowed  on  Johann  Fuchs, 
violinist  in  the  cliapel,  and  afterwards  Haydn's  successor.  He  died 
Oct.  29, 1839. 


702 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


esteemed.  Leopold  Mozart,  a  man  who  disliked 
his  mamiers.  wrote  to  his  son  '  Herr  Haydn  is 
a  man  whose  merit  you  will  be  forced  to  acknow- 
ledge.' This  refers  to  his  sacred  works,  several 
of  which  ^Yolfgang  scored  for  practice  ;  he  also 
sent  for  them  to  Vienna,  and  endeavoured  to 
make  them  better  known,  especially  introducing 
them  to  Van  Swieten.  In  1 783,  when  Michael  was 
laid  aside  by  illness,  Mozart  composed  two  string 
duets  for  ^him.  Franz  Schubert  visited  Michael's 
grave  in  1825,  and  thus  records  his  impressions: 
'  The  good  Haydn  !  It  almost  seemed  as  if  his 
clear  calm  spirit  were  hovering  over  me,  I  may 
be  neither  calm  nor  clear,  but  no  man  living 
reverences  him  more  than  I  do.  My  eyes  filled 
with  tears  as  we  came  away.'  Ferdinand  Schu- 
bert composed  a  striking  chorus  to  words  in  praise 
of  Michael  Haydn.  Among  his  numerous  pupils 
we  may  mention  C.  M.  von  Weber,  Neukomm, 
Wolfl,  and  Eeicha.  There  exists  '  Biographische 
Skizze,'  a  very  warm-hearted  pamphlet  written 
by  Schinn  and  Otter  (Salzburg,  1808). 

Of  his  compositions  comparatively  few  have 
been  printed.  His  modesty  was  excessive,  and 
prevented  his  ever  availing  himself  of  the  offers 
of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  The  following  list  of  his 
works  is  complete. 


Instramental  —  50  short  organ 
pieces  for  beginners,  consisting  of 
preludes,  etc.  in  all  the  8  Church 
tones  fpublished  at  Linz) ;  30  sym- 
phonies, 2  and  Partiten,  1  sextet,  3 

quintets,  serenades,  marches.  12 
minuets  for  full  orchestra  (Augs- 
burg, Gombart),  1  violin  concerto, 
etc. 

Vocal  —  about  360  compositions 
for  the  Church,  including  2  re- 
quiems,* ai  masses,  4  German 
masses,  5  114  ^graduales,  67  offer- 
toires,  8  7  litanies,  11  vespers,  5  Sal ve 
Kegina,  8  Eesponsorien,  3  Tene- 
brae,  Kegina  Coeli,  etc.  etc ;  and 


several  German  sacred  songs.  A 
great  many  oratorios  cantatas, 
operas  (including  'Andromeda  e 
Perseus.'  1776  <,  mythological  oper- 
ettas, a  9  pastoral  "Die  Hochzeit 
auf  der  Aim."  2  collections  of  4-part 
songs  (Vienna,  Eder,  1799;  Salz- 
burg. Hacker,  1800) ;  several  single 
ones,  'Karl  der  Held,  Erzherzog  von 
Oesterreich,'  etc. ;  6  canons  in  4  and 
5  parts  (Salzburg,  Meyer,  1800). 

Theoretical  —'Partitur- Funda- 
ment,' 1  ■  edited  by  Martin  Bischofs- 
reiter.  In  the  Imperial  Library 
is  an  Antiphonarium  romanum 
with  figured  bass,  finished  in  1792. 

[C.  F.  P.] 


HAYDN,  Joseph,  or,  according  to  the  bap- 
tismal register,  Franz  Joseph,  the  father  of 
the  symphony  and  the  quartet,  was  born  in 
the  night  between  March  31  and  April  I,  1732, 
at  Rohrau,  a  small  Austrian  village  on  the 
Leitha,  which  there  divides  Lower  Austria  and 
Hungary.  He  was  the  second  child  of  Mathias 
Haydn,  a  master  wheelwright,  by  his  marriage 
(Nov.  24,  1728)  with  Maria  Roller,  daughter  of 
the  '  Marktrichter '  and  cook  in  Count  Harrach's 
household.  Haydn's  ancestors  came  originally 
from  Hainburg,  a  town  close  to  the  Danube, 
about  4  leagues  from  Rohrau.  His  great-grand- 
father Kaspar  was  a  servant  in  the  hill-castle 

'  Afterwards  published  in  Mozart's  name.    (Kochel's  Catalogue 
>'os.  423  and  424.) 
2  Artaria  published  three. 

*  One  in  C  was  printed  under  Joseph's  name  as  op,  88. 

*  The  second,  in  Bb,  is  unfinished.  (Kuhnel.) 

*  His  first  High  Mass  (German;,  'Hier  liegt  vor  deiner  Majestiit,' 
In  C  fHaslinger  ,  is  very  popular. 

6  42  in  score  (1—20  and  41—62)  in  the  '  Ecclesiasticon.'  (Spina.) 

7  'Litaniae  de  venerabili  Sacramento.'  (Breitkopf*  Hartel.) 

8  The  oratorios  performed  in  Lent  were  generally  joint-composi- 
tions by  various  authors;  for  instance,  "Die  SchuKligkeit  des  ersten 
Gebotes'  (1766 ,i  of  which  Slozart  aged  10)  wrote  the  first  part,  Michael 
Haydn  the  second,  and  Adlgasser,  Court-organist,  the  third. 

9  Vocal  score,  Falter  &  Son,  JIunich  1862 ;  often  ascribed  to  Joseph. 
'<>  Reprinted  by  Oher  of  Sal/burg  1S^3.  The  score  is  among  the 

MSS.  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde. 


there,  one  of  the  few  who  escaped  massacre  when 
it  was  stormed  by  the  Turks  on  July  ii,  1683, 
Kaspar's  ion  Thomas,  a  master  wheelwright 
and  member  of  the  town  council,  had  7  sons,  of 
whom  Mathias,  the  father  of  our  Haydn,  born 
Jan.  31,  1699,  was  youngest  but  one,  Thomas's 
widow  married  a  journeyman  wheelwright, 
Mathias  Seefranz  (ciied  May  2,  1762,  aged 
89),  who  thus  became  Haydn's  step -grandfather ; 
and  one  of  their  children,  Julie  Rosine,  married 
a  schoolmaster  named  Frankh,  afterwards 
Haydn's  first  teacher.  The  sous  nearly  all 
learnt  the  wheelwright's  trade,  and  then  set 
out  on  their  travels ;  after  which  Mathias 
settled  in  Rohrau,  and  built  himself  the 
little  house  at  the  end  of  the  market-place, 
where  Haydn  was  born,  and  which  though  twice 
rebuilt  is  still  standing  in  its  original  form. 
Maria  Haydn  (born  Nov.  10,  1707)  bore  her 
husband  12  children,  of  whom  the  sixth  was 
Johann  Michael,  the  church  composer ;  and  the 
eleventh  Johann  Evangelist,  an  unimportant 
tenor  singer,  who  was  admitted  to  the  chapel  of 
Prince  Esterhazy  on  his  brother  Joseph's  re- 
commendation. After  Maria's  death  (Feb,  23, 
1754)  Mathias  married  again,  and  had  five 
more  children,  who  died  yoimg.  He  himself 
departed  Sept,  12,  1763, 

Haydn's  parents  were  honest,  industrious 
people,  who  instilled  into  their  children  a  love 
for  work,  method,  cleanliness,  and,  above  all, 
religion.  In  his  old  age  Haydn  gratefully  ac- 
knowledged his  obligations  to  their  care.  Both 
were  fond  of  music,  and  both  sang.  The  father 
had  a  fair  tenor  voice,  and  accompanied  himself 
on  the  harp,  though  without  knowing  a  note. 
The  child  soon  began  to  sing  their  simple  songs, 
astonishing  them  by  the  correctness  of  his  ear 
and  the  beauty  of  his  voice.  But  he  did  not  stop 
there.  Having  seen  the  schoolmaster  play  the 
violin,  he  would  sit  on  the  stove-bench  and 
accompany  his  parents  as  they  sang,  precisely 
imitating  the  schoolmaster's  handling  of  the 
bow,  and  keeping  strict  time,  with  two  pieces 
of  wood  as  his  instrument.  He  was  one  day 
surprised,  when  thus  engaged,  by  his  relation 
Frankh,  from  Hainburg,  Thinking  that  he  saw 
in  him  the  making  of  a  musician,  Frankh  per- 
suaded the  parents  to  commit  their  little  boy  to 
his  care.  The  mother  would  have  preferred  his 
entering  the  priesthood,  or  becoming  a  school- 
master, and  it  required  all  the  father's  authority 
to  make  her  consent;  but  he  felt  that  he  had 
himself  been  capable  of  better  things,  and  looked 
forward  to  seeing  his  son  a  Chor-regent  or 
Capellmeister,  as  a  compensation  for  his  own  lot. 
At  the  age  of  six,  then,  the  little  Joseph — in  the 
Austrian  dialect  'Sepperl' — was  taken  by  his 
father  to  school  at  Hainburg, 

Johann  Mathias  Frankh,  Haydn's  distant  re- 
lative (he  called  him  simply  '  cousin '),  was  an 
excellent  teacher,  very  strict,  and  eminently 
practical.  Haydn  not  only  became  a  first-rate 
singer,  but  also  learned  something  of  the  instru- 
ments most  in  use,  and  spent  nearly  all  his  time 
in  church  or  in  school.    Learning  came  easily  to 


HAYDN. 


HAYDX. 


703 


him,  and  if  he  had  any  difficulty,  his  master's 
severity  soon  overcame  it.  In  his  old  age  he 
spoke  with  thankfulness  of  this  hard  probation, 
and  of  his  cousin's  discipline.  '  I  shall  be  grate- 
ful to  that  man  as  long  as  I  live,'  said  he  to 
Griesinger,  '  for  keeping  me  so  hard  at  work, 
though  I  used  to  get  more  flogging  than  food.' 
On  another  occasion,  when  speaking  in  his 
modest  way  of  his  own  talents  and  industr}', 
he  added,  'Almighty  God,  to  whom  T  render 
thanks  for  all  His  unnumbered  mercies,  gave  me 
such  facility  in  music,  that  by  the  time  I  was  6 
I  stood  up  like  a  man  and  sang  masses  in  the 
church  choir,  and  could  play  a  little  on  the 
clavier  and  the  violin.'  But  the  lad  sadly  missed 
his  mother's  care.  He  was  neglected  both  in 
clothes  and  person  (he  already  wore  a  wig,  'for 
the  sake  of  cleanliness'),  and  the  results  of  this 
neglect  distressed  him  long  and  sorely.  When 
quite  an  old  man  he  said  to  Dies  the  painter — 
who,  like  Griesinger,  visited  him  frequently  with 
a  view  to  his  biography — '  I  could  not  help  per- 
ceiving, much  to  my  distress,  that  I  was  grad- 
ually getting  very  dirty,  and  though  I  thought  a 
good  deal  of  my  little  person,  was  not  always 
able  to  avoid  spots  of  dirt  on  my  clothes,  of 
which  I  was  dreadfully  ashamed  —  in  fa<;t,  I 
was  a  regular  little  urchin.'  Dies  has  preserved 
another  anecdote  of  this  period,  in  which  Haydn 
figures.  A  drummer  was  wanted  for  a  proces- 
sion, and  his  master  thrust  him  into  the  vacant 
office,  first  showing  him  how  to  make  the  stroke. 
The  effect  must  have  been  comical,  as  he  was  so 
small  that  the  instrument  had  to  be  carried  before 
him  on  the  back  of  a  colleague  of  equal  height, 
who  happened  to  be  a  hunchback.  Haydn  re- 
tained his  liking  for  the  drum,  and  prided  him- 
self on  his  skill,  with  which  indeed  he  once 
astonished  Salomon's  orchestra  during  his  stay  in 
London.  The  drums  on  which  he  performed  at 
Hainburg  on  the  occasion  just  named  are  still 
preserved  in  the  choir  of  the  church. 

At  the  end  of  two  years  a  decisive  change 
took  place  in  his  life.  George  Reutter,  Hof- 
compositor  and  Capellmeister  at  St.  Stephen's, 
Vienna,  was  on  a  visit  to  his  friend  Anton 
Johann  Palmb,  pastor  of  Hainburg,  and  having 
heard  Haydn's  'weak,  sweet  voice'  (as  he  himself 
called  it),  put  him  through  an  examination,  and 
offered  him  a  place  as  chorister  at  St.  Stephen's. 
To  go  to  Vienna  seemed  to  the  boy  an  almost 
incredible  piece  of  good  fortune.  His  parents 
gave  their  consent ;  and  with  a  joyful  heart  he 
bade  farewell  to  Hainburg.  His  grandmother 
had  died  just  before — May  17,  1739;  Frankh 
lived  to  be  75,  and  died  May  10,  1783,  his  wife 
Julie  Rosine  (who  did  not  do  her  duty  by 
Haydn)  having  preceded  him  in  Jan.  1760.  Of 
their  two  daughters,  Anna  Rosalia,  bom  1752, 
married  Philipp  Schimpel,  usher  of  the  school, 
and  afterwards  Chor-regent.  Haydn  showed  his 
gratitude  to  the  family  by  leaving  the  latter 
couple  a  sum  of  money  and  his  portrait  of 
Frankh,  '  my  first  instructor  in  music'  They 
both,  however,  died  before  him,  in  1805,  and 
the  portrait  has  disappeared. 


I     It  was  in  1 740  that  Haydn  entered  the  Can- 
j  torei  of  St.  Stephen's,  where  he  was  to  pass  his 
I  remaining  years  of  study.    The  house  was  one 
I  of  a  row  which  came  close  up  to  the  principal 
;  entrance  of  the  cathedral,  and  from  his  window 
1  he  looked  straight  on  the  glorious  spire.  He 
tells  us  that,  '  besides  the  regular  studies,  he 
learned  singing,  the  clavier,  and  the  violin  from 
'  good  masters.'    The  '  regular  studies '  included 
religion,  a  little  Latin,  writing,  and  ciphering. 
!  His  singing-masters  are  said  to  have  been  Ge- 
genbauer  and  Finsterbusch ;  the  former,  sub- 
cantor  and  violinist  at  St.  Stephen's,  probably 
taught  him  the  violin  as  well ;  the  latter  was 
a  tenor  in  the  court  chapel,    Xo  instruction 
seems   to  have  been  given  in  harmony  and 
composition  at  the  Cantorei ;  but  this  did  not 
trouble  Von  Reutter  (ennobled  in  1740).  Haydn 
could  only  remember  having  had  two  lessons 
I  from  him  all  the  time  he  was  there.    But  the 
instinct  for  composition  made  him  cover  every 
blank  sheet  of  music-paper  on  which  he  could 
lay  his  hands — '  it  must  be  all  right  if  the  paper 
was  nice  and  full.'    Reutter  surprised  him  once 
sketching  a  'Salve  Regina'  for  12  voices,  and 
:  told  him  sharply  he  had  better  try  it  first  in  two 
parts — hov:,  he  did  not  take  the  pains  to  show — 
and  further  advised  him  to  write  variations  on 
:  the  motets  and  vespers  he  heard  in  church.  In 
[  this  way  he  was  thrown  back  upon  himself.    '  I 
certainly  had  the  gift,'  he  says,  'and  by  dint  of 
hard  work  I  managed  to  get  on.'    An  anecdote 
of  this  time  shows  that  as  a  boy  he  was  not 
behind  his  comrades  in  fun  and  mischief.  The 
choristers  were  frequently  required  to  sing  vrith 
the  imperial  chapel — which  explains  Haydn's 
statement  that  he  had  sung  -u-ith  great  success 
both  at  court  and  in  St.  Stephen's.    This  gen- 
erally happened  when  the  court  was  at  Schon- 
brunn.    The  palace  had  only  just  been  com- 
pleted, and  the  scaffolding  was  still  standing — an 
irresistible  temptation  to  boys.     The  Empress 
Maria  Theresa  had  caught  them  climbing  it  many 
a  time,  but  her  threats  and  prohibitions  had  no 
effect.    One  day  when  Haydn  was  balancing 
himself  aloft,  far  above  his  schoolfellows,  the 
Empress  saw  him  from  the  windows,  and  re- 
quested her  Hofcompositor  to  take  care  that 
'  that  fair-haired  blockhead '  (blonder  Dickkopf ), 
the  ringleader  of  them  all,  got  '  einen  recenten 
Schilling'  (slang  for  a  'good  hiding').  When 
he  was  Capellmeister  to  Prince  Esterhazy,  '  the 
fair-haired  blockhead'  had  an  opportunity,  at 
Esterhaz,  of  thanking  the  Empress  for  this  mark 
of  imperial  favoiu". 

In  the  autumn  of  1745  Haydn  had  the  plea- 
sure of  welcoming  his  brother  Michael  as  a 
fellow- chorister  at  the  Cantorei,  and  of  helping 
him  in  his  work.  Michael  made  rapid  progress, 
but  a  cloud  came  over  poor  Joseph's  prospects. 
His  voice  began  to  break,  and  the  Empress, 
who  had  before  taken  particular  pleasure  in  his 
singing,  remarked  jocosely  to  her  Vice-CapeU- 
meister^  that  young  Haydn's  singing  was  more 
like  the  crowing  of  a  cock  than  anything  else. 
»  Von  Keutter  was  advanced  to  this  post  in  17-.6. 


704  HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


Reutter  took  the  hint,  and  on  the  festival  of 
St.  Leopold  (Nov.  15),  1748,  celebrated  at  the 
monastery  of  Klosterneuburg,  near  Vienna,  gave 
the  'Salve  Eegina'  to  Michael,  who  sang  it 
so  beautifully  as  to  charm  both  Emperor  and 
Empress,  from  whom  he  received  24  ducats  in 
gold. 

Joseph  was  thus  completely  supplanted  by  his 
brother.  His  voice  had  lost  all  its  power,  and 
he  was  oppressed  with  grief  and  anxiety.  In 
the  midst  of  his  trouble  Reutter  suggested  a 
means  by  which  his  voice  might  be  preserved, 
and  even  improved;  and  referred  him  to  the 
court  chapel,  which  contained  at  least  a  dozen 
'castrati.'  Haydn's  father  however,  having 
probably  heard  of  the  proposal,  came  in  all 
haste  to  Vienna,  and  saved  his  son. 

His  days  at  the  Cantorei  were  now  numbered. 
He  was  of  no  use  as  a  singer,  and  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  occurred  to  any  one  that  he  might 
be  employed  as  a  violinist.  Reutter  did  not  con- 
sider himself  in  the  least  bound  to  look  after  his 
future,  and  was  only  waiting  for  an  opportunity 
to  get  rid  of  him.  This  occurred  soon  enough, 
and  Haydn  himself  furnished  the  pretext.  Al- 
ways full  of  fun.  and  inclined  to  practical  jokes, 
he  one  day  tried  a  new  pair  of  scissors  on  the 
pigtail  of  a  schoolfellow.  The  pigtail  fell,  but 
the  culprit  was  condemned  to  a  caning  on  the 
hand.  In  vain  he  begged  to  be  let  off,  declaring 
he  would  rather  leave  than  submit  to  the  in- 
dignity. That  he  might  do,  Reutter  said,  but 
he  must  first  be  caned  and  then  dismissed. 

Haydn  was  thus  thrown  upou  the  world,  with 
ah  empty  purse,  a  keen  appetite,  and  no  fidends. 
The  first  person  to  help  him  was  Spangler,  a  cho- 
rister of  St.  Michael's.  He  offered  him  shelter ; 
a  few  pupils  presented  themselves,  and  a  good 
Viennese  lent  him  150  florins,  which  enabled 
him  to  rent  an  attic  in  the  old  Michaelerhaus, 
attached  to  the  college  of  St.  Barnabas,  in  the 
Kohlmarkt.  Here  he  abandoned  himself  to  the 
study  of  composition,  and  made  acquaintance  with 
the  master  who  more  than  anj^  other  became  his 
model — Emmanuel  Bach  Having  acquired  his 
fii-st  6  Clavier-Sonatas,  he  pored  over  them  at  his 
little  worm-eaten  clavier — and  how  thoroughly 
he  mastered  their  style  his  compositions  show. 
Indeed  Bach  afterwards  sent  him  word,  that  he 
alone  fully  understood  his  writings,  and  knew 
how  to  use  them.  Besides  the  clavier,  he  dili- 
gently practised  the  violin,  so  that  'although,' 
as  he  said,  *  no  conj  urer  on  any  instrument,  he 
was  able  to  play  a  concerto.'  About  this  time 
(1751-52,  not  1742  as  is  always  said)  he  com- 
posed his  first  Mass,  in  F  (No.  11  in  Novello's 
edition).  It  bears  unmistakable  evidences  of 
undeveloped  and  unaided  talent.  Haydn  had 
forgotten  its  very  (xi.s.ence  when,  to  his  great 
delight,  he  discoverel  it  in  his  old  age,  and 
inserted  additional  wind  parts. 

Having  accidentally  become  acquainted  with 
Felix  Kurz,  a  favourite  comic  actor  at  the 
Stadttheater,  Haydn  was  asked  to  set  his  comic 
opera,  '  Der  neue  krumme  Teufel,'  a  kind  of 
magic  farce,  interspersed  with  songs  and  a  few 


instrumental  pieces ;  and  received  for  it  a  con- 
siderable sum.  It  was  produced  at  the  Stadt- 
theater in  the  spring  of  1752,  and  frequently 
repeated  in  Vienna,  Prague,  Berlin,  Saxony,  and 
the  Breisgau.  The  libretto  has  been  preserved, 
but  the  music  is  lost.  Metastasio  was  then 
living  in  the  same  house  with  Haydn.  He 
shared  the  apartments  of  a  Spanish  family  to 
whom  he  was  much  attached,  and  superintended 
the  education  of  the  two  daughters.  The  musical 
training  of  the  elder,  Marianne  de  Martines,  was 
confided  to  Haydn,  who  in  this  way  became  ac- 
quainted with  Porpora,  then  teaching  singing  to 
the  mistress  of  Correr,  the  Venetian  ambassador. 
Porpora  proposed  that  Haydn  should  act  as  his 
accompanyi.st,  thus  giving  him  an  opportunity  of 
learning  his  method.  He  took  him  to  the  baths 
of  Mannersdorf,  on  the  confines  of  Hungary, 
where  they  remained  for  some  months,  and,  in 
return  indeed  for  various  menial  offices,  gave  him 
instruction  in  composition.  At  Mannersdorf,  at 
the  soirees  of.  Prince  Hildburghausen,  Haydn 
met  Bonno,  Wagenseil,  Gluck,  and  Dittersdorf, 
to  the  last  of  whom  he  became  much  attached. 
Gluck  advised  his  going  to  Italy.  Burney  heard 
his  quartets  finely  played  at  Gluck's  house  in 
1772.  One  by  one  he  procured  all  the  known 
theoretical  works,  and  thoroughly  mastered  their 
contents,  especially  Fux's  'Gradus,'  which  he 
afterwards  used  as  the  foundation  of  his  own 
teaching.  He  had  had,  as  we  have  seen,  no  regular 
musical  training ;  but  by  industry,  careful  ob- 
servation, and  reiterated  attempts,  he  gradually 
attained  that  independence  which  gave  the  im- 
press of  originality  to  all  his  works. 

Haydn  now  made  the  important  acquaintance 
of  Karl  Joseph  Edlen  von  Fiirnberg,  a  wealthy 
proprietor  and  enthusiastic  amateur,  who  passed 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  at  Weinzirl,  near 
the  monastery  of  Melk.  Here  he  had  constant 
performances  of  string  trios  and  quartets  ;  he  in- 
vited Haydn  to  stay  with  him,  and  encouraged 
him  to  compose  his  first  quartet  (1755,  hitherto 
misdated  1750) — 


i 


Presto 


5^ 

which  was  soon  followed  by  others,  to  the  num- 
ber of  18  in  all  (1755-56;  Trautwein,  Nos.  58- 
75).  Fiirnberg  was  thus  the  first  to  direct 
Haydn's  attention  to  a  branch  of  composition 
in  which  alone  he  did  enough  to  immortalise  his 
name. 

His  pecuniary  condition  now  began  to  amend  ; 
he  sang  and  played  in  several  churches,  and 
raised  his  terms  for  lessons  from  2  florins  a  month 
to  5.  Among  his  pupils  at  this  period  was  the 
Countess  Thun  (a  name  we  also  encounter  in 
connection  with  Mozart,  Gluck,  and  Beethoven), 
who  first  heard  of  him  through  one  of  his  clavier 
sonatas,  then  circulated  in  MS.  This  highly- 
cultivated  lady  took  both  harpsichord  and  singing 
lessons  from  him,  and  paid  him  well  for  his  com- 
positions.   In  1759  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


705 


be  appointed  Musikdirector  and  Kammercom- 

positor  to  the  Bohemian  Count  Ferdinand 
ISIaximilian  Morzin,  who  had  a  small  well-chosen 
orchestra  at  his  country  house  at  Lukavec,  near 
Pilsen.  Fiirnberg  had  recommended  him  for  the 
post,  and  it  was  thus  again  through  him  that 
Haydn  entered  upon  the  second  most  important 
part  of  his  career.  Here,  in  1759,  he  wrote  his 
first  Symphony : — 

Presto  cru. 

It  is  a  small  work,  in  three  movements,  for  2 
violins,  viola,  bass,  2  oboes,  and  2  horns ;  and 
in  its  cheerful  unpretending  character  gives  de- 
cided indications  of  what  the  composer  was 
destined  to  become.  His  salary  now  amounted 
to  200  florins  (say  £20),  with  board  and  lodging. 
Small  as  this  was,  it  induced  him  to  think  of 
taking  a  companion  for  life,  although  the  Count 
never  kept  a  married  man  in  his  employ.  His 
choice  fell  on  the  daughter  of  Keller,  a  wig- 
maker,  to  whose  house  he  had  been  introduced 
by  her  brother,  who  was  violinist  at  St.  Stephen's 
when  Haydn  was  a  chorister.  He  gave  music- 
lessons  to  the  two  daughters,  and  fell  in  love 
with  the  youngest.  She  however  took  the  veil, 
and  the  father,  anxious  to  keep  him  in  the 
!  family,  persuaded  him  to  marry  the  other, 
Maria  Anna,  3  years  his  senior.  The  wedding 
I  took  place  at  St.  Stephen's,  Nov.  26,  1760 — a 
I  bad  day  for  Haydn,  and  the  foundation  of  un- 
utterable domestic  misery.  His  wife  was  a  regu- 
lar Xantippe — heartless,  unsociable,  quarrelsome, 
extravagant  and  bigoted,  who,  as  her  husband 
said,  cared  not  a  straw  whether  he  was  an 
artist  or  a  shoemaker.  They  had  no  children, 
and  it  can  scarcely  be  wondered  at  if  in  time 
Haydn  sought  elsewhere  the  consolations  which 
were  denied  him  at  home,  or  even  showed 
himself  susceptible  to  the  attractions  of  other 
women.  His  wife  spent  the  last  years  of  her 
life  at  Baden,  near  Vienna,  and  died  March 
20,  1800. 

Soon  after  the  marriage,  Counb  Morzin  was 
compelled  to  dismiss  his  band  and  its  director; 
but  Haydn  was  not  long  unemployed.  Paul  Anton 
i    Esterhazy,  the  then  reigning  Prince,  who  had 
i   heard  his  symphonies  when  visiting  Morzin, 
'   hastened  to  secure  the  young  composer  as  his 
second  Capellmeister,  under  Werner,  who  was 
growing  old.    He  was  appointed  May  i,  1761, 
and  immediately  set  out  for  Eisenstadt,  in  Hun- 
gary, the  country  seat  of  the  new  master  in 
whose  service  he  was  destined  to  remain  to  the 
end  of  his  life.    The  Esterhazy  family  had  been 
musical  amateurs  and  performers  since  the  days 
of  Paul,  first  Prince  of  the  name  (1635-1713), 
who  established  a  private  chapel,  small  at  first  but 
gradually  increasing.     The  orchestra,  chorus, 
and  solo  singers  took  part  both  in  the  church 
service  and  in  concerts,  and  in  time  even  per- 
I    formed  operas.    When  Haydn  entered  upon  his 
duties  there  were  only  16  members  in  all,  but  the 


excellence  of  their  playing  acted  as  a  powerful 
stimulus  to  his  invention.  His  arrival  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  concerts,  Werner,  a  first-rate 
master  of  counterpoint,  having  concentrated  all  his 
energies  on  the  Church  service.  [See  Werner.] 
To  a  man  with  Werner's  notions  of  music  Haydn 
must  have  been  a  constant  vexation;  and  he 
always  spoke  of  him  as  '  a  mere  fop,'  and  a  '  scrib- 
bler of  songs.'  Haydn,  on  the  contrary,  had  a 
high  respect  for  Werner,  as  he  proved  late  in  life 
by  arranging  six  of  his  fugues  as  string-quartets, 
and  publishing  them,  through  Artaria,  '  out  of 
sincere  esteem  for  that  celebrated  master.' 

Prince  Paul  Anton  died  March  18,  1762,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicolaus,  who  was 
passionately  fond  of  art  and  science,  generous, 
and  truly  kind-hearted.  The  love  of  pomp  and 
display,  of  which  his  well-known  diamond-covered 
uniform  was  an  example,  earned  him  the  soubri- 
quet of  '  der  Prachtige,'  or  the  Magnificent. 
He  loved  music,  and  played  well  on  the  bary- 
ton,  or  viola  di  bardone,  for  which  instrument 
Haydn  was  constantly  required  to  furnish  him 
with  new  pieces.  In  the  hope  of  pleasing  his 
master  Haydn  himself  learned  the  instrument; 
but  on  making  his  ddbut  was  disappointed  to  find 
that  the  Prince  did  not  approve  of  such  rivalry  ; 
on  which  he  at  once  relinquished  it  for  ever. 
The  relations  between  the  Prince  and  his  new 
Capellmeister,  who  found  his  time  fully  occupied, 
were  genial  and  hearty.  Haydn's  salary  was 
raised  from  400  florins  a  year  to  600,  and  then 
to  782  (£78),  new  musicians  were  engaged,  and 
rehearsals — orchestral,  chamber,  and  dramatic 
— took  place  every  day.  The  principal  members 
of  the  chapel  at  the  time  were,  Luigi  Tomasini 
(violin) ;  Joseph  Weigl  (cello) ;  two  excellent 
French  horn-players,  Thaddaus  Steinmiiller  and 
Karl  Franz  (the  latter  also  playing  the  baryton)  ; 
Anna  Maria  Scheffstos  (soprano),  who  after- 
wards married  Weigl ;  and  Karl  Friberth  (tenor). 
The  wind  music,  formerly  played  by  the  band  of 
the  regiment,  was  now  given  to  good  players 
(including  the  two  just  named)  regularly  ap- 
pointed. On  March  5,  1766,  Werner  died,  and 
Haydn  became  sole  Capellmeister.  His  com- 
positions were  already  known  far  outside  of 
Austria ;  in  Leipzig,  Paris,  Amsterdam  and 
London  his  symphonies  and  cassations,  trios, 
and  quartets,  were  to  be  had  in  print  or  MS. 
Even  the  official  gazette,  the  *  Wiener  Dia- 
rium,'  for  1766,  speaks  of  him  as  'our  national 
favourite'  (der  Liebling  unserer  Nation),  and 
draws  a  parallel  between  him  and  the  poet 
Gellert,  at  that  time  the  highest  possible  compli- 
ment. 

His  works  composed  up  to  this  time  at  Eisen- 
stadt comprise  about  30  symphonies  (including 
'Le  Matin,' ^  'Le  Midi,'  and  *Le  Soir,'  1761) 
and  cassations  ;  a  few  divertimenti  in  5  parts ; 
six  string-trios;  a  piece  for  4  violins  and  2 
celli,  called  '  Echo ' ;  a  concerto  for  the  French 
horn  (1762);  12  minuets  for  orchestra;  con- 
certos, trios,  sonatas,  and  variations  for  claAder. 
In  vocal  music — a  Salve  Eegina  for  soprano  and 

I  See  the  themes,  p.  721, 722. 

Zz 


706 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


alto,  2  violins,  and  organ;  a  Te  Deum  (1764); 
4  Italian  Operettas  (1762);  a  pastoral,  'Acide 
e  Galatea '  (the  action  identical  with  that  of 
Handel's  cantata),  performed  Jan.  11,  1763,  on 
the  marriage  of  Count  Anton,  eldest  son  of 
Prince  Nicolaus ;  and  a  grand  cantata,  in  honour 
of  the  Prince's  return  from  the  coronation  of  the 
Archduke  Joseph  as  King  of  the  Romans  (1764). 

Soon  after  Werner's  death  an  event  took 
place,  which  greatly  affected  the  music,  viz.  the 
establishment  of  a  new  palace  near  Siittbr,  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Neusiedler-See,  where 
the  Prince  rebuilt  an  old  hunting-place,  turned 
it  into  a  splendid  summer  residence,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Esterh^z.  Here  the  chapel 
(except  a  small  portion  left  to  carry  on  the 
church  service  at  Eisenstadt)  were  located  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  during  which  they 
were  expected  to  redouble  their  exertions. 

Esterh^z — described  by  a  French  traveller 
as  '  having  no  place  but  Versailles  to  compare 
to  it  for  magnificence' — stands  in  the  middle 
of  an  unhealthy  marsh,  quite  out  of  the  world. 
The  erection  of  such  a  building  in  such  a  neigh- 
bourhood, at  a  cost  amounting  it  is  said  to 
1 1 ,000,000  gulden,  was  one  of  the  caprices  of 
Prince  Nicolaus.  The  canals  and  dykes  he 
constructed  were,  however,  substantial  improve- 
ments to  the  neighbourhood.  The  dense  wood 
behind  the  castle  was  turned  into  a  delightful 
grove,  containing  a  deer-park,  flower-gardens 
and  hot-houses,  elaborately  furnished  summer- 
houses,  grottoes,  hermitages,  and  temples.  Near 
the  castle  stood  an  elegant  theatre,  for  operas, 
dramas,  and  comedies ;  also  a  second  theatre, 
brilliantly  ornamented,  and  furnished  with  large 
artistic  marionettes,  excellent  scenery  and  appli- 
ances. The  orchestra  of  the  opera  was  formed  of 
members  of  the  chapel,  under  Haydn's  direction ; 
the  singers  were  Italian  for  the  most  part, 
engaged  for  one,  two,  or  more  years,  and  the 
books  of  the  words  were  printed.  Numerous 
strolling  companies  were  engaged  for  shorter 
terms ;  travelling  virtuosi  often  played  with  the 
members  of  the  band  ;  special  days  and  hours 
were  fixed  for  chamber-music  and  for  orchestral 
works ;  and  in  the  intervals  the  singers,  musi- 
cians, and  actors  met  at  the  caf^,  and  formed, 
so  to  speak,  one  family.  The  castle  itself  was 
fitted  up  in  exquisite  taste,  and  stored  with 
numerous  and  costly  collections  of  works  of  art. 
Eoyal  and  noble  personages,  home  and  foreign, 
formed  a  constant  stream  of  guests ;  at  whose 
disposal  the  Prince  placed  his  beautiful  carriages, 
and  to  whom  he  proved  the  most  attentive  and 
charming  of  hosts.  He  became  so  much  attached 
to  this  place  of  his  own  creation,  as  often  to  stay 
there  till  quite  the  end  of  autumn,  and  return 
with  the  first  days  of  spring.  Eisenstadt  he 
visited  very  rarely,  and  Vienna  he  disliked  more 
and  more,  often  cutting  short  his  visits  in  the 
most  abrupt  manner.  Hence  his  singers  and 
musicians  were  increasingly  tied  to  this  one  spot 
— a  fate  all  the  harder,  since  very  few  were 
allowed  to  bring  their  wives  and  families.  Here 
Haydn  composed  nearly  all  his  operas,  most  of 


his  arias  and  songs,  the  music  for  the  marionette 
theatre — of  which  he  was  particularly  fond — 
and  the  greater  part  of  his  orchestral  and 
chamber  works.  He  was  satisfied  with  his  posi- 
tion, and  though  he  sometimes  complained  of  the 
disadvantages  of  such  a  seclusion,  and  often  ex- 
pressed his  wish  to  visit  Italy,  he  also  acknow- 
ledged its  compensating  advantages.  In  his  own 
words  :  '  My  Prince  was  always  satisfied  with 
my  works ;  I  not  only  had  the  encouragement 
of  constant  approval,  but  as  conductor  of  an 
orchestra  I  could  make  experiments,  observe 
what  produced  an  effect  and  what  weakened  it, 
and  was  thus  in  a  position  to  improve,  alter, 
make  additions  or  omissions,  and  be  as  bold  as  I 
pleased ;  I  was  cut  off  from  the  world,  there  was 
no  one  to  confuse  or  torment  me,  and  I  was 
forced  to  become  original^' 

With  the  band  and  singers  Haydn  was  on 
the  best  of  terms.  They  vied  with  each  other 
in  carrying  out  his  intentions,  simply  to  show 
their  gratitude  and  affection  for  him.  He 
was  constantly  endeavouring  to  improve  their 
lot,  was  invariably  a  warm  advocate  with  the 
Prince  on  their  behalf,  and  they  all  loved  him 
like  a  father.  The  Prince  gave  unusually  high 
salaries,  and  several  of  the  musicians  played  two 
instruments — generally  the  violin  and  a  wind 
instrument.  A  good  many  of  them  afterwards 
entered  the  Imperial  chapel. 

The  principal  and  best-paid  members  of  the 
chapel  during  the  period  spoken  of  (1767-90) 
were  : — female  singers,  Weigl,  Cellini,  Jermoli, 
Rippamonti,  ^  Valdesturla,  Tavecchia,  Maria  and 
Matilda  Bolognia,  Raimondi,  Nencini,  Benve- 
nuti ;  male  singers — Friberth,  Bianchi,  (jrherardi, 
Jermoli,  Moratti,  Morelli,  Totti  (2),  Peschi ; 
violins — Tomasini,  Rosetti,  Rippamonti,  Mes- 
trino,  Mraw;  cellists — Weigl,  Kiiffel,  Marteau, 
Kraft ;  flute — Hirsch  ;  clarinets — Griesbacher 
(2);  oboi — Columbazzo  (2),  Poschwa,  Czer- 
wenka  ;  bassoons — Schiringer,  Peczival ;  horns — 
Steinmiiller,  Karl  Franz  (also  played  the baryton) 
Stamitz,  Oliva,  Pauer,  Lendway.  Besides  Franz 
there  was  another  performer  on  the  prince's  own 
instrument,  the  baryton — Andreas  Lidl  (i  769-74) 
who  played  in  London  soon  after  leaving  the 
band.  J.  B.  Krumpholtz  the  harpist  was  en- 
gaged from  1773-76. 

In  March,  1769,  the  whole  musical  establish- 
ment visited  Vienna  for  the  first  time ;  and, 
under  Haydn's  direction,  gave  a  performance 
of  his  opera,  *Lo  Speziale'  (comp,  1768),  at 
the  house  of  Freiherr  von  Sommerau;  and  a 
repetition  in  the  form  of  a  concert.  On  their 
second  visit,  in  the  summer  of  i777>  they  per- 
formed at  Schonbrunn  an  opera  and  a  marionette- 
opera  of  Haydn's,  and  also  played  during  the  Em- 
press's dinner.  The  Prince  would  often  take 
them  to  Presburg  during  the  sitting  of  the 
Hungarian  diet,  or  for  the  festival  of  Count 
Grassalcovich.  and  in  1772  Haydn  conducted 
the  Count's  own  orchestra  even  at  a  ball. 

In  1771  Haydn  composed  a  'Stabat  Mater' 

>  Afterwards  married  to  Schicht,  Cantor  of  the  Thomas-schule  at 
Leipzig. 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


707 


and  a  '  Salve  Regina.*  In  1 775  followed  his  first 
oratorio,  'II  Ritorno  di  Tobia,'  which  was  per- 
lormed  in  Vienna  by  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat, 
with  solo-singers  from  Esterh^z,  and  repeated  in 
1 784  with  two  additional  choruses.^  To  this 
period  belong  4  Masses  (2  small  ones  of  an  early 
date  have  been  lost)— in  G  (1772) ;  in  C,  'Caci- 
lienmesse';  inEb,  with  organ  obbligato  ;  and  in 
Bb,  with  organ  solo  (Nos.  7,  5,  12,  and  8  in 
Novello's  edition).  The  last  is  a  small  but  par- 
ticularly charming  work,  and,  like  the  first,  is 
still  often  heard  ;  but  that  in  Eb  is  old-fashioned. 
The  'Cacilienmesse'  has  many  fugues,  and  is 
seldom  performed  on  account  of  its  length.  (No- 
vello's  edition  is  taken  from  Breitkopf's  cur- 
tailed score.) 

In  1773  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  visited 
Esterh{Cz  from  Sept.  i  to  3,  and  was  enter- 
tained with  performances  of  a  new  symphony  of 
Haydn's — now  known  by  her  name  (p.  721  h) — 
his  opera  '  L'Infedeltk  delusa,'  and 'Philemon 
und  Baucis,'  a  marionette  piece,  which  espe- 
cially pleased  her.  One  song  and  the  overture, — 
(11-  'symphony' — in  2  movements,  have  survived. 
Similar  festivities  took  place  on  various  occa- 
>i<»ns — a  visit  from  one  of  the  Imperial  family, 
or  an  event  in  the  Prince's  own  circle.  Even 
Eisenstadt  gave  a  glimpse  of  its  old  splendour 
when  the  Prince  de  Rohan,  French  Ambassador, 
stayed  there  in  1772. 

In  1776  Haydn  composed  '  La  vera  Costanza,' 
for  the  court-theatre  of  Vienna.  The  intrigues 
against  it  were  however  too  strong,  and  event- 
ually Anfossi's  opera  of  the  same  name  was 
preferred.  Haydn  withdrew  his  score,  and  pro- 
duced it  at  Esterhaz.  It  was  revived  in  1790 
at  the  theatre  then  in  the  Landstrasse  suburb  of 
Vienna,  and  Artaria  engraved  six  of  the  airs  and 
a  duet.  In  1 778  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat  offered 
Haydn  a  strange  affront.  He  wished  to  join  the 
society,  and  had  already  paid  his  deposit,  when 
he  was  asked  to  sign  an  agreement  binding 
him  to  furnish  compositions  of  importance  when- 
ever so  required.  He  naturally  declined,  and 
withdrew  his  money.  No  reparation  was  made  for 
this  indignity  till  after  his  return  from  London 
in  1797,  when  he  was  introduced  at  a  special 
meeting  by  Counts  Kufstein  and  Johann  Ester- 
hazy,  and,  amid  general  acclamation,  appointed 
'Assessor  senior'  for  life.  This  compliment  he 
acknowledged  by  presenting  the  society  with  the 
'  Creation  '  and  the  '  Seasons,'  to  which  gifts  its 
prosperity  is  mainly  owing.  '  L'Isola  disabitata,' 
one  of  his  best  operas,  composed  in  1779  to  a 
libretto  by  Metastasio,  procured  Haydn's  nomi- 
nation as  a  member  of  the  Accademia  Filarmonica 
at  Modena.  He  sent  the  score  to  the  King  of 
Spain,  and  received  in  return  a  gold  snuff-box 
set  in  brilliants.  The  opera  was  performed  at 
the  court-theatre  in  Vienna,  at  a  concert  given 
by  Willmann  the  cellist  in  1785. 

On  Nov.  18,  1779,  the  theatre  at  Esterhaz 
was  burnt  down,  and  during  the  rebuilding  the 
Prince  went  to  Paris.    This  interval  will  en- 

1  'Tobia'  was  rearranged  by  Neukomm  in  1808,  and  performed  at 
the  Tonkiinstler  Societat  concerts. 


able  US  to  mention  the  origin  of  the  famous 
'  Farewell  Symphony.'  It  has  been  often  asserted 
that  Haydn  intended  it  as  an  appeal  to  the 
Prince  against  the  dismissal  of  the  chapel,  but 
this  is  incorrect ;  the  real  object  was  to  persuade 
him  to  shorten  his  stay  at  Esterh^iz,  and  so 
enable  the  musicians  to  rejoin  their  wives 
and  families.  As  one  after  another  stopped 
playing  and  left  the  orchestra,  until  only  two 
violins  were  left  (Tomasini,  the  Prince's  favourite, 
being  one),  the  hint  was  unmistakable.  '  If  all  go,' 
said  the  Prince,  '  we  may  as  well  go  too ' ;  and 
Haydn  knew  that  his  object  was  attained.^ 

This  seems  also  the  place  to  speak  of  a  sub- 
ject closely  affecting  Haydn's  private  life.  In 

1779  ^  couple  named  Polzelli  were  admitted 
into  the  chapel — the  husband,  Anton,  being  an 
indifferent  violinist,  and  the  wife,  Luigia,  by 
birth  a  Roman  of  the  name  of  Moreschi,  a 
second-rate  singer.  For  the  latter  Haydn  con- 
ceived a  violent  affection,  which  she  returned 
by  shamefully  abusing  his  kindness  and  con- 
tinually importuning  him  for  money,  and  even 
extracting  from  him  a  written  promise  that  if 
his  wife  died  he  would  marry  no  one  but  her. 
This  paper  he  afterwards  repudiated,  but  he 
left  her  a  small  annuity  in  his  will.  Before  his 
death  she  had  been  married  a  second  time,  to 
an  Italian  singer,  and  died  at  Kaschau  in  1832.^ 
Mme,  Polzelli  had  two  sons,  of  whom  the  elder 
died  in  1796,  while  the  younger  entered  the 
chapel,  and  eventually  became  its  music- director. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Haydn's,  and  was  popularly 
supposed  to  be  his  son,  but  the  fact  is  doubtful. 
Haydn  was  certainly  very  fond  of  him  ;  but  he 
left  him  only  a  small  sum  in  his  first  will,  and 
revoked  it  in  the  second.* 

On  Oct.  15,  1780,  the  beautiful  new  theatre 
at  Esterhaz  was  opened  with  '  La  Fedeltk  pre- 
miata.'  This  opera  was  twice  represented  in 
Vienna  in  1784,  once  in  the  presence  of  the  Em- 
peror Joseph,  Haydn  himself  conducting.  From 

1 780  dates  his  acquaintance  with  Artaria — the 
commencement  of  a  business  connexion  of  many 
years'  duration.  The  first  works  which  Artaria 
published  for  him  were  6  Clavier  sonatas  (op.  30), 
his  first  12  Lieder,  6  Quartets  ('  die  Russischen'), 
6  Divertissements  in  8  parts  (op.  31),  and  6  Sym- 
phonies ( op .  51  and  52).  In  1781-82  the  Emperor 
Joseph  received  two  visits  from  the  Grand  Duke 
Paul  and  his  wife.  Great  entertainments  were 
given  in  their  honour,  consisting  chiefly  of  mu- 
sical performances,  for  which  the  Grand  Duchess 
had  a  great  taste.^  Gluck's  operas  were  given 
at  the  theatre,  and  some  of  Haydn's  quartets 
played  at  her  own  house,  so  much  to  her  satis- 
faction, that  she  gave  him  a  diamond  snuff-box, 
and  took  lessons  from  him.  Haydn  seems  to 
have  retained  a  pleasant  recollection  of  her,  for 

2  The  Symphony  was  published  in  parts  by  Sieber  (No.  16);  a  new 
edition  by  Simrock  (37;;  in  score  by  Le  Due  (9);  and  for  4  hands 
Trautwein  (28).  Andre's  edition  is  the  Finale  only,  transposed  into 
E  minor. 

2  F^tis  says  that  her  death,  1790,  induced  Haydn  particularly  to  go 
to  London ! 

*  Polzelli's  two  daughters  are  still  living  at  Pesth. 

*  She  was  present  at  the  well-known  competition  between  Clementl 
and  Mozart. 

Z  z2 


708 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


20  years  later— in  1802,  when  she  was  Dowager- 
Empress — he  sent  her  his  fine  part-songs  for  3 
and  4  voices.  He  also  dedicated  the  6  '  Russian ' 
quartets  just  mentioned  to  the  Grand  Duke.  The 
Duke  and  Duchess  had  intended  accompanying 
the  Emperor  to  Eisenstadt,  and  Haydn  was 
hastily  composing  an  opera,  but  their  departure 
was  hurried,  and  the  visit  did  not  take  place. 

About  this  time  Haydn  entered  into  corre- 
spondence with  William  Eorster,  the  well-known 
violin-maker  in  London,  to  whom  he  sold  the 
English  copyright  of  a  series  of  compositions. 
Erom  first  to  last  (the  first  receipt  is  dated 
Aug.  22,  1781)  Forster  and  Son  published  129 
of  his  works,  including  82  symphonies.  Almost 
simultaneously  he  received  a  letter  from  Le 
Gros,  conductor  of  the  'Concerts  Spirituels,' 
saying  that  his  '  Stabat  Mater '  had  been  per- 
formed four  times  with  the  greatest  success,  and, 
in  the  name  of  the  members,  asking  permission 
to  print  it.  They  also  invited  him  to  come  to 
Paris,  and  proposed  to  have  all  his  future  com- 
positions engraved  there  for  his  own  benefit. 
Cherubini's  veneration  for  Haydn  is  said  to  have 
dated  from  his  hearing  one  of  the  six  symphonies 
(op.  51  and  52)  which  he  composed  for  the 
*  Concerts  de  la  Loge  Olympique.'  Besides  the 
publishers  already  named,  he  had  satisfactory 
dealings  with  Nadermann,  Willmann,  Imbault, 
Le  Due,  and  especially  with  Sieber. 

The  opera  which  he  composed  for  the  expected 
visit  of  the  Grand  Duke  and  Duchess  was 
'Orlando  Paladino'  (given  at  Esterh^z  in  the 
autumn  of  1782),  which  in  its  German  form  as 
'  Ritter  Roland '  has  been  more  frequently  per- 
formed than  any  of  his  other  operas.  It  was 
followed  by  'Armida'  (composed  in  1783,  per- 
formed in  1784,  and  again  in  1797  at  Schick- 
aneder'p  theatre  in  Vienna),  the  autograph^  score 
of  which  he  sent  to  London,  in  compensation  for 
the  non-completion  of  '  Orfeo.'  In  judging  of 
his  operas  we  may  be  guided  by  an  expression 
of  his  own  when  refusing  an  invitation  to  pro- 
duce one  in  Prague :  *  My  operas  are  calculated 
exclusively  for  our  own  company,  and  would 
not  produce  their  eflfect  elsewhere.'  The  over- 
tures to  six  of  them  were  published  by  Artaria 
as  '  symphonies, '  though  under  protest  from 
Haydn.  To  1782  also  belongs  the  well-known 
'  Mariazeller-Messe '  (in  C,  Novello,  No.  15), 
so  called  from  the  place  of  that  name  in  Styria. 
It  was  bespoken  by  a  certain  Herr  Liebe  de 
Kreutzner,  and  Haydn  is  said  to  have  taken  par- 
ticular pleasure  in  its  composition,  not  impos- 
sibly because  it  reminded  him  of  a  visit  to 
Mariazell  when  a  young  man  without  experience, 
friends,  or  means  of  any  kind.  This  was  his 
eighth  Mass,  and  he  wrote  no  more  till  1796, 
between  which  year  and  1802  his  best  and 
most  important  works  of  the  kind  were  com- 
posed. 

Between  1780  and  1790  he  met  a  number  of 
artists  in  Vienna  whom  he  was  destined  to 
meet  again  in  London,  such  as  Mara,  Banti, 

1  In  the  possession  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  of  London, 
catalogue  Ko.  1855.  { 


Storace,  and  her  brother  Stephen,  Attwood,  Janie- 
wicz,  and  Jamowick.  In  1 784  he  met  Paisiello, 
Sarti,  and  Sigriora  Strinasacchi,  the  violinist,  at 
Michael  Kelly's  lodgings  ;  the  latter  paid  him 
a  visit  at  Esterhaz  with  Brida,  an  enthusiastic 
amateur.^ 

The  chief  event  of  1785  was  the  composition 
of  the  'Seven  Words  of  our  Saviour  on  the  Cross' 
for  the  cathedral  of  Cadiz,  in  compliance  with  a 
request  from  the  chapter  for  appropriate  instru- 
mental music  for  Good  Friday.  The  work  was 
published  simultaneously  by  Artaria  and  Forster, 
and  in  this  form  Haydn  produced  it  as  '  Passione 
instrumentale '  in  ^  London.  He  afterwards  added 
choruses  and  solos,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts 
by  the  introduction  of  a  Largo  for  wind  instru- 
ments. In  this  new  form  it  was  produced  for 
the  first  time  at  Eisenstadt  in  Oct.  1797,  and 
published  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  (1801),  with 
a  preface  by  the  composer.  It  may  seem  sur- 
prising that  the  chapter  of  Cadiz  should  have 
applied  to  Haydn ;  but  in  fact  he  was  well 
known  in  Spain  to  others  besides  the  king,  who 
had  been  in  communication  with  him  long  be- 
fore, as  we  have  seen.  Thus  Boccherini  wrote 
to  him  from  Madrid  expressing  the  pleasure  he 
received  from  his  works,  and  Yriarte  celebrated 
him  with  enthusiasm  in  his  poem  of  'La  Musica' 
(Madrid,  1779). — In  Jan.  1785  Haydn  acquired 
two  interesting  pupils — Fritz  and  Edmund  von 
Weber.  They  were  brought  to  him  by  their 
father  Franz  Anton,  who  had  just  remarried  in 
Vienna.  His  desire  to  see  one  of  his  children 
develop  into  a  great  musician,  afterwards  so 
gloriously  fulfilled  in  the  composer  of  the  '  Frei- 
schiitz,'  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  granted  in 
Edmund.  In  the  same  year  Mozart  dedicated 
the  well-known  six  quartets  to  Haydn,  in  terms 
of  almost  filial  afi'ection.  It  was  after  listening 
to  a  performance  of  one  of  these  that  Haydn 
said  to  Mozart's  father,  in  his  open-hearted  way, 
'  I  declare  to  you  on  my  honour  that  I  consider 
your  son  the  greatest  composer  I  have  ever 
heard  ;  he  has  taste,  and  possesses  the  most  con- 
summate knowledge  of  the  art  of  composition.' 
He  spoke  of  him  still  more  warmly  in  a  letter  to 
Prague  in  1787.  The  relation  in  which  these 
two  great  men  stood  to  each  other  does  credit 
to  them  both,  and  leads  us  to  form  a  high  esti- 
mate of  their  characters.  It  would  be  diflBcult 
to  find  a  parallel  instance. 

In  1787  Haydn  received  a  pressing  invitation 
to  London,  from  W.  Cramer,  the  violinist,  who 
wrote  offering  to  engage  him  at  any  cost  for 
the  Professional  Concerts.  Gallini  also  wrote 
asking  his  terms  for  an  opera.  Nothing  came 
of  either  at  the  time,  but  Salomon  determined 
to  try  what  personal  influence  would  do,  and 
despatched  Bland,  the  music  publisher,  to 
Vienna,  where  he  arrived  in  November,  and 
finding  Haydn  still  at  Esterhaz,  followed  him 
there.  He  did  not  attain  his  main  object,  but 
Haydn  gave  him  the  copyright  of  several  of  his 

2  Kelly,  Reminiscences,  i.  221,  calls  it  Eisenstadt  by  mistake. 

»  Though  often  included  among  his  quartets,  it  has  nothing  to  do 
with  them.  It  was  first  published  alone  by  Artaria,  but  was  after- 
wards omitted  from  bis  authorised  series  of  Haydn's  quartets. 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


709 


compositions,  among  others  '  Ariadne,'  a  cantata 
for  a  single  voice  (composed  in  1782).  An  anec- 
dote of  Bland's  visit  is  often  told.  When  he 
was  admitted,  Haydn  was  in  the  act  of  shaving, 
and  grumbling  over  the  bluntness  of  his  razor. 
Bland  caught  the  exclamation,  *  I  would  give 
my  best  quartet  for  a  good  razor,'  and,  rushing 
off  to  his  lodging,  fetched  his  own  pair,  which 
he  presented  to  Haydn,  and  received  in  ex- 
change his  newest  quartet,  which  is  often  called 
the  'Rasirmesser'  (razor)  quartet  (Trautwein, 
No.  2). 

On  Sept.  28,  1790,  Prince  Nicolaus  died — 
a  great  loss  for  Haydn,  who  really  loved  him. 
He  left  his  Capellmeister,  on  condition  of  his 
retaining  the  title,  an  annual  pension  of  1000 
florins,  as  a  mark  of  esteem  and  affection.  To 
this  sum  his  successor.  Prince  Anton,  added 
another  400  florins,  but  deprived  Haydn  of  his 
occupation  by  dismissing  the  whole  chapel,  except 
the  few  members  necessary  to  keep  up  the  ser- 
vices in  church.  Haydn  now  fixed  his  abode  in 
Vienna,  but  had  hardly  done  so  before  Salomon 
appeared  on  the  scene.  He  had  heard  of  the 
Prince's  death  at  Cologne,  on  his  way  to  Eng- 
land, and  immediately  returned,  hoping,  now  that 
Haydn  was  free,  to  persuade  him  to  visit  London. 
Haydn  could  no  longer  plead  the  old  excuse  of 
unwillingness  to  leave  his  master,  so  he  gave 
way,  and  began  to  make  preparations  for  the 
journey.  While  thus  occupied  he  was  informed 
that  Ferdinand  IV,  King  of  Naples,  then  in 
Vienna  for  the  marriage  of  his  two  daughters, 
wished  to  see  him.  Haydn  had  thought  of  visit- 
ing Naples  in  1787,  and  the  King  was  well 
acquainted  with  his  music.  He  had  even  com- 
missioned him  to  compose  several  concerted 
pieces  for  his  favourite  instrument,  the  lyre. 
Nevertheless  the  audience  was  put  off  several 
times,  and  when  it  did  take  place,  and  Haydn 
presented  his  compositions,  the  King  said:  'The 
day  after  to-morrow  we  will  try  them.'  Haydn 
replied  that  he  was  to  start  for  England  on  that 
day.  '  What ! '  exclaimed  the  King,  '  and  you 
promised  to  come  to  Naples ! '  He  then  indig- 
nantly left  the  room,  but  returned  in  an  hour, 
and,  having  recovered  his  temper,  made  Haydn 
promise  to  visit  Naples  on  his  return  from  Lon- 
don, gave  him  a  letter  of  recommendation  to  his 
ambassador.  Prince  Castelcicala,  and  sent  after 
him  a  valuable  tabatifere.  And  thus  Haydn  got 
over  a  great  turning-point  in  his  life.  Among 
those  of  whom  he  took  leave  was  his  old  and 
dear  friend  Madame  Genzinger.  [See  Karajan.] 
His  last  hours  in  Vienna  were  enlivened  by  the 
company  of  Mozart,  who  had  come  to  see  him 
off.  He  too  had  been  invited  to  London  in 
1786,  and  had  only  declined  in  deference  to 
his  father's  wishes.  His  father  was  now  dead, 
and  Salomon  promised  him  a  speedy  oppor- 
tunity of  making  up  for  lost  time.  Too  late 
again — in  less  than  a  year  Mozart's  eyes  were 
closed  in  death. 

To  the  compositions  of  the  period  1767-90, 
already  mentioned,  must  be  added  the  follow- 
ing:— 


Instrumental  music:— about  80|  13-15,  4,  9,  10,  17,  3,  16;  duets  for 
symphonies,  including    '  II  Dis-  clavier  and  violin,  Nos.  2-5  being 


tratto'  (for  a  play),  'La  Chasse,' 
'The  Schoolmaster,'  'Laudon,'  the 
Toy-symphony,  and  i  the '  Oxford  ' ; 
'Feld-partien'  for  wind  instru- 
ments; minuets  and  allemands  for 
full  orchestra,  and  for  2  violins 
and  bass ;  string-quartets,  6  com- 
posed 17C9  ;  6  ditto  comp.  1771 ; 
6  ditto  comp.  1774;  6  ditto 
comp.  1781,  dedicated  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Russia;  6  ditto 
comp.  17><6,  dedicated  to  the  King 
of  Prussia ;  6  ditto  comp.  1789,  and 
6  ditto  comp.  1790,  ded.  to  Mr. 
Tost  (Nos.  19-42;  44  -  49  ;  57-68,  in 
Heckel's  score-edition  and  in  Pe- 
ters's  Edition  of  the  Parts; ;  string- 
trios  of  various  kinds,  adapted 
from  the  baryton  pieces;  6  duets 
for  violin  and  ^ viola;  pieces  for 
flute,  harp,  and  lute;  175  com- 
positions for  the  baryton,  viz.  6 
duets  for  2  barytons,  12  sonatas  for 
baryton  and  cello,  12  divertimenti 
for  2  barytons  and  bass,  125  di- 
vertimenti for  baryton,  viola,  and 
bass,  17  cassations,  and  3  concertos 
for  baryton,  2  violins,  and  bass; 
concertos  for  strings  and  wind  in- 
struments, viz.  violin  9,  cello  6,^ 
double  bass  1,  lyre  5,  flute  2,  horn  4. 

Clavier  music  in  chronological 
sequence,  edition  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel :— trios  with  violin  and  cello, 
Nos.  25,  26  (really  by  Michael 
Haydn),  27,  28,  23,  21,  22,  9, 17,  8, 10, 
11,  24,  29,  30,  31,  the  three  last  for 
flute  and  cello ;  sonatas  Nos.  11, 12, 
19,  29,  30,  31,  23-28.20,  2,  32,  5-8, 18, 


original,  the  rest  arrangements; 
smaller  pieces:  variations  Nos.  5, 4, 
Capriccio,  No.  3 ;  Fantasia,  No.  2 ; 
'Differentes  petites  pieces'  (Arta- 
ria,  op.  46) ;  '  II  Maestro  e  lo  Sco- 
lare,'  variations  for  4  hands,  his 
only  composition  of  the  kind,  except 
some  early  attempts.  Of  his  many 
clavier-concertos  and  divertimenti 
4  only  are  included  in  Haydn's  owu 
catalogue,  the  best,  in  D  (Artaria 
1782),  not  being  amongst  the  num- 
ber.* 

Vocal  compositions— 12  Lieder.  12 
ditto  (Artaria).  several  single  Lie- 
der; airs  for  various  operas;  operas 
'  La  Canterina,'  opera  buffa  (1766)  : 
'  Lo  Speziale,'  dramma  giocosa 
(1768) ;  •  Le  I'escatrici,"  ditto  (1770) ; 
'L'Infedeltadelusa,'  burletta(1773); 
'L'lncontro  improviso,'  dramma 
giocosa(1775);  'II  Mondadella  luna,' 
ditto  (1777) ;  '  La  vera  Oostanza,' 
ditto  (comp.  1777,  perf.  1779); 
*  L'Isola  disabitata,'  azione  teatrale 
(1779) ;  'La  Fedelt  i  premiata,'dram- 
ma  giocosa  (17fO);  'L'Infedelta 
fedele  *  0780  ? ) ;  '  Orlando  Paladi- 
no,'  dramma  eroicomica  (1782); 
'Armida,'  dramma  eroica  (1784); 
incidental  music  to  the  following 
plays, 'Der  Zerstreute,'  'DieFeu- 
ersbrunst,'  'Hamlet,'  'Giitz  von 
Beilichingen,'  'Kiin'g  Lear,'  'Das 
abgebrannte  Haus.'  Lastly,  ma- 
rionette operas—'  Der  Gbtterrath ' 
(prelude  to  'Philemon  und  Bau- 
cis'), 'Der  Hexenschabbas,'  'Ge- 
noverfa,'  part  4,  Dido,  etc. 


Leaving  Vienna  on  Wednesday,  Dec.  15,  i790> 
Haydn  and  Salomon  travelled  by  Munich,  Bonn, 
and  Brussels  to  Calais,  crossed  the  Channel  in 
nine  hours  on  New  Year's  Day,  1791,  and  from 
Dover  proceeded  straight  to  London.  Haydn  first 
put  up  at  the  house  ot  Bland,  the  music-seller,  45 
Holborn,  but  soon  removed  to  rooms  prepared 
for  him  at  Salomon's,  18  Great  Pulteney  Street. 
Here  he  found  himself  the  object  of  every  spe- 
cies of  attention  ;  ambassadors  and  noblemen 
called  on  him,  invitations  poured  in  from  all 
quarters,  and  he  was  surrounded  by  a  circle  of 
the  most  distinguished  artists,  conspicuous  among 
whom  were  his  young  countryman  Gyrowetz, 
and  Dr.  Burney,  who  had  been  for  some  time  in 
correspondence  with  him,  and  now  welcomed 
him  with  a  poetical  effusion The  Anacreontic 
Society,  the  Ladies'  Concerts,  the  New  Musical 
Fund,  the  Professional  Concerts,  and  all  the 
other  musical  societies  eagerly  desired  his  pre- 
sence at  their  meetings.  His  quartets  and  sym- 
phonies were  performed,  Pacchierotti  sang  his 
cantata  'Ariadne  a  Naxos,'  and  he  was  enthu- 
siastically noticed  in  all  the  newspapers.  Before 
leaving  Vieana  Salomon  had  announced  his  sub- 
scription concerts  in  the  Morning  Chronicle,  for 
which  Haydn  was  engaged  to  compose  six  sym- 
phonies, and  conduct  them  at  the  pianoforte.  The 
first  of  the  series  took  place  on  March  11,  1791, 
in  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms.  The  orchestra, 
led  by  Salomon,  consisted  of  35  or  40  performers, 
and  was  placed  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  which 

*  InG;  known  In  the  Library  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  as 
'  Letter  Q,'  recently  published  in  score  and  parts  by  Rieter-Biedern:ani\ 

^  First  circulated  in  MS.  in  1776,  afterwards  printed  by  Artaria,  now 
reprinted  by  Andr^. 
'  Andr^  has  lately  republished  a  fine  one  in  D,  1781. 

*  It  has  been  reprinted  by  AndrtJ  for  solo,  and  with  orchestra,  and 
recently  arranged  for  4  hands  by  Kiet«r-Biedermann. 

*  '  Verses  on  the  arrival  of  the  Great  Musician  Haydn  in  England.* 


710 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


it  occupied  latterly.  The  Symphony  (Salomon, 
No,  2)  was  the  first  piece  in  the  second  part,  the 
position  stipulated  for  by  Haydn,  and  the  Adagio 
was  encored — *a  very  rare  occurrence.'  The 
Morning  Chronicle  gives  an  animated  description 
of  the  concert,  the  success  of  which  was  most 
brilliant,  and  ensured  that  of  the  whole  series. 
Haydn's  benefit  was  on  May  16;  £200  was 
guaranteed,  but  the  i-eceipts  amounted  to  £350. 
Meantime  Gallini,  manager  of  the  King's  The- 
atre, was  trying  in  vain  to  obtain  a  licence  for 
the  performance  of  operas.  Two  parties  were  at 
issue  on  the  question.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  King's  Theatre,  while 
the  King  publicly  declared  his  adhesion  to  the 
Pantheon,  and  pronounced  two  Italian  opera- 
houses  undesirable.  At  length  Gallini  was  clever 
enough  to  obtain  a  license  for  '  Entertainments 
of  Music  and  Dancing,'  with  which  he  opened 
the  theatre  on  March  26,  with  David  as  tenor, 
Vestris  as  ballet-master,  Haydn  as  composer, 
Federici  as  composer  and  conductor,  and  Salo- 
mon as  leader — and  with  these  he  performed 
various  works  of  Haydn's,  including  symphonies 
and  quartets,  his  Chorus  'The  Storm'  (the 
words  by  Peter  Pindar,  'Hark  the  wild  uproar 
of  the  waves'),  an  Italian  catch  for  7  voices, 
and  a  cantata  composed  for  David.  His  opera 
'  Orfeo  ed  Euridice,'  though  paid  for  and  nearly 
completed,  was  not  performed,  owing  to  the 
failure  of  the  undertaking.  During  the  time 
he  was  composing  it,  Haydn  lived  in  Lisson 
Grove — then  absolutely  in  the  country — where 
one  of  his  most  frequent  visitors  was  J.  B. 
Cramer,  then  20  years  old.  His  second  benefit 
was  on  May  30,  at  the  request  of  some  ama- 
teurs of  high  position.  Haydn  gave  a  concert 
at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  where  he  con- 
ducted two  of  his  symphonies,  and,  for  the  first 
time,  the  'Seven  Words'  (La  Passione  instru- 
mentale),  afterwards  repeated  at  the  concert 
of  Clement,  the  boy-violinist,  and  elsewhere. 
About  this  time  he  was  invited  to  the  annual 
dinner  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Musicians,  and 
composed  for  the  occasion  a  march  for  orchestra, 
the  autograph  of  which  is  still  preserved  by  the 
society.  He  also  attended  the  Handel  Com- 
memoration in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  had  a 
good  place  near  the  King's  box,  and  never  having 
heard  any  performance  on  so  grand  a  scale,  was 
immensely  impressed.  When  the  Hallelujah 
Chorus  rang  through  the  nave,  and  the  whole 
audience  rose  to  their  feet,  he  wept  like  a  child, 
exclaiming,  '  He  is  the  master  of  us  all.' 

In  the  first  week  of  July  he  went  to  the  Ox- 
ford Commemoration,  for  the  honorary  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Music,  conferred  at  Dr.  Burney's  sug- 
gestion. Three  grand  concerts  formed  an  im- 
portant feature  of  the  entertainments  ;  at  the 
second  of  these  the  '  Oxford '  symphony '  was  per- 
formed, Haydn  giving  the  tempi  at  the  organ;  and 
at  the  third  he  appeared  in  his  Doctor's  gown, 
amid  enthusiastic  applause.  The  *  Catalogue  of  all 

•  He  had  taken  a  new  Symphony  with  him.  but  that  In  G  (Letter 
Q,  ll'fl  or  8;  was  substituted,  owing  to  the  time  being  too  short  for  re- 
bearsttla. 


Graduates'  contains  the  entry,  'Haydn,  Joseph, 
Composer  to  His  Serene  Highness  the  Prince  of 
Esterhazy,  cr.  Doctor  of  Music,  July  8,  1791.' 
He  sent  the  University  as  his  '  exercise  '  the  fol- 
lowing composition' — afterwards  used  for  the  first 
of  the  '  Ten  Commandments,'  the  whole  of  which 
he  set  to  canons  during  his  stay  in  London  ^, 


Canon  cancinzans,  a  ire. 


■f^  •  • 

voice,  0 

Har-rao 

-  ny. 

is     di  • 

vine. 

-  IP  S! 

'in  -om  ' 

0  '8010/ 

On  his  return  he  made  several  excursions  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London,  and  stayed  five 
weeks  with  Mr.  Brassey  (of  7 1  Lombard  Street) ' 
at  his  country  house  1 2  miles  from  town,  where 
he  gave  lessons  to  Miss  Brassey,  and  enjoyed 
the  repose  of  country  life  in  the  midst  of  a  family 
circle  all  cordially  attached  to  him.  Meantime 
a  new  contract  was  entered  into  with  Salomon, 
which  prevented  his  obeying  a  pressing  summons 
from  Prince  Esterhazy  to  a  great  fete  for  the  Em- 
peror. In  November  he  was  a  guest  at  two  Guild- 
hall banquets — that  of  the  outgoing  Lord  Mayor 
(Sir  John  Boydell)  on  the  5th,  and  that  of  the  new 
one  (John  Hopkins)  on  the  9th.  Of  these  enter- 
tainments he  left  a  curious  account  in  his  diary.* 
In  the  same  month  he  visited  the  marionnettes 
at  the  Fantoccini  theatre  in  Savile  Row,  in 
which  he  took  a  great  interest  from  old  associa- 
tions with  Esterh^LZ.  On  the  25th,  on  an  invi- 
tation from  the  Prince  of  Wales,  he  went  to 
Oatlands,  to  visit  the  Duke  of  York,  who  had 
married  the  Princess  of  Prussia  two  days  before. 
'  Die  liebe  kleine  ' — she  was  but  1 7 — quite  won 
Haydn's  heart ;  she  sang,  played  the  piano,  sat 
by  his  side  during  his  symphony  (one  she  had 
often  heard  at  home),  and  hummed  all  the  airs 
as  it  went  on.  The  Prince  of  Wales  played  the 
violoncello,  and  all  the  music  was  of  Haydn's 
composition.  They  even  made  him  sing  his 
own  songs.  During  the  visit,  which  lasted  three 
days,  Hoppner  painted  his  portrait,  by  the  Piince's 
command;  it  was  engraved  in  1807  by  Facius, 
and  is  now  at  Hampton  Court  (Ante-room,  No. 
920).  Engravings  were  also  published  in  London 
by  Schiavonetti  and  Bartolozzi  from  portraits 
by  Guttenbrunn  and  Ott,  and  by  Hardy  from 
his  own  oil-painting.  Haydn  next  went  to 
Cambridge  to  see  the  University,  thence  to  Sir 
Patrick  Blake's  at  Langham,  and  afterwards  to 
the  house  of  a  Mr.  Shaw,  where  he  was  received 

»  The  autograph,  the  gift  of  Griesinger,  Is  preserred  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musiltfreunde  in  Vienna. 
3  An  ancestor  of  the  present  Thomas  Brassey,  Esq.,  M.  P. 
*  See  Pohl's  '  Haydn  in  London '  p.  157. 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


711 


with  every  possible  mark  of  respect  and  atten- 
tion. He  says  in  his  diary,  *  Mrs.  Shaw  is  the 
most  beautiful  woman  I  ever  saw';  and  when 
quite  an  old  man  still  preserved  a  ribbon  which 
she  had  worn  during  his  visit,  and  on  which 
his  name  was  embroidered  in  gold. 

The  directors  of  the  Professional  Concerts 
had  been  for  some  time  endeavouring  to  make 
Haydn  break  his  engagements  with  Salomon  and 
Gailini.  Not  succeeding,  they  invited  his  pupil 
Ignaz  Pleyel,  from  Strassburg,  to  conduct  their 
concerts ;  but  far  from  showing  any  symptoms 
of  rivalry  or  hostility,  master  and  pupil  con- 
tinued the  best  of  friends,  and  took  every  op- 
portunity of  displaying  their  attachment.  The 
Professionals  were  first  in  the  field,  as  their  open- 
ing concert  took  place  on  Feb.  15,  1792,  while 
Salomon's  series  did  not  begin  till  the  17th. 
Gyrowetz  was  associated  with  Haydn  as  com- 
poser for  the  year,  and  his  works  were  as  much 
appreciated  here  as  in  Paris.  At  these  concerts 
Haydn  produced  symphonies,  divertimenti  for 
concerted  instruments,  a  notturno  for  the  same, 
string  quartets,  a  clavier  trio,  airs,  a  cantata, 
and  the  *  Storm  *  chorus  already  mentioned.^ 
He  was  also  in  great  request  at  concerts,  and 
conducted  those  of  Barthelemon  (with  whom 
he  formed  a  close  friendship),  Haesler  the  pianist, 
Mme.  Mara  (who  sang  at  his  benefit),  and 
many  others.  Besides  his  own  annual  benefit 
Salomon  gave  *  by  desire '  an  extra  concert  on 
June  6.  when  he  played  several  violin  solos, 
and  when  Haydn's  favourite  compositions  were 
'  received  with  an  extasy  of  admiration.'  'Thus,' 
to  quote  the  Morning  Chronicle, '  Salomon  finished 
his  season  on  Wednesday  night  with  the  greatest 
eclat.'  The  concerts  over,  he  made  excursions  to 
Windsor  Castle,  Ascot  Races,  and  Slough,  where 
he  stayed  with  Herschel,  of  whose  domestic  life 
he  gives  a  particular  description  in  his  diary. 
The  only  son,  afterwards  Sir  J  ohn  Herschel,  was 
then  a  few  months  old.  He  went  also  to  the 
meeting  of  the  Charity  Children  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  was  deeply  moved  by  the  singing. 
'  I  was  more  touched,'  says  he  in  his  diary,  '  by 
this  innocent  and  reverent  music  than  by  any  I 
ever  heard  in  my  life.'  The  somewhat  common- 
place double  chant  by  Jones  the  organist,  is 
quoted  in  his  diary.    [See  Jones.] 

Amongst  Haydn's  intimate  associates  in  this 
year  were  Bartolozzi  the  engraver,  to  whose  wife 
he  dedicated  3  Clavier  trios  and  a  sonata  ^  in  C, 
and  John  Hunter  the  surgeon  (who  begged  in 
vain  to  be  allowed  to  remove  a  polypus  in  the 
nose  which  he  had  inherited  from  his  mother), 
and  whose  wife  wrote  the  words  for  most  of  his 
12  English  canzonets — the  first  set  dedicated 
to  her ;  the  second  to  Lady  Charlotte  Bertie. 
But  the  dearest  of  all  his  friends  was  Mrs. 
Schroeter,  a  lady  of  good  birth,  and  widow  of 
the  Queen's  music-master,  John  Samuel  Schroe- 
ter, who  died  Nov.  i,  1788.    She  took  lessons 

1  This,  his  first  composition  to  English  words,  became  very  popular  as 
an  Offertorium  in  churches.  Score  and  parts,  Breitkopfs,  Simrock,  etc. 

*  This  sonata,  published  by  H.  Caulfield,  has  never  been  printed  in 
Germany.  Haydn's  remark  on  it  was,  '  Not  yet  to  be  printed.'  The 
Adagio  only,  in  F,  is  often  reprinted  separately,  by  Holle,  Peters,  etc. 
It  is  Biven  entire  by  Sterndale  Bennett  in  bis  'Classical  Practice." 


from  him  on  the  pianoforte,  and  a  warm  feeling 
of  esteem  and  respect  sprang  up  between  them, 
which  on  her  side  ripened  into  a  passionate 
attachment.  Haydn's  affections  must  also  have 
been  involved,  for  in  his  old  age  he  said  once, 
pointing  to  a  packet  of  her  letters,  'Those  are 
from  an  English  widow  who  fell  in  love  with 
me.  She  was  a  very  attractive  woman  and  still 
handsome,  though  over  sixty ;  and  had  I  been 
free  I  should  certainly  have  married  her.'  Haydn 
dedicated  to  Mrs.  Schroeter  three  Clavier-Trios 
(Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  Nos.  I,  2,  6).  In  the  2nd 
(Fj  minor)  he  adapted  the  Adagio  from  the 
Salomon-symphony,  No.  9  (Bb),  probably  a  fa- 
vourite of  the  lady's.  A  second  of  his  London 
admirers  deserves  mention.  Among  his  papers 
is  a  short  piece  with  a  note  saying  that  it  was 
'by  Mrs.  Hodges,  the  loveliest  woman  I  ever 
saw,  and  a  great  pianoforte  player.  Both  words 
and  music  are  hers,'  and  then  follows  a  P.S.  in 
the  trembling  hand  of  his  latest  life,  '  Bequiescat 
in  pace !    J.  Haydn.'  ^ 

During  his  absence  his  wife  had  had  the  offer 
of  a  small  house  and  garden  in  the  suburbs  of 
Vienna  (Windmiihle,  73  kleine  Steingasse,  now 
19  Haydngasse,  then  a  retired  spot  in  the  4th 
district  of  the  Mariahilf  suburb),  and  she  wrote 
asking  him  to  send  her  the  money  for  it,  as  it 
would  be  just  the  house  for  her  when  she  be- 
came a  widow.  He  did  not  send  the  money, 
but  on  his  return  to  Vienna  bought  it,  added 
a  storey,  and  lived  there  from  Jan.  1797  till 
his  death. 

Haydn  left  London  towards  the  end  of  June 
1792,  and  travelling  by  way  of  Bonn — where 
Beethoven  asked  his  opinion  of  a  cantata,  and 
Frankfort — where  he  met  Prince  Anton  at  the 
coronation  of  the  Emperor  Francis  II,  reached 
Vienna  at  the  end  of  July.  His  reception  was 
enthusiastic,  and  all  were  eager  to  hear  his 
London  symphonies.  In  Dec.  1792  Beethoven 
came  to  him  for  instruction,  and  continued  to 
take  lessons  until  Haydn's  second  journey  to  Eng- 
land. The  relations  of  these  two  great  men  have 
been  much  misrepresented.  That  Haydn  had 
not  in  any  way  forfeited  Beethoven's  respect  is 
evident,  as  he  spoke  highly  of  him  whenever 
opportunity  offered,  usually  chose  one  of  Haydn's 
themes  when  improvising  in  public,  scored  one  of 
his  *  quartets  for  his  own  use,  and  carefully  pre- 
served the  autograph  of  one  of  the  English 
symphonies.^  But  whatever  Beethoven's  early 
feeling  may  have  been,  aU  doubts  as  to  his  latest 
sentiments  are  set  at  rest  by  his  exclamation  on 
his  death-bed  on  seeing  a  view  of  Haydn's 
birthplace,  sent  to  him  by  Diabelli — 'To  think 
that  so  great  a  man  should  have  been  born  in 
a  common  peasant's  cottage  1 '  [See  Beethoven, 
p.  199  6.]^ 

Again  invited  by  Salomon,  under  special  sti- 
pulation, to  compose  6  new  symphonies,  Haydn 
started  on  his  second  journey  on  Jan.  19, 

»  See  Pohl's  '  Haydn  in  London,'  218-223. 

*  Trautwein,  score  No.  20;  Beethoven's  MS.  Is  In  the  possession  of 
Artaria.  See  the  Sale  Catalogue.  No.  112,  given  in  Thayer, '  Chrono- 
logisches  Verzeichnls?,'  p.  177. 

5  No.  4,  Bb,  sold  among  Beethoven's  remains— Sale  Catalogue,  No.  189. 


712 


HAYDIT. 


HAYDN. 


1794.  Prince  Anton  took  a  reluctant  leave  of 
him,  and  died  three  days  after  he  left.  This 
time  Haydn  went  down  the  Rhine,  accompanied 
by  his  faithful  copyist  and  servant,  Johann 
Elssler'  and  arrived  in  London  on  Feb.  4.  He 
took  lodgings  at  No.  i  Bury  Street,  St.  James's, 
probably  to  be  near  Mrs.  Schroeter,  who  lived 
in  James  Street,  Buckingham  Gate.  Nothing 
is  known  of  their  relations  at  this  time  ;  Elssler 
could  have  given  information  on  this  and  many 
other  points,  but  unlike  Handel's  Smith  he  was 
a  mere  copyist,  and  none  of  Haydn's  biographers 
seem  to  have  thought  of  applying  to  him  for 
particulars  about  his  master,  though  he  lived 
till  1843. — Haydn's  engagement  with  Salomon 
bound  him  to  compose  and  conduct  six  fresh 
symphonies ;  and  besides  these,  the  former  set, 
including  the  'Surprise,'  was  repeated.  Some 
new  quartets  are  also  mentioned,  and  a  quintet 
in  C  (known  as  op.  88),  which  however  was 
his  brother  Michael's.  The  first  concert  was  on 
Feb.  10,  and  the  last  on  May  12.  At  one  of  the 
rehearsals  Haydn  surprised  the  orchestra  by 
showing  young  Smart  (afterwards  Sir  George) 
the  proper  way  to  play  the  drums.  At  Haydn's 
benefit  (May  3)  the  'Military'  Symphony  was 
produced  for  the  first  time,  and  Dussek  and 
Viotti  played  concertos.  The  latter  was  also 
leader  at  Salomon's  benefit — a  proof  of  the  good 
understanding  between  the  two  violinists. 

During  his  second  visit  Haydn  had  ample 
opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  Han- 
del's music.  Regular  performances  of  his  ora- 
torios took  place  in  Lent  both  at  Covent  Garden 
and  Drury  Lane  ;  and  in  1795  concerts  of  sacred 
music,  interspersed  with  some  of  Haydn's  sym- 
phonies, were  given  at  the  King's  Theatre. 
Haydn  also  conducted  performances  of  his  sym- 
phonies at  the  New  Musical  Fund  concerts. 
Among  his  new  acquaintances  we  find  Dragonetti, 
who  had  accompanied  Banti  to  London  in  1 794, 
and  a  lasting  friendship  sprang  up  between 
Haydn  and  that  good-natured  artist.  For  Banti 
Haydn  composed  an  air  '  Non  partir,'  in  E  (the 
recitative  begins,  *  Berenice which  she  sang  at 
his  benefit. 

'  This  name  is  closely  associated  with  that  of  Haydn  from  1766,  the 
date  of  Joseph  Elssler's  marriage  at  Eisenstadt,  at  which  Haydn  as- 
sisted. Joseph  was  a  native  of  Silesia,  and  music  copyist  to  Prince 
Esterhazy.  His  children  were  taken  into  the  '  chapel '  on  Haydn's 
recommendation,  and  the  second  son,  Johannes  (born  at  Eisenstadt 
1769),  lived  the  whole  of  his  life  with  him,  first  as  copyist  and  then  as 
general  servant  and  factotum.  He  accompanied  Haydn  on  his  second 
journey  to  London,  and  tended  him  in  his  last  years  with  the  greatest 
care.  Despite  the  proverb  that  •  no  man  is  a  hero  to  his  valet,'  Haydn 
was  to  Hlssler  a  constant  subject  of  veneration,  which  he  carried  so 
far  that  when  he  thought  himself  unobserved  he  would  stop  with  the 
censer  before  his  master's  portrait,  as  if  it  were  the  altar. 

Elssler  copied  a  large  amount  of  Haydn's  music,  partly  in  score, 
partly  in  separate  parts,  much  of  which  is  now  treasured  as  the 
autograph  of  Haydn,  though  the  handwriting  of  the  two  are  essentially 
different.  He  survived  his  master  34  years  and  died  at  Vienna  June 
12,  1843,  in  the  enjoyment  of  GOOO  florins  which  Haydn  bequeathed  to 
him  as  a  'true  and  honest  servant.'  His  elder  brother  Joseph,  oboe 
at  Esterhaz,  died  at  Vienna,  also  in  1843.  Johann  married  Therese 
Trinster,  whose  brothers  Anton  and  Michael  were  horn-players,  and 
the  pride  of  the  Esterhazy  orchestra.  From  this  union  came  (1) 
Johann,  born  1802,  died  (as  chorus-master  at  the  Berlin  Theatre  Eoyal) 
1872;  (2)  Therese,  born  April  5, 1808,  and  (3)  Fbanziska,  born  June  23, 
1810— all  natives  of  Vienna.  Both  daughters  were  danseuses.  Therese 
was  made  Frau  von  Barnim  by  the  King  of  Prussia,  married  Prince 
Adalbert,  and  died  at  Meran,  Nov.  20,1878;  while  Franziska,  better 
known  as  Fanny  Elssi.eu,  was  one  of  the  greatest  dancers  of  her 
time.  She  is  still  living  in  comp'.ete  seclusion  at  Vienna  (1879), 


Among  the  numerous  violinists  then  in  Lon- 
don —  Jarnowick,  Janiewicz,  Cramer,  Viotti, 
Clement,  Bridgetower,  etc. — we  must  not  omit 
Giardini.  Though  nearly  8o  years  of  age  he 
produced  an  oratorio,  '  Ruth,'  at  Ranelagh,  and 
even  played  a  concerto.  His  temper  was  fright- 
ful, and  he  showed  a  particular  spite  against 
Haydn,  even  remarking  within  his  hearing, 
when  urged  to  call  upon  him,  *  I  don't  want  to 
see  the  German  dog.'  Haydn  retorted  by  writing 
in  his  diary,  after  hearing  him  play,  ^Giardini 
played  like  a  pig.'  After  the  exertions  of  the 
season  Haydn  sought  refreshment  in  the  country, 
first  staying  at  Sir  Charles  Rich's  house  near 
Waverley  Abbey,  in  Surrey.  In  September  he 
went  with  Dr.  Burney  to  see  Rauzzini  at  Bath, 
where  he  passed  three  pleasant  days,  and  wrote 
a  canon  to  the  inscription  which  Rauzzini  had 
put  on  a  monument  in  his  garden  to  'his  best 
friend' — 'Turk  was  a  faithful  dog,  and  not  a 
man.'  He  also  went  to  Taplow  with  Shield, 
and  with  Lord  Abingdon  visited  Lord  Aston  at 
Preston.  An  anecdote  of  this  time  shows  the 
humour  which  was  so  native  to  Haydn,  and  so 
often  pervades  his  compositions.  He  composed 
an  apparently  easy  sonata  for  pianoforte  and 
violin,  called  it  'Jacob's  Dream,'  and  sent  it 
anonymously  to  an  amateur  who  professed  him- 
self addicted  to  the  extreme  upper  notes  of  the 
violin.  The  unfortunate  performer  was  delighted 
with  the  opening  ;  here  was  a  composer  who 
thoroughly  understood  the  instrument !  but  aa 
he  found  himself  compelled  to  mount  the  ladder 
higher  and  higher  without  any  chance  of  coming 
down  again,  the  perspiration  burst  out  upon  his 
forehead,  and  he  exclaimed,  '  What  sort  of  com- 
position do  you  call  this  ?  the  man  knows  nothing 
whatever  of  the  violin.' 

In  1 795  Salomon  announced  his  concerts  under 
a  new  name  and  place,  the  'National  School 
of  Music,'  in  the  King's  Concert-room,  recently 
added  to  the  King's  Theatre.  Haydn  was  again 
engaged  as  composer  and  conductor  of  his  own 
symphonies,  and  Salomon  had  collected  an  un- 
precedented assemblage  of  talent.  The  music 
was  chiefly  operatic,  but  one  or  even  two  of 
Haydn's  symphonies  were  given  regularly,  the 
'Surprise'  being  a  special  favourite.  With 
regard  to  this  symphony  Haydn  confessed  to 
Gyrowetz,  who  happened  to  call  when  he  was 
composing  the  Andante,  that  he  intended  to 
startle  the  audience.  '  There  all  the  women  will 
scream,'  he  said  with  a  laugh,  pointing  to  the 
well-known  explosion  of  the  drums.  The  first 
concert  was  on  Feb.  2,  and  two  extra  ones 
were  given  on  May  2i  and  June  I,  the  latter 
being  Haydn's  last  appearance  before  an  English 
audience.^  His  last  benefit  was  on  May  4,  when 
the  programme  consisted  entirely  of  his  works, 
except  the  concertos  of  Viotti  and  of  Ferlendis 
the  oboist.  Banti  sang  his  aria  for  the  first 
time,  but  according  to  his  diary  '  she  sang  very 
scanty.'  He  was  greatly  pleased  with  the  success 

a  Till  1799,  when  the  undertaking  failed,  Salomon  continued  to 
perform  Haydn's  sjmpliouies,  with  his  permission,  at  these  opera 
concerts. 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


713 


of  this  concert ;  the  audience  was  a  distinguished 
one,  and  the  net  receipts  amounted  to  £400.  *  It 
is  only  in  England  that  one  can  make  such  sums,' 
he  remarked.  J.  B.  Cramer  and  Mme.  Dussek 
gave  concerts  soon  after,  at  which  Haydn  con- 
ducted his  own  symphonies. 

During  the  latter  months  of  his  stay  in  Lon- 
don Haydn  was  much  distinguished  by  the 
Court.  At  a  concert  at  York  House  the  pro- 
gramme consisted  entirely  of  his  compositions, 
he  presided  at  the  pinnoforte,  and  Salomon  was 
leader.  The  King  and  Queen,  the  Princesses, 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  the  Dukes  of  Clarence 
and  Gloucester  were  present,  and  the"  Prince  of 
Wales  presented  Haydn  to  the  King,  who,  in 
spite  of  his  almost  exclusive  preference  for 
Handel,  expressed  great  interest  in  the  music, 
and  presented  the  composer  to  the  Queen,  who 
begged  him  to  sing  some  of  his  own  songs.  He 
was  also  repeatedly  invited  to  the  Queen's  con- 
certs at  Buckingham  House  ;  and  both  King  and 
Queen  expressed  a  wish  that  he  should  remain 
in  England,  and  spend  the  summer  at  Windsor. 
Haydn  replied  that  he  felt  bound  not  to  desert 
Prince  Esterhazy,  and  was  not  inclined  entirely 
to  forsake  his  own  country.  As  a  particular 
mark  of  esteem  the  Queen  presented  him  with  a 
copy  of  the  score  of  Handel's  Passion-music  to 
Brockes's  words.  He  was  frequently  at  Carlton 
House,  where  the  Prince  of  Wales  (a  pupil  of 
Crosdill's  on  the  cello,  and  fond  of  taking  the 
bass  in  catches  and  glees),  had  a  regular  concert- 
room,  and  often  played  his  part  in  the  orchestra 
with  the  Dukes  of  Cumberland  (viola)  and  Glou- 
cester (violin).  In  1795  he  gave  many  musical 
parties,  and  at  one  which  took  place  soon  after 
his  marriage  (April  8)  the  Princess  of  Wales 
played  the  pianoforte  and  sang  with  Haydn, 
who  not  only  conducted  but  sang  some  of  his 
own  songs.  He  attended  at  Carlton  House  26 
times  in  all,  but  like  other  musicians  found  much 
difficulty  in  getting  paid.  After  waiting  long  in 
vain  he  sent  in  a  bill  for  100  guineas  from 
Vienna,  which  was  immediately  discharged  by 
Parliament.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  de- 
mand was  moderate. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  of  the  'Storm,* 
Haydn  undertook  to  compose  a  larger  work  to 
English  words.  Lord  Abingdon  suggested  Need- 
ham's  'Invocation  of  Neptune,'  an  adaptation  of 
some  poor  verses  prefixed  to  Selden's  *  Mare 
Clausum,'  but  he  made  little  progress,  probably 
finding  his  acquaintance  with  English  too  limited. 
The  only  finished  numbers  are,  a  bass  solo,  '  Nor 
can  I  think  my  suit  is  vain,'  and  a  chorus,  '  Thy 
great  endeavours  to  increase.'  The  autograph  is 
in  the  British  Museum.  Haydn  received  parting 
gifts  from  Clementi,  Tattersall,  and  many  others, 
one  being  a  talking  parrot,  which  realised  1400 
florins  after  his  death.  In  1 804  he  received  from 
Gardiner  of  Leicester  six  pairs  of  cotton  stockings, 
into  which  were  worked  favourite  themes  from 
his  music. — His  return  was  now  inevitable,  as 
Prince  Esterhazy  had  written  some  time  before 
that  he  wished  his  chapel  reconstituted,  with 
Haydn  again  as  its  conductor. 


London  he  composed  the  Andante 
in  F  minor  ■with  variations,  one  of 
his  finest  works,  dedicated  to  Mile. 
Ployer,  12  Redouten  Minuets  and 
12  Teutsche  Tanze  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Artists'  Widows'  Fund.  The 
Salomon  symphony  in  E(7  (No.  10) 
was  written  in  Vienna  in  1793. 


The  second  visit  to  London  was  a  brilliant 
success.  He  returned  from  it  with  increased 
powers,  unlimited  fame,  and  a  competence  for 
life.  By  concerts,  lessons,  and  symphonies,  not 
counting  his  other  compositions,  he  had  si  gain — as 
before — made  £1200,  enough  to  relieve  him  from 
all  anxiety  for  the  future.  He  often  said  after- 
wards that  it  was  not  till  he  had  been  in  England 
that  he  became  famous  in  Germany,  by  which  he 
meant  that  though  his  reputation  was  high  at 
home,  the  English  were  the  first  to  give  him  public 
homage  and  liberal  remuneration.  His  diary  con- 
tains a  list  of  the  works  composed  in  London.  To 
those  already  mentioned  we  must  add — 

4  hymns  for  Tattersall's  '  Faro- 1  Abingdon  ;  harmonies  and  accom- 
chial  Psalmody';  songs  for  (iallini  paniments  to  154  Scotch  songs  for 
and  others ;  8  Lieder— one  with  Napier  the  publisher ;  a  sym- 
orchestral  accompaniment;  arias  phonie-concertante  in  Bb;  a  not- 
for  David,  Signora  Banti,  and  Miss,  turno  ;  2divertimenti ;  an  overture 
Poole,  and  another  with  orchestral  for  Salomon's  'Windsor  Castle' 
accompaniment; 'O  tuneful  voice, '(Covent  Garden);  4  marches;  24 
song,  composed  for  a  distinguished  minuets  and-allemands;  6  contre- 
lady;  'Lines  from  the  Battle  ofjdanses;  6  quartets  (finished  in  Vi- 
the  Nile,'  words  by  Mrs.  Knight,  a '  eiina  in  1793,  known  as  op.  73  and 
grand  air;  'The  spirit's  song 'i 74,  dedicated  to  Count  Apponyi, 
(Shakespeare'swords),theTenCom-j London  and  Paris  editions,  No.^. 
mandments  set  to  canons;  one  169-74);  and  10  pianoforte  sonatas 
canon  in  an  album;  6  Englisli  for  Broderip,  Preston,  Miss  Janson, 
songs;  12  Canzonets  (ist  set:  Mer-  etc.  In  the  interval  between 
maid's  song;  La  memoria;  Pas-  Haydn's  first  and  second  visits  to 
torale ;  Despair ;  Pleasing  pain  ; 
Fidelity.  2nd  set:  Sailor's  song: 
The  Wanderer;  Sympathy;  She 
never  told  her  love ;  Piercing  eyes  ; 
Content) ;  '  Dr.  Harrington's  Com- 
pliment,' song  with  piano  accom- 
paniment, in  reply  to  verses  and 
music  addressed  to  Haydn  by  Dr. 
Uarington;  12  ballads  for  Lord 

Haydn  left  London  August  15,  1795,  and  tra- 
velled by  way  of  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  Dresden. 
Soon  aft£r  his  return  a  pleasant  surprise  awaited 
him.  He  was  taken  by  Count  Harrach  and  a 
genial  party  of  noblemen  and  gentleman,  first  to 
a  small  peninsula  formed  by  the  Leitha  in  a  park 
near  Rohrau,  where  he  found  a  monument  and 
bust  of  himself,  and  next  to  his  birthplace.  Over- 
come by  his  feelings,  on  entering  the  humble 
abode,  Haydn  stooped  down  and  kissed  the  thres- 
hold, and  then  pointing  to  the  stove,  told  the  com- 
pany that  it  was  on  that  very  spot  that  his  career 
as  a  musician  began.  On  the  18th  December  he 
gave  a  concert  in  the  small  Kedoutensaal,  at  which 
three  of  his  London  symphonies  were  performed, 
and  Beethoven  played  either  his  first  or  second 
clavier-concerto.  At  this  time  he  lived  in  the 
Neumarkt  (now  No.  2)  which  he  left  in  Jan. 
1797  for  his  own  house  in  the  suburbs.  He 
now  only  went  to  Eisenstadt  for  the  summer 
and  autumn.  Down  to  1 802  he  always  had  a  new 
mass  ready  for  Princess  Esterhazy's  name-day, 
in  September.  (Novello,  .Nos.  2, 1,  3,  16,  4,  6.)^ 
To  these  years  belong  several  other  compositions — 
A  cantata,  'Die  Erwiihlung  eines  Kapellmeisters,' 
composed  for  a  club  meeting  regularly  in  the 
evenings  at  the  tavern  *zum  Schwanen,'  in  the 
Neumarkt.^    Incidental  music  for  'Alfred,'  a 

*  No.  2  was  composed  1796, 'Jn  tempore  M/i,'and  called  the  'Pau- 
kenmesse,'  because  in  the  Agnus  the  drums  are  introduced.  No.  3 
was  composed  1797;  known  in  England  as  the  Imperial  Mass,  but  in 
Germany  as 'Die  Nelsonmesse,'  because  it  is  said  to  have  been  per- 
formed during  Nelson's  visit  to  Eisenstadt  in  ISOO;  he  asked  Haydn 
for  his  pen,  and  gave  him  his  own  gold  watch  in  exchange. 

^  Much  frequented  in  later  years  by  Beethoven  (see  his  letters  to 
Zmeskall).  It  was  the  scene  of  the  adventure  with  the  waiter  (liies, 
p.  121). 


714 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


tragedy  adapted  from  the  English  of  Cowmeadow, 
and  performed  once  in  1795  at  Schickaneder's 
Theatre  in  '  Vienna ;  a  fine  chorus  in  the  old 
Italian  style,  '  Non  nobis  Domine,'  perhaps  sug- 
gested by  Byrd's  canon  which  he  heard  so  often 
in  London  ;  a  grand  'Te  ^  Deum,'  composed  1800  ; 
and  the  '  Seven  Words,'  rewritten  for  voices,  and 
first  performed  at  Eisenstadt,  Oct.  1797.  Instru- 
mental music — Clavier-trios,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel, 
Nos.  18,  19,  20.  dedicated  to  Princess  Marie 
Esterhazy ;  I,  2,  6,  to  Mrs.  Schroeter  ;  3,  4*,  5,  to 
Bartolozzi ;  12,  15  ^  to  Mile.  Madelaine  de  Kurz- 
beck  :  when  requested  by  Prince  Esterhazy  in  1803 
to  compose  a  sonata  for  the  wife  of  Marechal 
Moreau,  Haydn  arranged  this  trio  as  a  duet 
for  clavier  and  violin ;  and  in  that  form  it  was 
published  years  after  as  his  'derniere  Sonate.' 
Clavier  sonata  (Breitk.  &  Hartel,  No.  i),  dedicated 
to  Mile.  Kurzbeck ;  6  string-quartets,  known  as 
op.  75  and  76,  dedicated  to  Count  Erdody  ;  and 
2  ditto,  op.  77,  dedicated  to  Prince  Lobkowitz. 

During  his  visits  Haydn  had  often  envied 
the  English  their  'God  save  the  King,'  and  the 
war  with  France  having  quickened  his  desire  to 
provide  the  people  with  an  adequate  expression 
of  their  fidelity  to  the  throne,  he  determined  to 
compose  a  national  anthem  for  Austria.  Hence 
arose  '  Gott  erhalte  Franz  den  Kaiser,'  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  Lieder.  Haydn's  friend, 
Freiherr  van  Swneten,  suggested  the  idea  to  the 
Prime  Minister,  Graf  von  Saurau,  and  the  poet 
Hauschka  was  commissioned  to  write  the  words, 
which  Haydn  set  in  January  1797.  On  the 
Emperor's  birthday,  Feb.  12,  the  air  was  sung 
simultaneously  at  the  national  theatre  in  Vienna, 
and  at  all  the  principal  theatres  in  the  provinces. 
[See  Emperor's  Hymn.]  This  strain,  almost 
sublime  in  its  simplicit}^  and  so  devotional  in 
its  character  that  it  is  used  as  a  hymn-tune, 
faithfully  reflects  Haydn's  feelings  towards  his 
sovereign.  It  was  his  favourite  work,  and  to- 
wards the  close  of  his  life  he  often  consoled  him- 
self by  playing  it  with  great  expression.  He  also 
introduced  a  set  of  masterly  variations  on  it  into 
the  so-called  '  Kaiserquartett '  (No.  77), 

High  as  his  reputation  already  was,  it  had  not 
reached  its  culminating  point.  This  was  attained 
by  two  works  of  his  old  age,  the  '  Creation'  and 
the  '  Seasons.'  Shortly  before  his  departure  from 
London,  Salomon  offered  him  a  poem  for  music, 
which  had  been  compiled  by  Lidley  from  Milton's 
'  Paradise  Lost '  before  the  death  of  Handel,  but 
not  used.  Haydn  took  it  to  Vienna,  and  when 
Freiherr  van  Svvieten  suggested  his  composing  an 
oratorio,  he  handed  him  the  poem.  Van  Swieten 
translated  it  with  considerable  alterations,  and 
a  sum  of  500  ducats  was  guaranteed  by  twelve 
of  the  principal  nobility.  Haydn  set  to  work 
with  the  greatest  ardour.     '  Never  was  I  so 

*  The  music  was  re-composed  in  1796  but  never  used,  and  the  'Chor 
der  Dfiuen,'  for  men's  voices,  is  the  only  number  published  (Breitkopf, 
1810). 

'  Score  and  parts  In  Eieter-Bledermann's  new  edition, 

*  First  published  in  score  by  Breitkopf  A  HSrtel. 

«  Bee  Mendelssohn's  letter  to  Rebecca  Dirichlet  (Feb.  1838).  'First 
we  played  Haydn's  trio  In  C,  and  set  everybody  wondering  that  any- 
thing so  fine  was  in  existence ;  and  yet  Breitkopf  ft  HSrtel  printed  It 
long  ago ! ' 

*  First  published  by  Traeg. 


pious,'  he  says,  '  as  when  composing  the  Creation. 
I  knelt  down  every  day  and  prayed  God  to 
strengthen  me  for  my  work.'  It  was  first  given 
in  private  at  the  Schwarzenberg  palace,  on  the 
29th  and  30th  of  April,  1798;  and  in  public 
on  Haydn's  name-day,  March  19,  1799,  at  the 
National  Theatre.  The  noblemen  previously 
mentioned  paid  the  expenses,  and  handed  over 
to  Haydn  the  entire  proceeds,  amounting  to 
4,000  florins  (.£320).  The  impression  it  pro- 
duced was  extraordinary ;  the  whole  audience  was 
deeply  moved,  and  Haydn  confessed  that  he 
could  not  describe  his  sensations.  'One  mo- 
ment,' he  'said,  *I  was  as  cold  as  ice,  the  next 
I  seemed  on  fire.  More  than  once  I  was  afraid 
I  should  have  a  stroke.'  The  next  performance 
was  given  by  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat,  Haydn 
conducting.  Once  only  he  conducted  it  outside 
Vienna — March  9,  1800,  at  a  grand  performance 
in  the  palace  at  Ofen  before  the  Archduke  Pala- 
tine Joseph  of  Hungary.  No  sooner  was  the  score 
engraved  (1800),  than  the  'Creation'  was  per- 
formed everywhere.  Choral  societies  were  founded 
for  the  express  purpose,  and  its  popularity  was 
for  long  equalled  only  by  that  of  the  '  Messiah.' 
In  London  Ashley  and  Salomon  gave  rival  per- 
formances, the  former  on  March  28,  1800,  at 
Covent  Garden,  the  la.tter  on  April  21,  in  the 
concert-room  of  the  King's  Theatre,  with  Mara 
and  Dussek  in  the  principal  parts,  and  a  concerto 
on  the  organ  by  Samuel  \yesley.  In  the  English 
provinces  it  was  first  performed  by  the  Three 
Choirs — at  Worcester  in  1800,  Hereford  in  1861, 
and  Gloucester  in  1802. — In  1799  Haydn  en- 
tered into  relations  with  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  and 
edited  the  12  vols,  in  red  covers  which  formed 
for  long  the  only  collection  of  his  works  for  cla- 
vier and  for  voice. 

As  soon  as  the  'Creation'  was  finished.  Van 
Swieten  persuaded  Haydn  .  to  begin  another 
oratorio,  which  he  had  adapted  from  Thomson's 
Seasons.  He  consented  to  the  proposition  with 
reluctance,  on  the  ground  that  his  powers  were 
failing ;  but  he  began,  and  in  spite  of  his  ob- 
jections to  certain  passages  as  unsuited  to  music 
(a  point  over  which  he  and  Van  Swieten  nearly 
quarrelled),  the  work  as  a  whole  interested  him 
much,  and  was  speedily  completed.  The  first 
performances  took  place  April  24  and  27,  and 
May  I,  at  the  Schwarzenberg  palace.  On  May  29 
he  conducted  it  for  his  own  benefit  in  the  large 
Redoutensaal,  and  in  December  handed  over  the 
score,  as  he  had  that  of  the  'Creation,'  to  the 
Tonkiinstler  Societat,  which  has  derived  a  per- 
manent income  from  both  works.  Opinions 
are  now  divided  as  to  the  respective  value  of 
the  two,  but  at  the  time  the  success  of  the 
'  Seasons '  fully  equalled  that  of  the  '  Creation,' 
and  even  now  the  youthful  freshness  which  cha- 
racterises it  is  very  striking.  The  strain  how- 
ever was  too  great ;  as  he  often  said  afterwards, 
*  The  Seasons  gave  me  the  finishing  stroke.'  On 
Dec.  26,  1803,  he  conducted  the  'Seven  Words' 
for  the  hospital  fund  at  the  Redoutensaal,  but 
it  was  his  last  public  exertion.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  asked  to  conduct  the  *  Creation' 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


715 


at  Eisenstadt,  but  declined  on  the  score  of  weak- 
ness ;  and  indeed  he  was  failing  rapidly.  His 
works  composed  after  the  '  Seasons '  are  very  few, 
the  chief  being  some  vocal  quartets,  on  which 
he  set  a  high  value.  In  these  his  devotional 
feeling  comes  out  strongly,  in  '  Herr  der  du  mir 
das  Leben/  *  Du  bist's  dem  Ruhm  und  Ehre 
gebiihret,'  and  'Der  Greis' — '  Hin  ist  alle  meine 
Kraft.'  In  1802  and  3  he  harmonised  and  wrote 
accompaniments  for  a  number  of  Scotch  songs, 
for  which  he  received  500  florins  from  Whyte  of 
Edinburgh.  This  pleased  him  so  much  that  he  is 


said  to  have  expressed  his  pride  in  the  work  as 
one  which  would  long  preserve  his  memory  in 
Scotland.  He  also  arranged  Welsh  airs  (Preston; 
41  Nos.  in  3  vol-*.)  and  Irish  airs,  but  the  latter 
he  did  not  complete,  and  they  were  undertaken 
by  Beethoven.  One  of  his  last  string- quartets 
(Trautwein  83)  has  two  movements  complete,  the 
'  Andante '  and  the  '  Minuet ' ;  in  despair  of 
finishing  it,  in  1806,  he  added  the  first  few  bars 
of  *  Der  Greis '  as  a  conclusion.^  He  had  these 
same  bars  printed  as  a  card  in  answer  to  friends 
who  enquired  after  him.^ 


Molto  Adagio 


-=« — '  ■  r  «  — 

ini         Hin      istul.le  meine 

Kraft 

alt      und  schwach     bin  ich. 


Joseph  Haydn. 


Haydn's  last  years  were  passed  in  a  continual 
struggle  with  the  infirmities  of  age,  relieved  by 
occasional  gleams  of  sunshine.  When  in  a 
happy  mood  he  would  unlock  his  cabinet,  and 
exhibit  to  his  intimate  friends  the  souvenirs, 
diplomas,  and  valuables  of  all  kinds  which  it 
contained.  This  often  led  him  to  speak  of  the 
events  of  his  life,  and  in  this  way  Griesinger, 
Dies,  Bertuch,  Carpani,  and  Neukomm,  became 
acquainted  with  many  details.  Haydn  also 
received  other  visitors  who  cannot  have  failed  to 
give  him  pleasure ;  such  were  Cherubini,  the 
Abbe  Vogler,  the  Weber  family,  Baillot,  Mme. 
Bigot  the  pianist,  Pleyel,  Bierey,  Gansbacher, 
Hummel,  Nisle,  Tomaschek,  Reichardt,  Iffland ; 
his  faithful  friends  Mmes.  Aumhammer,  Kurz- 
beck,  and  Spielmann,  the  Princess  Esterhazy  with 
her  son  Paul — who  all  came  to  render  homage 
to  the  old  man.  Mozart's  widow  did  not  forget 
her  husband's  best  friend,  and  her  son  Wolfgang, 
then  1 4,  begged  his  blessing  at  his  first  public 
concert,  in  the  Theatre  an-der-Wien,  on  April  8, 
1805,  for  which  he  had  composed  a  cantata,  in 
honour  of  Haydn's  73rd  birthday. 

After  a  long  seclusion  Haydn  appeared  in 
public  for  the  last  time  at  a  remarkable  per- 
formance of  the  *  Creation '  at  the  University  on 
March  27,  1808,  He  was  carried  in  his  arm- 
chair to  a  place  among  the  first  ladies  of  the 
land,  and  received  with  the  warmest  demonstra- 
tions of  welcome.    Salieri  conducted.    At  the 


words  *  And  there  was  light,'  Haydn  was  quite 
overcome,  and  pointing  upwards  exclaimed,  *  It 
came  from  thence.'  As  the  performance  went 
on  his  agitation  became  extreme,  and  it  was 
thought  better  to  take  him  home  after  the  first 
part.  As  he  was  carried  out  people  of  the 
highest  rank  thronged  to  take  leave  of  him,  and 
Beethoven  fervently  kissed  his  hand  and  fore- 
head. At  the  door  he  paused,  and  turning  round 
lifted  up  his  hands  as  if  in  the  act  of  blessing. 

In  1797  Prince  Nicolaus  had  augmented  his 
salary  by  300  florins,  and  in  1 806  added  another 
600 — making  his  whole  emolument  2,300  florins 
(£200) — besides  paying  his  doctor's  bills.  This 
increase  in  income  was  a  great  satisfaction  to 
Haydn,  as  he  had  long  earnestly  desired  to  help 
his  many  poor  relations  during  his  life,  and  to 
leave  them  something  after  his  death. 

To  one  who  loved  his  country  so  deeply,  it  was 
a  sore  trial  to  see  Vienna  twice  occupied  by  the 
enemy — in  1805  and  1809.  The  second  time  the 
city  was  bombarded,  and  the  first  shot  fell  not  far 
from  his  residence.  In  his  infirm  condition  this 
alarmed  him  greatly,  but  he  called  out  to  his 

•  Dedicated  to  Count  Maurice  de  Fries.  Haydn  gave  It  to  Grie- 
singer saying,  'It  is  my  last  child,  and  not  unlllct;  me.* 

*  'Fled  for  ever  is  my  strength; 

Old  and  wealc  am  I!" 
Abb^  Stadler  made  a  canon  out  of  these  lines  by  adding  two  more— 
'  Doch  was  Sie  erschuf  bleibt  stets, 

Ewig  ist  dein  Ruhm.' 
'But  what  thou  hast  achieved  stands  last; 

Lasting  is  thy  fame.' 


716 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


servants,  'Children,  don't  be  frightened;  no  harm 
can  happen  to- you  while  Haydn  is  by.'  The  last 
visit  he  received  on  his  death-bed  (the  city  being 
then  in  the  occupation  of  the  French)  was  from 
a  French  officer,  who  sang  *  In  native  worth ' 
with  a  depth  of  expression  doubtless  inspired  by 
the  occasion.  Haydn  was  much  moved,  and 
embraced  him  warmly  at  parting.  On  May  26, 
1809,  he  called  his  servants  round  him  for  the 
last  time,  and  having  been  carried  to  the  piano 
solemnly  played  the  Emperor's  Hymn  three 
times  over.  Five  days  afterwards,  at  one 
o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  31st,  he  expired. 

On  June  1 5  Mozart's  Requiem  was  performed 
in  his  honour  at  the  Schottenkirche.  Amongst 
the  mourners  were  many  French  officers  of  high 
rank ;  and  the  guard  of  honour  round  the  cata- 
falque was  composed  of  French  soldiers,  and  a 
detachment  of  the  Btirgerwehr.  He  was  buried 
in  the  Hundsthurm  churchyard,  outside  the  lines, 
close  to  the  suburb  in  which  he  lived,  but  his 
remains  were  exhumed  by  command  of  Prince 
Esterhazy,  and  solemnly  re-interred  in  the  upper 
parish  church  at  Eisensfcadt  on  Nov.  7,  1820.  A 
simple  stone  with  a  Latin  inscription  is  inserted 
in  the  wall  over  the  vault — to  inform  the  passer- 
by that  a  great  man  rests  below. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  the  coffin 
was  opened  for  identification  before  the  removal, 
the  skull  was  missing:  it  had  been  stolen  two 
days  after  the  funeral.  The  one  which  was 
afterwards  sent  to  the  Prince  anonymously  as 
Haydn's,  was  buried  with  the  other  remains  ; 
but  the  real  one  was  retained  and  is  at  present 
in  the  possession  of  the  family  of  a  celebrated 
physician.  The  grave  at  Vienna  remained  abso- 
lutely undistinguished  for  5  years  after  Haydn's 
death,  till  1814,  when  his  pupil  Neukomm  erected 
a  stone  bearing  the  following  inscription,  which 
contains  a  5 -part  Canon  for  solution. 

HAYDN 

NATUS  MDCCXXXII 
OBIIT  MDCCCIX 
CAN.  AENIGM,  QUINQUE  .  VOC. 

^    r,  i^-J^-^-^ 

non  om   -   -   -   nis         mo    -    -    ri  -  -  ar 

D.  D.  D. 

Discip.  Eius  Neukoiii  Vindob.  Redux. 

MDCCCXIV. 

This  stone  was  renewed  by  Graf  von  Stock - 
hammer  in  1842. 

As  soon  as  Haydn's  death  was  known,  funeral 
services  were  held  in  all  thfe  principal  cities  of 
Europe.  In  Paris  was  performed  a  sacred 
cantata  for  three  voices  ^  and  orchestra  (Breit- 
kopf  &  Hartel)  composed  by  Cherubini  on  a  false 
report  of  his  death  in  1805.  It  was  also  given 
elsewhere. 

*  No.  133  is  Cherublai's  own  Catalofcue. 


During  his  latter  years  Haydn  was  made  an 
honorary  member  of  many  institutions  —  the 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Stockholm 
(1798);  the  Philharmonic  Society  at  Laybach 

(1800)  ;  the   Academy  of  Arts,  Amsterdam 

(1801)  ;  the  Institut  (1803),  the  'Conservatoire 
de  Musique'  (1805),  and  the  'Society  acaddm- 
ique  des  enfans  d'Apollon'  of  Paris  (1807).  He 
also  received  gold  medals  from  the  musicians  who 
performed  the  Creation  at  the  opera  in  Paris, 
Dec.  24,  1800,  and  from  the  Institut  (1802); 
the  'Zwolffache  Biirgermedaille,' Vienna  (1803) ; 
from  the  professors  of  the  'Concert  des  Amateurs* 
(1803),  the  Conservatoire  (1805),  the  'Enfans 
d'Apollon '  (1807),  all  of  Paris  ;  and  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  of  St.  Petersburg  ( 1 808).  He  was 
also  nominated  honorary  citizen  of  Vienna  (1804). 

Poems  without  end  were  written  in  his  praise ; 
and  equally  numerous  were  the  portraits,  in  chalk 
or  oils,  engraved,  and  modelled  in  wax.  Of  the 
many  busts  the  best  is  that  by  his  friend  Grassy. 
The  silhouette  here  engraved  for  the  first  time 
hung  for  long  at  the  head  of  Haydn's  bed,  and  was 
authenticated  by  Elssler  as  strikingly  like. 


Among  his  pupils  we  may  mention — Eoberfe 
Kimmerling  and  Abund  Mykisch,  both  priests, 
who  learnt  from  him  as  early  as  1753  ;  Countess 
Thun ;  the  Erdody  family ;  Ignaz  Pleyel ;  Nie- 
mecz,  a  monk  ;  Krumpholz,  Ant.  Kraft,  and  Ko- 
setti,  members  of  the  Esterhazy  Chapel ;  Distler, 
violinist ;  Fernandi,  organist ;  Demar,  composer ; 
Hoffmann  of  Livonia;  Kranz  of  Stuttgart ;  Franz 
Tomisch;  Ed.  von  Weber;  Ant.  Wraiiitzky; 
Haigh,  GraefF,  and  Callcott,  of  London  ;  Nisle ; 
Franz  de  Paula  Roser  ;  the  Polzellis ;  J.  G.  Fuchs, 
afterwards  vice-Capellmeister  of  the  cliapel,  and 
Haydn's  successor;  Struck;  Bartsch ;  Lessel ; 
Neukomm  ;  Hansel ;  Sey fried,  and  Destouches. 
Haydn  used  to  call  Pleyel,  Neukomm,  and  Lessel 
his  favourite  and  most  grateful  pupils.    Most  of 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


717 


those  named  dedicated  to  him  their  first  pub- 
lished woi'k — generally  a  piece  of  chamber  music. 

A  few  remarks  on  Haydn's  personal  and 
mental  characteristics,  and  on  his  position  in 
the  history  of  art,  will  conclude  our  task.  We 
learn  from  his  contemporaries  that  he  was  below 
the  middle  height,  with  legs  disproportionately 
short ;  his  build  substantial,  but  deficient  in 
uiuscle.  His  features  were  tolerably  regular ;  his 
expression,  slightly  stern  in  repose,  invariably 
softened  in  conversation.  His  aquiline  nose 
was  latterly  much  disfigured  by  a  polypus ;  and 
his  face  deeply  pitted  by  small-pox.  His  com- 
plexion was  very  dark.  His  dark  gray  eyes 
beamed  with  benevolence  ;  and  he  used  to  say 
himself,  'Any  one  can  see  by  the  look  of  me 
that  I  am  a  good-natured  sort  of  fellow.'  The 
impression  given  by  his  countenance  and  bearing 
was  that  of  an  earnest  dignified  man,  perhaps  a 
little  over-precise.  Though  fond  of  a  joke,  he 
never  indulged  in  immoderate  laughter.  His 
broad  and  well-formed  forehead  was  partly  con- 
cealed by  a  wig  with  side  curls  and  a  pigtail,  which 
he  wore  to  the  end  of  his  days.  A  prominent 
and  slightly  coarse  under-lip,  with  a  massive  jaw, 
completed  this  singular  union  of  so  much  that 
was  attractive  and  repelling,  intellectual  and 
vulgar.^  He  always  considered  himself  an  ugly 
man,  and  could  not  understand  how  so  many 
handsome  women  fell  in  love  with  him ;  '  At 
any  rate,'  he  used  to  say,  '  they  were  not  tempted 
by  my  beauty,'  though  he  admitted  that  he  liked 
looking  at  a  pretty  woman,  and  was  never  at  a 
loss  for  a  compliment.  He  habitually  spoke  in  the 
broad  Austrian  dialect,  but  could  express  him- 
self fluently  in  Italian,  and  with  some  difficulty 
in  French.  He  studied  English  when  in  London, 
and  in  the  country  would  often  take  his  gram- 
mar into  the  woods.  He  was  also  fond  of  intro- 
ducing English  phrases  into  his  diary.  He  knew 
enough  Latin  to  read  Fux's  '  Gradus,'  and  to  set 
the  Church  services.  Thovigh  he  lived  so  long 
in  Hungary  he  never  learned  the  vernacular, 
which  was  only  used  by  the  servants  among 
themselves,  the  Esterhazy  family  always  speak- 
ing German.  His  love  of  fun  sometimes  carried 
him  away;  as  he  remarked  to  Dies,  'A  mis- 
chievous fit  comes  over  one  sometimes  that  is 
perfectly  beyond  control.*  At  the  same  time  he 
was  sensitive,  and  when  provoked  by  a  bad  return 
for  his  kindness  could  be  very  sarcastic.  With 
all  his  modesty  he  was  aware  of  his  own  merits, 
and  liked  to  be  appreciated,  but  flattery  he  never 
permitted.  Like  a  true  man  of  genius  he  en- 
joyed honour  and  fame,  but  carefully  avoided 
ambition.  He  has  often  been  reproached  with 
cringing  to  his  superiors,  but  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  a  man  who  was  in  daily  intercourse 
with  people  of  the  highest  rank  would  have  no 
difficulty  in  drawing  the  line  between  respect 
and  subservience.  That  he  was  quite  capable 
of  defending  his  dignity  as  an  artist  is  proved 
by  the  following  occurrence.  Prince  Nicolaus 
(the  second  of  the  name)  being  present  at  a 

'  Lavater  made  some  of  his  most  characteristic  remarks  on  receiving 
a  silhouette  of  Haydn. 


rehearsal,  and  expressing  disapprobation,  Haydn 
at  once  interposed — '  Your  Highness,  all  that  is 
my  business.'  He  was  very  fond  of  children, 
and  they  in  return  loved  '  Papa  Haydn '  with  all 
their  hearts.  He  never  forgot  a  benefit,  though 
his  kindness  to  his  many  needy  relations  often 
met  with  a  poor  return.  The  '  chapel '  looked 
up  to  him  as  a  father,  and  when  occasion  arose 
he  was  an  unwearied  intercessor  on  their  behalf 
with  the  Prince.  Young  men  of  talent  found  in 
him  a  generous  friend,  always  ready  to  aid  them 
with  advice  and  substantial  help.  To  this  fact 
Eybler,  A.  Komberg,  Sey  fried,  Weigl,  and  others 
have  borne  ample  testimony.  His  intercourse 
with  Mozart  was  a  striking  example  of  his 
readiness  to  acknowledge  the  merits  of  others. 
Throughout  life  he  was  distinguished  by  industry 
and  method ;  he  maintained  a  strict  daily  routine, 
and  never  sat  down  to  work  or  received  a  visit 
until  he  was  fully  dressed.  This  custom  he  kept 
up  long  after  he  was  too  old  to  leave  the  house. 
His  uniform,  which  the  Prince  was  continually 
changing  both  in  colour  and  style,  he  never  wore 
unless  actually  at  his  post. 

One  of  his  most  marked  characteristics  was 
his  constant  aim  at  perfection  in  his  art.  He 
once  said  regretfully  to  Kalkbrenner,  *I  have 
only  just  learned  in  my  old  age  how  to  use  the 
wind-instruments,  and  now  that  I  do  understand 
them  I  must  leave  the  world.'  And  to  Griesinger 
he  said  that  he  had  by  no  means  come  to  the  end 
of  his  powers ;  that  ideas  were  often  floating  in 
his  mind,  by  which  he  could  have  carried  the  art 
far  beyond  anything  it  had  yet  attained,  had  his 
physical  powers  been  equal  to  the  task. 

He  was  a  devout  Christian,  and  attended 
strictly  to  his  religious  duties  ;  but  he  saw  no 
inconsistency  in  becoming  a  Freemason — prob- 
ably at  the  instigation  of  Leopold  Mozart,  when 
in  Vienna  in  1785.  His  genius  he  looked  on  as 
a  gift  from  above,  for  which  he  was  bound  to  be 
thankful.  This  feeling  dictated  the  inscriptions 
on  all  his  scores  large  and  small ;  *  Li  nomine 
Domini,'  at  the  beginning,  and  '  Laus  Deo '  at 
the  end ;  with  the  occasional  addition  of  *  et 


B.  V.  Mse.  et  om'  S'».'  (Beatae  Yirgini  Mariae 
et  omnibus  Sanctis).  His  writing  is  extremely 
neat  and  uniform,  with  remarkably  few  correc- 
tions :  '  Because,'  said  he,  '  I  never  put  anything 


718 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


down  till  I  have  quite  made  up  my  mind  about 
it.'  When  intending  to  write  something  superior 
he  liked  to  wear  the  ring  given  him  by  the  King 
of  Prussia. 

The  immense  quantity  of  his  compositions 
would  lead  to  the  belief  that  he  worked  with 
unusual  rapidity,  but  this  was  by  no  means  the 
case.  '  I  never  was  a  quick  writer,'  he  assures 
us  himself,  '  and  always  composed  with  care  and 
deliberation ;  that  alone  is  the  way  to  compose 
works  that  will  last,  and  a  real  connoisseur  can 
see  at  a  glance  whether  a  score  has  been  written 
in  undue  haste  or  not.'  He  sketched  all  his  com- 
positions at  the  piano — a  dangerous  proceeding, 
often  leading  to  fragmentariness  of  style.  The 
condition  of  the  instrument  had  its  effect  upon 
him,  for  we  find  him  writing  to  Artaria  in  1788, 
'  I  was  obliged  to  buy  a  new  forfepiano,  that  I 
might  compose  your  Clavier-sonatas  particularly 
well.'  When  an  idea  struck  him  he  sketched  it 
out  in  a  few  notes  and  figures  :  this  would  be  his 
morning's  work  ;  in  the  afternoon  he  would  en- 
large this  sketch,  elaborating  it  according  to  rule, 
but  taking  pains  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  idea. 
*  That  is  where  so  many  young  composers  fail,'  he 
says  ;  '  they  string  together  a  number  of  frag- 
ments ;  they  break  off  almost  as  soon  as  they 
have  begun;  and  so  at  the  end  the  listener 
carries  away  no  definite  impression.'  He  also  ob- 
jected to  composers  not  learning  to  sing, '  Singing 
is  almost  one  of  the  forgotten  arts,  and  that  is  why 
the  instruments  are  allowed  to  overpower  the 
voices.'  The  subject  of  melody  he  regarded  very 
seriously.  '  It  is  the  air  which  is  the  charm  of 
music,'  he  said  to  Michael  Kelly, ^  *  and  it  is  that 
which  is  most  difficult  to  produce.  The  inven- 
tion of  a  fine  melody  is  a  work  of  genius.' 

Like  many  other  creative  artists,  Haydn  dis- 
liked sestheticism,  and  all  mere  talk  about  Art. 
He  had  always  a  bad  word  for  the  critics  with 
their  -sharp-pointed  pens'  ('spitzigen  und  wit- 
zigen  Federn  '),  especially  those  of  Berlin,  who 
used  him  very  badly  in  early  life.  His  words  to 
Breitkopf,  when  sending  him  the  Creation,  are 
very  touching,  as  coming  from  a  man  of  his  esta- 
tablished  reputation, — '  My  one  hope  and  prayer 
is,  and  I  think  at  my  age  it  may  well  be  granted, 
that  the  critics  will  not  be  too  hard  on  my  Crea- 
tion, and  thus  do  it  real  harm.*  He  had  of 
course  plenty  of  detractors,  among  others  Koze- 
luch  and  Kreibig,  who  represented  him  to  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.  as  a  mere  mountebank.  Even 
after  he  had  met  with  due  recognition  abroad,  he 
was  accused  of  trying  to  found  a  new  school, 
though  his  compositions  were  at  the  same  time 
condemned  as  for  the  most  part  hasty,  trivial, 
and  extravagant.  He  sums  up  his  own  opinion 
of  his  works  in  these  words,  'Sunt  mala  mixta 
bonis ;  some  of  my  children  are  well-bred,  some 
ill-bred,  and  here  and  there  there  is  a  changeling 
among  them.'  He  was  perfectly  aware  of  how 
much  he  had  done  for  the  progress  of  art ;  'I 
know,'  he  said,  *  that  God  has  bestowed  a  talent 
upon  me,  and  I  thank  Him  for  it ;  I  think  I 

1  '  Aemlniscences,'  London  1826,  i.  190. 


have  done  my  duty,  and  been  of  use  in  my  gene- 
ration by  my  works  ;  let  others  do  the  same.' 

He  was  no  pedant  with  regard  to  rules,  and 
would  acknowledge  no  restrictions  on  genius.  '  If 
Mozart  wrote  thus,  he  must  have  had  a  good 
reason  for  it,'  was  his  answer  when  his  attention 
was  drawn  to  an  unusual  passage  in  one  of  Mo- 
zart's quartets.  With  regard  to  Albrechtsberger's 
condemnation  of  consecutive  fourths  in  strict 
composition  he  remarked,  'What  is  the  good  of 
such  rules?  Art  is  free,  and  should  be  fettered 
by  no  such  mechanical  regulations.  The  edu- 
cated ear  is  the  sole  authority  on  all  these 
questions,  and  I  think  I  have  as  much  right  to 
lay  down  the  law  as  any  one.  Such  trifling  is 
absurd  ;  I  wish  instead  that  some  one  would  try 
to  compose  a  really  new  ^minuet.'  And  again 
to  Dies,  '  Supposing  an  idea  struck  me  as  good, 
and  thoroughly  satisfactory  both  to  the  ear  and 
the  heart,  I  would  far  rather  pass  over  some 
slight  grammatical  error,  than  sacrifice  what 
seemed  to  me  beautiful  to  any  mere  pedantic 
trifling.'  Even  during  Haydn's  lifetime  his  com- 
positions became  the  subject  of  a  real  worship. 
Many  distinguished  men,  such  as  Exner  of 
Zittau,  Von  Mastiaux  of  Bonn,  Gerber,  Bossier, 
Count  Fuchs,  Baron  du  Baine,  and  Kees  the  Court 
Secretary  of  Vienna,  corresponded  with  him  with 
a  view  to  procuring  as  ma.ny  of  his  works  as  pos- 
sible for  their  libraries.  There  is  great  signifi- 
cance in  the  sobriquet  of  '  Papa  Haydn,'  which 
is  still  in  general  use,  as  if  musicians  of  all 
countries  claimed  descent  from  him.  One  writer 
declares  that  after  listening  to  Haydn's  composi- 
tions he  always  felt  impelled  to  do  some  good 
work ;  and  Zelter  said  they  had  a  similar  effect 
upon  him. 

Haydn's  position  in  the  history  of  music  is  of 
the  first  importance.  When  we  consider  the  poor 
condition  in  which  he  found  certain  important 
departments  of  music,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  vast  fields  which  he  opened  to  his  successors, 
it  is  impossible  to  over-rate  his  creative  powers. 
Justly  called  the  father  of  instrumental  music, 
there  is  scarcely  a  department  throughout  its 
whole  range  in  which  he  did  not  make  his  in- 
fluence felt.  Starting  from  Emmanuel  Bach,  he 
seems,  if  we  may  use  the  expression,  forced  in 
between  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  All  his  works 
are  characterised  by  lucidity,  perfect  finish, 
studied  moderation,  avoidance  of  meaningless 
phrases,  firmness  of  design,  and  richness  of  devel- 
opment. The  subjects  principal  and  secondary, 
down  to  the  smallest  episodes,  are  thoroughly 
connected,  and  the  whole  conveys  the  impression 
of  being  cast  in  one  mould.  We  admire  his  in- 
exhaustible invention  as  shown  in  the  originality 
of  his  themes  and  melodies ;  the  life  and  spon- 
taneity of  the  ideas ;  the  clearness  which  makes 
his  compositions  as  interesting  to  the  amateur 
as  to  the  artist ;  the  child-like  cheerfulness  and 
drollery  which  charm  away  trouble  and  care. 

Of  the  Symphony  he  may  be  said  with  truth 
to  have  enlarged  its  sphere,  stereotyped  its  form, 

a  Was  this  before  or  after  the  appearance  of  Beethoren's  Symphony 
N0.I? 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


71» 


enriched  and  developed  its  capacities  with  the 
versatility  of  true  genius.  Like  those  which 
Mozart  wrote  after  studying  the  orchestras  of 
Munich,  Mannheim,  and  Paris,  Haydn's  later 
symphonies  are  the  most  copious  in  ideas,  the 
most  animated,  and  the  most  delicate  in  construc- 
tion. They  have  in  fact  completely  banished 
those  of  his  predecessors. 

The  Quartet  he  also  brought  to  its  greatest 
perfection.  'It  is  not  often,'  says  Otto  Jahn, 
*  that  a  composer  hits  so  exactly  upon  the  form 
suited  to  his  conceptions  ;  the  quartet  was 
Haydn's  natural  mode  of  expressing  his  feelings.' 
The  life  and  freshness,  the  cheerfulness  and 
geniality  which  give  the  peculiar  stamp  to  these 
compositions  at  once  secured  their  universal  ac- 
ceptance. It  is  true  that  scientific  musicians  at 
first  regarded  this  new  element  in  music  with 
suspicion  and  even  contempt,  but  they  gradually 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  compatible  not 
only  with  artistic  treatment,  but  with  earnest- 
ness and  sentiment.  '  It  was  from  Haydn,'  said 
Mozart,  'that  I  first  learned  the  true  way  to 
compose  quartets.'  His  symphonies  encouraged 
the  formation  of  numerous  amateur  orchestras  ; 
while  his  quartets  became  an  unfailing  source  of 
elevated  pleasure  in  family  circles,  and  thus  raised 
the  general  standard  of  musical  cultivation. 

Encouraged  partly  by  the  progress  made  by 
Emmanuel  Bach  on  the  original  foundation  of 
Kuhnau  and  Domenico  Scarlatti,  Haydn  also 
left  his  mark  on  the  Sonata.  His  compositions 
of  this  kind  exhibit  the  same  vitality,  and  the 
same  individual  treatment ;  indeed  in  some  of 
them  he  seems  to  step  beyond  Mozart  into  the 
Beethoven  period.  His  clavier-trios  also,  though 
no  longer  valuable  from  a  technical  point  of 
view,  are  still  models  of  composition.  On  the 
other  hand,  his  accompanied  divertimenti,  and 
his  concertos,  with  a  single  exception,  were  far 
surpassed  by  those  of  Mozart,  and  have  long 
since  disappeared. 

His  first  collections  of  Songs  were  written  to 
trivial  words,  and  can  only  be  used  for  social 
amusement ;  but  the  later  series,  especially  the 
canzonets,  rank  far  higher,  and  many  of  them 
have  survived,  and  are  still  heard  with  delight, 
in  spite  of  the  progress  in  this  particular  branch 
of  composition  since  his  day.  The  airs  and  duets 
composed  for  insertion  in  various  operas  were 
essentially  ephemeral  productions.  His  canons — 
some  serious  and  dignified,  others  overflowing 
with  fun — strikingly  exhibit  his  power  of  com- 
bination. His  three-part  and  four-part  songs — 
like  the  canons,  especial  favourites  with  the  com- 
poser— are  excellent  compositions,  and  still  retain 
their  power  of  arousing  either  devotional  feeling 
or  mirth. 

His  larger  Masses  are  a  series  of  masterpieces, 
admirable  for  freshness  of  invention,  breadth  of 
design,  and  richness  of  development,  both  in  the 
voice-parts  and  the  intruments.  The  cheerfulness 
which  pervades  them  does  not  arise  from  frivolity, 
but  rather  from  the  joy  of  a  heart  devoted  to  God, 
and  trusting  all  things  to  a  Father's  care.  He 
told  Carpani  that  '  at  the  thought  of  God,  his 


heart  leaped  for  joy,  and  he  could  not  help  his 
music  doing  the  same.'  And  to  this  day,  diffi- 
cult as  it  may  seem  to  reconcile  the  fact  with  the 
true  dignity  of  church  music,  Haydn's  masses 
and  offertories  are  executed  more  frequently  than 
any  others  in  the  Catholic  churches  of  Germany. 

Frequent  performances  of  his  celebrated  Ora- 
torios have  familiarised  every  one  with  the 
charm  and  freshness  of  his  melody,  and  his  ex- 
pressive treatment  of  the  voices,  which  are  inva- 
riably supported  without  being  overpowered  by 
refined  and  brilliant  orchestration.  In  these  points 
none  of  his  predecessors  approached  him.  With 
regard  to  his  operas  composed  for  Esterhaz,  we 
have  already  quoted  his  own  opinion  ;  they  at- 
tained their  end.  Had  his  project  of  visiting 
Italy  been  fulfilled,  and  his  faculties  been  stimu- 
lated in  this  direction  by  fresh  scenes  and  a 
larger  sphere,  we  might  have  gained  some  fine 
operas,  but  we  should  certainly  have  lost  the 
Haydn  we  all  so  dearly  love. 

When  we  consider  what  Haydn  did  for  music, 
and  what  his  feelings  with  regard  to  it  were — 
the  willing  service  he  rendered  to  art,  and  his 
delight  in  ministering  to  the  happiness  of  others 
— we  can  but  express  our  love  and  veneration, 
and  exclaim  with  gratitude,  'Heaven  endowed 
him  with  genius — he  is  one  of  the  immortals.' 


The  Haydn  literature  contains  the  following 
books  and  pamphlets  : — 


Biographical  Sketches,  by  him- 
self (1776),  made  use  of  by  De  Luca 
in '  Das  gelehrte  Oesterreich'  (1778  ■, 
also  in  Forkel's  'Musikalischer! 
Almanach  for  Deutschland '  (1783), 
the  '  European  Magazine '  (Lon- 
don 1784);  Burney's  'HLstory  of 
Slusic,'  vol.  iv.  (1789) ;  Gerber's 
'Lexicon'  (1790),  with  additional 
particulars  in  the  2nd  edition  (1812  >; 
•  Jlusik-Correspondenz  der  teut- 
schen  Filarm.  Gesellschaff  for  1792, 
Nos.  17  and  18  by  Gerber ;  'Journal 
des  Luxus  und  der  Moden'  (Wei- 
mar 1805\  article  by  Bertuch ; 
Mayer's  "Brevi  notizie  istoriche 
della  vita...di  G.Haydn'  (Ber- 
gamo 1809) ;  Kinker's  '  Der  Nage- 
dachtenis  van  J.  Haydn  '  ( Amster- 
dam 1810);  Griesinger's  "Biogra- 
phische  Notizen"  (Leipzig  1810); 
Dies' '  Biographische  Nachrichten ' 
(Vienna  I8IO1;  obituary  in  the 
'Vaterland.  Blatter  fur  den  bst. 
Kaiserstaat'  (Vienna  1809*;  Ar- 
nold's 'Joseph  Haydn,'  etc.  (Erfurt 
1810, 2nd  edition  1S25),  and  '  Mozart 
und  Haydn'  (Erfurt  1810);  Fra- 
mery's  'Notice  sur  J.  Haydn,'  etc. 
(Paris  1810);  Le  Breton's  'Xotice 
historique  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages 
de  Haydn'  (Paris  1810)— first  ap- 
peared in  the  '  Moniteur,'  then  as 
a  pamphlet  reprinted  in  the  'Bib- 
liographie  musicale '  (Paris  1822). 
translated  into  Portuguese  with 
additions  by  Silva-Lisboa  (Eio 
Janeiro  18-20) ;  'Essai  historique 
sur  la  vie  de  J.  Haydn '  (Strass- 
bourg  1812) :  Carpani's  '  Le  Hay- 
dine.'  etc.  (Slilan  1812,  2nd  edition 
enlarged,  Padua  1823);  'Lettres 
^crites  de  Vienne  en  Autriche,  etc." 


I  L.  A.  C.  Bombet  (Paris  1814),  re- 
published as  "Vie  de  Haydn,  Mo- 
zart, et  Metastase,'  par  StendhaU 
!  (Paris  1817) ;  Grosser's '  Biogr.  Noti- 
zen  '  (Hirschberg  1826) ;  Ersch  und 
Gruber's  'Allg.  Encyclopadie  der 
Wissenschaften  und  Kunste  2nd 
section,  3rd  part'  (Leipzig  1828), 
with  a  biographical  sketch  by 
Frohlich ;  the  article  in  F^tis" 
'Biographic  univ.  des  Musiciens'; 
'  Allg. Wiener  Musikzeitung'  (1843) ; 
'  J.  Haydu  in  London  1791  and  1792,* 
von  Karajan  (Vienna  1861);  'Joseph 
Haydn  und  sein  Bruder  Michael,' 
AVurzbach  (Vienna  1861) ;  Ludwig's 
'Joseph  Haydn'  (Nordhausen  1867); 
C.  F.  Pohl's  'Mozart  und  Haydn 
in  London'  (Vienna  1867);  C.  F. 
Pohl's  'Joseph  Haydn  '  (from  the  ar- 
cluves  at  Eisenstadt  and  Forchten- 
stein,  and  other  new  and  authentic 
sources),  vol.  i.  B.  &  H.  1875.- Cri- 
tiques:—by  Triest  in  the  '  Leipziger 
allg.  mus.  Zeitung'  1801;  Schubart's 
•  Ideen  zu  einer  Aesthetik  der  Ton- 
kunst"  (Vienna  1806);  Keichardt's 
'Vertraute  Briefe'  (Amsterdam 
1810);  Nageli's  '  Vorlesungen  liber 
Musik'  (Stuttgart  and  Tubingen 
1826) ;  Musik.  Briefe  , . .  von  einem 
Wohlbekannten  (Lobe)  (Leipzig 
1852;,  Letter  28 ;  Biehl's  '  MusikaU 
Charakterkopfe  •  (Stuttgart  1862); 
'Joseph  Haydn  und  seine  furst- 
licheTi  Macene,'  by  Dr.  Lorenz,  in 
the  'Deutsche  Musikzeitung'  for 
1862 ;  '  Brief  Haydn's  an  die  Ton- 
kiinstler-Societiit  •  (Signale  1865); 
'  Musikerbriefe.'  by  Nohl  (Leipzig 
1867) ;  annals  of  the  '  Wiener  Di- 
arium'  (afterwards  the  'Wiener 
Zeitung'). 


1  Bombet  and  Stendhal  are  pseudonyms  of  Henri  Beyle,  who  stole 
freely  from  Carpani.  The  first  of  the<e  pamphlets  was  translated  into 
English  (by  Gardiner),  •  The  Life  of  Haydn  in  a  series  of  letters,'  etc. 
(London,  John  Murray,  1817,  Boston  1839).  Mondo's  French  translation 
of  Carpani's  larger  work  appeared  in  Paris  1837. 


720 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  Haydn's  compositions 
— printed,  copied,  and  autograph — with  others 
mentioned  in  various  catalogues. 

various  other  plays ;  22  airs,  mostly 
Inserted  in  operas;    'Ariana  a 


I.  Instrumental.  iSymphomes,i 
including  overtures  to  operas  and 
plays,  125;  'The  Seven  Words 
from  the  ^ Cross';  various  com- 
positions for  wind  and  strings, 
separately  and  combined,  66,  in- 
cluding divertimenti,  concerted 
pieces,  etc.,  7  notturnos  for  the  lyre, 
serenades,  7  marches,6  scherzandos, 

1  sestet,  several  quintets,  1 '  Echo ' 
for  4  violins  and  2  cellos,  '  Feld- 
partien'  for  vfiud  instruments,  and 
arrangements  from  baryton  pieces  ; 
12  collections  of  minuets  and  alle- 
mandes;  31  concertos— 9  violin,  6 
cello,  Idouble  bass,  5  lyre,  3  baryton 

2  flute,  3  horn.l  for  2  horns,  1  cla- 
rino  (1796).  Baryton  ^  pieces,  175, 
1  duet  for  2  lutes ;  2  trios  for  lute, 
violin  and  ceDo ;  1  sonata  for  harp, 
with  flute  and  bass ;  several  pieces 
for  a  musical  cloclc  ;  a  solo  for  har 
monica.  Duets— 6  for  violin  solo 
with  viola  accompaniment.*  Trios 
30 ;  20  are  for  2  violins  and  bass ; 
1  for  violin  solo,  viola  concert- 
ante,  and  bass ;  2  for  flute,  violin 
and  bass;  3  for  3  flutes;  1  for 
como  di  caccia,  violin,  and  cello. 
Quartets  for  2  violins,  viola,  and 
cello,  77;  the  first  18  were  pub- 
lished in  3  series,  the  next  is  In  MS., 
then  one  printed  separately,  54  in 
9  series  of  6  Nos.  each,  2  more,  and 
the  last.5  Clavier  — 20  6  concertos 
and  divertimenti ;  38  '  trios— 35 
with  violin  and  cello,  3  with  flute 
and  cello ;  53  sonatas  «  and  diverti' 
menti ;  4  sonatas  9  for  clavier  and 
violin  ;  9  smaller  pieces,  includii 
5  Nos.  of  variations,  a  capriccio, 
fautasia,2  adagios, and  '  Diffdrentes 
petites  pieces ' ;  1  duet  (variations). 

II.  Vocal.  Church  music  — 14 
Masses;  1  Stabat  Mater;  2  Te 
Deums;  13  lo  offertoires,  and 
motets ;  1  Tantum  ergo ;  4  Salve 
Beginas ;  1  Kegina  coeli ;  2  Ave 
Keginas;  Kespon,soria  de  Venera 
bili ;  1  Cantilena  pro  Adventu 
(German  words) ;  6  sacred  arias;  2 
duets.  Oratorios  and  cantatas— 
'The  Creation';  'The  Seasons'; 
'  n  Ritorno  di  Tobia' ;  '  The  Seven 
Words ' ;  •  Invocation  of  Neptune ' 
'  Applausus  musicus '  (for  the  festi 
val  of  a  prelate,  1768);  cantata  for 
the  birthday  of  Prince  Nicolaus 
(1763) :  '  Die  Erwahlung  eines  Ka- 
pellmeisters,' a  cantata.  Operas— 
1  German,  or  more  correctly 
Singspiel ;  4  Italian  comedies ;  14 
ditto,  buffe ;  5  marionette  operas  ; 
music  for  '  Alfred. 


Naxos.ii  cantata  for  single  voice 
and  P.F. ;  Deutschland's  Klage  aiaf 
den  Tod  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,' 
cantata  for  a  single  voice  with 
baryton  accompaniment.  Songs— 
12  German  Lieder,  1782 ;  12  ditto, 
1784;  12  single  ones  (5  unpub- 
lished); 6  'Original  canzonets,* 
London  1796  ;  6  ditto;  'The  Spirit 
Shakspeare,  F  minor  ;  '  O 
tuneful  Voice,'  Eb,  composed  for 
an  English  lady  of  position,  both 
published ;  3  English  songs  in  MS.; 

2  duets;  3  3-part  and  10  4-part 
songs;  3  choruses,  MS.;  1  ditto 
from 'Alfred'  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel); 
the  Austrian  national  anthem,  for 
single  voice  and  in  4  parts;  42 
canons  in  2  and  more  parts;  2 
ditto ;  *  The  Ten  Commandments,' 
set  to  canons;  the  same,  with 
different  words,  under  the  title 
'  Die  zehn  Gesetze  der  Kunst ' ;  '  A 
Selection  of  original  Scots  songs  in 

3  parts,  the  harmony  by  Dr.  J. 
Haydn,'  with  violin  and  bass  ac- 
companiments and  symphonies ;  '2 
'A  select  Collection  of  Original 
Welsh  Airs  in  3  parts.' 

Supposititious  and  doubtful 
works.  Instrumental  —  Several 
symphonies  and  concerted  pieces ; 
the  '  Kunstquartet,'  with  different 
movements,  by  Andr6,  entitled 
'  Poissons  d'Avril ' ;  the  ^ '  Ochsen- 
menuett ' ;  '  Sei  quartetti.  Opera 
xxi '  (Paris,  Durieu) ; '  Sei  quintetti, 
Opera  xxii  '(Paris,  Le  Chevardiere). 
1  string  quintet  in  C,  published  as 
op.  88  (by  Michael  Haydn) ;  1  Cla^ 
vier-trio  in  C  (M.  Haydn) ;  Sonata, 
op.  93,  No.  2  (by  Cambinl) ; '  Senates 
k  quatre  mains,'  op.  77,  81,  86, 
merely  arrangements  from  sympho- 
nies. Vocal— 2  Requiems  ;  4  Masses 
(Novello  9,  10,  13,  14);  '  Schul- 
meistermesse';  several  MS.  Masses ; 
Te  Deum  in  C,  3-4  tempo  (by  M. 
Haydn) ;  Miserere  in  G  minor ;  2 
Liberas;  MS.  Oratorio,  'Abramo 
ed  Isacco'  (by  Misliweczek) ;  2 '  Pas- 
sions-Oratorien,'  MS.;  1 '  Applausus 
musicus,'  1763,  and  'Aria  de  St.  .Jo- 
anne de  Nepomuk,'1763  (both  MS., 
by  Albrechtsberger).  Cantatas— 
'An  die  Freude,'  found  recently; 
'  Das  Erndtefest';  Des  Dichters  Ge- 
burtsfest';  '  Hier  liegt  Constantia.' 
Operas  —  '  Alessandro  il  Grande,' 
1780,  pasticcio  from  Haydn  and 
other  composers;  '  Laurette.'  op^ra 
comique  (Paris  1791),  a  pasticcio ; 

1  94  are  published  in  parts,  40  in  score;  29  remain  in  MS.  P.  F. 
arrangements  for  2  hands  about  40,  for  4  about  60,  for  8  about  10. 

2  Originally  for  orchestra ;  arranged  first  for  2  violins,  viola,  and 
bass,  then  for  soli,  chorus,  and  orchestra. 

3  Arrangements  were  published  of  several  of  those  in  3  parts,  with 
violin  (for  which  the  flute  is  occasionally  substituted),  viola,  or  cello  as 
principal. 

*  The  numerous  printed  duets  for  2  violins  are  only  arrangements 
from  his  other  works. 

5  The  arrangement  of  the  'Seven  Words'  is  wrongly  included  in 
the  collections. 

0  One  concerto  is  with  principal  violin ;  two  only,  G  and  D,  have  been 
printed  ;  the  last  alone  survives. 

7  Only  31  are  printed. 

8  Only  35  are  printed ;  the  one  in  C,  containing  the  Adagio  in  F,  in- 
cluded in  all  the  collections  of  smaller  pieces,  only  in  London. 

»  8  are  pu'olished.  but  4  of  these  are  arrangements. 

10  10  of  the  13  are  taken  from  other  compositions,  with  Latin  text 
added. 

11  Published  by  Simrock  with  orchestral  accompaniment  by  Schnei- 
der (?),  and  with  clavier  accompaniment,  and  Italian,  German,  and 
French  words. 

12  London:  printed  for  W.  Napier.  Dedicated  by  permission  to 
H.B.H.  the  Duchess  of  York.  Vol.  I.  contains  100,  Vol.  II.  100 
Vol.  III.  47.  Haydn's  own  catalogue  mentions  364,  some  of  which 
were  published  by  Thomson  A  Whyte  of  Edinburgh. 

'3  Printed  by  I'reston.  vol.  L  20,  vol.  11. 17,  vol.  IlL  4. 

i*  The  Ox's  minuet— thf  title  of  a  Singspiel  founded  on  the  well- 
known  anecdote,  set  to  a  pasticcio  from  Haydn's  compositions,  and 
long  popular. 


\  La  cafTetierft  bizarra,'  (by  Weigl) ; 

Die  Hochzeit  auf  der  Aim  (M. 
Haydn);  'Der  Apfeldieb.'  Sing- 
spiel (by  Tast.-also  set  by  Blerrey) ; 
'  Der  Freybrief,'  partially  adapted 
from  Haydn's  'La  Fedelta  pre- 
miata,'  by  Fridolin  Weber  (C.  M. 
von  Weber  afterwards  added  I'two 
numbers):  'Die Bauchfangkehrer," 
by  Salieri;  'La  F^e  Urg^le'  (by 


Pleyel)  also  set  by  Amans  an! 
Schulz.  Terzet  for  men's  voices, 
'Lieber,  holder,  kleiner  Ent:fcl,' 
(by  Schickaneder) ;  comic  canon 
'  Venerabili  barbaracapucinorum,' 
(by  Gassmann ) ;  canon,  '  Meine 
Herreu,  lasst  unsjetzteine  Sinfonie 
auffiihren ' ;  proverbs  for  4  voices, 
by  Andr^ ; '  Die  Theilung  der  Erde," 
a  bass  song  by  Eoser  (Diabelli). 


In  the  impossibility  of  giving  a  complete 
thematic  list  of  Haydn's  125  Symphonies,  some 
particulars  regarding  a  few  of  thom  may  be 
useful. 

I.  The  1 2  Symphonies  which  he  composed  for 
Salomon's  concerts,  numbered  in  the  order  of 
their  occurrence  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  of  London. 

N.B. — The  dates  given  in  inverted  commas — 
as  'Londini,  1791' — are  those  on  the  autograph 
scores.  Those  in  brackets,  [i  792],  are  conjectural. 

The  numbers  in  brackets,  [8],  are  those  of 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel's  edition. 

The  titles  in  inverted  commas  are  those  usual 
in  England;  those  in  brackets  are  accepted  in 
Germany. 

No.  1.  [7.]  Adagio.  [179-.] 


No.  2.  [5.]  Adagio. 


'  Londini,  1791. 


'  The  Surprise.'  [Mit  dem  Paukenschlag.] 
No.  3.  [6.]  Adagio.  '1791.' 


No.  4.  [8.]  Adagio. 


[1792.] 


No.  5.  [9.]  All°  Muderato. 


15: 


15  See  Jahns's  Catalogue,  >os.  78.  79. 

16  Haydn  has  headed  the  MS. '  Sinfonia  In  D,  the  12ih  which  I  hart 
coaipobt;d  in  England.' 


HAYDN. 


HAYDN. 


m 


[Mit  dem  Paukenwirbel.] 
No.  8.  [1.]  Adagio. 


[1795.] 


Adagio. 

'  Letter  R.' 

t 

[1788.] 

>  1  *  "i^^ 

P  1  •  1^ 

No.  9.  [12.]  Largo 


Largo, 


'  Letter  T.'  [1787,  for  Paris.] 


'  Sinfonia  in  B  fa.  1795. 


No.  10.1  [3.]  Adagio 


•1793.' 


■  • 

/  P 

No.  11.  [4.]  Adagio 
X 


'The  Clock.' 


'1794.' 


II.  Symphonies  which  are  known  by  titles. 

The  letters  ('Letter  A,'  etc.)  are  those  in  the 
Philharmonic  catalogue,  by  which  these  Sympho- 
nies are  designated  in  the  Society's  programmes. 

Symphonies  marked  wath  a  *r  are  published  by 
Simrock,  in  parts,  engraved  from  the  original 
scores. 


*  Adagio. 


Letter  A. 


[1780.J 


'  Letter  B.'   '  The  Farewell  Sj-mphony.' 
'  A 11°  assai.  '  1772.' 


1 — ' 

*  Adagio. 


1 

-• 

1 

pg;7    Si  I 

^  1 

•- 

1  ' 

-  t 

• 

• 

.  ^ 

Vivace. 


Letter  W; 


1787.^ 


^  f 

*  Adagio. 


La  Reine  de  France/ 


[1786,  for  Paris.] 


*Larghetto. 


•  La  Chasse.' 


[1780.] 


'  Roxelane.' 
(Overture  to  '  II  Mondo  della  luna.') 


[1777.] 


*LaPoule.' 

*All'>  spiritoso.  ^  _    .....         [1786,  for  Paris.] 


*  Vivace  assai.  ^ 


'L'Ours.' 


[1786.] 


Composed  in  Vienna. 


2  EeferrinK  to  the  Andante. 


3  A 


722 


HAYDN. 


Adagio. 


Adagio. 


« n  Distrato.' 
(Overture  to  '  Der  Zerstreute.') 


[1776.] 


'  Kinder-Symphonie; 


C178-.] 


Adagio.  '  La  Passione. 


[1V7S.] 


*  Feuer-Symphonie.* 
(Probably  Overture  to  '  Die  Feuersbrunst.") 
Presto.  '  1774' 


^  *  1  .    » »  * 


Concertante.'         *  London,  1792.' 


'  Lamentations.'  1 

^Z^"  assai  con  spirito. 


[C.F.P.] 

HAYDN  IN  LONDON.  The  second  volume 
of  'Mozart  und  Haydn  in  London,'  by  C.  F. 
Pohl  (Vienna,  Gerold,  1867),  devoted  to  an 
account  of  Haydn's  two  visits  to  England  and 
the  musical  condition  of  the  country  at  the 
time.  It  abounds  with  curious  details  gathered 
during  a  long  residence  here,  and  its  accuracy 
is  unimpeachable.  It  will  to  some  extent  be 
superseded  by  Mr.  Pohl's  Life  of  Haydn  from 
new  and  authentic  sources,  especially  from  the 

'  The  Adagio  contains  the  Ecclesiastical  Melody  for  Passion  Week. 


HAYES. 

archives  of  Eisenstadt  and  Forchtenstein,  of 
which  one  volume  has  appeared  (Leipzig,  Breit- 
kopf  &  Hartel,  1878).  [G.] 

HAYES,  Catharine,  distinguished  soprano, 
was  born  in  Ireland  in  1825  or  26,  and  learnt 
singing  in  Dublin  from  Sapio,  in  Paris  from 
Garcia,  and  at  Milan  from  Ronconi.  On  her 
departure  for  abroad  Thackeray  wished  her  fare- 
well in  his  Irish  Sketchbook.  She  made  her 
first  appearance  at  Marseilles  in  1845  in  the 
Puritani,  and  this  successful  d^btlt  was  the 
beginning  of  a  very  brilliant  career  in  Italy  and 
Austria.  Her  first  appearance  in  London  was 
at  Co  vent  Garden,  April  10,  1849,  in  Linda. 
After  a  short  period  of  fair  success  here,  during 
which  she  also  sang  in  Lucia,  the  Sonnambula, 
and  the  Proph^te  (Bertha) — and  of  much  greater 
eclat  in  Ireland,  where  she  sang  Irish  songs 
amid  vast  applause — she  left  Europe  for  America, 
India,  Australia,  and  Polynesia.  In  1857  she 
returned  with  a  fortune,  and  married  Mr. 
Bushnell,  but  was  known  by  her  maiden  name 
till  her  death,  which  took  place  at  Eoccles,  Syden- 
ham, Aug,  II,  1 86 1.  Her  voice  was  beautiful, 
but  she  was  an  imperfect  musician,  and  did  not 
study.  In  society  and  domestic  life  she  was 
greatly  beloved  and  esteemed.  [G.] 

HAYES,  Philip,  Mus.  Doc,  second  son  of  Dr. 
William  Hayes,  born  in  April  1738;  received  his 
musical  education  principally  from  his  father  ; 
graduated  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford,  May  18,  1763; 
on  Nov.  30,  1767,  was  appointed  a  Gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal.  In  1776,  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  Richard  Church,  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him  as  organist  of  New  College,  Oxford,  and  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  the  following  year 
obtained  his  appointments  of  organist  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  and  Professor  of  Music  in 
the  University.  He  proceeded  Doctor  of  Music, 
Nov.  6,  1777,  On  the  death  of  Thomas  Norris 
in  1790  he  was  appointed  organist  of  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford.  Dr.  Hayes  composed  several 
anthems,  eight  of  which  he  published  in  a 
volume ;  *  Prophecy,'  an  oratorio,  performed  at 
the  Commemoration  at  Oxford,  1781;  Ode  for 
St.  Cecilia's  day,  '  Begin  the  Song '  (written  by 
John  Oldham  and  originally  set  by  Dr.  Blow, 
1684);  '  Telemachus,'  a  masque,  and  16  Psalms 
from  Merrick's  Version.  He  was  editor  of 
'  Harmonia  Wiccamica,'  a  collection  of  the  music 
sung  at  the  Meeting  of  Wykehamists  in  London, 
and  of  some  MS.  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester (son  of  Princess  Anne  of  Denmark),  com- 
menced by  Jenkin  Lewis,  one  of  his  attendants, 
and  completed  by  the  editor.  Dr.  P.  Hayes,  who 
was  one  of  the  largest  men  in  England,  died 
March  19,  1797,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral.  [W.H.H.] 

HAYES,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  born  at  Glou- 
cester in  1707,  became  a  chorister  of  the 
cathedral  there  under  William  Hine.  He  was 
articled  to  Hine,  and  soon  became  distinguished 
as  an  organist.  After  the  expiration  of  his  arti- 
cles he  obtained  the  appointment  of  organist 
at  St,  Mary's  Church,  Shrewsbury.    In  173 1  he 


HAYES. 


HEAD -VOICE. 


723 


became  organist  of  Worcester  Cathedral,  which 
he  resigned  in  1734  on  being  appointed  organist 
and  master  of  the  choristers  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  as  Mus.  Bac. 
July  8,  1735.  On  Jan.  14,  1742,  he  succeeded 
Richard  Goodson  as  Professor  of  jNIusic  in  the 
University.  On  the  opening  of  the  Eadcliffe 
Library  Hayes  directed  the  performance,  and  was 
on  that  occasion  created  Doctor  of  Music,  April 
14,  1749.  In  1763  Dr.  Hayes  became  a  com- 
petitor for  the  prizes  then  first  offered  by  the 
Catch  Club,  and  obtained  three  for  his  canons, 
'Alleluja'  and"  'Miserere  nobis,'  and  his  glee, 
'Melting  airs  soft  joys  inspire.'  He  conducted 
the  music  at  the  Gloucester  Festival  in  1763. 
His  compositions  comprise  'Twelve  Arietts  or 
Ballads  and  Two  Cantatas,'  1735;  '  Collin s's 
Ode  on  the  Passions ' ;  '  Vocal  and  Instrumental 
Music  containing  I.  The  Overture  and  Songs  in 
the  Masque  of  Circe,  II.  A  Sonata  or  Trio  and 
I  Ballads,  Airs,  and  Cantatas,  III.  An  Ode  being 
i  part  of  an  Exercise  performed  for  a  Bachelor's 
1  Degree  in  Music,'  1 742  ;  '  Catches,  Glees,  and 
i  Canons ' ;  '  Cathedral  Music '  (Services  and  An- 
I  thems),  1795;  'Instrumental  Accompaniments 

I  to  the  Old  Hundredth  Psalm,  for  the  Sons  of  the 
Clergy';  and  'Sixteen  Psalms  from  Merrick's 
Version.'     He   was  author  of  '  Remarks  on 

j  Mr.  A^'ison's  Essay  on  Musical  Expression,' 
(1762.    He  died  at  Oxford  July  30,  1777,  and 

II  was  buried  in  the  Churchyard  of  St.  Peter  in 
the  East. 

j     William  Hayes,  jun.,  third  son  of  the  above, 

I was  bom  in  1741,  and  on  June  27,  1749,  was 
admitted  a  chorister  of  Magdalen  College.  He 
resigned  in  1751.  He  matriculated  from  Mag- 
dalen Hall,  July  16,  1757,  graduated  as  B.A. 
I  April  7,  1 761,  M. A.  Jan.  15,  1764,  was  admitted 
a  clerk  of  Magdalen  College,  July  6,  1 764,  and 
resigned  in  1765  on  obtaining  a  minor  canonry 
in  Worcester  Cathedral.  On  Jan.  14,  1766,  he 
was  appointed  minor  canon  of  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, and  made '  junior  cardinal '  in  1 7S3.  He  was 
also  Vicar  of  Tillingham,  Essex.  He  died  Oct. 
22,  1790.  In  May  1765  he  contributed  to  the 
Gentleman's  Magazine  a  paper  entitled,  '  Rules 
necessary  to  be  observed  by  all  Cathedral  Singers 
in  this  Kingdom.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

HAYM,  NicoLO  Francesco,  born  at  Rome, 
of  German  parents,  came  to  England  in  1704. 
A  little  later,  he  engaged  with  Clayton  and 
Dieupart  in  an  attempt  to  establish  Italian 
opera  in  London ;  and  played  the  principal 
cello  in  Clayton's  '  Arsinoe.'  '  Camilla '  was 
Haym's  first  opera,  produced  at  Drury  Lane, 
April  30,  1706.  His  next  performances  were 
the  alteration  of  Buononcini's  '  Thomyris '  for 
the  stage,  and  the  arrangement  of  '  Pyrrhus  and 
Demetrius'  [see  Nicolini],  which,  in  his  copy 
of  his  agreement  (in  the  writer's  possession),  he 
calls  'my  opera,'  though  in  reality  composed  by 
A.  Scarlatti  ^  For  the  latter  he  received  £300 
from  Rich,  while  he  was  paid  regularly  for  play- 


'  Haym  composed  for  this,  It  Is  true,  a  new  overture  and  several 
additional  songs,  which  have  considerable  merit. 


ing  in  the  orchestra,  and  bargained  for  a  sepa- 
rate agreement  for  every  new  opera  he  should 
arrange  or  import.  The  principal  parts  in  'Pyr- 
rhus and  Demetrius '  were  sung  by  some  of  the 
performers  in  Italian,  and  by  the  rest  in  English ; 
but  this  absurd  manner  of  representing  a  drama 
was  not  peculiar  to  England.  These  operas  con- 
tinued to  run  from  1 709-11,  and  in  the  latter 
year  his  *  Etearco'  was  produced  ;  but  the  arrival 
of  Handel  seems  to  have  put  Hajnn  to  flight.  In 
Nos.  258  and  278  of  the  Spectator,  for  Dec.  26, 
1 7 II,  and  Jan.  18,  1712,  are  two  letters,  signed 
by  Clayton,  Haym,  and  Dieupart,  in  which  they 
protest  against  the  new  style  of  music,  and  solicit 
patronage  for  their  concerts  at  Clayton's  house 
in  York-buildings.  Haym  was  ready  however  to 
take  either  side,  and  in  1713  he  reappears  as  the 
author  of  the  libretto  of  Handel's  '  Teseo,'  a 
position  which  he  filled  again  in  'Radamisto,' 
'  Ottone,'  '  Flavio,'  '  Giulio  Cesare,'  '  Tamerlano,' 
'Rodelinda,'  'Siroe,'  'Tolomeo,'  etc.  for  Handel; 
*  C.  M.  Coriolano,'  and  '  Vespa>siano,'  for  Ariosti ; 
and  '  Calfumia '  and  '  Astianatte,'  for  Buonon- 
cini.  He  seems  to  have  been  no  more  particular 
about  claiming  the  words  than  the  music  of 
others  :  for  he  claims  the  book  of  '  Siroe,'  though 
it  is  the  work  of  Metastasio  (see  Bumey,  iv. 
329).  His  merit  as  a  musician,  however,  entitled 
him  to  better  encouragement  than  he  received ; 
he  published  2  sets  of  Sonatas  for  2  violins  and 
a  bass,  which  show  him  to  have  been  an  able 
master,  and  his  talent  for  dramatic  music  may 
be  appreciated  from  an  air  printed  by  Sir.  J. 
Hawkins  in  his  History  (chap.  I74\ 

Haym  was  a  connoisseur  of  medals.  He  pub- 
lished '  II  Tesoro  delle  Medaglie  antiche,'  2  vols. 
Italian  and  English,  4to.  He  also  wrote  *  Merope ' 
and  '  Demodice,'  two  tragedies  ;  and  published  a 
fine  edition  of  the  'Gierusalemme  Liberata'  of 
Tasso,  and  a  'Notizia  de'  Libri  rari  Italiani,'  a 
useful  book.  Hawkins  tells  us  (as  above)  that 
he  also  had  the  intention  of  printing  a  History 
of  Music  on  a  large  scale,  the  prospectus  of 
which  he  published  about  1730.  He  had  written 
it  in  Italian,  and  designed  to  translate  it  into 
English,  but  relinquished  the  scheme  for  want 
of  support.  It  must  not  be  omitted,  that  we 
owe  to  the  pencil  of  Haym  the  only  known 
portraits  of  our  great  early  English  masters, 
Tallis  and  Byrd,  engraved  by  G.  Vander  Gucht, 
perhaps  for  the  projected  History  of  Music. 
The  two  portraits  are  on  one  plate,  of  which 
only  one  impression  is  known  to  exist.  On 
abandoning  the  musical  profession,  he  became 
a  collector  of  pictures,  from  two  of  which  he 
probably  copied  the  heads  of  Tallis  and  B)rrd. 
F^tis,  incorrectly  as  usual,  puts  his  death  in  1 720 ; 
he  must  have  died  shortly  after  the  publication 
of  the  above-mentioned  prospectus,  for  he  is 
mentioned  as  'the  late  Mr.  Haym'  in  vol.  3 
of  the  'Merry  Musician'  (circ.  1731).  [J.M.] 

HEAD- VOICE — in  contradistinction  to  chest- 
voice. This  term  is  applied  indifferently  to  the 
second  or  third  register.  Its  range  is  absolutely 
indefinable,  seeing  that  many  or  most  of  the 
notes  naturally  produced  'from  the  chest*  may 
3  A2 


724 


HEAD -VOICE. 


HEIGHINGTOx^. 


alao  be  produced  'from  the  head';  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  different  'registers'  of  every- 
voice  may  be  made  to  cross  each  other.  [See 
Chest-voice;  Falsetto.]  [J.H.] 

HEBRIDES.  'Die  Hebriden'  is  one  of  the 
names  of  Mendelssohn's  2nd  Concert  Overture 
(in  B  minor,  op.  26),  the  others  being  '  Fingals 
Hohle'  and  '  Die  einsame  Insel.'  He  and  Klinge- 
mann  were  at  Staffa  on  Aug.  7, 1 8  29 ;  and  the  next 
letter  to  his  family  is  dated  '  Auf  einer  Hebride,' 
and  contains  the  first  20  bars  of  the  overture. 
(See  facsimile  in  'Die  Familie  Mendelssohn,'  i. 
257.)  It  is  said  that  when  he  returned  to  Berlin 
and  was  asked  by  his  sisters  what  he  had  seen, 
he  went  to  the  piano  and  played  the  opening  of 
the  overture,  as  much  as  to  say  '  that  is  what  I 
have  seen.'  He  began  it  seriously  at  Rome  in 
the  winter  of  1830  (see  the  '  Reisebriefe'),  and 
the  first  score  is  dated  'Rome,  Dec.  16,  1830,' 
and  entitled  '  Die  einsame  Insel.'  This  MS.  is 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Felix  Moscheles.  It  was 
played  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  Oct.  14,  18 71. 
A  second  score  is  dated  '  London,  June  20,  1832,' 
and  entitled  'The  Hebrides'  ;  it  is  in  possession 
of  the  family  of  Sir  W.  Stemdale  Bennett.  A 
comparison  between  the  two  was  attempted  in  the 
C.  P.  programme  book  of  the  above  date.  The 
differences  are  very  great,  and  are  chiefly  in  the 
middle  portion  or  working  out  (see  letter  Jan.  12, 
1832).  The  printed  score  (Breitkopfs),  an  8vo 
(published  Easter  1834),  is  entitled  '  Fingals 
Hohle.'  The  parts  are  headed  '  Hebrides,'  and 
do  not  agree  with  the  score  (see  bars  7  and  87). 

The  overture  was  first  played  by  the  Philhar- 
monic Society,  May  14,  1832.  [G.] 

HEDGELAXD,  William,  estabHshed  an  or- 
gan factory  in  London  in  185 1.  Amongst  his 
instruments  are  those  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen, 
Paddiugton ;  Holy  Cross,  St.  Helen's,  Lanca- 
shire ;  and  St.  Thomas,  Portman  Square,  Lon- 
don. [V.deP.] 

HEIDEGGER,  John  James,  by  birth  a 
Fleming,  as  it  is  supposed,  arrived  in  England 
in  necessitous  circumstances  in  1707.  Svvdny 
was  still  sole  manager  of  the  Opera-house,  but 
Heidegger  was  probably  the  person  ('  tho'  musick 
is  only  his  diversion')  to  whom  Motteux  alluded 
in  his  Preface  to  'Thomyris^'  as  the  selector  of 
the  songs  in  that  opera.  In  1 708  he  undertook 
the  management,  and  held  it  until  the  end  of 
the  season  of  1734  with  varying  success  ;  but 
ended  by  acquiring  a  large  fortune.  He  had 
the  address  to  procure  a  subscription  which 
enabled  him  to  put  'Thomyris'  on  the  stage, 
and  by  this  alone  he  gained  500  guineas.  He 
introduced  Ridotti  and  masquerades  at  the 
Ppera ;  and,  in  allusion  to  this,  Dr.  Arbuthnot 
inscribed  to  him  a  poem,  'The  Masquerade,'  in 
which  he  is  more  severe  on  his  ugliness  than  on 
his  more  voluntary  vices.  Pope  describes  him 
as — 

'  With  less  reading  than  makes  felons  'scape, 
Less  human  genius  than  God  gives  an  ape 

and  commemorates  his  personal  charms  in  the 
lines, — 


'  And  lo !  her  bird  (a  monster  of  a  fowl), 
Something  betwixt  an  Heideggre  and  owl.' 

(Dunciad,  bk.  i.) 

and  a  little  print,  below  which  are  the  words 
*  —  Risum  teneatis  amici  ? '  translates  his  words 
into  a  caricature,  representing  a  chimiera  with 
the  head  of  Heidegger.  His  faoe  is  preserved 
also  in  a  rare  etching  by  Worlidge,  and  in  a 
capital  mezzotint  by  Faber  (1749)  after  Vanloo. 
Lord  Chesterfield,  on  one  occasion,  wagered  that 
Heidegger  was  the  ugliest  person  in  the  town ; 
but  a  hideous  old  woman  was,  after  some  trouble, 
discovered,  who  was  admitted  to  be  even  uglier 
than  Heidegger.  As  the  latter  was  pluming 
himself  on  his  victory.  Lord  Chesterfield  insisted 
on  his  putting  on  the  old  woman's  bonnet,  when 
the  tables  were  turned,  and  Lord  Chesterfield  was 
unanimously  declared  the  winner  amid  thunders 
of  applause. 

Heidegger  was  commonly  called  the  'Swiss 
Count,'  under  which  name  he  is  alluded  to  in 
'  A  Critical  Discourse  on  Operas  and  Musick  in 
England,'  appended  to  the  '  Comparison  between 
the  French  and  Italian  Musick  and  Operas '  of 
the  Abbe  Eaguenet,  and  in  Hughes's  '  Vision 
of  Charon  or  the  Ferry-boat.' 

The  libretto  of  Handel's  'Amadigi'  (1716) 
is  signed  by  Heidegger  as  author.  In  1729 
they  entered  into  operatic  partnership  at  the 
Haymarket  Theatre  for  three  years,  but  the 
agreement  lasted  till  1734.  In  1737  Heidegger 
resumed  the  management,  which  the  nobility 
had  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  Farinelli's 
detention  at  Madrid  ;  but  the  season  was  cala- 
mitous. Previous  to  closing  the  theatre,  he 
advertised  for  a  new  subscription  (May  24, 
1738);  but  a  second  advertisement  (July  25), 
announced  that  the  project  of  another  season 
was  relinquished,  and  after  that  we  hear  no  more 
of  Heidegger.  [ J .  M .] 

HEIGHINGTON,  Musgrave,  Mus.  Doc., 
bom  1680,  son  of  Ambrose  Heighington,  of  White 
Hurworth,  Durham,  and  grand.son  of  Sir  Edward 
Musgrave,  of  Ha}i;on  Castle,  Cumberland,  Bart., 
embraced  the  profession  of  music  and  in  1738 
was  organist  at  Yarmouth.  On  Aug.  12,  1738, 
he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Gentlemen's 
Society  at  Spalding,  a  literary  and  antiquarian 
body  corresponding  with  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries. In  1739,  being  then  organist  at  Leices- 
ter, he  produced  at  the  Society's  anniversary  an 
ode  composed  by  him  for  the  occasion.  He 
composed  the  vocal  music  in  'The  Enchanter, 
or.  Harlequin  Merlin,'  a  pantomime  published  in 
Dublin,  togetlier  with  the  instrumental  music,  a 
circumstance  which,  coupled  with  the  facts  of  his 
wife  being  an  Irish  lady  and  his  son  bom  ih 
Dublin,  leads  to  the  inference  that  he  at  some 
time  pursued  his  profession  in  that  city.  He 
also  composed  '  Six  Select  Odes, '  and  some  minor 
pieces.  He  is  said  to  have  obtained  his  degree 
at  Oxford,  but  his  name  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
records  there,  nor  in  the  catalogues  of  graduates 
at  Cambridge  or  Dublin.  He  died  at  Dundee 
about  1774.  [W.H.H.] 


HEIL  DIE  IM  SIEGERKRANZ. 


HELMHOLTZ. 


725 


HEIL  DIE  IM  SIEGERKRANZ.  A  Ger- 
man national  song,  written  by  Heinrich  Harries, 
a  Holstein  clergyman,  for  the  birthday  of  Christian 
VII  of  Denmark,  and  published  in  the  Flensburg 
Wochenblatt  of  Jan.  27,  1790,  'to  the  melody 
of  the  English  God  save  great  George  the  King.' 
It  was  originally  in  8  stanzas,  but  was  reduced  to 
five  and  otherwise  slightly  modified  for  Prussian 
use  by  B.  G.  Schumacher,  and  in  this  form  ap- 
peared as  a  *  Berliner  Volkslied'  in  the  Spenersche 
Zeitung  of  Dec.  1 7,  1 793.^  The  first  stanza  of  the 
hymn  in  its  present  form  is  as  follows  : — 
'  Heil  Dir  im  Siegerkranz, 
Herrscher  des  Yaterland's, 

Beil  KonigDir! 
Fiihl'  in  des  Thrones  Glanz, 
Die  hohe  "Wonne  ganz, 
Liebling  des  Volks  zu  sein 
Heil  Konig  Dir ! ' 

HEIMKEHR  AUS  DER  FREMDE.  [Son 
AND  Stranger.] 

HELLER,  Stephen,  bom  May  15,  1815,  at 
Pesth,  is  an  accomplished  pianist,  and  author  of 
a  large  number  of  pieces  for  his  instrument,  mostly 
on  a  small  scale,  but  generally  elegant  in  form  and 
refined  in  diction.  He  has  for  the  last  twenty- 
rive  years  enjoyed  great  popularity  amongst  culti- 
vated amateurs  in  France  and  England.  His 
first  publication  was  a  set  of  Variations  in  1829, 
and  his  latest  (Jan.  1879)  is  a  Sonatina  (op.  147). 
Next  to  his  numerous  Etudes  and  Preludes,  the 
best  of  his  publications  consist  of  several  series  of 
morceaux  put  forth  under  quaint  titles,  such  as 
'Promenades  d'un  Solitaire'  (taken  from  Rous- 
seau's letters  on  Botany),  *  Blimien-Frucht-und- 
Dornen  Stiicke'  (from  Jean  Paul),  'Dans  les  Bois,' 
'  Xuits  blanches,'  etc.  A  '  Saltarello'  on  a  phrase 
from  Mendelssohn's  Italian  symphony  (op.  77), 
five  Tarantellas  (op.  53,  61,  85,  87),  a  Caprice  on 
Schubert's  '  Forelle '  (known  as  La  Truite),  are 
pieces  wherein  Heller  rings  the  changes  on  his 
!~tock  of  musical  material  with  delicate  ingenuity, 
and  exhibits  less  of  that  wearisome  reiteration 
of  some  short  phrase,  without  either  development 
or  attempt  at  attractive  variety  in  treatment, 
which  of  late  has  grown  into  mannerism  with 
him.  He  has  also  put  forth  four-  solo  sonatas 
which  have  left  no  trace,  and,  together  with 
Ernst  the  vioHnist,  a  set  of  'Pensees  fugitives' 
for  piano  and  violin,  which  have  met  with  great 
and  deserved  success  amongst  dilletante  players. 

Having  appeared  in  public  at  Pesth  at  an 
early  age,  he  made  a  tour  through  Germany, 
and  settled  for  some  years  at  Augsburg,  where 
after  a  prolonged  illness  he  found  ample  leisure 
to  pursue  his  studies.  Since  1838  he  has  resided 
in  Paris,  rarely  playing  in  public,  but  much 
esteemed  as  a  teacher  and  composer.  He  visited 
England  in  1 862,  and  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
with  Halle  on  May  3  in  Mozart's  Concerto  in 
E  flat  for  2  Pianos.  His  '  Life  and  Works '  are 
the  subjects  of  a  monograph  by  H.  Barbedette, 
translated  into  English  by  Rev.  R.  Brown  Borth- 
wick,  1877.  [E.D.] 

'  From  an  article  by  W.  Tappert  In  the  Musikalisches  Wochenblatt 
for  Aug.  31,  l^, See  too  a  curious  pamphlet  with  facsimiles, '  Veran- 
schaulichung."  etc..  von  Dr.  Ochmann  (Berlin.  187S). 

»  Op.  9.  es.  88. 143.  See  a  review  of  the  first  of  these  by  Schumann 
in  his  •  Gesam.  Schrilten.'  Ui.  186. 


HELLMESBERGER,  a  distinguished  family 
of  musicians  in  Vienna.  Georg,  the  father,  bom 
April  24,  iSoo,  son  of  a  country  schoolmaster, 
and  chorister  in  the  court  chapel,  entered  the 
Conservatorium  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde  and  learnt  the  violin  from  Bohm  and 
composition  from  E.  Forster.  In  1S21  he  was 
appointed  assistant  teacher,  and  in  1833  professor 
at  the  Conservatorium,  where  he  formed  a  host 
of  distinguished  pupils,  including  his  two  sons, 
imtil  he  retired  on  a  pension  in  67.  In  1829  he 
became  conductor  of  the  Imperial  opera,  and  in 
1830  a  member  of  the  court  chapel.  This  unas- 
suming man,  who  lived  only  for  his  art,  was  leader 
at  innumerable  concerts,  published  many  compo- 
sitions for  his  instrument,  and  died  universally 
respected  at  Neuwaldegg  on  Aug.  16. 1873.  His 
eldest  son  Georg,  bom  in  Vienna,  1828  (?),  made 
a  successful  concert-tour  through  Germany  and 
England  with  his  father  and  brother  in  1S47,  but 
chiefly  devoted  himself  to  composition,  which  he 
studied  under  Rotter.  When  barely  2 1  he  was 
appointed  concert-meister  at  Hanover,  where  he 
brought  out  two  operas,  '  Biirgschaft  '  and  '  Die 
beide  Koniginnen.'  He  died  Nov.  12,  1852, 
lea^-ing  numerous  ^MSS.    His  brother 

Joseph,  bom  Nov.  3,  1828,  early  displayed 
a  great  faculty  for  music,  and  appeared  in  public 
with  applause  as  an  infant  prodigy.  In  spite  of 
his  youth  he  was  appointed  violin  professor  and 
director  of  the  Conservatorium.  when  it  was  re- 
constituted in  1 85  2,  and  professional  conductor  of 
the  Gesellschaft  concerts.  He  resigned  the  latter 
post  in  favour  of  Herbeck  in  1850,  and  the  pro- 
fessorship in  1877,  but  stiQ  retains  the  post  of 
director,  with  signal  advantage  to  the  institution. 
In  i860  he  was  appointed  concertmeister  at  the 
Imperial  opera,  in  63  fii'st  violin  solo  in  the 
court  chapel,  and  in  77  chief  capellmeister  to 
the  emperor.  The  quartet  parties  which  he  has 
led  since  1849  have  maintained  their  attraction 
undiminished  in  spite  of  all  rivalry.  The  reper- 
toire is  large,  and  his  performances  were  the  first 
to  awaken  general  interest  in  Beethoven's  later 
quartets.  The  fine  tone,  grace,  and  poetic  feel- 
ing which  mark  Hellmesberger's  execution  as  a 
solo  and  quartet  player,  are  equally  conspicuous 
in  the  orchestra,  of  which  he  is  a  brilliant  leader. 
To  these  qualities  he  adds  perfect  familiarity 
with  every  instrument  in  the  orchestra,  and  con- 
siderable skill  as  a  pianist.  He  received  the 
Legion  of  Honour  for  his  services  as  a  juror  in 
the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855  !  many  other 
orders,  both  of  his  own  and  other  countries,  have 
since  been  conferred  on  him.  On  the  2  5th  anni- 
versary of  his  directorship  of  the  Conservatorium 
he  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
Vienna.  His  son  Joseph,  bom  April  9,  1855, 
inherits  the  family  talent,  and  has  played  second 
violin  in  his  father's  quartet  since  1875.  He  has 
been  since  78  solo  player  at  the  court  opera 
and  chapel,  and  professor  at  the  Conservato- 
rium. [C.F.P.] 
HELMHOLTZ,  Hermann  Ludwig  Ferdi- 
nand, was  bom  Aug.  31,  182 1,  at  Potsdam. 
His  father  was  Professor  at  the  Gymnasium 


726 


HELMHOLTZ. 


HELMHOLTZ. 


there,  and  his  mother,  Caroline  Penn,  belonged 
to  an  emigrated  English  family.  He  studied 
medicine  in  Berlin  in  1839,  and  rose  to  be 
Teacher  of  Anatomy  at  the  Berlin  Academy  in 
1848.  In  the  following  year  he  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiology  at  Konigsberg ;  in  1858, 
Professor  of  the  same  at  Heidelberg,  and  Ge- 
heimrath.  In  1871  he  returned  to  the  Berlin 
University  as  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
and  at  Christmas,  1877,  was  elected  Rector. 
His  essay  on  the  Conservation  of  Force  ('  Er- 
haltung  der  Kraft')  appeared  in  1847  ;  his  Physio- 
logical Optics  ('PhysiologischeOptik')  in  1 856-66; 
and  his  Popular  Scientific  Lectures  ('Pop.  wis- 
sensch.  Vortriige')  at  Brunswick,  1865-76.  It  is, 
however,  with  his  *  Treatise  on  the  Sensations  of 
Tone  as  a  physiological  basis  for  the  theory  of 
Music,'  ^  and  with  his  valuable  inventions  and 
discoveries  in  relation  to  the  art,  that  we  are  here 
concerned. 

Professor  Helmholtz  has  invented  a  double 
harmonium  with  24  vibrators  to  the  octave,  by 
means  of  which  the  musician  can  modulate  into 
all  keys  quite  as  easily  as  on  a  single  manual 
tuned  by  equal  temperament,  and  without  the 
dissonant  thirds  and  sixths  which  that  mode  of 
tuning  introduces.  The  system  may  be  easily 
applied  to  the  organ  and  piano.  It  is  extremely 
simple,  as  it  does  not  add  to  the  number  of  notes 
in  the  scale,  and  requires  no  new  system  of 
fingering  to  be  learnt  by  the  performer.  This 
invention,  originally  suggested  by  the  extremely 
unpleasant  effect  of  the  equally  tempered  har- 
monium, may  not  impossibly  revolutionise  mo- 
dern musical  practice,  extending  as  it  does  to 
manual  instruments  that  perfect  intonation  which 
has  hitherto  been  attainable  only  by  stringed 
instruments  and  the  human  voice.  The  following 
may  be  selected,  amongst  many  others,  to  illus- 
trate the  nature  of  the  discoveries  of  Helmholtz : — 
I.  Quality  of  Musical  sounds  determined  by 
Harmonics.  By  means  of  a  series  of  resonators, 
each  of  which  on  being  applied  to  the  ear  re- 
inforces any  harmonic  of  equal  pitch  which  may 
be  present  in  a  given  note,  Helmholtz  has 
effected  the  most  complete  analysis  of  musical 
tone  hitherto  attained.  The  resonator  is  a  hollow 
sphere  of  glass  or  metal,  with  two  openings  op- 
posite to  each  other,  one  of  which  is  funnel- 
shaped,  for  insertion  into  the  ear.  Let  the  note 
of  the  resonator  be  upper  C,  the  air  contained  in 
it  will  vibrate  very  powerfully  when  that  note  is 
given  by  the  voice  or  any  musical  instrument ; 
and  less  powerfully  when  the  note  given  is  one  of 
those  lower  notes  which  „ 


are  harmonic  sub -tones  of 
C,  or  is,  in  other  words,  a 
note  among  the  harmonics 


of  which  the  upper  C  occurs. 

The  chief  results  of  Helmholtz's  experiments 
with  resonators  have  been  given  under  the  head 
Harmonics. 

More  curious  is  his  determination  of  the 
nature  of  the  vowel  sounds  of  the  human  voice, 

'  '  Die  Lehre  von  den  Tonempfindungen  alsphysiologischeGrundlage 
fur  die  Theorie  der  Masik.'  Brunswick,  1863. 


in  which  Helmholtz  has  developed  the  discoveries 
of  Wheatstone.  The  shape  of  the  mouth -cavity 
is  altered  for  the  production  of  each  particular 
vowel ;  and  in  each  of  the  shapes  which  it  as- 
sumes it  may  be  considered  as  a  musical  instru- 
ment yielding  a  different  note,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  compound  vowels,  yielding  simultaneously 
two  separate  notes  of  different  pitch,  just  as  the 
neck  and  body  of  a  glass  bottle  do.  The  natural 
resonance  of  the  mouth-cavity,  independently  of 
the  tension  of  the  vocal  chords,  for  different 
vowels,  is  as  follows  (the  pronunciation  of  the 
vowels  being  not  English  but  German) : — 

Compound  vowels. 


Simple  vowels.  ^ 

-  : 

1- 

 ^ 

u      0      a  a 

- 

e 

1 

■ 

6 

• 

u 

Thus,  when  the  mouth-cavity  is  found  to  utter 
the  sound  u  (oo),  it  is  in  effect  a  musical  instru- 
ment, the  natural  pitch  of  which  is  lower  f,  and 
so  on. 

For  the  highly  interesting  experiments  on 
vowel-pitch  by  means  of  the  resonators,  and  the 
importance  to  singers  and  composers  of  the  re- 
sults deducible  from  them,  the  reader  must  be 
referred  to  Helmholtz's  work  (Ellis's  translation, 
pp.  153-172). 

2.  Summational  Tones.  The  fact  that  when 
two  notes  are  sounded  together  they  generate  a 
third  and  deeper  tone,  whose  vibrational  number 
equals  the  difference  of  their  several  vibrational 
numbers,  has  been  known  to  violinists  ever  since 
the  time  of  Tartini.  [See  Tartini's  Tones.] 
These  tones  Helmholtz  calls  differential  tones, 
to  distinguish  them  from  another  set  of  generated 
tones  discovered  by  himself,  the  vibrational  num- 
bers of  which  equal  the  sum  of  the  vibrational 
numbers  of  the  generating  tones,  and  which  he 
hence  calls  summational  tones.  These  tones  are 
of  course  higher  than  the  generating  tones.  Thus, 
if  the  chords  in  minims  in  the  following  figure 
be  played  forte  on  the  violin,  the  double  series 
of  combinational  tones  above  and  below  will  be 
produced : — 


Summational 
tones. 

Generating 
tones. 


Differential 
or  Tartini's 
tones. 


The  summational  tones  are  too  weak  to  be 
distinguished  by  the  unaided  ear:  while  the 
differential  tones  are  on  some  instruments  in- 
trusively audible.  (In  fact  the  violin  player 
obtains  perfect  fifths  on  his  strings  by  tuning 
until  he  hears  the  octave  below  the  lower  string.) 
The  summational  tones  of  the  two  last  chords  lie 
beticeen  F  and  Fjf  and  Ab  and  A  respectively. 


HELMHOLTZ. 


HENLEY. 


727 


3.  Physiology  of  the  Minor  Chord.  Among 
the  most  interesting  of  these  discoveries  is  the 
reason  of  the  heavy  and  quasi-dissonant  effect 
produced  by  minor  triads.     Just  intonation 
deepens  the  well-known  grave,  obscure,  and 
mysterious  character  which  belongs  to  minor 
chords ;  and  the  observations  of  Helmholtz  on 
accurately  tuned  instruments  have  enabled  him 
to  trace  this  grave  and  obscure  character  to  the 
presence  of  certain  deep  combinational  tones, 
foreign  to  the  chord,  which  are  absent  from 
major  chords,  and  which  without  being  near 
enough  to  beat,  and  thus  actually  to  disturb  the 
harmony,  make  themselves  sufficiently  audible, 
at  least  to  a  practised  ear,  as  not  belonging  to  the 
harmony.    No  minor  chord  can  be  obtained  per- 
fectly free  from  such  false  combinational  tones. 
For  the  ordinary  hearer  the  presence  of  these 
tones  gives  to  the  chord  its  well-known,  obscure, 
and  mysterious  character,  for  which  he  is  un- 
able to  account,  because  the  weak  combinational 
tones  on  which  it  depends  are  concealed  by  other 
louder  tones.    The  fact  that  this  unsatisfactory 
though  not  dissonant  effect  of  the  minor  chord 
is  deepened  when  the  chord  is  played  perfectly 
in  tune,  led  musicians  who  wrote  before  the  era 
of  equal  temperament  to  avoid  the  minor  chord 
as  a  close,  and  to  reserve  the  effect  produced  by 
I    minor  chords  for  distinct  passages  or  episodes  in 
I    the  composition,  instead  of  using  them  in  indis- 
1    criminate  combination  with  major  chords,  as  is 
I    the  practice  of  ordinary  modern  composers.  The 
'  Ave  verum '  of  Mozart,  and  the  choral  hymn 
of  Mendelssohn,^  'Vaterland  in  deinen  Gauen,' 
are  good  examples  of  this  separation  of  major 
and  minor  effects  as  instinctively  practised  by 
the  best  writers, 
j       4.  Perception  of  musical  tones  hy  the  human 
>    ear.     Starting  from  the  anatomical  discoveries 
of  the  Marchese  Corti,  Helmholtz  has  shown 
how  different  parts  of  the  ear  are  set  in  vibra- 
tion by  tones  of  different  pitch.     The  human 
I    cochlea  contains  about  3000  of  the  rods  or  fibres 
;    known  as  '  Corti's  arches.'    The  human  ear,  in 
fact,  is  a  highly  sensitive  musical  instrument, 
i     furnished  with  3000  strings,  which  are  set  in 
i     motion  by  the  concurrent  vibration  of  external 
'     sonorous  bodies,  exactly  in  the  same  way  in 
which  the  'resonator '  responds  to  a  musical  sound, 
or  in  which  the  strings  of  a  silent  violoncello  or 
pianoforte  are  set  in  vibration  by  the  production, 
in  a  sufficient  degree  of  strength,  of  notes  of 
equivalent  pitch  on  any  other  instrument  placed 
near  it.    On  the  perfect  or  imperfect  anatomical 
constitution  of  these  3000  musical  strings,  and 
on  their  connection  with  the  brain,  depends  the 
capacity  in  the  human  subject  for  the  sensation 
of  tune  :  probably  in  persons  who  have  '  no  ear' 
f     they  are  imperfectly  developed.    Deducting  200 
for  tones  which  lie  beyond  musical  limits,  there 
remain  2,800  for  the  seven  octaves  of  musical 
pitch,  that  is,  400  for  every  octave.     If  the 
experiments  of  E.  H.  Weber  are  correct,  sen- 
I     sitive  and  practised  musicians  can  perceive  a 
j     difference  of  pitch  for  which  the  vibrational 
'  From  the  Festgesang  for  the  Prlnthig  FestiviiL 


numbers  are  as  1000  to  looi.  Intervals  so 
fine,  falling  between  the  pitch  of  two  of  Corti's 
arches,  would  probably  set  both  arches  unequally 
in  vibration,  that  one  vibrating  most  strongly 
which  is  nearest  to  the  pitch  of  the  tone. 

5.  Distribution  of  harmonic  intervals.  The 
common  rule  of  avoiding  close  intervals  in  the 
bass,  and  of  distributing  intervals  with  tolerable 
evenness  between  the  extreme  tones,  has  long 
been  arrived  at  by  experience.  Helmholtz  has 
demonstrated  its  physiological  basis  to  consist  in 
the  dissonant  combinational  tones  which  result 
from  intervals  otherwise  distributed. 

For  Professor  Helmholtz's  deduction  of  other 
rules  of  musical  science  from  the  physical  nature 
of  musical  sounds,  together  with  his  historical 
exposition  of  the  growth  of  melodic  scales  and  of 
modern  harmony,  the  reader  is  referred  to  his 
work,  as  already  cited.  [E.  J.  P.] 

HELMORE,  Rev.  Thomas,  was  born  at  Kid- 
derminster, May  7,  181 1,  and  educated  at  Mag- 
dalen Hall,  Oxford.  In  1840  he  became  curate 
of  St.  Michael's,  Lichfield,  and  a  priest-vicar  of 
Lichfield  Cathedral.  In  1842  he  was  appointed 
Vice -Principal  and  Precentor  of  St.  Mark's  Col- 
lege, Chelsea,  and  in  1846  succeeded  William 
Hawes  as  Master  of  the  Choristers  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  of  which  in  1847  he  was  admitted  as  one 
of  the  Priests  in  Ordinary.  He  is  author  or 
editor  of  'The  Psalter  noted,'  'The  Canticles 
noted,'  '  A  Manual  of  Plain  Song,'  '  A  Brief 
Directory  of  Plain  Song,'  '  The  Hymnal  noted,' 
'Carols  for  Christmas,'  ' Carols  for  Easter,'  'St. 
Mark's  College  Chaunt  Book,'  and  'The  Can- 
ticles accented,'  and  translator  of  Fetis's  '  Trea- 
tise on  Chorus  Singing.'  He  is  composer  of 
music  for  some  of  Neale's  translations  of  Hymns 
of  the  Eastern  Church.  [W.  H.  H.] 

HEMIOLIA  (Gr.  'H/^tdXtos ;  Lat.  Sesquialtera; 
Ital.  Emiolia ;  Fr.  Hemiole).  Literally,  the 
whole  and  a  half ;  technically,  the  proportion 
of  two  to  three.  In  this  latter  sense  the  word 
is  used,  in  the  musical  terminology  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  to  denote  the  Perfect  Fifth,  the  sound  of 
which  is  produced  on  the  monochord  by  two- 
thirds  of  the  open  string.  The  term  is  also 
applied  by  writers  of  the  i6th  century  to  certain 
rhythmical  proportions,  corresponding  to  the 
triplets  of  modern  music.  Thus,  three  minims, 
sung  against  two,  are  called  Hemiolia  major ; 
three  crotchets  (semiminime)  against  two,  He- 
miolia minor.  Italian  writers  of  later  date  call 
3-4  time  Emiolia  maggiore,  and  3-8  Emiolia 
mlnore.  [W.  S.  R.] 

HENLEY,  Rev.  Phocion,  nephew  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Henley,  was  born  at  Wootton  Abbots, 
1728,  matriculated  at  Oxford  (Wadham)  May  7, 
1746,  where  he  spent  a  great  part  of  his  time 
in  the  cultivation  of  music  in  company  with  his 
friend  Jones,  afterwards  of  Nayland.  In  1759 
he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Andrew 
by  the  Wardrobe,  and  St.  Anne's,  Blackfriars. 
He  composed  several  chants — one  of  which  is 
still  in  use — and  anthems,  and  a  set  of  6  hymns 
entitled  'The  Cure  of  Saul.'    He  died  Aug.  29, 


728 


HENLEY. 


HENRI  QUATRE. 


1 764,  of  a  contagious  fever  caught  whilst  visiting 
a  sick  parishioner.  [W.H.  H.] 

HENXEBERG,  Johanx  Baptist,  bom  at 
Vienna  Dec.  6,  1768;  succeeded  his  father  as 
organist  of  the  Scottish  church  there.  In  1790 
was  conductor  at  Schikaneder's  theatre,  and  as 
such  directed  the  rehearsals  of  the  Zauberflote, 
and  all  the  performances  of  it  after  the  second. 
He  continued  to  hold  the  same  post  in  the 
Theatre  an-der-Wien  (1801),  but  soon  after- 
wards left  the  city.  In  1805  he  entered  Prince 
Esterhazy's  establishment  as  first  organist,  and 
on  Hummel's  retirement  in  181 1  conducted  the 
operas  at  Eisenstadt,  In  1813  he  returned  to 
Vienna,  became  choirmaster  at  the  parish  church 
'  am  Hof,'  and  in  1818  organist  to  the  court,  and 
died  Nov.  27,  1822.  He  was  much  esteemed  both 
as  a  player  and  a  composer.  Amongst  his  operas 
have  been  published — 'Die  Derwische,'  'Die 
Eisenkonigin,'  and  'Die  Waldmanner';  also  his 
arrangement  of  Winter's  'Labyrinth.'  [C.F.P.] 

HENRI  QUATRE  (VIVE).  This  historical 
song  consists  of  three  couplets,  which  we  append 
in  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  sung. 

J"aimons  les  fiUes 
Et  j'aimons  le  bon  vin; 

De  nos  bons  drilles 
Voila  tout  le  refrain: 

J'aimons  les  filles 
Et  j'aimons  le  bon  vin. 

Moins  de  soudrilles 
Eussent  trouble  le  sein 

De  nos  families, 
Si  riigneux,  plus  humain, 

Eut  aim6  les  filles, 
Eut  aim6  le  bon  vin. 


et    de      bat   -  tre,  Et    d'fetre  un  vert  ga 

The  authorship  of  the  words  and  the  date  of 
their  composition  are  disputed  points,  although 
the  first  two  couplets  have  been  very  generally 
attributed  to  Colle  (1709-83).  We  are  disposed 
from  internal  evidence  to  assign  all  three  verses 
to  the  second  period  of  the  reign  of  Henri  IV 
(15S9-1610),  i.  e.  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
century.  People  plunged  in  all  the  horrors  of 
civil  war,  and  in  continual  terror  for  their  lives 
and  their  families,  are  scarcely  in  the  mood  to 
sing  of  women  and  -wine.  The  second  verse 
implies  that  the  League  is  an  afl^air  of  the  past ; 
and  it  was  not  till  1598  that  the  League  was 
terminated  by  the  submission  of  Mercoeur.  In 
the  third  stanza  the  King  is  represented  as 
victorious  over  his  enemies  at  home  and  abroad ; 
and  it  was  not  till  1 601  that  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  was  signed.  Finally  it 
was  not  till  after  he  had  remitted  20,000,000  frs. 
of  taxes  in  arrear,  and  reduced  the  income-tax 
by  4,000,000  frs.  annually,  that  Henri  IV  became 
the  idol  of  France,  and  especially  of  the  peasantry ; 


and  these  reductions  were  in  progress  from  1 60 1 
to  1610. 

We  ascribe  the  song  then  to  the  first  decade 
of  the  17th  century;  and  aie  ako  inclined  to 
believe  that  the  couplet  'J'aimons  les  filles'  is 
older  than  the  other  two,  and  was  taken  from  a 
'  chanson  de  table '  or  drinking-song,  of  the  time 
of  Henri  III.  In  the  2nd  and  3rd  stanzas  the 
last  line  but  one  contains  five  syllables,  whereas 
in  the  ist  there  are  only  four.  This  slight  change 
may  have  arisen  insensibly,  either  from  the  author 
not  having  at  hand  a  copy  of  his  predecessor's 
lines,  or  because  he  improvised  his  words  as  he 
sang  to  some  well-known  air,  and  naturally  gave 
a  separate  syllable  to  each  note  of  the  melody. 
He  has  also  involuntarily,  or  from  intentional  imi- 
tation, repeated  in  the  second  verse  the  rhj-mes 
of  the  first. 

If  Colle  had  been  the  author  of  these  lines, 
he  would  certainly  have  told  us  the  fact  in  his 
'  M^raoires.'  He  records  the  minutest  particulars 
concerning  the  metamorphoses  of  'Le  Roi  et  le 
Fermi er,'  and  the  performances  of  'La  Partie  de 
chasse  de  Henri  IV' ;  puts  down  unimportant  im- 
provisations, and  the  most  insignificant  rhymes  ; 
and  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  he  would  not 
have  mentioned  having  added  two  verses  to  '  Vive 
Henri  IV,'  if  such  had  been  the  case.  The  sup- 
position is  rendered  still  more  inadmissible  by 
the  fact  that  he  gives  the  other  refrains  in  'La 
Partie  de  chasse  de  Henri  IV'  word  for  word. 
We  may  assume  that  Colle  quoted  this  his- 
torical song  in  its  traditional  form,  and  is  no 
more  to  be  accredited  with  additions  to  it  than  to 
'La  belle  Jardiniere,'  the  three  couplets  of  which 
he  also  transcribed,  (See  Coll^,  'La  Partie  de 
chasse  de  Henri  IV,'  Scene  xi.) 

The  air  has  been  often  said  to  resemble  one  of 
the  themes  of  the  contredanse  called  'Les  Trico- 
tets,'  the  title  and  the  notes  of  which  are  to  be 
found  in  '  Les  Parodies  nouvelles  et  les  Vaude- 
'  villes  inconnus'  (vol,  i.  p.  32);  and  'Rondes  et 
Chansons  a  danser'  (vol.  ii.  p.  191)  only.  Now, 
not  only  do  neither  of  these  two  airs  bear  any 
resemblance  to  'Vive  Henri  IV,'  but  they  differ 
from  each  other,  and  thus  either  'Les  Trico- 
tets '  has  not  survived  in  a  complete  form,  and 
the  best  subject  in  that  'suite  d'airs  de  danse'  is 
the  very  one  that  the  collections  have  not  noted 
down  ;  or  the  melody  of '  Vive  Henri  IV  '  is  ori- 
ginal, and  has  no  connection  with  '  Les  Tricotets.' 
We  adopt  the  latter  conclusion. 

One  thing  is  certain ;  these  couplets  have  been 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  with- 
out losing  an;yi;hing  of  their  spirit  or  fi-eshness  ; 
and  were  spontaneously  adopted  by  the  people  as 
the  national  anthem  of  royalty  at  the  Bourbon  Re- 
storation. On  the  day  when  the  Allied  Armies 
entered  Paris,  April  i,  18 14,  crowds  flocked  to 
the  Opera  to  see  the  Emperor  Alexander  and  the 
King  of  Prussia,  The  opera  was  Spontini's 
'  Vestale,'  as  an  overture  to  which  the  band 
performed  '  Vive  Henri  IV '  amid  a  perfect 
storm  of  bravos;  and  at  the  close  of  the  opera 
the  air  was  again  called  for,  sung  by  Lays 
with  the  whole  power  of  his  magnificent  voice, 


HENRI  QUATRE. 


HENSELT. 


729 


and  received  with  rapturous  applause.  On 
July  14,  1815,  Lays  had  a  similar  success  when 
repeating  the  air  at  a  performance  of  *  Iphig(^nie 
en  Aulide'  and  *La  Dansomanie'  before  Louis 
XVIII,  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  King  of 
Prussia.  On  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre 
of  the  '  Academie  royale  de  Musique '  in  the 
Rue  le  Peletier,  the  first  words  sung  in  that 
area,  the  loss  of  which  is  so  much  to  be  regretted 
on  acoustical  grounds,  were  those  of 'Vive  Henri 
IV.'  Paer  wrote  some  brilliant  variations  on  this 
air.  They  were  engraved  in  full  score  and 
deserve  to  be  rescued  from  the  oblivion  into 
which  they  have  fallen.  Gr^try  also  introduced 
the  air  into  the  Overture  in  'Le  Magnifique' 

(1773).  [G.C] 

HENRIQUE ;  or  the  Love-pilgrim.  Grand 
opera  in  3  acts  ;  words  by  T.  J,  Haines  ;  music 
by  Rooke.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden,  May 
2,  1839.  [G.] 

HENRY  VIII,  King,  born  June  28,  1491, 
died  Jan.  28,  1547-8,  being  originally  designed 
for  the  church,  was  duly  instructed  in  music 
(then  an  essential  part  of  the  acquirements  of  an 
ecclesiastic),  and  appears  to  have  attained  to 
some  skill  in  composition.  Hall,  the  Chronicler, 
and  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  mention  two 
masses  of  his  composition,  neither  now  extant ; 
Hawkins  (chap.  77)  has  printed  a  Latin  motet 
for  3  voices  by  Henry  from  a  MS.  collection  of 
anthems,  motets,  etc.,  written  in  1591  by  John 
Baldwin,  singing  man  of  Windsor  and  subse- 
quently gentleman  and  clerk  of  the  cheque  of 
the  Chapel  Royal  (died  Aug.  28,  1615) ;  and  the 
anthem,  '0  Lord,  the  Maker  of  all  things,'  as- 
signed by  Barnard  and  others  to  William  Mundy, 
was  by  Aldrich  and  Boyce  declared  to  be  proved 
to  be  his  production  (see  Boyce's  *  Cath.  Music,' 
ii.  i).  In  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS.  5665) 
is  *  Passetyme  with  good  cumpanye.  The  Kynges 
balade,'  set  to  music  for  3  voices.  It  is  printed 
in  John  Stafford  Smith's  '  Musica  Antiqua '  and 
Chappell's  '  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time.' 
In  Harl.  MSS.  1419,  fol.  200,  is  a  catalogue 
of  the  numerous  musical  instruments  belonging 
to  Henry  at  the  time  of  his  death.  [W.H.H.] 

HENSCHEL,  Georg,  born  Feb.  18,  1850,  at 
Breslau,  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  pianist 
at  12  years  of  age.  In  1867  he  entered  at  the 
Leipzig  Conservatorium  under  Moscheles,  Rich- 
ter  and  Gotze.  His  next  move,  in  1870,  was  to 
Berlin,  where  he  studied  composition  under  Kiel 
and  singing  under  Adolph  Schulze.  Since  that 
date  Herr  Henschel's  reputation  as  a  concert 
singer  has  been  steadily  increasing.  His  voice 
is  a  baritone  of  great  power,  richness,  and  com- 
pass. His  style  is  pure,  his  repertoire  large,  and 
he  is  always  conscientious  and  loyal  to  the  com- 
poser. His  own  compositions  are  numerous  and 
varied,  embracing  solo  and  part  songs  ;  choruses ; 
a  gipsy  serenade  with  orchestra  ;  a  serenade  for 
stringed  orchestra  in  canon  form;  the  130th 
Psalm  for  solos,  5 -part  chorus,  and  orchestra 
(op.  30). 

Mr.  Henschel  made  his  first  appearance  in 


England  Feb.  19,  1877,  and  has  now  (1879) 
taken  up  his  residence  here.  [G.] 

HENSEL,  Fanny  Cecile,  the  eldest  of  the 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  family,  born  at  Hamburg 
Nov.  14,  1805,  and  therefore  more  than  3  years 
older  than  her  brother  Felix.  She  was  regularly 
instructed  in  music,  and  Mendelssohn  used  to 
say  that  at  one  time  she  played  better  than  he. 
(See  also  Devrient,  Recoil,  p.  3).  Oct.  3, 1829,  she 
married  W.  Hensel,  a  painter,  of  Berlin  (1794- 
1861),  and  on  May  1 7,  1847,  died  suddenly.  Her 
death  shook  her  brother  terribly,  and  no  doubt 
hastened  his  own,  which  happened  only  6  months 
later.  Felix's  letters  show  how  much  he  loved 
her,  and  the  value  which  he  placed  on  her 
judgment  and  her  musical  ability.  He  called 
her  'the  Cantor.'  'Befoi-e  I  can  receive  Fanny's 
advice,'  says  he,  'the  Walpurgisnight  will  be 
packed  up  ...  I  feel  convinced  she  would  say 
"Yes,"  and  yet  I  feel  doubtful'  (Letter,  April 
27,  1831).  'Fanny  may  add  the  second  part,' 
says  he,  in  sending  a  Song  without  words  (Dec. 
II,  1830).  Again,  'I  have  just  played  your 
Caprices  ...  all  was  unmixed  delight '  (Jan.  4, 
40).  Still,  indications  are  not  wanting  of  a 
certain  over-earnestness,  not  to  say  pedantry, 
which  was  occasionally  too  severe  for  her  more 
plastic  brother.  (See  Letter,  April  7,  34,  on 
Melusina ;  'Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,'  p. 47,  etc.) 

Six  of  her  songs  were  published  with  his  without 
indication,  viz.  Op.  8,  Nos.  2,  3,  12 ;  Op.  9,  Nos. 
7,  10,  12.  She  also  published  in  her  own  name 
4  books  of  melodies  and  Lieder  for  P.  F.  solo ; 
2  ditto  of  songs  for  voice  and  P.  F. ;  i  ditto  of 
Part-songs — '  Gartenlieder'  (republished  by  No- 
vello  1878) ;  and  after  her  death  a  few  more 
songs  and  P.  F.  pieces  were  printed,  and  a  Trio  for 
P.  F.  and  Strings  in  D,  reaching  in  all  to  op.  11. 
For  her  letters,  journals,  and  portrait  see  '  Die  Fa- 
milie  Mendelssohn,'  by  S.  Hensel  (Berlin  1879). 

She  is  buried  in  the  Mendelssohn  portion  of  the 
Friedhof  at  the  Hallethor,  Berlin,  and  a  line  01 
her  music  is  engraved  on  the  tombstone  : — 


Hf — 1 

r  

Ge- 

danken 

gehn  un 

i  Lie- 

der, 

fort  bis 

in 

Him-mel- 

reich ; 

fort  bis  ill 

Him   -  n 

lel 

-  reich. 

HENSELT,  Adolph,  born  May  12,  181 4,  at 
Schwabach  in  Bavaria,  and  since  1838  resident 
at  St.  Petersburg,  had  lessons  from  Hummel, 
but  can  hardly  be  called  Hummel's  disciple, 
since  his  method  of  treating  the  pianoforte  differs 
as  much  from  Hummel's  as  our  concert -grands 
differ  from  the  light  Viennese  instruments  of 
1820.  Henselt's  ways  at  the  keyboard  maybe 
taken  as  the  link  between  Hummel's  and  Liszt's  ; 
that  is  to  say,  with  Hummel's  strictly  legato 
touch,  quiet  hands  and  strong  fingers,  Henselt 
produces  effects  of  rich  sonority  something  like 
those  which  Liszt  gets  with  the  aid  of  the  wrists 
and  pedals.    But  as  such  sonority,  apart  from 


730 


HENSELT. 


HfiROLD. 


any  rhythmical  accentuation,  depends  in  the 
main  upon  the  widespread  position  of  chords 
and  arpeggii,  the  component  notes  of  which  are 
made  to  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  an  octave, 
Henselt's  way  of  holding  the  keys  down  as  much 
as  possible  with  the  fingers,  over  and  above  keep- 
ing the  dampers  raised  by  means  of  the  pedals, 
does  not  seem  the  most  practical ;  for  it  neces- 
sitates a  continuous  straining  of  the  muscles  such 
as  only  hands  of  abnormal  construction  or  fingers 
stretched  to  the  utmost  by  incessant  and  tortuous 
practice  can  stand.  We  have  the  testimony  of 
Mendelssohn^  that  his  speciality  in  1838  was 
'playing  wide-spread  chords,  and  that  he  went 
on  all  day  stretching  his  fingers  over  arpeggios 
played  prestissimo.'  And  even  up  to  the  present 
time,  he  is  said  to  waste  an  hour  daily  upon 
mere  Dehnungs-studien,  i.e.  studies  of  his  own 
invention  for  extending  the  stretch  of  the  hand, 
and  training  the  fingers  to  work  independently. 
Nevertheless,  be  his  method  of  touch  needlessly 
cumbrous  or  not,  if  applied  to  effects  k  la  Chopin 
and  Liszt,  the  result  under  his  own  hands  is  grand ; 
so  grand  indeed,  that  though  his  appearances  in 
public  have  been  fewer  than  those  of  any  other 
celebrated  pianist,  he  has  been  hailed  by  judges 
like  Robert  Schumann  and  Herr  von  Lenz  as 
one  of  the  greatest  players.  His  representative 
works  are  two  sets  of  twelve  Etudes  each,  op.  2 
and  5,  which,  though  not  so  surprisingly  original, 
deserve  to  be  ranked  near  Chopin's,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  true  lyrical  effusions  of  considerable 
musical  value,  over  and  above  their  setting  forth 
some  specially  characteristic  or  difficult  pianoforte 
effect.  Henselt  has  also  published  a  Concerto 
(in  F  minor  op.  16),  likely  to  survive,  a  trio, 
stillborn,  and  a  number  of  smaller  salon  pieces, 
like  Triihlingslied,'  '  Wiegenlied,'  Impromptu  in 
C  minor,  '  La  Gondola,'  etc. — gems  in  their  way. 

Henselt's  success  in  1838  at  St.  Petersburg 
was  unprecedented.  He  was  at  once  made  Court 
pianist  and  teacher  to  the  Imperial  children,  and 
soon  after  Inspector  of  '  the  Imperial  Russian 
female  seminaries,'  in  which  latter  capacity  his 
firmness  and  disinterested  zeal  has  borne  good 
fruit.  An  uniform  edition  of  Henselt's  works 
would  be  a  boon,  as  some  pieces  are  published 
in  Russia  only,  others  appear  under  different 
designations,  etc.  His  arrangements  for  two 
pianofortes  of  Weber's  Duo  in  Eb  for  pianoforte 
and  clarinet,  and  of  selections  from  Cramer's 
Etudes,  to  which  he  has  added  a  second  pianoforte 
part;  his  transcription  of  Weber's  Ouvertures, 
bits  from  Weber's  operas,  and  above  all  his 
edition  of  Weber's  principal  pianoforte  works  with 
variantes,  are  masterly.  Henselt  visited  England 
in  1867,  but  did  not  play  in  public.  [E.D.] 

HENSTRIDGE,  Daniel,  on  the  death  of 
Nicholas  Wootton  in  1 700  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor as  organist  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and 
held  that  post  until  his  death  in  1 730.  The  organ 
parts  of  some  of  his  compositions  are  still  extant, 
but  the  voice  parts  are  mostly  lost.  He  seems  to 
have  been  an  imitator  of  Purcell.       [W.  H.  H,] 

>  Ililler's '  Mendelssohn,'  p.ll2. 


HERBECK,  JoHANN,  court  capellmeister, 
born  at  Vienna  Dec.  25,  1831.  He  had  a  few 
months'  instruction  in  harmony  from  Rotter,  but 
was  virtually  a  self-made  man.  His  ambition 
was  high,  he  worked  hard,  and  his  progress  was 
rapid  and  steady.  In  1852  he  was  Choirmaster 
to  the  Piarists  in  the  Josephstadt ;  in  56  choir- 
master to  the  first  Mannergesangverein  ;  in  58 
professor  at  the  Conservatorium,  and  choir-master 
of  the  Singverein  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde  ;  in  59  professional  conductor  of  the  Ge- 
sellschaft concerts ;  in  66  chief  court  capellmeister; 
and  in  71  director  of  the  court  opera.  The 
intrigues  and  annoyances  inseparable  from  this 
post  were  insupportable  to  Herbeck's  nature  :  in 
1875  he  resigned  it,  and  resumed  the  conductor- 
ship  of  the  Gesellschaft  concerts.  He  died,  after 
a  short  illness,  on  the  28th  of  Oct.  1S77.  As  a 
conductor  he  has  left  a  permanent  mark  on  music 
in  Vienna.  The  numerous  choral  societies  in 
particular  owe  their  prosperity  in  great  measure 
to  him.  As  a  composer  he  was  equally  ambi- 
tious and  industrious,  although  in  this  branch 
less  remarkable  for  invention  than  for  his  power 
of  assimilating,  rather  than  imitating,  the  strong 
points  of  his  favourites,  especially  Schubert,  of 
whose  works  he  wa^  an  indefatigable  exponent. 
His  most  successful  compositions  are  his  part- 
songs,  which  are  admirable  for  simplicity  and 
effect.  His  published  works  include  : — songs  for 
a  single  voice ;  part-songs  for  men's  voices,  and 
choruses,  both  mixed  and  harmonised ;  '  Lied  und 
Reigen '  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  etc.  ;  '  Tanzi 
momente  ' ;  '  Kiinstlerfahrt  ' ;  '  Symphonische 
variationen,'  and  Symphony  in  D  minor — all  for 
full  orchestra,  the  last  with  organ  ;  string-quartet 
in  F.  op.  9.  In  MS.  a  grand  mass  in  E,  and  a 
small  ditto  in  F ;  a  Te  Deum ;  graduales ;  a 
string-quartet  in  D  minor,  Herbeck  possessed 
several  orders,  including  the  3rd  division  of  the 
Iron  Crown,  which  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
knighthood.  [C.  F.  P.] 

HERCULANUM.  Opera  in  4  acts ;  libretto 
by  Mdry  and  Hadot,  music  by  Fdlicien  David ; 
given  at  the  Academic,  March  4,  1859.  The 
drama  was  originally  intended  to  deal  with  a 
more  tremendous  catastrophe  than  that  of  Hercu- 
laneum — viz.  *La  fin  du  monde.'  Herculanum 
obtained  for  its  author  the  Institut's  prize  of 
20,000  frs.  [G.] 

HERCULES,  by  Handel;  the  words  by  Rev. 
Thos.  Broughton;  composed  between  July  19  and 
Aug,  17, 1744.  Announced  as  a  'musical  drama'; 
performed  and  published  as  an  *  oratorio,'  First 
given  at  the  King's  Theatre,  Haymarket,  Jan.  5, 
1 745 ;  at  the  Lower  Rhine  Festival,  Diisseldorf, 
May  1 7,  i875;andbyH.Leslie,  JuneS,  1877.  [G.] 

HAROLD,  Louis  Joseph  Ferdinand,  born 
in  Paris  Wednesday  Jan.  28,  1791,  at  30  Rue 
des  Vieux  Augustins,  now  10  Rue  d'Argout; 
only  child  of  FrauQois  Joseph  Herold,  an  able 
pianist  of  the  school  of  Emmanuel  Bach,  Louis's 
gifts  for  music  were  soon  apparent.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Institution  Hix,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself,  and  at  the  same  time  worked  at 


HfiROLD. 


HAROLD. 


731 


solfeggio  under  Ft^tis,  and  the  pianoforte  under 
his  godfather  Louis  Adam,  father  of  Adolphe. 
In  iSo6  he  entered  the  Conservatoire,  where  he 
obtained  the  first  piano  prize,  studied  harmony 
under  Catel,  and  composition  under  Mehul,  whom 
lie  always  held  in  great  admiration,  and  at  length, 
in  I  Si  2,  carried  off  the  'Grand  prix  de  Rome' 
fov  his  cantata  'Mile,  de  la  Valliere,'  the  unpub- 
lished score  of  which  is  in  the  library  of  the  Con- 
servatoire, together  with  his  envois  de  Home. 
Tliese  are.  a  '  Hymne  a  4  voix  sur  la  Transfigu- 
ration'with  orchestra  ;  a  Symphony  in  C  (Rome, 
April  1813)  ;  a  second,  in  D  (May) ;  '  Scena  ed 
Aria  con  cori'  (June);  and  three  Quartets,  in 
D,  C,  and  G  minor  (July  181 4),  all  written  at 
Naples.  These  works,  which  are  not  given  cor- 
rectly in  any  previous  biography,  are  short,  but 
c  'Utain  many  interesting  ideas ;  the  only  one 
performed  in  public  was  the  2nd  Symphony, which 
is  hj  no  means  a  'youthful  indiscretion.'  The 
q  uatuors  also  contain  much  that  might  even  now 
'  heard  with  pleasure ;  and  altogether  these 
■  is  de  Rome  shew  that  Harold  would  have 
.-u  lue  in  symphony  if  he  had  adhered  to  that 
branch  of  composition.  The  stage  however  pos- 
sesses an  irresistible  attraction  for  a  man  gifted 
with  ardent  imagination  and  capacity  fjr  ex- 
pressing emotion.  It  was  natural  that  he  should 
wish  to  make  his  d^utas  a  dramatic  composer  at 
Naples,  where  he  was  pianist  to  Queen  Caroline, 
and  where  he  led  a  happy  life,  in  good  relations 
with  the  court  and  society.  With  Landriani's 
assistance  he  compiled  a  libretto  from  Duval's 
comedy  '  La  jeunesse  de  Henri  V,'  and  the  opera 
was  a  success.  The  libretto  was  printed  (Naples 
1 81 5)  anonymously,  but  the  music  remains  in  MS. 

Shortly  after  this  he  left  Italy,  and  made  a  stay  of 
some  months  at  Vienna  on  his  way  home.  On  his 
return  to  Paris  he  at  once  tried  to  procure  a  good 
opera-book,  but  might  have  waited  long  for  an 
opportunity  of  coming  before  the  public,  if  Boiel- 
dieu  had  not  asked  him  to  write  the  latter  hpjf 
of  'Charles  de  France,'  an  opera  de  circonstance 
produced  June  18,  18 16.  This  led  to  his  obtain- 
ing the  libretto  of  '  Les  Rosiferes,'  3  acts  (Jan. 
27,  181 7),  which  was  a  complete  success.  'La 
Clochette,'  3  acts  (Oct.  18  of  the  same  year),  was 
full  of  new  and  fresh  ideas ;  the  charming  air 
'  Me  voila '  soon  became  popular,  while  those  com- 
petent to  judge  were  struck  by  the  advance  in 
knowledge  of  the  stage,  and  the  originality  of 
instrumentation  which  it  displayed.  His  industry 
and  fertility  were  further  proved  by  '  Le  premier 
venu '  (1818),  'Les  Troqueurs '  (1819),  and 
'L'Auteur  mort  et  vivant'  (1820) ;  but  unfortu- 
nately he  accepted  librettos  that  were  neither 
interesting  nor  adapted  for  music.  'Le  Muletier' 
(May  12,  1823)  however  is  full  of  life  and  colour, 
and  assured  his  reputation  with  all  who  were 
competent  to  judge.  After  the  success  of  this  lively 
little  piece  it  is  diflScult  to  understand  how  a  man 
of  literary  tastes  and  culture  could  have  under- 
taken dramas  so  tame  and  uninteresting  as  'Las- 
tlie'nie'  (Sept.  1823),  and  'Le  Lapin  blanc' 
(1825).  The  fever  of  production  which  consumes 
all  composers  of  genius,  affords  the  only  possible 


explanation.  In  fact,  rather  than  remain  idle  he 
undertook  any  employment  however  uninviting. 
Thus  from  1820-27  he  was  pianiste-accompagna- 
teur  to  the  Op^ra  Italien  ;  and  in  1821  was  sent  to 
Italy  to  engage  singers,  among  whom  he  brought 
back  no  less  a  person  than  Mme.  Pasta,  and  Galli. 
In  1 8  2  7  he  became  choir-master  at  the  Academic 
de  Musique,  and  began  to  write  ballets.  During 
these  laborious  years,  Herold  threw  ofi"  for  the 
publishers  an  immense  quantity  of  pianoforte 
music.  Fifty-nine  of  these  pieces,  on  which 
he  laid  no  value,  have  been  engraved,  but 
we  need  only  mention  the  sonata  in  Ab  ;  another 
called  '  L' Amante  disperato ' ;  variations  on  '  Au 
clair  de  la  lune,'  and  on  'Marlbrook';  a 
'  Rondo  dramatique ' ;  and  a  caprice,  'Pulcinella.' 
He  also  made  arrangements  for  the  piano,  Ros- 
sini's '  Moise '  among  the  rest,  and  like  a  true 
artist  managed  to  turn  even  such  work  as  this 
to  account.  In  the  midst  of  his  daily  drudgery 
however,  Hdrold  kept  one  aim  steadily  in  view  : 
that  of  becoming  a  great  composer.  Any  oppor- 
tunity of  making  himself  known  was  welcome, 
and  accordingly  he  consented  to  join  Auber  in 
writing  an  opera  de  circonstance  '  Vendome  en 
Espagne'  (1823);  and  also  composed  '  Le  Roi 
Rene'  2  acts  (1824)  for  the  fete  of  Louis  XVIII. 
In  'Marie,'  3  acts  (Aug.  12,  1826),  a  cl>arming 
opera  which  has  kept  the  boards,  he  evinces 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  stage,  great  sensi- 
bility, and  gi-aceful  and  refined  orchestration.  It 
contains  perhaps  too  many  short  pieces,  and  the 
treble  and  tenor  voices  unduly  predominate,  but 
these  drawbacks  are  redeemed  by  original  and 
varied  melody,  by  charming  effects,  and  great 
skill  in  the  arrangement.  The  scene  of  Marie's 
despair  is  the  work  of  a  master  of  pathos,  and  a 
true  dramatic  poet. 

Urged  by  a  desire  to  give  a  practical  scope  to 
his  fancy,  Herold  composed  a  series  of  ballets, 
'Astolphe  et  Joconde';  'La  Sonnambule'  (Jan. 
29,  and  Sept.  19,  1827;  'La  Fille  mal  gardt^e' 
(Nov.  17,  1828);  and  'La  Belle  au  bois  dor- 
mant' (April  27,  1829).  It  was  largely  owing 
to  him  that  the  music  of  French  ballets  acquired 
its  peculiarly  graceful,  poetical,  expressive  and 
passionate  character.  These  works  gave  him  the 
same  facility  and  command  of  his  pen,  that  writ- 
ing verses  does  to  an  author.  This  is  clearly  seen 
in  his  next  opera  '  L'lUusion,'  I  act  (July  18, 
1829),  the  remarkable  finale  of  which  contains 
a  valse  with  a  melody  of  a  very  high  order. 
'  Emmeline'  (Nov.  28,  1829)  was  a  fiasco,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  libretto ;  but  a  rich  compensation 
was  in  store  for  him  in  the  brilliant  success  of 
'Zampa'  (May  3,  1831).  Speaking  briefly  we 
may  say  that  the  quartet  in  the  ist  act,  'Le 
voila,'  is  a  model  of  dignity  and  refinement;  the 
recognition  duet  in  the  2nd,  is  full  of  life,  taste, 
and  dramatic  skiU  ;  and  the  deep  and  eminently 
characteristic  pathos  of  the  principal  number  of  the 
3rd  act,  the  duet '  Pourquoi  trembler,'  makes  it  one 
of  the  finest  inspirations  in  modem  opera.  There 
is  also  much  variety  both  of  form  and  move- 
ment in  the  different  pieces.  The  first  finale  with 
its  richly  contrasted  efiects,  is  entirely  different 


732  H^IROLD. 


HERZ. 


from  the  second,  the  stretto  of  which  is  full 
of  tune  and  inspiration.  In  a  word,  we  recog- 
nise in  *  Zampa '  the  hand  of  a  master,  who 
to  the  spirit  of  Italian  music  unites  the  depth 
of  the  German  and  the  elegance  of  the  French 
school. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Herold's  own  country- 
men rank  the  'Pr^  aux  Clercs'  (Dec.  15,  1832) 
above  '  Zampa,'  while  the  Germans  give  the  pre- 
ference to  the  latter.  This  arises  probably  from 
the  criticism  to  which  a  French  audience  instinc- 
tively subjects  the  literary  part  of  an  opera. 
Any  want  of  unanimity  between  dramatist  and 
composer  is  felt  at  once.  In  'Zampa'  this  is 
very  marked ;  for  the  book,  excellent  as  it  is  in 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  dramatic  situations, 
bears  marks  of  being  the  work  of  one  who  does 
not  believe  a  word  of  the  story  he  is  telling,  and 
has  therefore  no  sympathy  with  his  characters. 
Hence  there  is  a  want  of  relation  between  the 
librettist  who  is  no  true  poet,  and  the  composer, 
who  moves  others  because  he  is  moved  himself, 
and  is  eloquent  because  he  is  sincere.  In  the 
*  Pr^  aux  Clercs '  on  the  other  hand,  the  action 
takes  place  in  a  region  more  accessible  to  the 
ordinary  run  of  play  goers,  and  the  drama  is  a 
very  pleasing  national  poem,  free  from  incon- 
gruities and  well  adapted  for  music.  In  setting 
it  Harold  not  only  did  much  to  elevate  the  tone 
of  French  op^ra-comique,  but  had  the  satis- 
faction of  treating  a  historical  subject.  We 
might  specify  each  number,  from  the  overture — 
as  full  of  warmth  and  colour  as  that  to  Zampa, 
but  forming  an  independent  symphony  not  built 
upon  the  materials  of  the  o]Dera — to  the  scene  of 
the  barque,  where  the  expressive  tones  of  the  violas 
and  cellos  complete  the  narrative  of  the  voices, 
and  the  whole  forms  one  of  the  finest  effects  of 
pathos  ever  produced  on  the  stage.  The  work  is 
characterised  throughout  by  unity  of  style,  variety 
of  accent,  and  sustained  inspiration,  always  kept 
within  the  limits  of  dramatic  truth.  The  great 
requisites  for  a  creative  artist  are  colour,  dramatic 
instinct,  and  sensibility.  In  colour  Harold  was 
not  so  far  behind  Weber,  while  in  dramatic  in- 
stinct he  may  be  said  to  have  equalled  him. 
His  remark  to  a  friend  a  few  days  before  his 
death  shows  his  own  estimate  of  his  work  ;  *  I  am 
going  too  soon;  I  was  just  beginning  to  under- 
stand the  ^  stage.'  So  modest  are  the  utterances 
of  these  great  poets,  who  are  the  glory  of  their 
art  and  their  nation  ! 

On  January  19,  1833,  within  a  few  days  of 
his  42nd  year,  and  but  a  month  after  the  pro- 
duction of  his  chef-d'a3uvre,  Hdrold  succumbed 
to  the  chest-malady  from  which  he  had  been  suf- 
fering for  some  time ;  and  was  buried  with 
great  pomp  three  days  after  2.  He  died  in  the 
Maison  des  Ternes,  which  had  been  his  home 
since  his  marriage  with  Ad^le  Elise  Kollet  in 
1827,  and  now  forms  the  corner  of  the  Rue 
Demours  and  the  Rue  Bayen,  on  the  side  of 
the  even  numbers.    Here  were  born  his  three 

1  Thus  too  Haydn,  at  the  end  of  his  career,  spoke  of  himself  as 
having  just  begun  to  know  how  to  use  the  wind  instruments. 

2  Ilaldvy  completed  the  unfinislied  score  of '  Ludovic' 


children : — Ferdinand,  an  able  avocat,  now  a 
senator;  AdSle,  married  in  1854  to  M.  Clama- 
geran,  now  member  of  the  Paris  Conseil  muni- 
cipal;  and  Eugenie,  born  1832,  a  gifted, 
musician,  who  was  carried  off  in  1852  by  con- 
sumption. 

Among  the  many  critical  and  biographical 
articles  on  this  eminent  composer,  we  may 
mention  those  of  Chaulieu,  Castil-Blaze,  Scudo, 
Adolphe  Adam,  a  brief  but  very  accurate  notice 
with  portrait  in  the  '  Magasin  pittoresque '  for 
1873  (pp.  156-159),  and  above  all  'Harold 
sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres '  by  Jouvin  (Paris,  Heugel, 
1868,  8vo),  which  contains  many  of  his  own 
letters  and  memoranda.  In  society  he  showed 
himself  a  brilliant  and  original  talker,  though 
inclined  to  sarcasm.  The  best  portrait  is  that 
in  the  'Magasin  pittoresque.'  His  friend  David 
d' Angers  made  a  medallion  of  him  in  Rome  in 
1815  ;  and  there  are  busts  by  Dantan  (1833), 
Demesmay — now  in  iYiQ  foyer  of  the  new  Op^ra, 
and  Charles  Gauthier — in  the  library  of  the 
Conservatoire.  [G.  C] 

HERMANN,  Jacob  Z.    See  Zeugheer. 

HERSCHEL,SirFkederickWilliam,K.C.H., 
D.C.L.  ('Sir William  Herschel'),  bornat  Hanover, 
Nov.  15,  1738,  was  second  son  of  a  musician 
there.  He  received  a  good  education,  and  being 
destined  for  the  profession  of  his  father,  was,  at 
the  age  of  14,  placed  in  the  band  of  the  Hanove- 
rian regiment  of  guards.  He  came  to  England 
with  the  regiment  about  1757  was  stationed 
at  Durham.  He  soon  became  organist  of  Halifiix 
parish  church,  and  continued  so  until  1 766,  when 
he  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Octagon  Chapel, 
Bath.  Whilst  residing  at  Bath  he  turned  his 
attention  to  astronomy,  and  pursued  his  studies 
for  several  years  during  the  intervals  of  his  pro- 
fessional duties.  He  constructed  a  telescope  of 
large  dimensions,  and  in  1781  announced  the  dis- 
covery of  a  supposed  comet,  which  soon  proved 
to  be  the  planet  Uranus.  He  was  thereupon 
appointed  private  astronomer  to  the  king,  with  a 
salary  of  £400  per  annum,  and  abandoned  the 
musical  profession.  He  removed  to  Datchet  and 
afterwards  to  Slough,  was  knighted,  and  received 
an  honorary  degree  at  Oxford.  In  the  summer 
of  1 792  he  was  visited  at  Slough  by  Haydn.  He 
died  Aug.  23,  1822.  He  published  a  symphony 
for  orchestra  and  two  military  concertos  for  wind 
instruments  in  1 768. 

Jacob  Herschel,  his  elder  brother,  bom  about 
1734,  was  master  of  the  king's  band  at  Hanover, 
came  to  England  and  died  here  in  1792.  He 
composed  some  instrumental  music.    [W.H,  H.] 

HERZ,  Heinrich,  bom  at  Vienna  Jan.  6, 1 806, 
son  of  a  musician  who,  anxious  to  turn  his  early 
talent  for  the  piano  to  the  best  account,  wisely 
entered  him  ini8i6  at  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris 
under  Pradher.  He  carried  off  the  prize  for  piano- 
forte-playing in  his  first  year,  and  thenceforward 
his  career  was  continually  successful.  He  became 
virtually  a  Parisian,  and  was  known  as  Henri 
Herz.  In  1 82 1  Moscheles  visited  Paris,  and  though 


HERZ. 


HEXACHORD.  733 


there  is  no  mention  of  Herz  in  that  part  of  his 
Journal,  yet  we  liave  Herz's  own  testimony^ 
that  Moscheles  had  much  influence  in  the  im- 
provement of  his  style.  For  the  next  ten  years 
he  enjoyed  an  immense  reputation  in  Paris  both 
as  a  writer  and  a  teacher,  and  his  compositions 
are  said  to  have  fetched  3  or  4  times  the  prices 
of  those  of  much  better  composers.  In  1831  he 
made  a  tour  in  Germany  with  Lafont,  but  to 
judge  from  the  notices  in  the  Allg,  Zeitung 
Lafont  made  the  better  impression  of  the  two. 
In  1833  he  made  his  first  visit  to  London,  played 
at  the  Philharmonic  on  June  10,  and  gave  a 
concert  of  his  own,  at  which  he  played  duets 
with  Moscheles  and  with  J.  B.  Cramer.  In 
1842  he  was  made  Professor  of  the  Pianoforte 
in  the  Conservatoire.  He  returned  the  following 
year,  appeared  again  at  the  Philharmonic  May 
5,  and  took  a  long  tour,  embracing  Edinburgh 
and  Dublin.  About  this  time  he  was  tempted 
to  join  a  pianoforte-maker  in  Paris  named  Klepfa, 
but  the  speculation  was  not  successful,  and  Herz 
lost  much  money.  He  then  established  a  factory 
of  his  own,  and  to  repair  his  losses  and  to  obtain 
I  the  necessary  capital  for  this  made  a  journey 
through  the  United  States,  Mexico,  California, 
and  the  West  Indies,  which  lasted  from  1845 
till  1 85 1,  and  of  which  he  has  himself  written  an 
ajccount  ('Mes  voyages,'  etc.,  Paris  1866).  He 
I  then  devoted  himself  to  the  making  of  pianos, 
and  at  the  Exposition  of  1855  his  instruments 
obtained  the  higihest  medal,  and  they  now  take 
rank  with  those  of  Pleyel  and  Erard.  In  1874  he 
relinquished  his  Chair  at  the  Conservatoire. 

Herz  has  left  8  concertos  for  P.  F.  and  orchestra, 
and  other  compositions  for  his  instrument  in 
every  recognised  form,  reaching  to  more  than  200 
I   in  number,  and  including  an  immense  number  of 
i   Variations.    His  Etudes  and  his  P.  F.  M(^thode 
i   are  the  only  things  out  of  this  mass  that  are  at 
'    all  likely  to  survive  their  author.    His  brilliancy 
and  bravura  and  power  of  execution  were  pro- 
digious, but  they  were  not  supported  by  any 
more  solid  qualities,  as  in  the  case  of  Thalberg, 
Liszt,  Tausig,  Biilow,  and  other  great  executants. 
I   Herz  found  out  what  his  public  liked  and  what 
would  pay,  and  this  he  gave  them.    'Is  Herz 
prejudiced,'  says  Mendelssohn,^  'when  he  says 
the  Parisians  can  understand  and  appreciate 
I  nothing  but  variations  V 

I  Schumann  was  never  tired  of  making  fun  of 
his  pretensions  and  his  pieces.  His  Gesammelte 
Schriften  contain  many  reviews,  all  couched  in  the 
same  bantering  style.  In  fact  Herz  was  the  Goli- 
nek  of  his  day,  and  like  that  once  renowned  and 
popular  Ahh6  is  doomed  to  rapid  oblivion.  [G.] 
HERZOG,  JoHANN  Geokg,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man organ-player, born  Sept.  6, 1822,  at  Schmblz 
in  Bavaria.  His  earlier  career  was  passed  in 
Munich,  where  in  18^  2  he  became  organist,  in 
1849  cantor,  and  in  1850  professor  at  the  Con- 
servatorium.  In  55  he  removed  to  Erlangen, 
where  he  still  lives  as  teacher  in  the  University 
and  Director  of  the  Singakademie.    His  '  Pralu- 

'  In  Fetis's  Biographie.  '  '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,"  p.  48. 


dienbucli'  and  his  'Handbuch  fiir  Organisten' 
are  widely  and  deservedly  known.  His  Organ 
school  is  a  work  of  very  great  merit,  and  his  Fan- 
tasias are  fine  and  effective  compositions.  [G.] 

HESELTINE,  James,  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Blow, 
was  in  the  early  part  of  the  1 8th  century  organ- 
ist of  St.  Katherine's  Hospital,  near  the  Tower. 
In  1 71 1  he  was  elected  organist  of  Durham 
Cathedral,  retaining  his  London  appointment, 
Heseltine  composed  many  excellent  anthems,  etc., 
a  few  of  which  are  still  extant  in  the  books  of 
some  of  the  cathedrals,  but  the  major  part  were 
destroyed  by  their  composer  upon  some  differ- 
ence between  him  and  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of 
Durham.  He  died  in  1763.  A  portrait  of  him 
is  in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.         [W.  H.  H.] 

HESSE,  Adolph  Friedkich,  great  organ- 
player  and  composer,  son  of  an  organ-builder, 
born  Aug.  30,  1809,  at  Breslau.  His  masters  in 
the  pianoforte,  composition,  and  the  organ,  were 
Bemerand  E.Kohler.  His  talent  was  sufficiently 
remarkable  to  induce  the  authorities  of  Breslau 
to  grant  him  an  allowance,  which  enabled  him 
to  visit  Leipzig,  Cassel,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and 
Weimar,  in  each  of  which  he  played  his  own 
and  other  compositions,  and  enjoyed  the  in- 
struction and  acquaintance  of  Hummel,  Rinck, 
and  Spohr.  In  18  31  he  obtained  the  post  which 
he  kept  till  his  death,  that  of  organist  to  the 
church  of  the  Bernhardins,  Breslau.  In  1844 
opened  the  organ  at  S.  Eustache  in  Paris,  and 
astonished  the  Parisians  by  his  pedal  playing. 
In  1851  he  was  in  London,  and  played  on  several 
of  the  organs  in  the  Crystal  Palace  in  Hyde 
Park — protesting  much  against  the  unequal  tem- 
perament in  some  of  them.  But  his  home  was 
Breslau,  where  he  was  visited  by  a  constant 
stream  of  admirers  from  far  and  near  up  to  his 
death,  Aug.  5,  1863.  Hesse  was  director  of  the 
Symphony-Concerts  at  Breslau,  and  left  behind 
him  a  mass  of  compositions  of  all  classes.  But 
it  is  by  his  organ  works  that  he  will  be  remem- 
bered. His  '  Practical  Organist,'  containing  29 
pieces — amongst  them  the  well-known  variations 
on  'God  save  the  King' — has  been  edited  by 
Lincoln  and  published  by  NoveUo.  A  complete 
collection  of  his  organ  works  was  edited  by 
Steggall  and  published  by  Boosey.  [G.] 

HE  WE,  John,  in  1485,  received  13s.  gd.  for 
repairing  the  organ  at  the  altar  of  the  Virgin 
in  York  Minster,  and  for  carrying  it  to  the 
House  of  the  Minorite  Brethren  and  bringing 
it  back  to  the  cathedral.  This  is  probably  the 
earliest  instance  to  be  found,  though  afterwards 
common,  of  one  church  lending  another  its 
organ.  [V.deP.] 

HEXACHORD.  In  order  to  remove  certain 
grave  difficulties  connected  with  the  Tetrachords 
of  the  Greek  tonal  system.  Guide  Aretinus  is 
said  to  have  proposed,  about  the  year  1024,  a 
new  arrangement,  based  upon  a  more  convenient 
division  of  the  scale  into  Hexachords — groups 
of  six  sounds,  so  disposed  as  to  place  a  diatonic 
semitone  between  the  third  and  fourth  notes 
of  each  series,  the  remaining  intervals  being 


734 


HEXACHORD. 


HEXACHORD. 


represented  by  tones.  The  sounds  of  which 
these  Hexachords  are  composed  are  sung,  by 
the  rules  of  this  system,  to  the  syllables  nt, 
re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  the  semitone  falling  always 
between  the  sj^llables  mi  and  fa.  But,  in 
addition  to  this  syllabic  distinction,  the  notes 
of  each  entire  octave  are  provided  with  alpha- 
betical names,  exactly  similar  to  those  now  in 
use — A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G ;  and,  these  names 
being  immutable,  it  follows,  that,  as  the  Hexa- 
chords begin  on  different  notes,  and  constantly 
overlap  each  other,  the  same  syllable  is  not 
always  found  in  conjunction  with  the  same  letter. 
At  this  point  arises  the  only  complication  with 
which  the  system  is  burthened — a  complication 
so  slight  that  it  is  well  worth  the  student's 
while  to  master  it,  seeing  that  its  bearing  upon 
the  treatment  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  and 
the  management  of  Real  Fugue,  is  very  important 
indeed.    [See  Real  Fugue.] 

The  first,  or  Hard  Hexachord  {Hexacliordon 
durum),  begins  on  G,  the  first  line  in  the  bass  : 
a  note  which  is  said  to  have  been  added,  be- 
low the  Greek  scale,  by  Guido,  who  called  it 
r  {gamma),  whence  the  word  gamma-ut,  or 
gamut : — 


r  A  B  C  D  E 
ut     re     mi   fa     sol  la 

The  second,  or  Natural  Hexachord  (Hexa- 
chordon  naturale),  begins  on  C,  the  second 
space : — 


C  D  E  F  G  A 
ut    re     mi    fa    sol  la 

On  comparing  these  two  examples  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  note  which,  in  the  first  Hexa- 
chord, was  sung  to  the  syllable  fa,  is  here  sung 
to  ut.  Hence,  this  note,  in  the  collective  gamut, 
is  called  C  fa  ut.  And  the  same  system  is  fol- 
lowed with  regard  to  all  notes  that  occur  in 
more  than  one  Hexachord. 

The  third,  or  Soft  Hexachord  {Hexacliordon 
molle),  begins  on  F,  the  fourth  line :  and,  in 
order  to  place  the  semitone  between  its  third 
and  fourth  sounds,  the  note,  B,  must  be  made  flat. 


F     G     A    b5    C  D 

ut     re    mi    fa    sol  la 


The  note,  sung,  in  the  second  Hexachord,  to 
the  syllable  fa,  is  here  sung  to  ut,  and  is  there- 
fore called  F  fa  ut.  The  next  note,  G,  is  sung 
to  .so/,  in  the  second  Hexachord,  re,  in  the  third, 
and  ut,  in  the  next  Hard  Hexachord,  beginning 
on  the  octave  G ;  hence,  this  note  is  called  G 
soZ  re  ut.  And  the  same  rule  is  followed  with 
regard  to  all  notes  that  appear  in  three  difierent 
Hexachords.  The  note  Bb,  occurring  only  in 
the  Soft  Hexachord,  is  always  called  B/a.  Btj 
is  called  B  mi,  from  its  place  in  the  Hard 
Hexachord,  where  alone  it  is  found. 


The  four  remaining  Hexachords — for  there  are 
seven  in  all — are  mere  recapitulations  of  the  first 
three,  in  the  higher  octaves.  The  entire  scheme, 
therefore,  may  be  represented,  thus — 


Hex. 
6 

Hex. 
7 

The  Gamut. 

E  I' I 

E  la. 

D  la 

D  .^oi 

D  la  sol. 

Hex. 

Csol 

C  ra 

C  sol  fa. 

5 

B^mi 

B  fa.  B  mi. 

A  la 

Ami. 

A  re 

A  la  m  i  re. 

Hex. 

G  sol 

Gre 

G  vt 

G  sol  re  ut. 

Hex. 

4 

F/« 

F  ut 

Ffa  ut. 

3 

E  la 

E  mi 

E  la  mi. 

D  la 

D  sol 

D  re 

D  la  sol  re. 

Hex. 

C  so/ 

Cfa 

C  ut 

C  sol  fa  lit. 

2 

Bb.A7 

Bfa.  Bmi. 

Ala 

A  mi 

A  /V 

A  la  mi  re. 

Hex. 

G  sol 

G  re 

G  ut 

Gsol  re  ut. 

1 

Ffa 

F  ut 

Yfa  ut. 

E  la 

E  mi 

E  la  mi. 

J)  sol 

D  re 

D  sol  re. 

Cfa 

C  ut 

Cfa  ut. 

B  mi 

B  mi. 

Are 

A  re. 

r 

1 

r  ut. 

The  art  of  correctly  adapting  the  syllables  to 
the  sounds  is  called  Solmisation.  So  long  as 
the  compass  of  a  single  Hexachord  is  not  ex- 
ceeded, its  Solmisation  renlains  immutable. 
But,  when  a  melody  extends  from  one  Hexa- 
chord into  the  next,  or  next  but  one,  the  syl- 
lables proper  to  the  new  series  are  substituted — 
by  a  change  called  a  Mutation — for  those  of  the 
old  one.  In  the  following  example,  the  bar 
shows  the  place  at  which  the  syllables  of  the 
Hexachord  of  C  are  to  be  sung  in  place  of  those 
belonging  to  that  of  G ;  the  syllables  to  be 
omitted  being  placed  in  brackets. 


Hexachord  of  C 
(vt)      re      mi     fa      sol  la 

ut      re     mi     fa     {sol)  (la) 

Hexachord  of  G 
I  I 

The  Hexachord  of  C  passes,  freely,  either  into 
that  of  G,  or  F  :  but  no  direct  communication 
between  the  two  latter  is  possible,  on  account  of 
the  confusion  which  would  arise  between  the  Bb 
and  Bt].  The  mutation  usually  takes  place  at 
re,  in  ascending  ;  and  sol,  in  descending. 

We  have  said  that  this  subject  exercises  an 
important  bearing  upon  the  treatment  of  Real 
Fugue,  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes.  Without 
the  aid  of  Solmisation,  it  would  sometimes  be 
impossible  to  demonstrate,  in  these  Modes,  the 
fitting  answer  to  a  given  subject ;  for,  in  order 
that  the  answer  may  be  a  strict  one,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  its  Solmisation  shall  correspond,  exactly, 
in  one  Hexachord,  with  that  of  the  subject,  in 
another.  Failing  this  characteristic,  the  passage 
degenerates  into  one  of  mere  imitation.  The 


HEXACHOED. 


HIDDEN  FIFTHS  AND  OCTAVES.  735 


answer,  therefore,  given  at  h,  in  the  following  |  As  an  instance  of  the  strict  method  of  treat- 
example,  to  the  subject  at  a,  is.  as  Pietro  Aron  i  ment,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  in- 
structive example  than  the  opening  of  Pales- 
trina's  Missa  brevis,  in  the  Thirteenth  Mode 
transposed,  where  the  Solmisation  of  the  answer, 
in  the  Hesachord  of  F,  is  identical  with  that  of 
the  subject  in  the  Natural  Hexachord. 

Now,  this  answer,  though  the  only  true  one 
possible,  could  never  have  been  deduced  by  the 
laws  of  modern  Tonal  Fugue ;   for,  since  the 


I'lstly  teaches,  an  answer  in  appearance  only, 
1  none  at  aU  in  reality. 


Subject,  in  the  Hexa- 
chord  of  C. 


re  mi  fa   sol  fa 


mi  fa 


Answer  m  Hexach.  of  F, 


ANTUS 


Altus 


Bassus 


subject  begins  on  the  second  degree  of  the  scale 
— by  no  means  an  unusual  arrangement  in  the 
Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth  Modes  —  the  cus- 
tomary reference  to  the  Tonic  and  Dominant 
would  not  only  have  failed  to  throw  any  light 
upon  the  question,  but  would  even  have  tended 
to  obscure  it,  by  suggesting  D  as  a  not  impos- 
sible response  to  the  initial  G. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  :  but 
we  trust  enough  has  been  said  to  prove  that 
those  who  would  rightly  understand  the  mag- 
nificent Keal  Fugues  of  Palestrina  and  Anerio, 
will  not  waste  the  time  they  devote  to  the  study 
of  Guido's  Hexachords.  To  us,  familiar  with  a 
dearer  system,  their  machinery  may  seem  un- 
necessarily cumbrous.  We  may  wonder,  that, 
with  the  Octave  within  his  reach,  the  great 
Benedictine  should  have  gone  so  far  out  of  the 
way,  in  his  search  for  the  means  of  passing  from 
one  group  of  sounds  to  another.  But,  we  must 
remember  that  he  was  patiently  groping,  in  the 
dark,  for  an  as  yet  undiscovered  trutL  We 
look  down  upon  his  Hexachords  from  the  per- 
fection of  the  Octave.  He  looked  up  to  them 
from  the  shortcomings  of  the  Tetrachord.  In 
order  fully  to  appreciate  the  value  of  his  con- 
tribution to  musical  science,  we  must  try  to 
imagine  oujrselves  in  his  place.  Whatever  may 
be  the  defects  of  his  system,  it  is  immeasurably 
superior  to  any  that  preceded  it :  and,  so  long 
as  the  Modes  continued  in  general  use,  it  ful- 
filled its  purpose  perfectly.  [W.  S.  R. ] 

HEYTHER^  or  HEATHER.  William,  Mus. 
Doc.,  bom  at  Hamiondsworth,  Middlesex,  was  a 
lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey,  and  on  March 
27,  i6i  5,  sworn  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Camden;  they 
occupied  the  same  house  in  Westminster,  and 
when,  in  1609,  Camden  was  attacked  by  a  pesti- 
lential disease,  he  retirevl  to  Hevther  s  house  at 
Chislehurst  to  be  cured,  and  there  he  died  in 

'  Hii  own  fpelling.  la  b-i  vriil  it  is  Heather. 


1623,  having  appointed  Heyther  his  executor. 
When  Camden  founded  the  history  lectiare  at 
1  Oxford  in  1622,  he  made  his  friend  Heyther 
'  the  bearer  to  the  University  of  the  deed  of  en- 
dowment.  The  University  on  that  occasion  com- 
plimented Heyther  by  creating  him  Doctor  of 
Music,  May  18,  1622.  (As  to  the  improbable 
story  of  Gibbons  having  composed  his  exercise 
for  him,  see  Gibbons,  Orlaxdo.)  In  1626-7 
Heyther  founded  the  music  lecture  at  Oxford, 
and  endowed  it  with  £17  6s.  Sd.  per  arm.  The 
deed  bears  date  Feb.  2,  of  2  Charles  I.  Richard 
Nicholson,  Mus.  Bac,  organist  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, was  the  first  professor.  Dr.  Heyther  died 
in  July  1627,  and  was  buried  Aug.  i  in  the  south 
aisle  of  the  choir  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He 
gave  £100  to  St.  Margaret's  Hospital  in  Totlull 
Fields,  commonly  known  as  the  Green  Coat 
School.  There  is  a  portrait  of  him  in  his  doctor's 
robes  in  the  Music  School,  Oxford,  which  is  en- 
graved by  Hawkins  '^chap.  1 20).  [W.  H.  H.] 
HIDDEN  FEETHS  AND  OCTAVES  (Lat^ 
QuintcE  coopertcE,  sea  absconditce ;  Germ.  Ver- 
dechte  Quinten).  Hidden  Fifths,  or  Octaves,  are 
held  to  be  produced,  whenever  two  parts  pro- 
ceed, in  similar  motion,  towards  a  single  Fifth,  or 
Octave,  to  which  one  of  them  at  least  progresses 
by  a  leap,  as  in  the  following  example  : — 


Progressions  such  as  these  are  prohibited,  be- 
cause, were  the  leaps  filled  up  by  the  intervals 
of  the  Diatonic  Scale,  the  hidden  '  consecutives ' 
[see  Consecutive]  would  at  once  be  converted 
into  real  ones,  thus  : — 


It  may  be  urged,  that,  as  the  leaps  are  not 
intended  to  be  filled  up,  the  forbidden  sequence 


736  HIDDEN  FIFTHS  AND  OCTAVES. 


HILL. 


is  not  formed,  and  there  remains,  therefore,  no- 
thing to  be  condemned. 

The  answer  to  this  objection  is  twofold.  In 
the  first  place,  the  impression  left  on  the  ear  by 
Hidden  Fifths  or  Octaves  is  sometimes  almost 
as  strongly  marked  as  that  produced  by  real 
ones  ;  the  ear  itself  possessing  the  faculty  of 
filling  up  the  leaps,  in  imagination,  when  tempted 
to  do  so  by  the  nature  of  the  progression  sub- 
mitted to  it.  Secondly,  in  unaccompanied  vocal 
music — to  which  the  prohibition  most  particu- 
larly refers — the  least  tendency  on  the  part  of 
an  incautious  singer  to  bridge  over  the  leap  by 
means  of  a  poHaraento  would  instantly  produce 
the  effect  indicated  in  the  above  example. 

Nevertheless,  the  law  against  Hidden  Fifths 
and  Octaves  is  not  an  inelastic  one.  It  is  true, 
that,  in  two-part  counterpoint,  they  are  as 
sternly  condemned  as  the  most  glaring  sequence 
of  real  Fifths.  Even  in  three  parts  their  pre- 
sence is  scarcely  tolerated.  But,  in  four  or  more 
parts,  they  are  only  to  be  reprehended  under 
certain  conditions.  For  instance,  between  the 
extreme  parts  they  should  only  be  used  as  a 
means  of  escape  from  some  serious  difficulty. 
Between  one  extreme  and  one  mean  part  they 
are  considered  less  objectionable.  Between  two 
mean  parts  there  is  little  to  be  said  against 
them ;  and,  when  one  of  the  parts  concerned  in 
their  formation  moves  a  semitone,  they  are  freely 
permitted,  even  between  treble  and  bass.  Bear- 
ing these  rules  in  mind,  the  student  can  scarcely 
go  very  far  wrong  ;  and,  should  he  find  any  diffi- 
culty in  detecting  the  faulty  progressions,  it  may 
be  removed  by  a  reference  to  the  old  law,  which 
enacts  that  'A  Perfect  Concord  may  not  be 
approached  in  similar  motion.' 

The  great  masters  of  the  1 6th  century  were 
far  more  lenient  towards  Hidden  Fifths  and 
Octaves  than  many  modem  theorists.  In  the 
works  of  Palestrina  and  his  contemporaries,  ex- 
amples, even  between  extreme  parts,  may  be 
found  on  almost  every  page.^  These  composers 
also  delighted  in  hiding  Fifths  and  Octaves  in 
another  and  a  singularly  beautiful  way.  It  is  of 
course  understood  that  such  progressions  are 
only  forbidden  when  they  occur  between  the 
same  two  parts.  When  formed  between  different 
voices,  by  means  of  crossing  the  parts,  they  are 
perfectly  lawful ;  as  in  the  following  combina- 
tions from  Palestrina's  'Missa  Papae  MarceUi' 
and  'Missa  Brevis': — 


The  effect  of  such  passages  as  these,  when 
sung  without  accompaniment,  is  perfectly  pure 
and  beautiful ;  but  when  arranged  for  keyed  in- 
struments, where  the  motion  of  the  parts  cannot 

1  In  the  beginning  of  rale<itrina's  motet  'Fratres  ego'  there  is 
indeed  an  Instance  of  Hidden  Fifths,  in  two  parts ;  but  this  case  is  so 
extraordinary  that  the  writer  cannot  remember  ever  having  met  with 
1  parallel  one. 


be  distinguished,  they  become  simply  intolerable. 
In  this  form  they  degenerate  into  sequences  of 


the  most  vulgar  character ;  but  this  is  not  the 
form  in  which  Palestrina  intended  them  to  be 
heard.  [W.  S.  R.J 

HIGHLAND  FLING.  A  step  in  dancing, 
peculiar  to  the  Scotch  Highlands.  The  name  is 
commonly  transferred  to  the  dance  itself.  The 
term  '  iling '  expresses  the  kicking  gesture  which 
characterises  it.  When  a  horse  kicks  by  merely 
raising  one  leg  and  striking  with  it,  he  is  said, 
in  grooms'  parlance,  to  '  fling  like  a  cow.'  The 
performer  dances  on  each  leg  alternately,  and 
flings  the  other  leg  in  front  and  behind.  The 
Highland  Fling,  in  which  three,  four,  or  more 
persons  may  take  part,  is  danced  to  the  music  of 
the  Strathspey.  The  following  is  a  specimen : — 
Marquis  of  Huntly's  Highland  Fling. 

Allegro. 


'   '  [E.J. P.] 

HIGH  MASS  (La.t.MissaSolemnis ;  Fr.  Grand'- 
messe;  Germ.  Grosse  Messe).  Mass,  sung  through- 
out, with  full  Ceremonial,  the  Priest  being  assisted 
by  Deacon  and  Subdeacon,  Master  of  Ceremonies, 
Thurifer  and  two  Acolyths.  A  Mass,  sung  with 
equally  solemn  music,  but  without  the  assistance 
of  a  Deacon  and  Subdeacon,  and  without  the  use  of 
Incense,  is  called  a  Missa  cantata,  or  Sung  Mass. 

Low  Mass  is  said  by  the  Priest,  without  music, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  one  Server  only.  [See 
Mass.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

HILL,  W.,  &  SON  are  organ  builders  in  Lon- 
don. The  house  was  founded  by  John  Snetzler 
about  1755,  who  was  succeeded  in  1780  by  his 
foreman,  Ohrmann.  [Snetzler.]  The  latter  had 
a  partner,  W.  Nutt,  in  1 790,  who  was  afterwards 
joined  by  Thomas  Elliott  about  1803.  After 
Elliott  had  done  business  for  some  time  alone, 
he  took  as  partner,  in  1825,  William  Hill,  a 
Lincolnshire  man,  who  had  married  his  daughter, 
and  died  in  1832,  Hill  remaining  alone  until 
1837,  when  he  was  joined  by  Frederic  Davison. 
After  1838  Davison  left  to  become  a  partner  of 
John  Gray,  and  the  firm  became  W.  Hill  &  Son. 
[Gray  &  Davison.]  HiU  died  Dec.  18,  1870. 
He  deserves  the  gratitude  of  English  organists 
for  having,  in  conjunction  with  Gauntlett,  intro- 
duced the  CC  compass  into  this  country. 


HILL. 


HILLEB. 


737 


Elliott  &  Hill  built  the  present  organ  in  York 
Miaster,  since  which  the  Hills  have  built,  amongst 
many  others,  the  organs  of  Ely,  Worcester,  and 
^lanchester  Cathedrals,  Birmingham  Town  Hall, 
^t.  Peter's,  Cornhill,  and  All  Saints',  Margaret 
Sc.,  London,  Melbourne  Town  Hall,  etc.  [V.deP.] 
HILLER,  Dr.  Ferdinand,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  living  German  musicians,  distin- 
guished alike  as  composer,  conductor,  pianist, 
and  writer,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Frank- 
fort on  the  Main,  Oct.  24,  181 1.  His  first  music- 
let?sons  were  from  a  violinist  named  Hofmann, 
who  did  little  beyond  allowing  him  to  form  his 
taste  by  playing  the  sonatas  of  Mozart  and  Bee- 
thoven. Instruction  on  the  pianoforte  he  re- 
t  ceived  from  Aloys  Schmidt,  and  in  harmony  and 
counterpoint  from  Vollweiler.  At  10  he  played 
a  concerto  of  Mozart's  in  public,  and  at  12  began 
to  compose.  Though  educated  for  a  learned  pro- 
fession, he  was  allowed  to  take  up  the  study  of 
music  in  earnest;  and  in  1825  was  placed  with 
Hummel  at  Weimar.  Here  for  a  time  his  atten- 
tion was  absorbed  by  composition,  for  Hummel, 
recognising  his  obvious  bent,  allowed  him  to  take 
his  own  course.  His  master's  criticisms  on  his 
early  compositions  were  severe  and  disheartening, 
but  Hiller  proved  the  reality  of  his  artistic  im- 
pulse by  never  allowing  himself  to  be  discouraged 
from  further  effort  and  deeper  study,  both  in 
music  and  literature.  In  1827  he  accompanied 
Hummel  on  a  professional  tour  to  Vienna,  and 
had  the  privilege  of  seeing  Beethoven  on  his 
death-bed  and  of  witnessing  the  dissipation  of 
the  cloud  which  had  once  interrupted  his  inter- 
course with  Hummel.  Of  this  meeting  he  has 
given  an  interesting  account  from  memory  in  his 
*Aus  dem  Tonleben'  (2nd  series).  While  in 
"Vienna  he  published  his  op.  i,  a  pianoforte  quartet 
written  in  Weimar.  He  then  returned  to  Frank- 
fort, but  stayed  there  only  a  short  time,  in  spite 
I  of  his  advantageous  intercourse  with  Schelble, 
as  he  was  anxious  to  push  on  to  Paris,  at  that 
time  the  head-quarters  of  music  and  everything 
else.  His  stay  in  Paris  lasted  from  1828  to  35, 
with  one  break  caused  by  the  death  of  his  father. 
He  acted  for  a  time  as  professor  in  Choron's 
I  '  Institution  de  Musique,'  but  afterwards  lived 
I  independently,  perfecting  himself  as  a  pianist 
I  and  composer,  and  enjoying  the  best  society. 
There  is  scarcely  a  well-known  man  of  that 
period,  particularly  among  musicians,  with  whom 
1'  Hiller  was  not  on  good  terms.  Besides  Men- 
delssohn, whom  he  met  as  a  boy  at  Frankfort 
and  with  whom  he  remained  in  the  closest  friend- 
ship to  a  late  date,  he  was  intimate  with  Cheru- 
bini,  Rossini,  Chopin,  Liszt,  Meyerbeer,  Berlioz, 
Nourrit,  Heine,  and  many  others.  Fetis,  in  his 
Biographie  Universelle,  gives  further  particulars  of 
this  stay  in  Paris,  and  especially  of  Hiller's  con- 
certs, in  which  Ft^^tis  took  part.  SuflBce  it  to  say 
here  that  his  performances  of  Bach  and  Beetho- 
ven had  an  important  share  in  making  the  works 
of  those  great  masters  better  known  in  France. 
He  was  the  first  to  play  Beethoven's  Eb 
Concerto  in  Paris ;  and  his  classical  soirees,  given 
in  company  with  Baillot,  excited  much  attention 


at  the  time.  From  Paris  he  returned  to  Frank- 
fort, conducted  the  Ceecilien-Verein  in  1836  and 
37  during  Schelble's  illness,  and  then  passed  on 
to  Milan,  where  he  again  met  Liszt  and  Rossini. 
Rossi  furnished  him  with  the  libretto  of '  Romilda,' 
which  he  set  to  music,  and  which,  through  the 
intervention  of  Rossini,  was  produced  at  the 
Scala  in  1839,  but  without  success.  Here  also 
he  began  his  oratorio  '  Die  Zerstorung  Jerusa- 
lems,'  perhaps  his  most  important  work,  and 
one  that  interested  Mendelssohn  so  much  that 
he  induced  Hiller  to  pass  the  winter  of  1839  in 
Leipsic,  personally  superintending  its  production 
(April  2,  1840),  which  was  most  successful,  and 
was  followed  by  performances  at  Frankfort,  Ber- 
lin, Dresden,  Vienna,  Amsterdam,  and  elsewhere. 
On  his  second  journey  to  Italy  in  184 1,  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  studied  old  Italian  Church  music 
under  the  guidance  of  Baini,  of  whom  he  has 
recorded  his  recollections  ('Tonleben,'  ii.  loi). 
On  his  return  to  Germany  he  lived  successively  in 
Frankfort,  Leipsic  (conducting  the  Gewandhaus 
Concerts  of  1843-4),  and  Dresden.  Here  he 
produced  two  more  operas, '  Traum  in  der  Christ- 
nacht,'  and  *  Conradin.'  During  this  time  he 
lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Spohr,  Mendelssohn, 
the  Schumanns,  David,  Hauptmann,  Joachim, 
and  many  more  illustrious  artists.  A  lasting 
memorial  of  this  period  is  preserved  in  the 
dedication  of  Schumann's  P.  F.  Concerto  to  him — 
'  freundschaftlich  zugeeignet.'  In  1847  he  became 
municipal  capellmeister  at  Diisseldorf,  and  in 
1850  accepted  a  similar  post  at  Cologne,  where  he 
organised  the  Conservatorium,  and  became  its 
first  director.  This  post  he  still  (1879)  retains, 
and  in  his  various  capacities  of  composer,  con- 
ductor, teacher,  and  litterateur,  has  exercised  an 
important  influence  on  music  in  the  Rhenish  Pro- 
vinces. He  gave  such  an  impetus  to  the  musical 
society  of  which  he  was  conductor,  that  its  con- 
certs have  been  long  considered  among  the  best 
in  Germany.  The  Lower  Rhine  Festivals,  which 
he  conducted  from  1850  as  often  as  they  were 
held  at  Cologne,  have  however  chiefly  contributed 
to  gain  him  his  high  reputation  as  a  conductor. 
As  a  teacher  his  career  is  closely  connected 
with  the  history  of  the  Cologne  Conservatorium. 
Among  his  numerous  pupils  there,  the  best-known 
is  Max  Bruch.  He  has  occasionally  left  Cologne 
to  make  concert-tours  in  Germany,  or  longer 
excursions  abroad.  He  conducted  the  Italian 
opera  in  Paris  for  a  time  (1852-53),  and  visited 
Vienna  and  St.  Petersburg,  where  in  1870  he 
conducted  a  series  of  concerts  by  the  Russian 
Musical  Society.  England  he  has  visited  several 
times,  particularly  in  1871,  when  his  cantata 
'Nala  und  Damajanti'  was  performed  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival,  and  in  1872,  when  he  was 
enthusiastically  received  both  as  a  pianist  and 
conductor  of  his  own  works  at  the  Monday 
Popular  and  Crystal  Palace  Concerts,  and  also 
in  Liverpool  and  Manchester. 

Hiller's  published  works  (to  Feb.  1879)  number 
183.  They  include.  Chamber  music — 5  P.  F. 
quartets ;  5  trios  ;  5  string  quartets  ;  Sonatas  for 
P.  F.  alone,  and  with  violin  and  cello  ;  a  suite  '  in 

3  B 


738 


HILLER. 


HILLER. 


Canone '  for  P.  F.  and  violin  ;  Serenade  for  P.  E. 
and  cello  ;  '  Modeme  Suite  '  for  P.  F. ;  and  a 
mass  of  other  pianoforte  compositions,  including 
24  Etudes,  '  rh}-thmische  Studien,'  Impromptu 
'  zur  Guitarre,'  operettas  witliout  words,  etc.  etc. 
Orchestral  works — 4  overtures,  including  that 
to  *  Demetrius ' ;  a  Festival  March  for  the 
opening  of  the  Albert  Hall ;  3  svmphonies,  in- 
cluding that  v\"ith  the  motto  *Es  muss  doch 
Friihling  werden' ;  etc,  etc.  Vocal  compositions — 
2  oratorios,  'Die  Zerstorung  Jerusalems'  and 
'  Saul ' ;  5  operas,  including  '  Die  Katacomben,' 
'  Der  Deserteur, '  and  many  smaller  works ;  Lieder ; 
choruses,  mixed  and  for  men's  voices  only;  motets, 
psalms,  etc. ;  a  number  of  cantatas  for  soli,  chorus, 
and  orchestra,  especially  '  0  weint  Mm  Sie '  from 
Byron's  Hebrew  Melodies,  op.  49,  *  Ver  sacrum,' 
op.  75  ;  '  Xala  und  Damajanti,'  written  for  Bir- 
mingham ;  '  Israels  Siegesgesang,'  op.  151;  and 
his  'Prometheus,'  op.  175,  and  'Rebecca,'  op.  182, 
His  literary  works  include  a  crowd  of  interesting 
articles,  biographical,  critical,  and  miscellaneous, 
contributed  to  the  'Kolnische  Zeitung,'  many 
of  them  republished  under  the  title  'Aus  dem 
Tonleben  unserer  Zeit,'  2  volumes  in  1867,  with 
a  '  Xeue  Folge'  in  1871,  and  a  4th  vol.  '  Person- 
liches  und  Musikalisches'  in  1876.  He  has  also 
published  his  recollections  of  Mendelssohn — 
which  appeared  in  Macmillan's  Magazine,  and 
were  reprinted  separately  with  a  dedication  to 
Queen  Yictoria — and  a  very  interesting  paper  on 
Cherubini,  first  printed  in  the  same  periodical. 
He  has  recently  edited  a  volume  of  letters  by 
Hauptmann  to  Spohr  and  other  well-known 
musicians.  To  complete  the  list,  we  may  add — 
additional  accompaniments  for  Handel's  '  Debo- 
rah' (for  the  Lower  Rhine  Festival  1834),  and 
*  Theodora ' ;  and  an  instruction  book  '  Uebungen 
zum  Studium  der  Harmonic  und  des  Contra- 
puncts  '  (2nd  ed.  i860). 

Hiller  occupies  in  some  respect  the  same  posi- 
tion which  Spohr  held  before  his  death,  as  the 
'  Altmeister,'  the  representative  of  the  old  clas- 
sical school.  His  pleasant  genial  personality, 
and  his  great  intelligence  and  wide  range  of 
knowledge,  make  him  welcome  wherever  he  goes. 
In  England  he  has  many  friends,  who  are  always 
glad  to  see  him,  and  hear  his  delicate  legato  style 
of  playing,  soon,  alas,  to  be  numbered  with  the 
things  of  the  past. 

Being  throughout  his  life  in  easy  circumstances, 
he  has  been  always  able  to  indulge  his  taste  for 
a  variety  of  intellectual  interests,  to  the  neglect 
perhaps  of  that  concentration  of  the  whole  powers 
which  is  necessary  to  stamp  any  mental  pro-  ' 
duction  as  a  work  of  genius.  But  the  advan- 
tages of  such  an  education  were  not  lost  upon 
him.  He  gained  from  it  a  general  ease  and 
flexibility  of  mind,  and  a  refined  taste  for  all 
that  is  intellectual.  These  are  the  qualities 
which,  combined  with  his  avoidance  of  all  mere 
dilettanteism,  and  his  grasp  of  that  which  is 
sterling,  grave,  and  essential,  have  enabled  him 
to  accomplish  something  of  value  in  each  depart- 
ment he  has  touched.  It  is  not  easy  to  point 
out  the  special  characteristics  of  his  work,  as  it 


I  possesses  few  of  those  prominent  traits  which 
catch  the  eye  at  once.  Although  he  has  been  con- 
I  stantly  attracted  by  the  classical  period,  his  talent 
is  essentially  modem,  as  his  elegant  and  well- 
chosen  melody,  his  piquant  rhythm,  and  his  in- 
teresting  harmony,   never  trivial,  sufl&ciently 
prove.    Humorous  and  graceful,  rather  than  pro- 
found, his  mode  of  expression  is  always  elevated, 
pleasing,  and  clever,  and  with  a  delicate  polish  of 
each  separate  part  which  is  very  characteristic. 
Facility  of  invention,  and  mastery  of  the  techni- 
calities of  composition  may  have  sometimes  sup- 
plied the  place  of  true  creative  instinct ;  but  give 
him  a  really  important  theme,  and  he  produces 
music  that  will  undoubtedly  live.   His  '  Destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,'  his  Spring  Symphony  in  E 
minor  (already  mentioned),  his  Pianoforte  Concerto 
in  Fj  minor,  and  more  than  one  of  his  pianoforte 
works,  are  surely  destined  to  survive.    All  his 
writings,  both  in  music  and  literature,  show  real 
j  talent  and  thought,  a  genuine  artistic  turn  of  mind, 
i  and  often  a  very  happy  mode  of  expression.  He 
I  forms  one  of  that  circle  of  musicians,  a  few  of 
j  whom  are  still  living,  who  have  made  it  the 
I  object  of  their  lives  to  extend  the  knowledge  of 
I  classical  music.    At  a  time  when  Italian  opera, 
I  and  a  brilliant  and  important  though  somewhat 
I  barren  devotion  to  mere  execution,  exercised  an 
J  undue  influence  on  the  minds  of  musicians,  these 
,  men  upheld  the  standard  of  serious  and  solid 
I  music,  and  it  is  largely  owing  to  their  indefatig- 
able exertions  that  Bach's  deep  thought  and 
I  Beethoven's  passionate  energy  are  appreciated  as 
i  they  now  are.   Brought  up  and  living  to  old  age 
in  this  classical  atmosphere,  a  friend  of  Mendels- 
sohn and  Schumann,  and  thinking  with  them  on 
these  subjects,  Hiller  has  naturally  but  little 
sympathy  with  the  so-called  new  German  school. 
He  has  never  concealed  his  sentiments  on  this 
point,  but  we  may  confidently  say  that  he  has 
never  expressed  them  in  a  manner  unworthy  of 
him  as  a  man  or  an  artist.  [A.M.] 
HILLER,  JoHAXN  Adam,  whose  real  name 
was  HuLLER,  bom  Dec.  25,  1728  (4  years  before 
Joseph  Haydn),  at  Wendisch-Ossig  near  Gorlitz 
in  Prussia,  the  son  of  a  school-master  and  parish- 
clerk.    He  lost  his  father  when  barely  six,  and 
had  a  hard  struggle  to  obtain  his  education.  He 
possessed  a  fine  treble  voice,  and  had  already 
acquired  considerable  facility  on  various  instru- 
ments, and  he  quickly  tumed  these  talents  to 
account.     He  passed  from  the  Gymnasium  at 
Gorlitz  to  the  Kreuzschule  at  Dresden,  where 
he  studied  the  harpsichord  and  thorough-bass 
under  Homilius.    It  was  however  the  operas  and 
sacred  compositions  of  Hasse  and  Graun  which 
exercised  the  most  lasting  influence  upon  him. 
Hasse's  operas,  of  which  he  had  the  opportunity 
of  hearing  excellent  performances,  had  a  special 
attraction  for  him,  and  he  copied  the  scores  of 
several.    In  1751  he  went  to  the  University  of 
Leipsic,  where,  besides  his  l^al  studies,  he  de- 
voted much  attention  to  music,  '  partly  from 
choice,  p%rtly  from  necessity,'  as  he  himself  re- 
lates.    He  took  part  in  the  so-called  'Grosses 
Concert '  both  as  flutist  and  singer,  and  began  to 


HILLER. 


HILLER. 


739 


make  his  way  as  a  composer  and  author.  In 
j  1754  he  entered  the  household  of  Count  Briihl, 
I  the  Saxon  minister,  as  tutor,  and  in  this  capacity 
I  accompanied  his  pupil  to  Leipsic  in  1758,  A 
hypochondriacal  tendency,  which  overshadowed 
his  whole  life,  caused  him  not  only  to  resign  this 
appointment,  but  also  to  refuse  the  offer  of  a 
Professorship  at  St,  Petersburg.  Henceforward 
he  lived  independently  at  Leipsic,  engaged  in 
literature  and  music,  and  actively  employed  in 
promoting  the  public  concerts ;  and  it  is  largely 
owing  to  his  exertions  that  they  afterwards 
reached  so  high  a  pitch  of  excellence.  He  was 
appointed  director  in  1 763,  and  immediately  took 
steps  to  improve  the  choruses.  In  1771  he 
founded  a  school  for  the  cultivation  of  singing, 
which  he  supported  by  giving  performances  of 
the  oratorios  of  Handel,  Graun,  etc.  As  paid 
director  of  a  society  for  the  practice  of  music, 
he  established  '  Concerts  Spirituels '  (so  called 
after  the  Paris  concerts  of  that  name),  which 
took  the  place  left  vacant  by  the  failure  of  the 
old  'Grosses  Concert.'  In  178 1  this  'Concert- 
Institut '  moved  into  the  newly-built  hall  of  the 
'  Gewandhaus,'  and  thus  originated  the  'Gewand- 
haus  Concerts'  of  world-wide  celebrity.  Not 
content  with  this  he  composed  for  the  then 
flourishing  theatre  at  Leipsic,  a  series  of  'Sing- 
spiele,'  which  are  suflScient  of  themselves  to 
perpetuate  his  name  in  the  history  of  music. 
Though  doubtless  an  adaptation  of  the  French 
operetta,  Hiller  established  the  German  'Sing- 
spiel'  as  a  separate  branch  of  art.  He  took  for 
his  basis  the  simple  '  Lied,'  a  form  which  brought 
it  within  the  capacities  of  the  company,  who  were 
by  no  means  trained  singers  ;  but  within  these 
narrow  limits  he  developed  a  variety  of  inven- 
tion and  expression,  a  delicacy  and  precision  of 
character,  which  at  once  secured  universal  ap- 
proval, and  have  sufficed  to  maintain  this  class 
of  piece  to  the  present  day.  He  enlarged  both 
the  form  and  substance  of  the  'Lied'  proper,  by 
departing  from  the  simple  strophe,  and  giving 
to  the  songs  a  specific  dramatic  colouring  in 
accordance  with  the  character.  He  also  intro- 
duced *  morceaux  d'ensemble,'  and  traces  are 
not  wanting  of  the  beginnings  even  of  the 
dramatic  'scena.'  Of  these  'Singspiele'  Hiller 
composed  14,  each  containing  30  numbers  of  this 
'  lied  '-like  character.  The  best  known  are  '  Lis- 
vart  und  Dariolette,'  'Lottchen  am  Hof,'  'Liebe 
auf  dem  Lande,'  '  Dorf barbier,'  and  especially 
'  Die  Jagd,'  which  has  kept  the  stage  for  more  than 
a  century,  and  is  even  still  performed.  He  also 
wrote  a  quantity  of  sacred  songs  and  'Lieder,' 
which  had  their  share  in  bringing  to  perfec- 
tion this  style  of  composition — so  significant  a 
contrast  to  the  Italian  '  aria.'  Having  been  in- 
duced to  accc^mpany  his  pupils,  the  two  Fraulein 
Podleska,  to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Courland 
at  Mittau,  Hiller  made  so  favourable  an  impres- 
sion, that  on  his  departure  he  was  appointed 
court-chapelmaster,  with  a  salary.  In  1786  his 
many  services  to  the  cause  of  music  were  recom- 
pensed by  the  appointment  as  Cantor  and  musical 
director  to  the  Thomas-schule  in  Leipsic.  This 


post  he  held  till  1801,  and  his  death  took  place 
in  1804,  after  much  trouble  from  the  old  hypo- 
chondria. As  composer,  conductor,  teacher,  and 
author,  Hiller's  industry  was  indefatigable.  His 
instrumental  compositions  are  now  quite  anti- 
quated, but  not  so  his  vocal  works.  These  consist 
chiefly  of  motets  and  the  '  Singspiele '  already 
named ;  but  the  following  must  not  be  omitted : — 
*  Choralmelodien  zu  Gellerts  geistlichen  Oden  und 
Liedem'  (1761);  'Weisse's  Lieder  fiir  Kinder' 
(i  769) ;  *  50  geistliche  Lieder  fiir  Kinder'  (i  774); 
and  *  Vierstimmige  Chor-arien'  (1794).  Of  his 
larger  works  may  be  cited,  a  '  Passions-cantata,' 
and  a  looth  Psalm,  both  much  prized  by  his 
contemporaries.  Hiller  also  composed  a  '  Choral- 
buch'  (1793),  with  two  appendices  (1794  and 
1797),  largely  used  in  his  day,  though  since 
widely  condemned.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  he  lived  in  a  time  of  general  softness  and 
relaxation,  when  all  music  took  its  tone  from 
Italian  opera.  Hasse  and  Graun  were  the  models 
of  his  taste,  whom  he  revered  all  his  life.  But 
he  was  by  no  means  insensible  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  great  renovation  of  music  originated 
by  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  was  powerfully  im- 
pressed by  Handel,  while  for  Bach  and  Gluck  he 
entertained  a  bare  outward  respect,  with  no  real 
sympathy.  He  had  deeply  imbibed  the  spirit  of 
that  insipid  and  shallow  age,  which  being  entirely 
without  feeling  for  historical  propriety,  permitted 
arbitrary  changes  in  the  treatment  of  older  works, 
which  to  our  day  of  historical  enlightenment  seem 
as  astounding  as  they  are  impertinent.  This  is 
very  remarkable  in  Hiller's  careful  editions  of 
classical  works.  Thus  he  introduced  many  al- 
terations of  his  OAvn  into  a  German  edition  of 
Handel's  'Jubilate,'  under  the  title  of  the  lOOth 
Psalm ;  and  arranged  Pergolesi's  two-part '  Stabat 
Mater'  for  a  four-part  choir.  He  also  edited 
Basse's  'Pilgrimme  auf  Golgatha,'  Graun's  'Tod 
Jesu,'  and  Haydn's  'Stabat  Mater'  with  German 
words,  and  in  an  abridged  form  for  pianoforte. 
Still  much  praise  is  due  to  him  for  his  frequent 
performances  of  oratorios,  chiefly  those  of  Handel. 
The  '  Messiah '  especially  was  given  at  Berlin, 
Breslau,  Leipsic,  and  other  places,  with  nearly  as 
much  eclat  as  at  the  great  festivals.  As  an  au- 
thor Hiller  was  painstaking  and  prolific.  Besides 
several  single  articles  in  periodicals  he  edited  a 
weekly  paper,  '  Wochentliche  Nachrichten  und 
Anmerkungen  die  Musik  betreffend'  (1766- 
1770).  He  had  always  given  great  attention  to 
the  cultivation  of  singing,  and  two  instruction 
books  of  that  kind — 'Anweisung  zum  musikal- 
isch-richtigen  Gesange '  (1774),  and  'Anweisung 
zum  musikalisch  zierlichen  Gesange'  (1780),  are 
among  the  most  valuable  of  his  works.  He  also 
published  a  good  method  for  violin.  He  edited 
'  Lebensbeschreibungen  beriihmter  Musikgelehr- 
ten  und  Tonkiinstler '  (i  vol.  1784),  with  his  auto- 
biography. Two  of  his  collections  also  deserve 
mention — '  Musikalische  Zeitvertreib '  (1760),  of 
German  and  Italian  airs,  duets,  etc.,  and  '  Vier- 
stimmige  Motetten,'  etc.  (6  vols.  4to.,  1776-91), 
containing  motets  by  many  celebrated  composers 
— a  work  of  real  value.  His  grateful  pupils,  the 
3B2 


740 


HILLER. 


sisters  Podleska,  erected  in  1832  a  small  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  on  the  Promenade  at  Leipsic, 
before  the  windows  of  his  official  residence  at  the 
Thomas  School,  and  close  to  Mendelssohn's  Bach  : 
memorial .  [A.M.] 

HILTON,  John,  ]Mus.  Bac,  first  appears  as  a 
composer  in  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1 601, 
to  which  he  contributed  the  5 -part  madrigal, 
'  Faire  Oriana,  beautie's  queene.'  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1626.  In  1627  he  published 
'Ayres,  or  Fa  las  for  three  voyces,'  dedicated 
'  To  the  worshipful  William  Heather,  Doctor  of 
Musicke,'  reprinted  in  score  by  the  Musical 
Antiquarian  Society.  In  1628  Hilton  was  elected 
organist  and  parish  clerk  of  St.  Margaret's  West- 
minster. It  is  presumed  that  he  was  deprived 
of  the  first-named  appointment  when  the  organ 
was  taken  down  pursuant  to  the  Parliamentary 
ordinances  of  1 644,  but  that  he  continued  to  hold 
the  latter.  In  1652  he  published  the  collection 
called  •'  Catch  that  Catch  can,  or,  A  Choice  Col- 
lection of  Catches.  Rounds  and  Canons  for  3  or  4 
voyces.'  He  was  buried  at  S.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster, March  21,  1657.  Hawkins's  statement 
that  he  lies  in  the  Abbey  Cloisters,  and  that  an 
anthem  was  sung  in  the  Abbey  before  his  body 
was  brought  out  of  his  house  for  interment  can 
therefore  at  best  be  only  partially  true.  Besides 
the  above-named  compositions  Hilton  produced  a 
Service  in  G  minor,  printed  in  Rimbault's  Cathe- 
dral Music,  a  second  Service  in  the  same  key,  and 
some  anthems  which  remain  in  MS.  '  Lord,  for 
Thy  tender  mercies,'  usually  given  to  Farrant, 
has  been  attributed  to  Hilton.  The  copies  in 
which  it  is  so  attributed  have  a  few  additional 
bars  on  the  word  'Amen,' which  may  possibly  be 
of  Hilton's  composition.  (See  Harl.  MS.  7340.) 
Several  songs,  dialogues,  catches,  canons  and 
rounds  by  him  are  contained  in  a  volume  in  the 
British  Museum  (Add.  MS.  11,608).  An  Elegy 
on  William  Lawes  composed  by  Hilton  for  3 
voices  is  printed  in  Henry  and  William  Lawes' 
'Choice  Psalmes,'  1648.  His  portrait  is  in  the 
Music  School,  Oxford,  and  is  engraved  by  Haw- 
kins (chap.  121).  [W .  H.  H.] 

HIMMEL,  Friedeich  Heixeich,  a  man  of 
some  mark  in  his  day,  bom  Nov.  20,  1765,  at 
Treuenbrietzen,  Brandenburg.  He  was  intended 
for  the  Church,  and  studied  theology  at  Halle ; 
but  the  excellence  of  his  pianoforte  playing  in- 
duced the  king,  Frederic  William  II,  to  have 
him  educated  as  a  musician.  After  three  years 
harmony  and  counterpoint  under  Naumann  at 
Dresden,  he  took  to  Berlin  '  Isacco,'  an  oratorio, 
performed  (1792)  by  the  court-chapel  with  bril- 
liant success,  and  a  cantata  'La  Danza.'  The 
king  gave  him  100  Friedrichs  for  his  oratorio, 
made  him  his  chamber-composer,  and  sent  him 
to  Italy  for  two  years.  While  there  he  produced 
•  11  primo  Navigatore '  at  the  Fenice  in  Venice 
(1794),  and  '  Semiramide '  at  San  Carlo  in  Naples 
(Jan.  1795).  Reichardt  having  been  dismissed 
from  the  Court-CapeUmeistership  at  Berlin,  the 
king  gave  the  appointment  to  Himmel.  who 
thereupon  returned  at  once.  When  in  office  he 
composed  several  pieces  de  circonstance,  such  as 


a  Trauer-cantata  for  the  funeral  of  king  Frederic 
William  in  1797,  and  a  Te  Deum  for  the  corona- 
tion of  his  successor.  In  1798  he  visited  Stock- 
holm and  St.  Petersburg,  where  the  Emperor 
commissioned  him  to  write  '  Alessandro,'  an  opera 
for  which  he  received  6000  roubles.  In  1801  he 
produced  '  Vasco  di  Gama '  at  Copenhagen,  pro- 
ceeded thence  to  France,  England — where  he 
made  only  a  short  stay  of  which  we  have  no 
particulars — and  Vienna,  returning  to  Berlin 
in  December  1802.  After  the  battle  of  Jena  he 
retired  first  to  Pyrmont,  and  then  to  Cassel,  and 
died  of  dropsy  at  Berlin,  June  8,  18 14.  Besides 
the  works  already  mentioned  he  composed — 
'  Der  Kobold  '  (1804)  ;  '  Fanchon,  das  Leiermad- 
chen'  (1805),  libretto  by  Kotzebue,  his  best  opera ; 

*  Les  Sylphes'  (1807),  all  produced  in  Berlin  :  a 

•  Vater  tlnser' ;  Psalms ;  a  mass,  etc. :  P.  F. 
sonatas;  dance  music  and  concerted  music  for 
P.  F. ;  and  a  number  of  songs.  The  sonatas  and 
songs  abound  in  melody,  and  are  the  work  of  a 
sound  musician,  but  though  popular  in  their  day, 
they  are  now  quite  forgotten.  Himmel  had  much 
intercourse  with  Beethoven  during  the  visit  of  the 
latter  to  Berlin  in  1 796.  If  Beethoven  hurt  his 
feelings  by  a  rude  joke  on  his  extemporising,  Him- 
mel had  certainly  the  better  of  the  encounter  in  the 
end.  [See  p.  172a].  For  a  song  by  him,  'Ada  to 
Alexis,'  see  'Musical  Library,'  vol.  i.  A  couple 
more  pieces  are  published  by  Novello.  [M.C.C.] 

HINDLE,  John,  Mus.  Bac,  bom  in  West- 
minster in  1761,  was  a  lay  vicar  of  Westminster 
j  Abbey.    He  matriculated  at  Oxford  in  1791. 
He  published  'A  Collection  of  Songs  for  One 
and  Two  Voices,'  and  'A  Set  of  Glees  for  3, 
4,  and  5  voices,'    His  favourite  glee  '  Queen  of 
the  silver  bow,'  first  appeared  (with  another) 
I  in  the  'Professional  Collection.'    He  also  com- 
posed   a   well-known    chant.     He    died  in 
1  1796.  [W.H.H.] 
HINE,  William,  bom  at  Brightwell,  Oxford- 
'  shire,  in  1687,  became  a  chorister  of  Magdalen 
I  College,  Oxford,  in  1694,  and  continued  so  until 
I  1705,  when  he  was  appointed  a  clerk.    He  was 
removed  from  his  place  in  the  same  year,  when 
he  came  to  London  and  studied  under  Jeremiah 
Clark.    In  171 2  he  succeeded  Stephen  Jefi'eries 
j  as  organist  of  Gloucester  Cathedral,  and  shortly 
afterwards  married  Alicia,  daughter  of  Abraham 
Rudhall  of  Gloucester,  the  famous  bell  founder. 
Hine  died  Aug.  28,  1730.    His  wife  survived 
him  until  June  28,  1735.   Both  were  interred  in 
the  eastern  ambulatory  of  the  cloisters,  where  a 
mural  tablet  to  their  memory  informs  us  that  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  had  voluntarily  increased 
Hine's  stipend  in  consideration  of  his  deserts.  Dr. 
Philip  Hayes  presented  a  portrait  of  Hine  (his 
father's  instructor)  to  the  Music  School,  Oxford. 
After  Hine's  death  his  widow  published,  by  sub- 
scription, '  Harmonia  Sacra  Glocestriensis  ;  or, 
Select  Anthems  fur  i,  2  and  3  voices,  and  a  Te 
Deum  and  Jubilate,  together  with  a  Voluntary 
for  the  Organ.'   The  Te  Deum  is  by  Henry  Hall, 
and  the  other  compositions  by  Hine.  The  volun- 
tary furnishes  a  curious  example  of  the  style  of 
organ  playing  then  in  vogue.  [W.H.H.] 


HINGSTON. 


HOFFMANN. 


741 


HINGSTON,  John,  was  one  of  the  musiciaiis 
Charles  I,  and  afterwards  entered  the  service  of 

-iver  Cromwell,  whose  daughters  he  instructed 
111  music.  When  the  organ  of  Magdalen  College 
was  removed  from  Oxford  to  Hampton  Court, 
about  1654,  Hingston  was  appointed  organist  to 
the  Protector  at  a  salary  of  £100  per  annum, 
and  with  two  boys,  his  pupils,  was  accustomed 
to  sing  Bering's  Latin  motets  to  Cromwell,  who 
greatly  delighted  in  them.  He  had  concerts  at 
his  house,  at  which  Cromwell  was  often  present. 
Hingston  has  been  said  to  have  been  Dr.  Blow's 
master,  but  this  is  doubtful.  He  composed  some 
Fancies.  He  was  buried  at  S.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster, December  i  7,  1683.  A  portrait  of  him 
is  in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.  [W.  H, H.] 

HISTORIES  OF  MUSIC.  [See  Music, 
Histories  of.] 

HOBBS,  John  William,  was  born  Aug.  i, 
1799,  Henley-on-Thames,  where  his  father 
was  bandmaster  of  a  volunteer  corps.  He  sang 
in  public  at  the  early  age  of  three  years,  and  at 
five  was  admitted  a  chorister  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral,  of  which  his  father  was  a  lay  vicar. 
The  beauty  of  his  voice  attracting  the  attention 
of  Goss,  the  alto  singer  and  singing  master, 
young  Hobbs  was  articled  to  him.  He  appeared 
as  principal  singer  at  a  Musical  Festival  at 
Norwich  in  i Si 3.  On  arriving  at  manhood  his 
voice  had  developed  into  a  tenor  of  limited 
compass,  but  of  remarkable  purity  and  sweetness. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  choirs  of  King's, 
Trinity  and  St.  John's,  Cambridge,  and  after- 
wards of  that  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor, 
of  which  his  father  was  already  a  member.  In 
1827  he  was  appointed  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  and  in  1836  a  lay  vicar  of  West- 
minster Abbey.  Hobbs  long  held  a  prominent 
position  as  a  concert -singer.  His  singing  was 
distinguished  by  taste,  refinement  and  expression. 
He  was  the  composer  of  a  very  large  number  of 
songs,  several  of  which  gained  prizes  from  the 
Melodists'  Club,  and  many  were  highly  popular, 
especially  '  WTien  Delia  sleeps,'  '  My  ancestors 
were  Englishmen,'  and  'The  captive  Greek  girl.' 
He  died  at  Croydon,  Jan.  1 2,  1877.    [W.  H.  H.] 

HOBRECHT.    [See  Obrecht.] 

HOCKET.  A  term  which  occurs  in  old 
English  writers  on  music,  beginning  with  De 
Handlo  ( 1 326),  for  passages  which  were  truncated 
or  mangled,  or  a  combination  of  notes  and  pauses. 
The  term  puzzles  Sir  John  Hawkins  (Hist.  chap. 
53),  but  the  late  Mr.  Chorley  used  ingeniously  to 
explain  it  as  a  corruption  of  hocquet,  a  hiccup,  and 
signifying  a  sjTicopation.   [See  Ochetto.]  [G.] 

HODGES,  Edward,  Mus.  Doc,  born  July  20, 
1 796,  at  Bristol,  was  organist  of  Clifton  Church, 
and  afterwards  of  the  churches  of  St.  James  and 
St.  Nicholas,  Bristol.  He  produced  a  Morning 
and  Evening  Service  and  two  Anthems  on  the 
reopening  of  St.  James's  organ,  May  2,  1824, 
and  published  them  in  1825.  He  obtained  his 
doctor's  degree  at  Cambridge  in  1825.  He  was 
a  contributor  to  '  The  Quarterly  Musical  Maga- 
zine,' and  'The  Musical  World,'    In  1838  he 


quitted  England  for  America,  and  in  the  next 
year  became  organist  of  St.  John's  Episcopal 
Chapel,  New  York.  He  published  '  An  Essay  on 
the  Cultivation  of  Church  Music'  at  New  York 
in  1 841.  On  the  opening  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  York,  May  21,  1846  (the  organ  in  which 
had  been  built  from  his  specifications),  Dr. 
Hodges  quitted  St.  John's  to  become  its  organist. 
He  composed  church  music,  some  published  in 
New  York,  and  others  in  London.  During  liis 
long  residence  in  America  he  was  much  esteemed 
for  his  performance  on  the  organ.  Dr.  Hodges 
returned  to  England  in  1863,  and  died  at  Clifton, 
Sept.  I,  1867.  His  daughter.  Miss  Faustina 
Hasse  Hodges,  formerly  organist  in  Brooklyn, 
and  now  (1878)  organist  of  two  churches  in 
Philadelphia,  has  composed  some  songs  and  instru- 
mental pieces. — His  son.  Rev.  John  Sebastian 
Bach  Hodges,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St,  Paul's  Church, 
Baltimore,  is  an  excellent  organist.  [W.H.H.] 
HOFFMANN,  Ernst  Theodob  Wilhelm,  a 
man  of  genius,  and  an  extraordinarily  clever  and 
eccentric  musician  and  litterateur,  who  though  a 
voluminous  composer  will  not  live  by  his  com- 
positions so  much  as  by  some  other  productions 
of  his  pen.  He  was  born  at  Konigsberg  Jan.  24, 
1776  ;  learned  music  and  law  at  the  same  time, 
and  bid  fair  to  rise  in  the  official  world  ;  but  an 
iiTepressible  love  of  caricaturing  put  an  end  to 
such  solid  prospects  and  drove  him  to  music  as  his 
main  pursuit.  His  first  musical  appointment  was 
to  the  theatre  at  Bamberg  in  1 809,  but  it  was  a 
post  without  salary,  on  which  he  starved.  It 
fortunately  urged  him  to  writing  a  set  of  papers 
in  the  character  of  'Johannes  Elreisler  the  Kapell- 
meister' for  the  'AUgemeine  musikalische  Zei- 
tung'  of  Leipzig.  They  appeared  at  intervals 
from  Sept.  26,  1810,  and  onwards,  and  in  1814 
Hoffmann  republished  them  with  other  essays  in 
the  same  vein  in  two  volumes  as  *  Fantasiestlicke 
in  Callot's  Manier,'  with  a  preface  by  Jean  Paul, 
in  whose  style  they  are  couched.  Among  the 
most  interesting,  and  at  the  same  time  most 
practically  valuable,  are  the  essay  on  Beethoven's 
instrumental  music— far  in  advance  of  the  day — 
another  on  Gluck,  and  a  third  on  Don  Giovanni. 
The  essays,  which  have  often  been  reprinted,  are 
all  more  or  less  humorous,  some  extremely  so. 
They  were  followed  by  the  '  Elixiere  des  Teufels,' 
anovel(i8i5);  'Nachtstiicke' (1817),  'Serapions- 
briider'  (4  vols.  1819-21) ;  and  by  the  'Lebens 
ansichten  des  Kater  Murr,'  etc.,  or  'Views  of 
life  of  Murr  the  tomcat,  with  fragments  of  the 
biography  of  Johann  ILreisler,  the  Kapellmeister, 
from  loose  and  spotted  sheets.'  Schumann's  ad- 
miration of  these  pieces  may  be  inferred  from  his 
imitations  of  them  in  his  Florestan  and  Eusebius, 
and  his  adoption  of  their  nomenclature  in  the 
titles  of  his  music.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
Hoffmann  again  obtained  official  employment  at 
Berlin,  which  he  discharged  with  efficiency,  and 
kept  till  his  death  at  a  Silesian  bath  on  June  25, 
1822,  of  gradual  paralysis,  after  much  suffering 
for  four  months.  He  was  fantastic  and  odd  in 
the  greatest  degree,  much  given  to  liquor  and 
strange  company,  over  which  '  he  wasted  faculties 


742 


HOFFMANN. 


HOLBORNE. 


which  might  have  seasoned  the  nectar  of  the 
gods.'  (Carlyle.)  He  sang,  composed,  criticised, 
taught,  conducted,  managed  theatres,  wrote  both 
poetry  and  prose,  painted — all  equally  well ;  and 
in  fact  could,  and  did,  turn  his  hand  to  anything. 
The  list  of  his  works  is  extraordinary — ii  operas 
(MSS.  in  the  Berlin  Library),  one  of  them  ran 
for  14  nights;  Incidental  music  for  3  plays;  a 
ballet ;  a  requiem  ;  two  symphonies,  etc.  etc. 

Beethoven  took  the  unusually  spontaneous  step 
of  addressing  him  a  letter  (March  23,  1820). 
This  probably  led  to  a  closer  acquaintance,  to 
judge  from  the  Canon  in  his  letter  to  the  'Ca- 
cilia'  (Nohl,  No.  328)— 


Hoffmann!  Hoffmann!       Sei  ja  kein  Hof-mann!  etc 


which  it  is  difficult  not  to  refer  to  him. 

Hoffmann's  devotion  to  Mozart  led  him  to  add 
Amadous  to  his  Christian  names.  Weber  knew 
and  loved  him,  and  he  died  keenly  regretted  by 
many  friends.  Carlyle  has  translated  his  '  Goldne 
Topf '  in  *  German  Romance'  (vol.  ii.),  and  gives  a 
sketch  of  his  life,  which  is  also  in  the  'Miscellanies' 
(vol.  iii.).  His  Hfe  by  Rochlitz  is  in  '  Ftir  Freunde 
d.  Tonkunst,'  vol.  i.,  andHitzig's  '  Aus  Hoffmanns 
Leben,'  etc.  (Berlin,  1823),  contains  an  estimate 
of  him  as  a  musician  by  A.  B.  Marx.       [F.  G.] 

HOFFMANN,  Gerard,  architect,  bom  at  Ros- 
tenberg,  Nov.  11,  1690;  composed  sacred  can- 
tatas, and  church  music  ;  is  credited  by  Walther 
with  certain  improvements  in  musical  instruments 
— an  additional  key  to  the  horizontal  flute,  making 
it  easier  to  tune  (1727);  an  additional  key  to 
the  oboe,  by  which  the  Gjf  in  both  octaves  was 
given  much  more  correctly ;  a  mechanical  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  whole  four  strings  of  the 
violin  could  be  altered  at  once  (a  different  pitch 
was  then  in  use  for  secular  and  sacred  music)  ; 
a  new  temperament  for  tuning  instruments 
(1728) ;  and  for  the  organ  (1733) ;  and  a  gauge 
for  the  strings  of  violins,  bass-viols,  lutes,  and 
other  stringed  instruments.  [M.C.C.] 

HOFFMANN,  Henrich  August,  surnamed 
*von  Fallersleben '  from  his  birthplace  in  Han- 
over, April  2,  1798,  philologist,  poet,  and  Ger- 
man hymn  vtriter ;  was  educated  at  Helmstedt, 
Brunswick,  and  (under  Grimm)  at  the  University 
of  Gottingen  (181 6).  In  18 19  he  removed  to 
Bonn,  and  in  18  21,  after  studying  Dutch  litera- 
ture in  Holland,  was  appointed  Professor  at 
Breslau.  His  political  views  caused  his  dismissal 
in  1843,  and  he  was  not  allowed  to  return  to 
Prussia  till  1848.  Finally  he  became  librarian 
to  Prince  Lipp^  at  Corvey  in  Westphalia,  and 
there  died  Jan.  19,  1874.  His  'Geschichte  des 
Deutschen  Kirchenliedes'  (ist  ed.  1832,  2nd  1854 ; 
Rumpler,  Hanover)  is  written  in  a  thoroughly 
scientific  spirit,  and  contains  important  disco- 
veries. He  edited  '  Schlesische  Volkslieder  mit 
Melodien'  and  '  Gesellschaftslieder  des  16  und 
17  Jahrhunderts.'  His  original  melodies,  and 
above  all  his  poems  for  children,  are  widely  and 
deservedly  popular.  [F.  G.] 


HOFFMEISTER,  Franz  Anton,  bom  at 
Rothenburg  on  the  Neckar,  1754;  studied  law 
at  Vienna,  began  his  musical  life  as  a  Church- 
Capellmeister,  and  in  1784  opened  a  book,  art, 
and  music  business  there.  This  he  threw  up  in 
1 798  with  the  intention  of  going  to  London.  He 
however  got  no  farther  than  Leipzig,  remained 
there,  and  in  Dec.  1800,  in  conjunction  with 
Kiihnel,  founded  the  well-known  'Bureau  de 
Musique,'  which  still  flourishes  more  than  ever. 
[Peters.]  On  Jan.  2,  1805,  he  again  relin- 
quished his  business,  retumed  to  Vienna,  devoted 
himself  to  composition,  and  died  Feb.  10,  1812. 
Hoffineister  was  an  extraordinarily  prolific  writer ; 
he  left  350  pieces  of  all  dimensions  for  the  Flute 
alone  ;  1 20  for  Strings  ;  Symphonies  and  Noc- 
turnes for  full  orchestra;  pieces  for  wind  band 
and  for  clavier ;  songs ;  church  music ;  and  a 
large  list  of  operas — all  light  and  pleasing,  and 
much  relished  by  dilettanti.  The  early  publica- 
tions of  his  Firm  were  very  coarsely  engraved, 
as  for  instance  Haydn's  overture  in  D  and  quartet 
in  D  minor  (known  as  op.  8),  also  Mozart's  P.F. 
quai-tets  in  G  minor  and  Eb — which  promised 
to  be  the  beginning  of  a  long  series,  but  on  Hoff- 
mann's allegation  that  they  were  too  obscure  for 
the  public,  Mozart  cancelled  the  contract,  though 
applying  to  Hoffmeister  when  in  want  of  money 
shortly  afterwards.  The  nature  of  Beethoven's 
relations  with  him  is  shown  by  his  letters  of  1800 
and  1801,  in  which  he  offers  his  op.  19,  20,  21,  22, 
to  his  ' geliebtesten  Herm  Bruder.'  [C.F.P.] 

HOGARTH,  George,  bom  1 783,  was  educated 
for  the  legal  profession,  which  he  practised  in 
Edinburgh.  He  studied  music  as  an  amateur, 
and  became  a  violoncellist  and  composer.  In 
1 81 5  he  w^as  joint  secretary  with  George  Far- 
quhar  Graham  of  the  first  Edinburgh  Musical 
Festival.  From  1830  he  was  a  contributor  to 
'  The  Harmonicon.'  About  1834  settled  in 
London,  and  became  sub  editor  and  music  critic 
of  'The  Morning  Chronicle.'  In  1835  he  pub- 
lished '  Musical  History,  Biography  and  Cri- 
ticism' in  I  vol.,  enlarged  in  1838  to  2  vols. 
In  the  latter  year  he  also  published  *  Memoirs  of 
the  Musical  Drama,'  2  vols.,  subsequently  re- 
published as  'Memoirs  of  the  Opera.'  Upon 
the  establishment  of  'The  Daily  News'  in  1846, 
Hogarth  was  appointed  its  music  critic,  and  held 
that  post  until  1866.  In  Nov.  1850  he  became 
secretary  to  The  Philharmonic  Society,  and  in 
1862  published  'The  Philharmonic  Society  of 
London  from  its  foundation,  181 3,  to  its  fiftieth 
year,  1862.'  He  died  Feb.  12,  1870.  Hogarth's 
compositions  consist  of  a  few  songs  and  glees. 
His  eldest  daughter,  Catherine,  was  married  at 
St.  Luke's,  Chelsea,  April  2,  1836,  to  Charles 
Dickens,  who  is  recorded  in  the  parish  register  as 
Charles  John  Huffham  Dickens.        [W.  H.  H.] 

HOLBORNE,  Antony  and  William.  There 
was  published  in  1597  a  work  bearing  the  title 
of  '  The  Cittham  Schoole,  by  Antony  Holbome, 
Gentleman,  and  seruant  to  her  most  excellent 
Maiestie.  Hereunto  are  added  sixe  short  Aers 
Neapolitan  like  to  thi  ee  voyces,  without  the  In- 


HOLBOEXE. 


HOLMES. 


743 


'  iment  :  done  by  his  brother,  William  Hol- 
me,' It  is  dedicated  to  Thomas,  Lord  Bm-gh,  i 
iron  Gainsburghe.  In  the  Preface  the  author 
-ays  he  was  induced  to  publish  these  early  works, 
in  consequence  of  some  stranger  having  put  forth 
corrupt  copies  of  them.  '  The  Cittham  Schoole' 
contains  32  pieces  (preludes,  pavans,  galliards, 
popular  song  tunes,  etc.)  for  the  cittham  alone, 
in  tableture  ;  23  others  for  the  cittham  with  an 
accompaniment,  in  ordinary  notation,  for  bass 
viol ;  and  2  more  for  the  cittham,  with  accom- 
paniments for  treble,  tenor  and  bass  viols.  The 
6  '  Aera '  by  "William  Holborne  are  stated  to 
be  'the  first  fruites  of  Composition'  done  by 
hira.  The  second  of  them  speaks  of  'Bonny 
Boots'  as  dead,  agreeing  in  that  respect  with 
one  of  Morley's  '  Canzonets,  or,  Little  Short  Aers 
to  five  and  sixe  voices,'  published  in  the  same 
year.  '  The  Cittham  Schoole '  was  unnoticed 
prior  to  1 847,  when  Dr.  Rimbault  partially  de- 
scribed it  in  his  'Bibliotheca  Madrigaliana,'  from 
a  copy,  presumably  unique,  then  in  his  possession, 
but  since  1857  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred  Har- 
monic Society.  Commendatory  Verses  by  Antony 
Holborne  are  prefixed  to  Famaby's  Canzonets, 
1598;  and  Robert  Dowland's  '  Musicall  Bau- 
qvet,'  1610,  contains  'My  heavy  sprite,'  a  duet 
with  lute  accompaniment  by  him.  [W.H.H.] 
HOLCOMBE,  Hexrt,  born  about  1690,  pro- 
bably at  Salisbury,  where  he  was  a  chorister. 
He  came  to  London  while  a  boy,  and  sang  in  the 
Anglo-Italian  operas  at  Drur}'  Lane  as  Prenesto  in 
'Camilla'  (i  706,  8),  and  the  Page  in  '  Eosamond' 
(1707).  On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  left  the 
stage  and  became  a  teacher  of  the  harpsichord 
and  singing,  in  which  he  was  very  successful. 
He  died  about  1750.  Holcombe  published  two 
collections  of  songs,  viz.  '  The  Musical  Medley  ; 
or,  A  Collection  of  English  Songs  and  Cantatas 
set  to  Musick,'  1745,  and  '  The  Garland  ;  a  Col- 
lection of  1 1  Songs  and  Cantatas.'  Two  of  his 
songs — 'Happy  hour'  (printed  in  the  'Musical 
Miscellany'),  and  ' Arno's  Vale,'  were  much  sung 
in  their  time.  Among  his  descendants  we  may 
name  Miss  M.  Josephine  Holcombe,  a  distin- 
guished soprano  singer  of  church  music  in  Brook- 
lyn, New  York,  and  PfliLip  G.  Holcombe, 
Harp-maker,  London.  [W.  H.H.] 

HOLDER,  Joseph  William,  Mus.  Bac,  bom 
in  St.  John's,  Clerkenwell,  in  i  764,  and  educated 
in  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Nares.  After 
quitting  the  choir  he  became  assistant  to  Rein- 
hold,  organist  of  St.  George  the  Martyr,  Queen 
Square,  He  next  obtained  the  post  of  organist  of 
St.  Mary's  Church,  Bungay,  which  he  held  for 
many  years,  after  which  he  removed  to  the 
vicinity  of  Chelmsford,  He  took  his  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford  in  Dec.  1792,  his 
exercise  being  an  anthem,  the  score  of  which  is 
preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  Holders 
compositions  consist  of  a  mass,  anthems,  glees 
(three  collections  published),  canons,  songs  and 
pianoforte  pieces,  including  arrangements  of  many 
of  Handel's  choruses.  Holder  claimed  descent  by 
the  father's  side  from  Cardinal  Wolsey.  He  died 
in  1832.  [W.H.H.] 


HOLDER,  Rev,  William,  D.D.,  bom  in 
Nottinghamshire  about  1614,  and  educated  at 
Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  became,  in  1642, 
Rector  of  Blechindon,  Oxfordshire,  He  took 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  in  1660,  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  Canon  of  Ely  and 
Canon  of  St.  Paul's.  On  Sept.  2,  1674,  he  was 
swom  Sub-dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  which  office 
he  resigned  before  Christmas  1689,  and  he  was 
also  Sub-almoner  to  the  King,  He  was  author 
of  'A  Treatise  on  the  Natural  Grounds  and 
Principles  of  Harmony,'  1694;  2nd  edit,  1701, 
a  very  able  work,  written  chiefly  for  the  service 
of  the  gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  An  Even- 
ing Service  in  C  and  two  anthems  by  him  are 
in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  MSS.  7338  & 
7339).  Dr.  Holder  died  at  his  residence  in  Amen 
Comer,  Jan.  24,  1697.  [W.H.H.] 

HOLDICH,  George  Matdwell,  established 
an  organ  factory  in  London  in  1838.  He  is  the 
builder  of  the  organs  of  Lichfield  Cathedral,  St. 
Paul's,  Brighton,  and  others.  [V.deP.] 

HOLMES,  Alfred,  born  in  London,  Nov.  9, 
1837,  son  of  Thomas  Holmes,  of  Lincoln,  a  self- 
taught  man,  was  at  the  age  of  7  initiated  by  his 
father  in  the  practice  of  violin  playing.  With 
no  other  instruction  than  that  of  his  parent  and 
Spohr's  '  Violin  School,'  he  soon  became  distin- 
guished, and  especially  noted  for  the  perform- 
ance of  duets  with  his  younger  brother,  Henry. 
At  a  later  period  their  father  made  them  study 
the  classic  French  school  of  Rode,  Baillot,  and 
Kreutzer.  "When  about  10  years  of  age  Alfred 
became  principal  soprano  boy  at  the  Oratory, 
then  newly  established  in  King  William  Street, 
Strand,  in  the  building  theretofore  the  Lowther 
Rooms,  and  now  the  Folly  Theatre.  On  July 
13,  1847,  the  two  brothers  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance in  public  at  the  Ha^-market  Theatre 
at  the  benefit  of  F.  Webster,  and  played  Auber's 
overture  to  '  Masaniello,'  arranged  as  a  vioKn 
duet.  They  did  not  again  appear  in  public  until 
1853,  in  the  summer  of  which  year  they  played 
at  a  concert  at  the  Beethoven  Rooms,  assisted 
by  W.  H.  Webb,  Piatti,  and  Lindsay  Sloper. 
In  1855  they  made  their  first  visit  to  the  con- 
tinent and  went  to  Brussels,  where  they  remained 
for  several  months  perfomiing  with  great  suc- 
cess. In  1856  they  visited  Wiesbaden,  Frank- 
fort, Darmstadt,  Leipsic,  Mayence,  and  Cassel. 
In  1857  they  went  to  Vienna;  after  that  to 
Sweden,  where  they  remained  for  two  years, 
and  then  to  Copenhagen  in  i860  and  Amster- 
dam in  1 86 1,  meeting  everywhere  with  great 
success.  In  1864  Alfred  Holmes  settled  in 
Paris,  where  in  1866  he  established  a  quartet 
party.  In  1867  he  made  a  tour  in  Belgium, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  Russia,  At  St.  Peters- 
burg he  produced  his  'Jeanne  d'Arc,'  symphony 
with  solos  and  chorus,  which  was  performed 
for  the  first  time  in  England  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  Feb.  27,  1875.  Returning  to  Paris  he 
gave  some  fragments  of  a  symphony  called  '  The 
Youth  of  Shakspere,'  and  an  opera,  '  Inez  de 
Castro,'  He  afterwards  produced  two  sympho- 
[  nies  entitled  '  Robin  Hood '  and  '  The  Siege  of 


744 


HOLMES. 


HOLZ, 


Paris,'  and  coixiposed  two  others  under  the  names 
of  '  Charles  XII '  and  '  Komeo  and  Juliet.'  He 
died,  after  a  short  illness,  at  Paris,  March  4, 
1876.  Shortly  after  his  death  two  overtures, 
'The  Cid'  and  'The  Muses,'  his  last  works, 
were  produced  in  London. 

His  brother  Henry,  born  in  London,  Nov.  7, 
1839,  was,  like  him,  instructed  solely  by  his  father. 
In  his  boyhood  he  was  also  a  chorister  at  the 
Oratory.  After  quitting  his  brother  in  Paris  in 
1865  he  proceeded  to  Copenhagen  and  thence  to 
Stockholm,  where  he  remained  some  time,  but 
ultimately  returned  to  England  and  settled  in 
London,  where  he  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  solo 
violinist  and  quartet  player.  His  principal  compo- 
sitions are  four  symphonies  (No.  i,  in  A,  performed 
at  the  Crystal  Palace  Feb.  24,  1872),  a  concert 
overture,  two  quintets  for  stringed  instruments, 
a  violin  concei'to  (in  F,  Crystal  Palace  Dec.  11, 
1875),  many  violin  solos,  two  sacred  cantatas  for 
solo  voices,  chorus  and  orchestra,  entitled  '  Praise 
ye  the  Lord,'  and  •Christmas,'  and  numerous 
songs.  [W.H.H.] 

HOLMES,  Edward,  born  in  1797,  school- 
fellow and  friend  of  Keats,  was  educated  for 
the  musical  profession  under  V.  Novello,  and 
became  a  teacher  of  the  pianoforte.  He  was 
engaged  as  music  critic  of  'The  Atlas'  news- 
paper. In  1827,  before  or  during  this  engage- 
ment, he  made  a  tour  in  Germany,  the  result 
of  which  was  a  volume  entitled,  'A  Ramble 
among  the  Musicians  of  Germany,  etc'  1828. 
This  work  was  well  received,  and  reached  a 
third  edition.  In  1845  he  published  'The  Life 
of  Mozart,'  including  his  correspondence,'  in  an 
8vo  volume,  which  justly  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. This  book,  which  was  the  result  of  a 
second  visit  to  Germany,  and  bears  traces  of 
great  and  conscientious  labour,  as  well  as  of 
talent  and  judgment  of  no  common  order,  is 
characterised  by  Otto  Jahn  as  the  most  useful, 
complete,  and  trustworthy  biography  then  in 
existence  (Jahn's  Mozart,  2nd  ed.  Yorwort,  p. 
xv).  Jahn's  own  Life  of  the  master  contains 
a  mass  of  materials  which  no  one  but  a  German 
residing  on  the  spot  could  have  collected,  but 
Holmes's  has  greatly  the  advantage  of  it  in  com- 
pression and  readableness,  and  it  is  with  pleasure 
that,  as  these  sheets  are  passing  through  the 
press,  we  notice  the  publication  of  a  new  edition 
by  Mr.  Prout  (Novello  &  Co.,  1878).  In  ad- 
dition to  this,  his  great  work.  Holmes  wrote 
a  life  of  Purcell  for  the  second  issue  of  Novello's 
edition  of  his  Sacred  Music,  an  'Analytical  and 
Thematic  Index  of  Mozart's  P.  F.  works,'  often 
reprinted  by  the  same  firm,  analyses  of  several 
of  Mozart's  Masses,  which  were  published  in 
the  'Musical  Times,'  with  many  other  papers 
on  musical  subjects.  He  married  the  grand- 
daughter of  S.  Webbe,  and  died  Aug.  28,  1859. 
(See  Mus.  Times,  Oct.  i,  1859.)  [W.H.H.] 

HOLMES,  George,  organist  to  the  Bishop  of 
Durham,  was  appointed  organist  of  Lincoln  Ca- 
thedral on  the  death  of  Thomas  Allinson  in  1 704. 
He  composed  several  anthems,  two  of  which — 
'  Arise,  shine,  0  daughter  of  Zion,'  composed  on 


the  Union  with  Scotland,  1 706,  and  '  I  will  love 
Thee,  O  Lord,' — are  to  be  found  in  the  Tudway 
Collection  (Harl.  MS.  7341),  and  others  are  in 
the  choir  books  of  Lincoln.  Holmes  composed 
an  Ode  for  St.  Cecilia's  day,  but  for  what  par- 
ticular year  is  not  stated ;  its  contents  however 
show  it  to  have  been  written  between  1703  and 
1 713.  He  died  in  1720.  Some  catches  by  a 
George  Holmes  are  contained  in  Hilton's  '  Catch 
that  Catch  can,'  1652  ;  their  composer  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  the  father  of  the  organist  of 
Lincoln.  [W.H.H.] 

HOLMES,  John,  organist  of  Winchester  Ca- 
thedral in  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  century, 
and  organist  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  from  1602 
to  1610,  contributed  to  '  The  Triumphes  of 
Oriana,'  1601,  the  madrigal  for  five  voices, 
'  Thus  Bonny  Boots  the  birthday  celebrated.' 
Some  church  music  of  his  composition  is  extant 
in  MS.  He  was  master  to  Adrian  Batten  and 
Edward  Lowe.  His  son  Thomas  was  sworn  a 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Sept.  17,  1633. 
Some  catches  by  him  are  contained  in  Hilton's 
'Catch  that  Catch  can,'  1652.  He  died  at  Salis- 
bury, March  25,  1638.  [W.H.H.] 

HOLMES,  William  Henry,  son  of  a  musician, 
born  at  Sudbury,  Derbyshire,  Jan.  8,  18 12, 
entered  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  at  its  open- 
ing in  1822,  and  gained  two  of  the  first  medals 
granted  there  for  composition  and  the  piano. 
In  1826  Mr.  Holmes  became  Sub-professor  and 
subsequently  Professor  of  the  Piano,  and  is  now 
(1879)  father  of  the  Academy.  As  a  teacher 
he  has  been  remarkably  successful,  and  has  trained 
some  of  the  most  eminent  of  English  musicians ; 
among  them  Sterndale  Bennett,  the  two  Macfar- 
rens,  J.  W.  Davison,  and  others.  His  knowledge 
of  P.  F.  music  is  very  great,  and  as  a  vii-tuoso 
he  long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  His  first 
appearance  at  the  Philharmonic  was  in  Men- 
delssohn's Introduction  and  Rondo,  March  24, 
1851 ;  and  as  late  as  1876  he  performed  at  the 
Alexandra  Palace  a  concerto  of  his  own,  in  A 
major,  written  for  the  Jubilee  of  the  R.  A.  M. 
His  compositions  are  numerous  and  of  all  classes — 
symphonies,  concertos,  sonatas,  songs,  and  an 
opera — still  in  MS.  Like  his  friend  Cipriani 
Potter  he  was  always  ready  to  welcome  new 
composers  and  new  music,  in  proof  of  which  we 
may  name  the  fact  that  it  was  at  his  instigation 
and  under  his  care  that  Brahms's  P.  F.  Concerto 
was  first  played  in  England  by  Miss  Baglehole, 
at  the  Crystal  Palace,  March  9, 1872.  [G.] 

HOLZ,  Karl,  Austrian  official,  able  violinist, 
and  devoted  lover  of  music,  born  at  Vienna, 
1 798.  In  1824  he  became  one  of  Schuppanzigh's 
quartet  party,  and  an  active  member  of  the 
direction  of  Gebauer's  '  Spirituel  Concerte,'  in 
which  he  led  the  first  violins.  A  jovial,  pleasant 
fellow,  devoted  heart  and  soul  to  Beethoven, 
who  dubbed  ^him  '  Mahagoni-Holz,'  and  often 
invited  him  to  dinner,  where  he  took  more  than 
his  share  of  his  entertainer's  wine — 'a  hard 
drinker,  between  ourselves,'  says  ^Beethoven. 

1  Letter  of  Aug.  29, 1824.  *  Letter,  Aug,  11, 1826. 


HOLZ. 


HOMILIUS. 


745 


Possibly  drink  was  not  his  only  failing,  if  we 
may  so  interpret  the  '  Monsieur  terrible  amour- 
eux '  of  another  letter  of  Beethoven's.^ 

In  1826  Beethoven  informed  him  by  letter^ 
that  he  had  chosen  him  for  his  biographer,  in 
the  confidence  that  whatever  information  might 
be  given  him  for  that  purpose  would  be  ac- 
curately communicated  to  the  world.  According 
to  Schindler,  Beethoven  afterwards  repented  of 
this  arrangement.  In  1843  Holz  made  over  his 
rights  to  Gassner  of  Carlsruhe,  but  nothing  has 
been  done.    Holz  died  at  Vienna,  Nov.  9,  1858. 

One  of  the  last  times  that  Beethoven's  pen 
touched  the  paper  before  he  took  to  his  death-bed 
was  to  add  his  signature  and  a  line  of  music  (in  a 
strange  scale)  to  a  note  of  his  dictation  to  Holz, 
'Dec.  1826'  (Nohl,  'Letters,'  385)  :— 


Wir     ir  -  ren  aUe    Samt.    Nur   jofler  ir  -  ret  anderst. 

Wie  immer  Ihr  Freund  Beethoven. 

[C.F.P.] 

HOLZBAUER,  Ignaz,  composer,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1 711.  He  was  destined  for  the  bar, 
but  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to  music,  and  b}' 
study  of  Fux's  *  Gradus '  made  himself  a  good 
contrapuntist.  On  Fux's  advice  he  went  to 
Italy,  running  away  from  the  Prince  of  Tour  and 
Taxis  to  whom  he  was  secretary  at  Lay  bach  ;  but 
a  fever  caught  at  Venice  obliged  him  to  return. 
He  next  became  Capellmeister  to  Count  Eottal 
in  Moravia,  and  while  there  married.  Return- 
ing to  Vienna  in  1745,  the  court-theatre  en- 
gaged him  as  director  of  music,  and  his  wife 
as  singer.  In  1747  they  started  on  a  tour  in 
Italy,  and  in  1750  he  became  first  Capellmeister 
to  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  at  Stuttgart.  In 
1753  his  pastoral  opera  'Il.Figlio  delle  Selve' 
(Schwetzingen)  procured  him  the  appointment 
of  Capellmeister  to  the  Elector  Palatine  at  Mann- 
heim. It  was  during  his  time  that  the  Mannheim 
orchestra  attained  that  excellence  of  performance 
which  made  it  so  famous,  though  it  is  difficult 
to  say  how  much  of  this  was  due  to  Holzbauer 
and  how  much  to  Cannabich  the  leader.  In  1757 
he  produced  '  Nitteti '  at  Turin  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  in  the  following  year  his  best  work, 
'Alessandro  nell'  Indie'  was  well  received  at 
Milan.  In  1776  he  composed  his  only  German 
opera,  'Giinther  von  Schwarzburg'  (Mannheim), 
which  was  brilliantly  successful.  He  was  entirely 
deaf  for  some  years  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Mannheim,  April  7,  1783,  He  com- 
posed other  operas  besides  those  mentioned,  and 
church  and  instrumental  music,  all  now  forgotten, 
though  not  without  value  in  its  day,  as  we  may 
judge  from  the  testimony  of  Mozart,  no  lenient 
critic :  *  I  heard  to-day  a  mass  of  Holzbauer's, 
which  is  still  good  although  26  years  old.  He 
writes  very  well,  in  a  good  church  style ;  the 
vocal  and  instrumental  parts  go  well  together, 
and  his  fugues  are  good,'  (Letter.  Nov,  4,  1777.) 
And  again  — 'Holzbauer's  music'  (in  Giiuther)  'is 
very  beautiful — too  good  for  the  libretto.    It  is 

»  Nohl.  So,  380.  2  Aug.  30. 


wonderful  that  so  old  a  man  has  so  much  spirit, 
for  you  can't  imagine  how  much  fire  there  is  in 
the  music'  (Nov.  14-16,  1777.)  He  evidently 
behaved  well  to  Mozart,  without  any  of  the 
jealousy  which  he  too  often  generated.  [M.  C.  C] 

HOME,  SWEET  HOME.  This  favourite 
melody  occurs  in  Bishop's  opera  of  '  Clari,  or  the 
Maid  of  Milan,'  brought  out  at  Covent  Garden 
May  8,  1823.  In  the  published  music  it  is 
called  a  *  Sicilian  air,'  but  is  not  impossibly 
Bishop's  own.  [G.] 

HOMILIUS,  Gottfried  August,  bom  Feb.  2, 
1 714,  at  Rosenthal  in  Saxony.  Beyond  the  facts 
that  he  was  a  pupil  of  J.  S.  Bach,  and  master 
of  Adam  Hiller,  little  is  known  of  his  life  or 
circumstances.  In  1742  he  became  organist  of 
the  Frauenkirche  in  Dresden,  and  in  1755 
director  of  the  music  in  the  three  principal 
churches  there,  and  Cantor  of  the  Kreuz.;chule, 
the  choir  of  which  he  brought  to  a  high  pitch 
of  perfection.  He  led  a  simple  modest  life, 
entirely  occupied  with  his  duties,  and  died 
June  I,  1785.  He  enjoyed  a  considerable  repu- 
tation among  his  contemporaries  as  an  organist, 
especially  for  his  skill  in  combining  and  ar- 
ranging the  stops.  He  was  an  industrious  com- 
poser, and  in  the  latter  part  of  last  century 
his  larger  church  works  were  ranked  very  high. 
Although  we  cannot  now  endorse  that  verdict, 
we  must  still  allow  Homilius  to  have  been  no 
unworthy  pupil  of  J.  S.  Bach's.  His  numerous 
sacred  compositions  are  characterised  by  a  peculi- 
arly happy  vein  of  melody,  and,  in  accordance 
with  the  taste  of  the  day,  an  avoidance  of  poly- 
phonic treatment  of  the  parts.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  difficult  to  compare  his  music  with 
more  modem  homophone  compositions.  His  treat- 
ment of  his  themes — as  is  the  case  throughout 
this  period  in  which  Bach's  influence  was  para- 
mount— is  always  interesting,  and  sometimes 
masterly.  His  most  important  works  are  his 
motets,  model  compositions  of  the  kind.  Little 
of  his  music  has  been  printed,  but  he  was  very 
liberal  in  allowing  copies  of  his  works  to  be  taken. 
Of  his  32  motets  some  excellent  examples  are  to 
be  found  in  his  pupil  J.  A,  Hiller's  'Vierstim- 
mige  Motetten,'  in  Sander's  'Heilige  Caecilia' 
(Bei'lin  1818-19),  Weeber's  'Kirchliche  Chorge- 
sange'  (Stuttgart  1857),  and  Trautwein's  'Aus- 
wahl,'  Specimens  of  his  organ  works  are  to  be 
found  in  Komer's  Orgehartuos,  A  Pater  noster 
for  4  voices,  fully  bearing  out  the  description  of 
his  style  just  given,  is  printed  in  Mr.  Hullah's 
'  Vocal  Scores,'  His  published  works  include, 
a  'Passions-Cantata'  (1775);  a  Christmas  ora- 
torio, 'Die  Freude  der  Hirten  iiber  die  Geburt 
Jesu'  (1777);  and  'Sechs  Deutsche  Arien  fiir 
Freunde  emsthafter  Gesange'  (1786).  Those 
still  in  MS.  are  much  more  numerous,  and 
comprise  a  course  of  church  music  for  Sun- 
days and  festivals ;  several  Passions,  including 
one  according  to  St.  Mark,  perhaps  his  best 
work;  a  '  Choralbuch '  containing  167  chorales; 
and  finally  organ  music,  consisting  of  fugues, 
chorales  with  variations,  and  trios.  [A.M.] 


746 


HOMOPHONE. 


HOPKINS. 


HOMOPHONE  (ofxocpojvos),  voices  or  instru-  j 
ments  sounding  alike — unison.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  music  written  in  what  was  for-  ! 
merly  called  the  Monodic  style.  [See  Monodia.] 
But  it  is  now  ordinarily  employed  for  music  in 
plain  harmony,  the  parts  all  sounding  together, 
as  opposed  to  the  Polyphonic  treatment,  in  which 
the  several  voices  or  parts  move  independently 
of  each  other  or  in  imitation.  Thus  in  Elijah, 
'  Cast  thy  burden '  would  in  this  laxer  sense 
be  called  homoplionic,  while  '  He  that  shall 
endure  to  the  end'  is  polyphonic  after  the 
6th  bar.    [Polyphoxe.]  [G.] 

HOOK,  James,  born  at  Norwich  in  1746, 
studied  music  under  Garland,  organist  of  the 
cathedral.  When  a  very  young  man  he  came  to 
London  and  composed  some  songs  which  were 
sung  at  Eichmond  and  Eanelagh,  and  which  he 
published  as  his  Op.  i.  In  1769  he  was  engaged 
at  Marylebone  Gardens  as  organist  and  com- 
poser, and  continued  there  until  1773.  In  1774 
he  was  engaged  at  Yauxhall  Gardens  in  the  same 
capacities,  and  continued  there  until  1820.  He 
was  for  long  organist  of  St.  John's,  Horsleydown. 
During  his  engagements  at  Marylebone  and  Yaux- 
hall he  is  said  to  have  composed  upwards  of 
2  coo  songs,  cantatas,  catches,  etc.  He  gained 
prize  medals  at  the  Catch  Club,  in  1772,  for 
his  catch,  '  One  morning  Dame  Turner,'  and 
in  17S0  for  *Come,  kiss  me,  dear  Dolly.'  In 
1776  Hook  brought  out  'The  Ascension,'  an 
oratorio.  He  composed  the  music  for  the  fol- 
lowing dramatic  pieces; — 'Dido,'  1771  ;  'The 
Divorce,'  composed  in  1771  for  Marylebone,  but 
not  produced  until  17S1  at  Drury  Lane  ;  'Trick 
upon  Trick,'  'II  Dilettante'  and  'Cupid's  Ee- 
venge,'  1772  ;  '  Apollo  and  Daphne,' 1 773  ;  'The 
Lady  of  the  Manor,'  177S  ;  '  Too  civil  by  half,' 
1783  ;  '  The  Double  Disguise,'  1784  ;  '  The  Fair 
Peruvian,'  1786;  'Jack  of  Newbury,'  1795; 
'Diamond  cut  Diamond,'  1797  ;  'Wilmore  Castle,' 
iSoo;  'The  Soldiers  Eetum,'  1805;  'Tekeli,' 
and  'Catch  him  who  can,'  i8c6;  'Music  Mad' 
and  'The  Fortress.'  1S07  ;  'The  Siege  of  St. 
Quintin,'  180S  ;  '  Killing  no  Murder'  and  'Safe 
and  Sound,'  1809.  Besides  these  he  composed 
music  for  the  following,  the  dates  of  production 
of  which  are  imcertain:  'The  Wedding,'  'Love 
and  Virtue,'  *The  Cn.-er  of  Yauxhall,'  'The 
Pledge,'  'Coralie,'  'Blanche  and  Edgar,'  and 
'The  Country  Wake.'  Many  of  his  songs  were 
published  in  collections,  as  '  The  Feast  of  Ana- 
creon,'  'Hours  of  Love,'  etc.,  but  the  greater 
number  were  issued  singly.  Hook  composed 
several  concertos  for  the  organ  or  harpsichord, 
and  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte,  and  was  author 
of  'Guida  di  Musica,'  a  book  of  instruction  for 
the  pianoforte.  Several  of  his  glees,  catches  and 
rounds  are  printed  in  Warren's  Collections.  Hook 
died  at  Boulogne  in  1S27.  Several  members  of 
his  family  were  eminent  in  literature.  His  first 
wife.  Miss  Madden  (died  Oct.  19,  1795),  was 
authoress  of  '  The  Double  Disguise.'  His  son, 
James  Hook,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Worcester  (bom 
1772,  died  1828),  was  author  of  the  words  of 
'Jack  of  Newbury,'  'Diamond cut  Diamond,' etc.  I 


His  younger  son  Theodore  Edward  (bom  1788, 
died  1 841),  was  the  well-known  humourist;  and 
his  grandson,  Walter  Farquhar  Hook,  D.D., 
Dean  of  Chichester  (bom  1798,  died  1875,),  son 
of  James,  was  the  famous  divine.  [W.H.H.] 

HOOPEE,  Edmond,  bom  at  Halberton,  Devon, 
probably  about  1553,  became  connected  with  the 
choir  of  Westminster  Abbey  about  1582,  and 
on  Dec.  3,  1588,  was  appointed  Master  of  the 
Children.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  composers  who 
harmonised  the  tunes  for  '  The  Whole  Booke  of 
Psalms,'  published  by  Este  in  1592.  On  March 
I,  1603-4  he  was  swom  a  Gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Eoyal,  and  on  May  9,  1606,  was  appointed 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Three  anthems 
by  him  are  printed  in  Barnard's  collection,  and  six 
others,  and  a  set  of  Preces  Psalms  and  Eesponses 
are  contained  in  Barnard's  MS.  collections  in 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society's  library,  and  two 
anthems  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  MSS. 
7337  and  7340).  He  contributed  two  pieces  to 
Leighton's  '  Teares  or  Lamentacions,'  1614.  He 
died  July  14,  1621,  and  was  buried  July  16,  in 
the  cloisters  of  Westmins'ter. 

His  eldest  son  James,  a  lay  vicar  of  West- 
minster, died  Dec.  1651.  [W.H.H.] 

HOPKINS,  Edwakd  John,  bom  in  West- 
minster, June  30,  1S18,  became  in  1826  a  cho- 
rister of  the  Chapel  Eoyal  under  WiUiam  Hawes. 
On  quitting  the  choir  in  1833  he  studied  under 
Thomas  Forbes  Wahnisley.  In  1834  he  was 
chosen  organist  of  Mitcham  Church,  in  38  organ- 
ist of  St.  Peter' .s,  Islington,  and  in  41  of  St. 
Luke's,  Berwick  Street.  In  43  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  of  the  Temple  Church,  the 
musical  service  of  which  vmder  his  care  has 
acquired  great  reputation.  As  an  accompanyist 
he  is  quite  unrivalled.  Hopkins  has  composed 
several  church  services,  anthems,  chants,  and 
psalm  tunes.  His  anthems,  'Out  of  the  deep,' 
and  '  God  is  gone  up,'  obtained  the  Gresham 
prize  medals  in  1838  and  1840  respectively.  He 
is  also  composer  of  '  May  day '  (duet)  and 
'Welcome'  (trio),  and  author  of  'The  Organ, 
its  History  and  Construction,'  an  excellent  trea- 
tise published  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Eimbault's 
'  History  of  the  Organ '  in  1855  ;  2nd  edit.  1870  ; 
3rd  edit.  1877.  He  edited  Bennet's  '  Madrigals,' 
and  Weelkes'  '  First  Set  of  Madrigals '  for  the 
Musical  Antiquarian  Society,  and  the  music 
portion  of  '  The  Temple  Church  Choral  Service.* 

John  Hopkixs,  his  younger  brother,  bom  in 
Westminster  in  1822,  was  a  chorister  of  St. 
Paul's  from  Sept.  1831  to  Sept.  1838.  In 
August  1838  (before  quitting  the  choir)  he  was 
appointed  to  succeed  his  brother  as  organist  of 
Mitcham  Church.  He  afterwards  became  suc- 
cessively organist  of  St.  Stephen's,  Islington, 
June  1839  ;  St.  Benet's,  Paul's  Wharf,  July 
1 841  ;  Trinitv  Church,  Islington.  May  1843; 
St.  Mark's,  Jersey,  Feb.  1845  ;  St.  Michael's, 
Chester  Square,  1S46  ;  and  Epsom  Church,  Jan. 
1854.  In  Mav  1856  he  succeeded  his  cousin, 
John  Larkin  Hopkins,  as  organist  of  Eochester 
Cathedral,  which  he  stiU  holds.  John  Hopkins 
has  composed  services,  anthems,  chants,  hymn 


HOPKINS. 


HORN. 


747 


t  lines,  voluntaries,  pianoforte  sketches,  songs  and 
part-songs,  a  few  of  which  have  been  published. 

His  cousin,  John  Larkin  Hopkins,  Mus. 
Doc,  bom  in  Westminster  in  1820,  was  a 
chorister  of  Westminster  Abbey  under  James 
Turle,  In  1841  he  succeeded  Ralph  Banks  as 
i^^anist  of  Rochester.  In  1842  he  graduated 
^Mus.  Bac.  at  Cambridge.  In  1856  he  removed 
to  Cambridge  on  being  appointed  organist  to 
Trinity  College  and  to  the  University.  He  pro- 
ceeded Mus.  Doc.  in  1867.  Hopkins  composed 
many  services  and  anthems,  and  published  a 
collection  of  his  anthems.  In  1847  he  edited, 
in  conjunction  with  Rev.  S.  Shepherd,  a  col- 
lection of  the  Words  of  Anthems  used  in 
Rochester  Cathedral.  He  died  at  Ventnor, 
April  25,  1873.  [W.H.H.] 

HOPKIXSON.  The  greater  part  of  the 
pianoforte  making  of  this  country  has  centred 
in  London,  and  the  firm  of  J.  &  J.  Hopkinson — 
though  founded  and  at  first  carried  on  exclusively 
It  Leeds — cannot  now  be  quoted  as  an  exception. 
Mr.  John  Hopkinson  established  his  workshops 
in  Leeds  in  1842,  and  removed  them  to  London 
in  1846.  The  warerooms  were  at  'first  in  Soho 
Square,  and  were  in  1856  removed  to  Regent 
Street,  where  the  business  is  now  carried  on. 
Mr.  Hopkinson  patented  a  repetition  action  for 
a  grand  pianoforte  in  1850,  and  in  1862  he  fur- 
ther patented  a  '  haimonic  pedal,'  producing  the 
octave  harmonics  from  the  strings  by  the  contact, 
at  the  exact  half  of  the  vibrating  length,  of  a  very 
slender  strip  of  felt  governed  by  a  special  pedal. 
The  firm  gained  high  distinction  at  the  Exhibi- 
tions of  1862  and  1878 — at  the  latter  the  Great 
Gcdd  Medal.  Mr.  John  Hopkinson  retired  in 
1 869,  leaving  his  brother,  Mr.  J ames  Hopkinson, 
the  first  place  in  the  business.  [A.  J.H.] 

HOPPER.  A  name  applied  to  the  jack  or 
escapement  lever  in  the  action  of  a  pianoforte, 
or  to  the  escapement  lever  with  its  backpiece, 
regulating  screw,  etc.  complete.  [See  Grass- 
hopper.] So  named  because  this  lever  hops  out 
of  the  notch  against  which  its  thrust  has  been 
directed ;  allowing  the  hammer  to  rebound,  and 
leaving  the  string  free  to  vibrate.        [A.  J.  H.] 

HORN,  FRENCH  HORN  (Fr.  Cor,  Cor  de 
Chasse;  Ger.  Horn,  Waldhorn  ;  Ital.  Corno,  Corno 
di  Caccia).  One  of  the  most  characteristic  and 
important  instruments  among  those  played  by 
means  of  a  cupped  circular  mouthpiece  (Trumpet, 
Trombone,  Comet,  etc.).  It  diflfers  from  all 
others  of  this  family  by  the  considerably  greater 
length  of  its  tube,  the  wider  expansion  of  its 
bell,  the  spiral  form  in  which  its  convolutions  are 
arranged,  the  softer  quality  of  its  tone,  and  its 
great  compass. 

In  its  most  modem  shape  it  is  composed  of 
a  tube  1 7  feet  in  length  divided  into  three  main 
sections — (i)  the  Body,  comprising  the  lower 
two-thirds  of  the  tube  and  a  large  everted  bell, 
spreading  out  rapidly  to  a  diameter  of  about 
fifteen  inches  ;  (2)  a  series  of  interchangeable 
rings,  of  smaller  tubing,  termed  Crooks,  pro- 
gressive in  length,  forming  about  the  upper  third 


of  the  instrument ;  and  (3)  the  Mouthpiece, 
which  is  of  different  shape,  size,  and  calibre  from 


all  kindred  species  of  brass  instruments.  Short 
intermediate  crooks,  intended  for  tuning  purposes, 
are  often  interpolated  between  the  body  and  the 
larger  crook  :  the  body  itself  carries  a  pair  of 
U-shaped  slides  fitting  with  stiff  friction  into  one 
another,  for  the  purpose  of  finally  and  more 
accurately  adjusting  the  pitch.  This  portion  of 
the  instrument  is  termed  the  '  tuning-slide,'  and 
has  been  of  late  employed  for  the  farther  advan- 
tage of  affording  attachment  to  a  set  of  valves,  not 
dissimilar  from  those  of  the  comet,  euphonium, 
or  other  valve  instruments.  [See  Valves.]  The 
slides  of  the  tuning  apparatus  are  sometimes 
utilised  as  a  place  of  attachment  for  the  different 
crooks,  which  then  slip  on  in  the  middle  of  the 
instrument,  instead  of  being  affixed  to  a  conical 
socket  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  body. 


The  body  of  the  horn  has  a  length  of  7  feet 
4  inches ;  the  crooks  are  of  increasing  length  as 
they  descend  in  pitch.  The  following  are  the 
dimensions  of  the  crooks  most  in  use,  for  which 
the  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Kohler  of  Henrietta 
Street :— 


A^ 
Ab 
G 
F 


26  in. 
31 1  in. 
40  in. 
55  in. 


E  .... 
Eb  ..  .. 
D  ..  .. 

C  basso 


63!  in. 
6S|  in. 

79  in- 
105  in. 


The  crook  for  the  C  alto  pitch,  a  minor  third 
above  A  l^,  and  shorter  in  proportion,  would,  if 
in  use,  reduce  the  total  length  of  the  instrument 
to  about  8  feet,  while  with  that  for  the  C  basso 
pitch  it  is  16  feet  and  a  fraction  long. 

The  mouthpiece  consists  of  a  funnel-shaped 
tube  of  brass  or  silver,  terminating  at  its  upper 
extremity  in  a  rounded  ring  of  metal  for  the  ap- 
plication of  the  lips.    The  bore  tapers  downwards 


748 


HORN. 


HORN. 


in  a  curved  conical  form,  from  about  three-quar- 
ters of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  embouchure, 
to  a  size  enabling  the  smaller  end  of  the  mouth- 
piece to  be  slipped  tightly  into  the  upper  orifice 
of  the  crook.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  cavity 
into  which  the  lips  vibrate  is  thus  not  cup-shaped, 
as  in  the  trumpet  and  cornet,  but  conoidal  down- 
wards, with  curved  sides  approximately  hyper- 
bolic in  contour.  The  peculiar  softness  of  quality 
Mouthpieces 


of  the  TTorn         and         of  tlie  Trumpet. 


of  the  Horn  is  in  some  measure  due  to  this  fact. 
The  mouthpiece  used  in  playing  first-horn  parts 
is  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  less  in  diameter 
than  that  appropriated  to  the  second  horn. 

The  original  use  of  the  French  Horn  was  to 
give  signals  in  hunting.  In  this  function  it  is 
difl&cult  to  say  at  what  precise  date  it  superseded 
the  more  ancient  cornet,  of  wood,  horn,  or  ivory, 
which  was  more  akin  to  the  Bugle.  Louis  XI 
of  France  ordered  the  statue  on  his  tomb  to  be 
dressed  in  the  costume  of  a  hunter  with  his 
comet  at  his  side.  Dufouilloux  dedicated  a 
treatise  on  Venery  to  Charles  IX,  who  had 
himself  written  a  similar  work.  He  therein 
praises  the  comet,  and  imitates  its  sound  by 
the  word  tran.  In  the  woodcuts  contained 
in  his  work,  and  in  pictures  of  Louis  XI's  pro- 
jected monument,  the  cornet  appears  to  have 
only  a  single  ring  or  spiral ;  being  thus  com- 
petent to  produce  only  a  few  notes.  In  the 
edition  of  Dufouilloux  published  in  1628,  how- 
ever, the  king  and  his  lords  are  represented  as 
having  cornets  with  a  second  half-circle  in  the 
middle.  Louis  XIII,  who  was  extremely  fond  of 
hunting  the  fox,  invented  a  call,  to  distinguish 
that  animal,  containing  several  different  notes, 
which  show  that  for  their  proper  intonation  the 
instrument  itself  must  have  made  progress,  and 
increased  in  length.  Louis  XV,  however,  and 
his  master  of  the  hunt,  M.  de  Dampierre.  com- 
posed and  selected  the  greater  number  of  calls 
and  fanfares  used  in  the  royal  hunt,  which 
continue  to  be  employed  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  hunting  horn  finally  adopted  differs  from 
the  orchestral  hom  in  consisting  of  an  unbroken 
spiral  of  three  turns,  sufficiently  large  to  be  worn 
obliquely  round  the  body,  resting  on  one  shoulder 


and  passing  under  the  opposite  arm.  The  hands 
are  thus  left  at  liberty,  and  the  mouthpiece  can 
easily  be  brought  to  the  lips  by  a  single  movement. 
Three  kinds  of  hunting  airs  are  to  be  made 
out.  (i)  Calls  {tons  de  chasse),  of  which  there 
are  about  31.  These  are  intended  to  cheer 
on  the  hounds,  to  give  warning,  to  call  for  aid, 
and  to  indicate  the  cii'cumstances  of  the  hunt. 

(2)  Fanfares,  of  which  there  is  one  for  each 
animal,  and  several  for  the  stag,  according  to  his 
age  and  antlers.  (3)  Fancy  airs  performed  as 
signs  of  joy  or  after  a  successful  hunting. 

The  best-known  calls  are  the  Beveillee.  the 
Lance  and  Belance;  the  Hoarvari,  or  default; 
the  Debuche ;  the  Volceled  (when  the  fresh  foot- 
mark of  the  animal  is  found) ;  the  Halali,  and  the 
Mort.  Of  fanfares  there  are  the  Royale,  sounded 
for  a  stag  of  ten  points — invented  by  Louis  XV  ; 
the  yetite  Royale,  sounded  for  the  wild  boar; 
various  others  distinguishing  the  wolf,  fox,  weasel, 
and  hare ;  and  the  Fanfare  de  St.  Hubert,  as  the 
patron  saint  of  hunting,  only  sounded  on  his  day. 

(3)  The  third  series  approximates  more  than  the 
others  to  regular  musical  performances,  and  fur- 
nishes the  link  between  the  use  of^he  Horn  as 
a  signal,  and  as  a  melodious  instrument  These 
airs  are  many  and  various,  named  after  royal  per- 
sonages or  distinguished  hunters. — Bonner  du  cor 
is  the  term  for  sounding  the  horn.^ 

The  introduction  of  the  Hom  into  the  orchestra 
in  France  is  attributed  to  Gossec.  He,  when  still 
very  young,  was  requested  to  write  two  airs  for 
the  debut  of  Sophie  Arnould  at  the  opera  in 
1757,  in  which  he  introduced  obbligato  parts  for 
two  Horns  and  two  Clarinets  ;  the  latter  instru- 
ment being  also  heard  for  the  first  time.^  Lotti 
and  Scarlatti  introduced  it  into  Italy,  and  were 
followed  by  Hasse  and  Alberti.  It  must  have  been 
previously  used  in  Germany,  since  it  appears  fre- 
quently in  the  scores  of  J.  S.  Bach,  who  died  in 
1750.  It  was  first  used  in  England  as  early  as 
1720  by  the  opera  band  in  the  Haymarket,  at 
the  performance  of  Handel's  Radamisto, 

It  was  much  objected  to  when  first  heard,  as 
coarse  and  vulgar ;  and  severe  strictures  were 
indulged  in  at  the  introduction  of  a  rude  instru- 
ment of  the  chase  among  more  refined  sources  of 
sound,  such  as  the  Violins  and  Oboe.  It  is  re- 
markable how  subsequent  experience  has  reversed 
this  hasty  judgment;  the  smooth  tender  tone  pecu- 
liar to  the  Horn  contrasting  admirably  with  its 
orchestral  companions,  and  forming  a  firm  founda- 
tion for  harmony  in  chords  and  holding  notes. 

In  consequence  of  this  prejudice,  when  the 
Horn  was  originally  transferred  in  Germany  from 
the  hunting  field  to  the  orchestra,  it  was  sug- 
gested to  introduce  a  mute  or  damper  into  the 
bell,  for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  tone ;  this 
was  at  first  made  of  wood,  and  afterwards  of 
card-board.  It  was  the  custom  to  produce  a  like 
effect  in  the  Oboe  by  filling  the  bell,  made 
globular  for  the  purpose,  with  cotton-wool ;  a  plan 

'  In  English  we  say  '  sound  the  horn.' '  wind  the  horn ' ;  Tennyson 
(Locksley  Hall),  'sound  upon  the  bugle  horn.' 

2  (iossec  is  also  saM  to  have  introduced  the  Trombone  in  his  opera, 
'  The  Sabines,'  in  1T73. 


HORN. 


HORN. 


749 


which  suggested  to  Hampl,  a  celebrated  horn- 
player  at  the  court  of  Dresden,  about  the  year 
1770,  to  do  the  same  with  the  Horn.  To  his 
surprise  the  insertion  of  the  pad  of  cotton  raised 
the  pitch  of  the  instrument  by  a  semitone.  Struck 
with  the  result,  he  employed  his  hand  instead  of 
the  pad,  and  discovered  the  first  and  original 
method  by  which  the  intervals  between  the 
harmonic  series  of  open  notes  could  be  partially 
bridged  over.  The  notes  thus  modified  have 
since  been  termed  '  hand  notes,'  and  the  instru- 
ment itself  the  'Hand  horn.'  Sir  John  Hawkins 
mentions  a  concerto  played  by  an  artist  named 
Spandau  with  the  help  of  the  hand  notes  in  1773, 
*  attempering  the  sound  by  the  application  of  his 
fingers  in  the  different  parts  of  the  tube.' 

The  method  of  stopping  the  Horn  is  not  by  in- 
troducing the  closed  fist  into  the  bell,  but  the 
open  hand,  with  the  fingers  close  together,  some 
way  up  the  bore.  By  drawing  the  fingers  back, 
the  natural  sounds  are  again  produced.  The 
degree  in  which  the  Horn  is  stopped  is  not  the 
same  for  all  stopped  notes :  there  being  half 
and  whole  stopping.  In  the  first,  by  raising  the 
hand  the  bell  alone  is,  as  it  were,  closed  :  in  the 
second  the  hand  is  introduced  as  far  as  if  it  were 
intended  almost  to  prevent  the  passage  of  air. 

Between  the  stopped  or  '  hand  notes '  and  the 
open  notes  there  is  an  obvious  difference  in  cha- 
racter and  quality  w^hich  it  is  impossible  wholly 
to  suppress,  but  which  may  be  suflSciently  modified 
so  as  not  to  offend  the  ear.  This  object  is  at- 
tained by  blowing  the  open  notes  softly,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  contrast  between  their  sonorousness, 
and  the  closed  or  '  stuffed  '  (etouffe)  character  of 
those  modified  by  means  of  the  hand.  Much 
difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  superiority 
of  the  simple  Handhorn,  or  the  more  modem 
instrument  furnished  with  valves.  It  appears 
certain  that  the  lightness  and  vibi'atile  power  of 
the  foimer,  added  to  the  absence  of  abrupt  bends 
and  sinuosities  in  the  bore,  adds  materially  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  tone.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  rapid  melodic  passages,  such  as  it  is  now  the 
fashion  to  write,  the  alternation  of  open  and 
stopped  notes  tends  to  produce  uncertainty  and 
unevenness.  The  older  composers,  especially 
Mozart,  seem  to  have  been  aware  of  this  fact, 
and  employ  both  open  and  stopped  notes  with 
full  consciousness  of  their  respective  effects. 
Many  examples  could  be  given  of  the  mourn- 
ful and  mysterious  effect  of  the  stopped  notes 
judiciously  used.  A  convenient  compromise 
between  the  two  forms  of  the  instrument  has 
been  adopted  by  fixing  a  pair  of  valves  on  the 
tuning  slide  named  above.  It  is  quaintly  termed 
a  '  grasshopper '  action,  and  can  easily  be  re- 
moved when  the  simple  tube  is  preferred.  Mr. 
Ford  has  registered  a  sliding  action  like  that  of 
the  trombone,  or  slide  trumpet,  in  place  of  the 
valves,  by  means  of  which  notes  can  be  depressed 
to  any  extent  according  to  the  ear  of  the  per- 
former. This  excellent  plan,  which  would  at  once 
give  the  horn  the  enharmonic  accuracy  now 
possessed  by  the  trumpet  and  trombone  alone 
among  wind  instruments,  does  not  seem  to  have 


attracted  the  notice  it  deserves.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  Mr.  Bassett's  comma  valve,  applicable 
both  to  Horn  and  Trumpet,  by  which  the  error 
existing  between  major  and  minor  tones  may  be 
corrected.    [See  Trumpet.] 

The  scale  of  the  Horn  consists  of  a  fundamental 
tone,  and  the  consecutive  harmonics  or  '  upper 
partial'  tones  of  an  open  tube  which  reaches  the 
extreme  length  of  16  feet.  It  has  usually  been 
described  as  of  conical  shape  ;  but  Mr.  Blaikley 
has  ingeniously  shown  of  late  that  a  somewhat 
different  form,  with  a  hyperbolic  contour,  is 
required  to  produce  accurate  harmonic  relations, 
in  consequence  of  the  mouthpiece  not  being 
applied  to  the  exact  apex  of  the  cone,  but  some- 
what lower  down. 

As  the  prime  tone  of  so  long  a  tube  is  very 
deep,  the  harmonics  in  the  middle  of  the  scale  lie 
so  close  together  as  to  produce  many  consecutive 
notes.  Eight-foot  C  is  usually  taken  as  the  fun- 
damental note,  and  the  scale  founded  on  it  is 
given  as  follows,  the  two  highest  notes  being 
seldom  or  never  used. 


-4- 


This  notation  is  substantially  correct  for  the 
8-foot  or  C  alto  instrument,  now  disused ;  and 
it  is  clear  that  it  will  have  to  be  lowered  succes- 
sively through  a  whole  chromatic  octave  as  the 
longer  and  deeper  crooks  are  made  use  of.  For 
the  C  basso  crook,.  8-foot  C  will  thus  become 
16-foot  C,  on  the  6th  space  below  the  bass  stave, 
and  with  all  intermediate  crooks  the  real  founda- 
tion sound  will  be  some  intermediate  note  of  the 
16-foot  octave.  How  well  the  great  value  of 
these  low  notes  was  known  to  Beethoven  is  evi- 
dent from  more  than  one  passage  in  his  works. 
In  the  allegro  moderato  of  his  Sonata  in  F  for 
Horn  and  Piano  (op.  1 7)  the  following  passage 
occurs  twice  over  : — 
Horn  in  F.  ==- 


The  same  note  also  occurs  in  the  7th  Symphony. 
Allowing  for  a  crook  one-fifth  lower,  the  real 
sounds  would  be  as  at  (a) : — 

io)  (b) 


that  is  to  say,  1 6-foot  F  and  16-foot  C.  The 
former  of  these  is  practically,  and  the  latter 
entirely  impossible  on  a  tube  of  under  12  feet 
long.  It  is  evident  therefore,  that  by  a  freak  of 
notation,  the  bass  notes  have  been  referred  to  a 
16-foot  scale,  whereas  those  in  the  treble,  as 
already  explained,  belong  to  one  of  8  feet,  and 
the  real  note  sounded  is  as  at  (&).  This  ac- 
counts for  the  ordinary  but  erroneous  statement 
in  Horn  Methods,  that  the  'Treble  part  is  con- 
ventionally written  an  octave  higher  than  it  is 


750 


HORN. 


HORN. 


played,'  the  fact  being  that  the  bass  part  is  an 
octave  too  low.  In  consequence  of  this  miscon- 
ception, no  two  scales  as  given  in  the  ordinary 
instruction  books  agree  with  one  another  ;  many 
beginning  at  the  4-foot  C,  which  stands  second  in 
the  scale  diagram  given  above.  This  is  partially 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  extreme  low  tones  are 
difficult,  if  not  impossible  to  produce,  except  with 
a  larger  mouthpiece.  Indeed,  16-foot  C  can  only 
be  feebly  touched  with  a  trombone  mouthpiece 
and  by  an  experienced  trombone  player.  The 
scale  given  above  agrees  with  the  harmonic  series 
common  to  all  modes  of  eliciting  sound,  and  has 
therefore  been  preferred  for  illustration.  The 
Horn  is  invariably  written  for  in  the  G  or  treble 
clef  (with  the  exception  of  the  three  or  four 
lowest  sounds  described  above),  and  in  the  key  of 
C;  the  difference  of  pitch  necessary  for  orchestral 
tonality  being  provided  by  the  various  crooks,  of 
which  eleven  are  used,  supplemented  by  two  in- 
termediate ;  one  of  which  lowers  the  pitch  of  any 
crook  approximately  a  semitone,  the  other  a  whole 
tone.  The  whole  diatonic  scale  is  thus  accessible, 
and  even  lower  pitches  than  C  are  occasionally 
needed,  as  in  the  '  Stabat  Mater'  of  Rossini,  where 
a  horn  in  Ab  basso  is  introduced.  The  upper  C 
crook  is  rarely  used,  and  the  series  commonly  ter- 
minates with  Bb  basso.  In  his  2nd  Symphony, 
Brahms  uses  2  horns  in  BI^  basso,  and  2  in  C 
basso.  The  following  table  shows  the  relation 
between  the  written  notes  and  the  actual  sounds 
produced  in  the  various  Horns : — 


W ritten  notes. 


C  Horn. 


G  Horn. 


Ab  Horn 


A  Horn. 


Bb  hasso  Horn.    B[]  hasso  Horn. 


br 


It  will  thus  be  seen  that  although  the  written 
symbol  of  the  sound  remains  unchanged,  the 
actual  sounds  produced,  and  the  embouchure  re- 
quired for  producing  them,  vary  over  a  range  of 
more  than  an  octave.  This  constitutes  the  chief 
difficulty  of  the  instrument ;  for  as  the  various 
harmonics  differ  only  in  the  altered  tension  of 
the  lip-muscles,  what  is  required  to  produce  a 
high  note  on  a  low  crook  is  clearly  insufficient 
for  one  far  lower  on  the  more  acute.  It  is  thus 
often  impossible  to  ascertain,  without  actual  trial, 
which  particular  individual  of  the  series  may  be 
first  struck  ;  the  sound  for  instance  which  is  fun- 
damental on  the  Bb  alto  being  the  first  octave 
harmonic  on  the  Bb  hasso.  It  is  always  advis- 
able in  writing  for  an  instrument  singularly 


tender  and  treacherous,  to  give  the  player,  in 
case  of  change,  some  opportunity  of  making  thia 
adjustment  of  the  lip  unperceived,  and  under  the 
cover  of  more  forcible  instrumentation.  This  pre- 
caution is  the  more  needful  as  the  brass  tubing 
of  the  Horn  is  very  susceptible  to  changes  of 
temperature,  and  a  cold  crook  put  on  suddenly  is 
in  consequence  liable  to  commence  too  flat. 

The  Horn  is  seldom  played  singly  in  the  or- 
chestra. A  pair  at  least,  and  four,  or  two  pairs, 
are  most  commonly  employed.  The  Third  is  in 
the  latter  case  regarded  as  a  ripieno  first,  and  the 
Second  and  Fourth  as  being  correlative  to  one 
another. 

Every  great  composer  since  Handel  has  written 
freely  for  the  Horn.  A  characteristic  specimen  of 
this  master  occurs  in  his  Allegro  and  Pensieroso, 
where  the  bass  song  'Mirth,  admit  me  of  thy 
crew,'  is  embellished  by  a  brilliant  arpeggio  ac- 
companiment rising  to  the  top  C.  This  solo, 
though  preserved  among  the  orchestral  parts, 
and  occasionally  played,  is  not  to  be  found  in 
the  score  of  the  German  Handel  Society,  nor  in 
Arnold's  edition  of  the  work;  so  that,  though 
traditionally  referred  to  Handel,  it  may  be  a 
subsequent  addition. 

Mozart,  even  where  his  score  is  otherwise 
limited,  hardly  ever  dispenses  with  two  horns. 
For  these  he  writes  with  the  most  perfect  tact 
and  judgment ;  seldom  introducing  hand  notes, 
except  when  their  peculiar  effect  is  required. 
Instances  of  this  can  easily  be  found  in  any  of 
his  symphonies,  overtures,  or  operas.  He  has 
moreover  written  three  concertos  for  orchestra 
with  Horn  obbligato,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
concerted  music  such  as  that  named  under 
Clarinet  for  two  horns  and  the  reed  instruments. 
All  his  compositions  are  eminently  fitted  for  the 
hand -horn,  of  which  he  had  thoroughly  studied 
the  capacities. 

Beethoven  has  been  especially  lavish,  though 
singularly  cruel  and  exacting,  in  the  use  of  the 
Horn,  for  besides  the  Sonata  in  F  for  Horn  and 
Piano,  the  Sestet,  for  String  quartet  and  two 
Horns  obbligato — which  is  so  difficult  as  to  be 
never  played,  and  the  Septet,  which  contains  a 
trying  passage  in  triplets  for  Eb  horn, — 

Horn  in  Et). 


he  constantly  gives  it  a  prominent  place  in  all  his 
works.  The  most  noticeable  of  these  are  the 
Second  Horn  solo  in  the  overture  to  Fidelio,  in 
E,  which  incidentally  demonstrates  the  error  in 
notation  adverted  to  above. 


2ndo  Solo. 


HORN. 


HORN. 


751 


In  the  last  bar  but  one  there  is  a  jump  of  a 
twelfth  from  treble  G  to  bass  C  ;  whereas  Horn 
players  invariably  fulfil  the  obvious  intention  of 
the  composer  by  descending  only  a  fifth,  and  thus 
completing  the  common  chord. 

The  fact  is,  that  the  first  part  of  the  melody, 
written  in  the  treble  cle^  is  really  played  by  the 
E  Horn  a  minor  sixth  lower  than  its  written 
symbol,  and  the  bass  part  a  major  third  higher, 
thus  reaching  E  in  the  8-foot  octave.  The  pass- 
age, if  literally  played,  as  it  would  be  by  an 
organist,  would  end  on  the  impossible  and  hardly 
musical  E  of  the  1 6-foot  octave.  These  remarks 
also  apply  to  the  illustrative  passage  quoted 
below  from  the  Choral  Symphony ;  the  Scena 
(*Komm  Hoffnung')  in  Tidelio'  for  3  Horns; 
and  a  very  florid  obbligato  to  the  bass  song 
•Deign,  great  Apollo,'  in  the  'Ruins  of  Athens,' 
scored  for  four  horns,  two  in  F  and  two  in  C. 

In  the  Eroica  Symphony  the  trio  is  scored  for 
3  Horns  in  Eb,  playing  on  closed  notes.  In 
the  4th  Symphony  two  horns  in  Eb  attack  top  C 
pianissimo,  and  slur  down  to  G  and  E  below. 
The  slow  movement  of  the  Pastoral  contains  a 
difficult  passage  for  two  horns  in  thirds,  kept  up 
for  several  bars.  In  the  Vivace  of  the  7th — near 
the  close — the  low  note  afready  named  (sounding 
E)  is  sustained  by  the  second  horn  for  no  less 
than  22  bars  without  intermission. 

Horn  in  A. 


The  G  here  given,  and  which  has  been  shown 
to  be  noted  an  octave  too  low,  really  appears  to 
be  an  outlying  harmonic,  or  fictitious  note,  not 
recognised  in  the  ordinary  harmonic  scale,  ob- 
tained by  a  very  loose  lip  and  sounding  the  fifth 
of  the  fundamental  note,  intermediate  between 
that  and  the  first  harmonic.  To  make  it  a  real 
note,  the  Horn  should  begin  on  3  2 -foot  C,  which 
is  impossible  for  a  16-foot  tube,  and  there  ought 
to  be  a  harmonic  third  on  the  second  space  in 
the  bass  clef,  which  does  not  exist.  Many 
players  cannot  produce  it  at  all,  and  few  can 
make  sure  of  it.  The  slow  movement  contains 
a  melodious  passage  in  contrary  motion  with 
the  Clarinet,  and  in  the  scherzo  the  two  move  in 
close  harmony  with  the  Bassoons  and  Clarinets, 
the  second  horn  commencing  the  trio  with  a 
solo  on  its  low  G  and  FJJ  (sounding  E  and  Dj, 
as  at  h),  the  latter  a  closed  note;  a  phrase 
which  is  repeated  17  times  with  but  slight 
change. 


Horn  in  A 


In  the  minuet  of  the  8th  occurs  a  long  and 
important  duet  for  two  Horns  in  F,  accompanied 
by  the  violoncello  solo,  and  beginning  as  fol- 
lows : — 


Horns  in  F.  del. 


imitated  by  the  clarinet,  and  running  into  a 
conversation  between  the  two  Horns,  who  repeat 
alternately  the  same  notes. 
(1)     ^  I  (2), 


In  the  Adagio  of  the  9th,  or  Choral  Symphony, 
the  4th  horn-solo  is  said  to  be  hardly  playable  as 
written  for  the  Eb  crook,  without  valves,  but 
becomes  possible  by  transposing  on  to  an  Eji]  horn.^ 
Horn  in  Eb. 


i 


m 


Even  these  difficulties  are  surpassed  by  a  bar  of 
fifteen  notes  closely  following  the  foregoing. 


Schubert's  great  Symphony  in  C  (No.  9)  opens 
with  a  passage  of  eight  bars  for  the  two  horns  in 
unison,  and  they  are  used  with  beautiful  effect, 
with  the  accompaniment  of  the  strings  alone,  in 
the  Andante  of  the  same  work  just  before  the 
return  to  the  subject. 

No  other  composer  has  surpassed  or  even 
equalled  Weber  in  his  masterly  use  of  this  instru- 
ment. He  evidently  loved  it  above  all  other 
voices  in  the  orchestra.  Besides  abundant  con- 
certed music,  the  effective  opening  of  the  Over- 
ture to  Oberon,  the  weird  notes  in  that  of  Der 
Freischiitz,  and  the  lovely  obbligato  to  the  Mer- 
maid's song,  will  rise  into  immediate  remembrance. 
He  fully  appreciates  its  value,  not  only  as  a 
melodic  instrument,  but  as  a  source,  whether 
alone  or  blended  with  other  qualities  of  tone,  of 
strange  and  new  sesthetical  effects. 

The  same,  in  a  somewhat  less  marked  degree, 
may  be  said  of  Mendelssohn,  who  makes  com- 
paratively less  melodic  use  of  the  Horn,  but  very 
much  of  its  combining  and  steadying  powers. 
Notable  exceptions  are  however  the  opening 
phrase  of  the  Duet  and  Chorus  in  the  HjTnn  of 
Praise,  and  the  Notturno  in  the  'Midsummer 
Night's  Dream.'  When  the  latter  was  first 
performed  in  this  country,  the  composer  especially 

1  The  diflBculty  of  this  passage  is  sometimes  rret  in  the  orchestra  by 
giving  the  two  low  notes  (which  sound  Eb  andBbbe'ow  the  bass  stave) 
to  one  of  the  other  players,  so  that  the  sudden  transition  of  three 
octaves  Is  not  felt,  and  the  low  notes  are  obtained  with  greater 
clearness. 


752 


HORN. 


HORN. 


desired  the  copyist  to  forward  the  part  early  to 
Mr.  Piatt,  who  was  to  play  it. 

With  Rossini,  the  son  of  a  horn-player,  and 
himself  no  mean  performer  on  it,  a  new  school 
may  be  said  to  commence.  He  uses  it  freely  for 
his  bright  and  taking  melodies,  whether  alone  or 
in  pairs  ;  but  the  old  method  of  Mozart  is  lost, 
and  valves  become  essential  for  the  execution 
of  runs,  turns,  scales  with  which  the  part  is 
abundantly  strewn.  In  '  William  Tell,'  especially 
a  favourite  and  recurring  effect  is  that  of  the 
Horn  imitating  the  Alpenhorn,  and  echoing 
among  the  Swiss  mountains.  The  triplet  pas- 
sages thus  allotted  it  in  rapidly  shifting  keys 
are  to  the  last  degree  difficult  and  treacherous. 
Rossini's  example  seems  to  have  been  followed  by 
Auber  and  many  more  recent  composers. 

In  Brahms's  2nd  Symphony  (in  D,  op.  73)  the 
Horns  have  a  very  important  part,  especially  in 
the  first  Allegro. 

Music  for  the  Horn. 
With  orchestra : — 
Mozart. — Op.  92,  First  Concerto ;  op.  105, 
Second  do.  ;  op.  106,  Third  do. 
Weber. — Op.  45,  Concertino  do. 
Kalliwoda. — Op.  51,  Introduction  and  Ron- 
deau. 

Reissiger. — Op.  153,  Eldgie  and  Rondeau  for 
chromatic  horn. 

Schumann. — Op.  86,  Concerto  for  4  horns  and 
orchestra. 

Concerted  :— 

Beethoven. — Op.  81  J,  Sextet  for  two  horns  and 
string  Quartet.   Op.  17,  Sonata,  piano  and  horn. 

Himmel. — Op.  18,  Grand  Sextet  for  piano, 
2  horns  and  strings. 

Mozart. — First  divertimento  for  2  violins, 
viola,  2  horns  and  cello 

Mozart. — Op.  106,  Quintet  for  horn  and  string 
Quartet. 

Reicha. — Op.  82,  Twenty-four  Trios  for  3  horns. 
Op.  93,  Twelve  Trios  for  2  horns  and  cello. 

Hummel. — Op.  74,  Grand  Septet  for  piano, 
oboe,  horn,  flute,  viola,  cello  and  contrabasso. 

Kalkbrenner. — Op,  13,  Septett  for  piano,  2 
violins,  2  horns,  tenor  and  bass. 

Schumann. — Op.  70,  Adagio  and  Allegro  for 
piano  and  horn. 

Thalberg. — Op.  7,  Grand  Divertissement  for 
piano  and  horn. 

Brahms. — Op.  40,  Trio  for  piano,  violin,  and 
horn  (or  cello). 

See  also  under  Clarinet,  Oboe,  etc.  for  con- 
certed pieces.  [W.H.S.] 

HORN,  Karl  Friedrich,  was  bom  at  Nord- 
hausen.  Saxony,  1762.  After  studying  music 
under  Schroter  at  Nordhausen,  he  came  in  1782 
to  London,  where  Count  Briihl,  the  Saxon  am- 
bassador, patronised  him,  and  introduced  him  as 
a  teacher  amongst  the  English  nobility.  Having 
published  his  first  work,  'Six  Sonatas  for  the 
Pianoforte,'  he  was  appointed  music  master  in 
ordinary  to  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  Princesses, 
an  office  which  he  held  until  181 1.    In  1808,  in 


conjunction  with  Samuel  Wesley,  he  conmienced 
the  preparation  of  an  English  edition  of  J.  S.  Bach's 
'  Wohltemperirte  Clavier,'  which  was  published  in 
1810.  In  1823  he  succeeded  William  Sexton  aa 
organist  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  died 
Aug.  5,  1830.  Horn  composed  some  'Military 
Divertimentos,'  *  Twelve  Themes  with  Variations 
for  the  Pianoforte,  with  an  accompaniment  for 
Flute  or  Violin,'  and  several  sets  of  Sonatas.  He 
was  also  author  of  a  Treatise  on  Thorough  Bass. 

His  son,  Charles  Edward,  was  bom  in  St. 
Martin's-in-the-Fields  in  1786.  He  received  his 
early  musical  education  from  his  father,  and  in 
1808  had  a  few  lessons  from  Rauzzini.  Return- 
ing to  London,  he  endeavoured  to  obtain  a 
position  as  a  concert  singer,  but  not  succeeding 
he  changed  his  course,  and  on  June  26,  1809, 
appeared  at  the  English  Opera  House,  Lyceum, 
in  M.  P.  King's  opera,  'Up  all  night.'  In  the 
next  year  he  composed  and  produced  'The 
Magic  Bride,'  upon  which  he  quitted  the  stage 
and  studied  singing  under  Thomas  Welsh.  In 
1 8 1 4  he  reappeared  as  The  Seraskier  in  Storace's 
'Siege  of  Belgrade,'  with  great  success.  His 
connection  with  the  theatres  both  as  composer 
and  singer  lasted  for  many  years.  His  voice 
was  poor,  but  of  such  extensive  compass  that 
he  was  able  to  undertake  baritone  as  well  as 
tenor  parts.  On  the  production  of  'Der  Frei- 
schiitz '  at  Drury  Lane,  Horn  took  the  part  of 
Caspar,  displaying  considerable  histrionic  ability. 
In  1 83 1  and  32  he  was  director  of  the  music 
at  the  Olympic.  About  33  he  went  to  America 
and  introduced  several  English  operas  at  the 
Park  Theatre,  New  York,  with  marked  success. 
A  severe  illness  having  deprived  him  of  the  use 
of  his  voice,  he  retired  from  the  stage  and  com- 
menced teaching,  and  established  himself  in  busi- 
ness as  an  importer  and  publisher  of  music  in 
connection  with  a  Mr.  Davis.  During  his  stay 
in  America  he  produced  an  oratorio,  entitled 
'The  Remission  of  Sin.'  In  the  beginning  of 
1843  Horn  returned  to  England.  In  1845  his 
oratorio,  renamed  'Satan,'  was  performed  by  the 
Melophonic  Society,  and  he  was  appointed  mu- 
sical director  at  the  Princess's  Theatre.  In  1847 
he  again  went  to  America,  and  on  July  23  was 
elected  conductor  of  the  Handel  and  Haydn 
Society  of  Boston.  Early  in  1848  he  revisited 
.England  for  a  short  time,  and  produced  his 
oratorio  '  Daniel's  Prediction.'  Upon  his  return  to 
Boston  he  was  re-elected  conductor  of  the  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society,  June  10,  1848.  He  died  at 
Boston  Oct.  21,  1849.  His  productions  for  the 
theatre  include  '  The  Magic  Bride,'  and  '  Tricks 
upon  Travellers'  (with  Reeve),  t8io  ;  'The 
Bee  Hive'  and  'The  Boarding  House,'  181 1  ; 
'  Rich  and  Poor,'  and  '  The  Devil's  Bridge '  (with 
Braham),  181 2;  'Godolphin,  the  Lion  of  the 
North,'  181 3;  'The  Ninth  Statue,'  and  'The 
Woodman's  Hut,'  1814;  'Charles  the  Bold,' 
1 8 15;  'The  Persian  Hunters,'  'The  Election,' 
and  'The  Wizard,'  181 7  ;  'Dirce,'  1821  ;  Songs 
in  'The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor'  (with  Webbe, 
jun..  Parry,  etc.),  including  the  popular  duet, 
♦  I  know  a  bank,'  and  '  Actors  al  fresco'  (with  T. 


HORN. 


HORSLEY. 


753 


Cooke  and  Blewitt),  1823  ;  *  Philandering,'  1824 ; 
'  The  Death  Fetch,'  and  '  Peveril  of  the  Peak,' 
1826;  'Pay  to  my  order,'  1827;  and  'Honest 
Frauds'  (containing  the  beautiful  ballad,  'The 
deep,  deep  sea,'  originally  sung  by  the  composer, 
and  afterwards  raised  to  the  summit  of  popularity 
by  the  singing  of  Malibran),  1830.  He  also 
composed  '  Lalla  Rookh' (produced  in  Dublin), 
'Annette,'  ' Nourjahad,'  and  'M.  P,,'  the  dates 
of  performance  of  which  are  uncertain,  a  cantata 
entitled  '  Christmas  Bells,'  a  set  of  canzonets, 
besides  numerous  single  songs,  glees,  etc.,  and 
edited  a  collection  of  Indian  Melodies.  Some 
of  his  songs,  '  Cherry  ripe,'  '  Thro'  the  wood,' 
*  I've  been  roaming,'  and  '  Ev'n  as  the  sun,'  were 
highly  popular.  [W.  H.  H.] 

HORNPIPE.  An  English  dance,  probably 
called  after  an  obsolete  instrument,  of  which 
nothing  but  the  name  is  known.  The  '  College 
Hornpipe'  is  a  well-known  and  spirited  specimen. 
It  is  in  two  sections  of  8  bars,  each  ending  with 
three  beats  of  the  foot,  like  the  Branle.  [See 
p.  289.]  We  quote  the  first  section  ;  there  is  no 
repeat,  but  the  tui^e  closes  with  the  thi-ee  last 
bars  of  the  quotation. 


Hornpipes  were  much  written  in  the  last 
century,  and  Dr.  Stainer  (Diet,  of  Musical  Terms) 
and  Mr.  Chappell  (Popular  Music)  give  specimens 
with  various  dates  from  1700  to  1800.  The 
older  ones  are  in  3-2  time ;  the  later  ones,  as 
above,  in  common  time. 

Handel  ends  the  7th  of  his  1 2  Grand  Concertos 
with  one  which  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the 
Hornpipe  artistically  treated. 


In  his  'Semele'  the  Chorus  'Now  Love,  that 
everlasting  boy,'  is  headed  alia  Hornpipe. 

The  airs  '  My  Love  is  but  a  lassie  yet'  and  '  l^e 
British  Grenadier,'  and  the  hymn  tune  '  Helms- 
ley,'  are  hornpipes ;  the  last,  indeed,  strongly 
resembles  Miss  Catley's  hornpipe,  1780.  [G.] 


HOLYOKE,  Samuel,  A.M.  An  American 
teacher  and  composer  of  both  vocal  and  instru- 
mental music,  bom  at  Boxford,  Mass.,  1771. 
He  published  '  Harmonia  Americana'  (printed 
in  type  at  Boston,  1791) — a  collection  of  hymn- 
tunes  and  other  pieces,  in  which  the  absurd  practice 
of  imitations  and  '  fugues '  was  done  away  with, 
and  homophony  and  common  sense  introduced. 
Also  'The  Instrumental  Assistant'  (vol.  i.  1806, 
vol.  ii.  1807,  Exeter,  N.H.)  Also '  The  Columbian 
Repository  of  Sacred  Harmony'  (Exeter,  N.  H., 
i8o9),a  very  voluminous  work.  Also,  with  Oliver 
Holden, '  The  Massachusetts  Compiler.'  He  died 
at  Concord,  N.  H.,  in  the  spring  of  18 16,  much 
regretted  and  esteemed.  No  piece  of  his  music 
is  known  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  [G.] 

HORSLEY,  William,  Mus.  Bac,  born  in 
London,  Nov.  15,  1774,  having  at  the  age  of 
16  chosen  music  as  a  profession,  was  articled 
for  five  years  to  Theodore  Smith,  a  pianist  and 
minor  composer,  from  whom  he  received  but 
small  instruction  and  much  ill  usage.  He  pro- 
fited greatly  however  by  his  intimacy  with  the 
three  brothers  Bring  and  Dr.  Callcott,  his  asso- 
ciation with  whom  led  him  to  the  practice  of 
purely  vocal  composition,  and  he  soon  produced 
many  excellent  glees,  canons  and  rounds,  besides 
services  and  anthems.  He  became  organist  of 
Ely  Chapel,  Holborn.  In  1798  a  suggestion  of 
his  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Concen- 
TORES  SoDALES.  About  the  same  time  he  was 
appointed  assistant  organist  to  Dr.  Callcott  at  the 
Asylum  for  Female  Orphans,  upon  which  he  re- 
signed his  appointment  at  Ely  Chapel,  On  June 
18,  1800,  he  graduated  Mus,  Bac,  at  Oxford,  his 
exercise  being  an  anthem,  '  When  Israel  came 
out  of  Egypt,'  On  the  revival  of  the  Vocal 
Concerts  in  1801,  Horsley  produced  several  new 
compositions,  and  for  several  years  continued  to 
supply  them,  not  only  with  glees  and  songs,  but 
also  with  instrumental  pieces,  amongst  which 
were  three  symphonies  for  full  orchestra.  In 
1802,  Callcott  having  resigned  the  organistship 
of  the  Asylum,  Horsley  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor. In  1 81 2  he  was  chosen  organist  of  the 
newly-erected  Belgrave  Chapel,  Halkin  Street, 
Grosvenor  Place,  which  he  held  in  conjunction 
with  the  Asylum.  In  1837,  on  the  death  of  R. 
J.  S.  Stevens,  he  became  organist  of  the  Charter 
House,  still  retaining  his  other  appointments. 
Horsley  published  five  Collections  of  Glees ;  a 
Collection  of  40  Canons;  a  Collection  of  Psalm 
Tunes  with  Interludes,  1828  ;  many  single  glees 
and  songs,  sonatas  and  other  pieces  for  the  piano- 
forte, and  '  An  Explanation  of  the  Major  and 
Minor  Scales.'  He  contributed  several  glees  to 
Clementi  and  Co.'s  '  Vocal  Harmony,'  the  second 
edition  of  which  was  issued  under  his  care.  He 
edited  a  Collection  of  the  Glees,  etc.,  of  Dr. 
Callcott,  to  which  he  prefixed  a  memoir  of  the 
composer  and  an  analysis  of  his  works,  and 
Book  I,  of  Byrd's  'Cantiones  Sacrse'  (for  the 
Musical  Antiquarian  Society).  Horsley  holds  a 
deservedly  high  rank  among  glee  composers. 
His  '  By  Celia's  arbour,'  '  See  the  chariot  at 
hand,'  *  Mine  be  a  cot,'  *  Cold  is  Cadvvallo's 

3  C 


754 


HORSLEY. 


HOWGILL. 


tongue,'  '  0  Nightingale/  and  others,  have  long 
held,  and  will  doubtless  long  continue  to  hold, 
a  foremost  place  in  the  estimation  of  lovers 
of  that  class  of  composition.  He  died  June  1 2, 
1858.  He  married  Elizabeth  Hutching,  eldest 
daughter  of  Dr.  Calcott,  who  survived  him 
until  Jan.  20,  1875.  During  Mendelssohn's  visit 
to  England  in  1829  he  began  an  acquaintance 
with  the  Horsley  family  which  ripened  into  an 
intimate  friendship,  as  is  evident  from  the  letters 
printed  in  '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn.' 

Horsley's  son,  Charles  Edward,  was  bom  in 
London  in  1822,  and  instructed  in  music  by  his 
father,  and  in  the  pianoforte  by  Moscheles.  His 
promise  was  so  great  that  he  was  sent,  in  1839, 
on  Mendelssohn's  ^  advice,  to  study  under  Haupt- 
mann  at  Cassel,  whence  he  afterwards  went  to 
Leipsic  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  instruction 
of  Mendelssohn  himself.^  "Whilst  in  Germany 
he  produced  several  instrumental  compositions, 
amongst  them  a  Trio  for  pianoforte,  violin,  and 
violoncello,  and  an  overture,  the  latter  performed 
at  Cassel  in  1845.  Returning  to  England  he 
became  organist  of  St.  John's,  Netting  Hill,  and 
produced  several  important  works — 'David'  and 
'  Joseph,'  oratorios,  both  composed  for  the  Liver- 
pool Philharmonic  Society,  and  'Gideon,'  oratorio, 
composed  for  the  Glasgow  Musical  Festival, 
i860  ;  an  anthem  for  the  consecration  of  Fairfield 
Church,  near  Liverpool,  1854;  and  music  for 
Milton's  '  Comus,'  besides  many  pieces  for  the 
pianoforte,  songs,  etc.  In  1 868  he  quitted  England 
for  Australia,  and  there  he  wrote  an  ode  entitled 
*  Euterpe,'  for  solos,  chorus  and  orchestra,  for 
the  opening  of  the  Town  Hall,  Melbourne,  in 
1870.^  After  remaining  in  Melbourne  for  some 
time,  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and  died 
at  New  York,  March  2,  1876.  A  '  Text  Book  of 
Harmony'  by  him  was  published  posthumously 
in  Dec.  76,  by  Sampson  Low  &  Co.  [W.H.H.] 

HORTENSE,  Eugenie  de  Beauharnais, 
daughter  of  Josephine,  Queen  of  Holland  and 
mother  of  Napoleon  III,  known  as  '  La  reine 
Hortense,'  born  in  Paris  April  10,  1783,  died  at 
Viry,  Oct.  5,  1837,  the  reputed  authoress  (at 
Utrecht,  1807)  of  both  words  and  melody  of 
'  Partant  pour  la  Syrie,'  an  air  which  has  been 
said  to  have  been  to  the  Empire  what  the  '  Mar- 
seillaise' was  to  the  Republic.  Her  musical 
knowledge  was  very  slight,  but  in  Drouet  she 
had  a  clever  musician  for  secretary,  who  has  left 
an  amusing  account  *  of  the  manner  in  which 
he  was  required  to  reduce  into  form  the  melodies 
which  she  hummed.  Whether  Drouet  or  the 
Queen  of  Holland  were  the  real  author  of  the 
pretty  tune  in  question,  it  is  certain  that  she 
will  always  be  credited  with  it.  [M.C.C.] 

HOSANN  A,  a  Hebrew  word,  hoshia  na,  mean- 
ing 'Save  now  !'  (Psalm  cxviii.  25),  used  as  an 
exclamation  of  triumph  in  Matt.  xxi.  9,  etc.  In 
its  Latin  form  Osanna  in  excelsis  it  occurs  in 

>  See  Letter  Jan.  17,1839,  in '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,'  116. 
2  Ibid.  March  ir,,  1841. 

'  A  selection  from  this  wortt  was  performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
March  25,1876. 
«  See  Pougin's  supplement  to  Fetis,  art.  Drouet. 


the  Mass,  after  both  Sanctus  and  Benedict  us. 
[Osanna.]  In  English  music  the  word  will 
always  live  in  the  grand  anthem  of  Orlando 
Gibbons,  'Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David,'  the 
subject  of  which  is  introduced  by  Sullivan  in 
the  '  Light  of  the  World.'  [G.] 

HOTHBY,  or  OTTEBY,  John,  an  English 
Carmelite  monk,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  15  th  century,  and  passed  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  in  the  Carmelite  monastery  at  Ferrara, 
was  famous  for  his  skill  in  the  science  of  music. 
He  was  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  Proportions 
of  Music,  Cantus  figuratus  and  Counterpoint, 
MS.  copies  of  which  exist  at  Ferrara  and  Bo- 
logna, in  the  National  Library  at  Paris  and  the 
British  Museum  (Add.  MS.  10,336).  It  is 
printed  by  Coussemaker,  '  Scriptorum  de  Musica 
Medii  ffivi,'  iii.  328.  [W.H.H.] 

HOWARD,  Samuel,  Mus.  Doc,  bom  1710, 
a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Croft,  and 
subsequently  a  pupil  of  Pepusch ;  was  after- 
wards organist  of  St.  Clement  Danes,  and  St. 
Bride,  Fleet  Street.  In  1744  he  composed  the 
music  for  '  The  Amorous  Goddess,  or.  Harlequin 
Married,'  a  pantomime  produced  at  Drury  Lane. 
In  1769  he  graduated  as  Doctor  of  Music  at 
Cambridge.  He  composed  numerous  songs  and 
cantatas  (many  of  which  appeared  under  the 
name  of '  The  British  Orpheus,'  in  several  books, 
and  others  in  various  collections),  sonatas,  and 
other  pieces  for  instruments.  He  assisted  Boyce 
in  the  compilation  of  his  '  Cathedral  Music'  He 
died  in  1 782.  An  anthem  of  his,  with  orchestra, 
'This  is  the  day,'  was  published  in  1792.  A 
melodious  song  by  him,  '  O  had  I  bfeen,'  from 
'Love  in  a  Village,'  is  given  in  the  Musical 
Library,  vol.  iii.  [W.H.H.] 

HOWELL,  James,  was  bom  at  Plymouth. 
Possessing  a  fine  voice  he  was,  at  an  early  age, 
taught  singing,  and  at  10  years  of  age  sang  in 
public.  He  was  brought  to  London  in  1824 
and  in  the  next  year  admitted  a  pupil  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  where  he  studied  sing- 
ing under  Rovedino  and  afterwards  under  Cri- 
velli,  and  the  pianoforte  and  clarinet  under  T. 
M.  Mudie.  He  subsequently  learned  the  double 
bass  under  Anfossi,  and  made  such  rapid  progress 
that  he  decided  upon  making  it  his  especial  in- 
strument. He  continued  a  pupil  of  the  Academy 
for  about  5  years,  during  part  of  which  time  he 
acted  as  sub-professor  of  the  double  bass.  On 
the  cessation  of  his  pupilage  he  was  appointed 
a  Professor  and  afterwards  Associated  honorary 
member  of  the  Academy.  He  soon  took  his  place 
in  all  the  best  orchestras,  and  on  the  death  of 
Dragonetti  in  1 846  succeeded  him  as  principal. 

His  elder  son,  Arthur,  is  an  excellent  double 
bass  player  and  bass  singer ;  and  his  younger  son, 
Edward,  holds  the  post  of  principal  violoncello 
at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera.  [W.H.H.] 

HOWGILL,  William,  organist  at  White- 
haven in  1794,  and  afterwards  in  London;  pub- 
lished '  Four  Voluntaries,  part  of  the  3rd  chapter 
of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  for  three  voices,  and 
Six  favourite  Psalm  Tunes,  with  an  accompani- 


HOWGILL. 


HULLAH. 


755 


ment  for  the  Organ';  '  Two  Voluntaries  for  the 
Organ,  with  a  Miserere  and  Gloria  Tibi,  Domine/ 
and  'An  Anthem  and  two  preludes  for  the 
Organ.'  [W.H.H.] 

HOYLAND,  JOHX,  son  of  a  cutler  at  Sheffield, 
bom  in  1783,  in  early  life  a  pupil  of  William 
Mather,  organist  of  St.  James's  Church  in  that 
town.  In  1808  he  succeeded  his  master,  and  in 
1 819  removed  to  Louth,  Lincolnshire,  where  he 
established  himself  as  a  teacher,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  chosen  organist  of  the  parish  church. 
He  composed  several  anthems  and  other  pieces 
of  sacred  music,  besides  songs  and  pianoforte 
pieces.  He  died  Jan.  18,  1827.  His  son,  Wil- 
liam, was  elected  organist  of  Louth  parish  church 
in  1829,  and  held  the  appointment  until  his  death, 
Nov.  I,  1857.  [W.H.H.] 

HOYLE,  John,  was  author  of  a  dictionary  of 
musical  terms  entitled  '  Dictionarium  Musicae, 
being  a  complete  Dictionary,  or  Treasury  of 
Music,'  published  in  1770,  and  republished  with 
a  varied  title  in  1 790.  He  is  said  to  have  died  1 
in  1797.  [W.H.H.] 

HUBERT.  See  Porporino. 

HL'DSOX,  Robert,  Mus,  Bac,  bom  1731, 
was  a  tenor  singer,  and  sang  when  a  young  man 
at  Ranelagh  and  ]Marylebone  Gardens,  In  1755 
he  was  assistant  organist  of  St.  Mildred,  Bread 
Street.  In  1756  he  was  appointed  \-icar-choral 
of  St.  Paul's,  in  1 75 8  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  in  1773  almoner  and  master  of  the 
children  of  St.  Paul's,  which  offices  he  resigned  1 
in  1793.  He  was  also  music  master  at  Christ's 
Hospil^.  Hudson  was  the  composer  of  'The 
Mjrrtle,'  a  collection  of  songs  in  three  books,  pub-  ! 
liehed  in  1767;  of  a  service  and  some  chants, 
and  many  hjTnn  tunes.  He  also  set  for  five 
voices  the  lines  on  Dr.  Child's  monument  at  Wind- 
sor, commencing  '  Go.  happy  soul.'  He  died  at 
Eton  in  Dec.  181 5.  His  daughter.  Mart,  was  in 
1 790,  and  till  her  death,  Mar.  28, 1801,  organist  of 
St.  Olave,  Hart  Street,  and  St.  Gregory,  Old  Fish 
Street.  She  was  the  composer  of  several  hj-mn 
tunes,  and  set  for  five  voices  the  English  version 
of  the  Latin  epitaph  on  PurceU's  gravestone, 
'  Applaud  so  great  a  guest.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

HUXTEX,  Franz,  pianist  and  composer, 
bora  Dec.  26,  1793,  at  Coblentz,  where  his  father 
Daxiel  was  organist.  In  1819  he  went  to  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  studying  the  piano  with 
Pradher,  and  composition  with  Reicha  and 
Cherubini.  He  lived  by  teaching  and  arranging 
pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  and  in  time  his  lessons 
and  compositions  commanded  high  prices,  although 
the  latter,  with  the  exception  of  a  trio  concertante 
for  P.  F.  %-iolin,  and  cello,  were  of  little  value. 
His  '  Methode^  nouvelle  pour  le  piano '  (Schott) 
had  at  one  time  a  reputation.  In  1837  he  retired 
to  Coblentz,  and  lived  on  his  means  till  his  death 
in  February  1878.  His  two  brothers,  Wilhelm 
and  Peter,  are  still  successful  pianoforte  teach- 
ers at  Coblentz  and  Duisburg.  [F.  G.] 

HUTTEXBREXXER.  An  Austrian  musical 
family,  memorable  from  its  connexion  with  Bee- 
thoven and  Schubert.    Anselm,  the  eldest,  a 


professional  musician,  was  bom  at  Gratz,  Oct. 
13,  1794.  He  was  for  five  years  a  pupil  of 
Salieri's  in  Vienna,  during  which  time  he  became 
intimate  with  Beethoven,  Schubert,  and  other 
musicians  of  the  day.  He  was  one  of  the  two 
persons  present  when  Beethoven  died.  Why  he 
took  no  part  in  the  funeral  is  not  explained,  but 
it  is  certain  that  his  name  is  not  mentioned. 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  composer  in  all  de- 
partments, and  one  of  his  Requiems,  dedicated 
to  Salieri,  is  spoken  of  as  a  work  of  real  merit. 
It  was  performed  for  Schubert  Dec.  23,  1828. 
Schubert  had  a  great  regard  for  AnseLm.  The 
well-known  song  'Die  Forelle'  (op.  32)  was 
written  at  his  house  'at  12  o'clock  at  night,' 
as  Schubert  himself  says.^  In  his  hurry  Schubert 
shook  the  ink  over  the  paper  instead  of  the  sand, 
a  fact  to  which  the  autograph  bears  ample  wit- 
ness. The  B  minor  Symphony  was  in  Anselm's 
possession  up  to  the  time  of  its  first  performance 
at  Vienna  in  Dec.  1865.  He  died  at  Ober- 
Andritz,  Styria,  June  5,  1868.  For  full  details 
see  his  biography  by  von  Leitner  (Gratz,  1868). 

Josef,  the  second  brother,  an  enthusiastic 
amateur,  was  a  government  employ^.  His  devo- 
tion to  Schubert  was  excessive,  so  great  as 
sometimes  to  bore  the  object  of  it ;  he  was  un- 
wearied in  his  active  services,  communicated  with 
publishers,  and  did  all  that  devotion  and  admira- 
tion could  do  for  his  idol.  The  two  used  to  play 
duets  on  an  old  wom-out  piano.  He  was  about 
Schubert  during  his  last  illness,  and  obtained  the 
official  permission  for  the  performance  of  the 
Requiem  after  his  death.  The  fine  dramatic  song 
'Die  Erwartung'  by  Schiller  (op.  1 16)  is  dedicated 
by  Schubert  to  '  his  friend  Josef  Hiittenbrenner.' 

The  third  brother,  Heixeich,  was  a  lawyer  and 
a  '  Dr.  juris.'  He  was  also  a  poet,  and  wrote  the 
words  for  at  least  one  of  Schubert's  pieces — the 
part-song  '  Wehmuth'  (op.  80,  Xo.  i).  [G.] 

HUGUEXOTS,  LES.  Opera  in  5  acts  ;  words 
by  Scribe  and  Deschamps,  music  by  Meyerbeer. 
Produced  at  the  Academie  Feb,  29,  1836  ;  in 
London,  first  by  a  German  company,  at  Covent 
Garden,  April  20,  1842  ;  in  Italian  at  Covent 
Garden  as  *Gli  Ugonotti,'  July  20,  1848;  in 
English  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,  Aug,  16,  1849. 
Like  '  William  Tell,'  the  opera  is  always  greatly 
shortened  in  performance. 

For  a  remarkable  criticism  by  Schumann  see 
the  Xeue  Zeitschrift,  Sept,  5,  1837,  and  Gesam- 
melte  Schriften,  ii,  220.  [G,] 

HULLAH,  John,  LL.D.,  was  bora  at  Wor- 
cester, June  27,  181 2,  but  came  whilst  very 
young  to  London,  where  his  life  has  been  spent. 
He  received  no  regular  musical  instruction  until 
1829,  when  he  was  placed  under  William  Horsley. 
In  1832  he  entered  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  instruction  in  sing- 
ing from  Crivelli,  He  first  became  known  as 
a  composer  by  his  music  to  Charles  Dickens's 
opera,  'The  Village  Coquettes,'  produced  at  the 
St.  James's  Theatre,  Dec.  5,  1836.    This  was 

>  Kreissle  von  Hellbom,  125.  But  I  am  assured  by  3Ir.  Xottehohm 
that  the  soog  was  composed  in  1817,  so  that  this,  though  an 
autograph,  is  not  the  autograph. 

3C2 


756 


HULLAH. 


HUMFREY. 


followed  by  *  The  Barbers  of  Bassora/  a  comic 
opera,  produced  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
Nov.  II,  1837,  and  'The  Outpost,'  at  the  same 
theatre,  May  17,  1 838.  Soon  after  this  Mr. 
Hullah's  attention  was  turned  to  that  which 
became  subsequently  the  business  of  his  life — 
popular  instruction  in  vocal  music  ;  and  attracted 
by  the  reports  of  Mainzer's  success  as  a  teacher, 
he  visited  Paris,  only  to  find  Mainzer's  classes 
entirely  dispersed.  Early  in  1840  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  remained  for  some  time  observing 
Wilhem's  classes,  then  in  the  full  tide  of  success. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  late  Sir  James  Kay  Shuttle  worth, 
then  Dr.  Kay,  and  undertook  the  instruction  of 
the  students  in  the  Training  College  at  Batter- 
sea,  the  first  established  in  England,  and  just 
opened  under  the  direction  and  at  the  cost  of 
Dr.  Kay  and  Mr.  Edward  Carlton  Tufnell.  On 
Feb.  18,  1840,  he  gave  his  first  class-lesson  at 
Battersea,  and  from  that  day  dates  the  move- 
ment he  originated.  On  Feb.  I,  184 1,  he  opened 
at  Exeter  Hall  a  school  for  the  instruction  of 
Schoolmasters  of  Day  and  Sunday  Schools  in 
Vocal  Music  by  a  system  based  on  that  of  Wil- 
hem,  which  met  with  remarkable  success.  Not 
only  schoolmasters  but  the  general  public  flocked 
to  obtain  instruction,  and  country  professors 
came  to  London  to  learn  the  system  and  obtain 
certificates  of  being  qualified  to  teach  it.  The 
system  was  acrimoniously  attacked,  but  it  out- 
lived all  opposition.  From  his  elementary  classes 
Mr.  Hullah  formed  two  schools,  an  upper  and  a 
lower,  and  commenced  giving  concerts  in  Exeter 
Hall,  the  members  of  his  upper  school  forming 
his  chorus,  and  the  orchestra  being  completed  by 
professional  principal  singers  and  instrumentalists. 
Bemarkable  among  these  were  four  historical 
concerts  illustrating  in  chronological  order  the 
rise  and  progress  of  English  vocal  music,  given  at 
Exeter  Hall  on  Mondays  in  the  first  four  months 
of  1847.  At  this  time  Mr.  Hullah's  friends  and 
supporters  determined  on  erecting  and  present- 
ing to  him  a  concert  hall,  and,  having  procured 
a  piece  of  ground  near  Long  Acre,  the  foundation 
stone  of  St.  Martin's  Hall  was  laid  June  21, 1847. 
The  hall  was  opened,  although  not  entirely  com- 
pleted, on  Feb.  11,  1850,  and  Mr.  Hullah  con- 
tinued to  give  his  concerts  there  until  the  building 
was  destroyed  by  fire  Aug.  28,  i860,  on  the  oc- 
currence of  which  event  his  friends  and  pupils 
testified  their  gratitude  and  sympathy  for  him 
by  the  presentation  of  a  handsome  testimonial. 
During  the  existence  of  the  upper  school  Mr. 
Hullah  brought  forward  a  large  number  of  un- 
known works,  old  and  new,  and  introduced 
many  vocalists,  some  of  whom  have  become  very 
eminent.  From  1840  to  i860  about  25,000 
persons  passed  through  his  clasaea.  In  1844 
Mr.  Hullah  was  appointed  Professor  of  Vocal 
Music  in  King's  College,  London,  an  office  which 
he  resigned  in  1874.  He  still  holds  (1879) 
similar  appointments  in  Queen's  College  and 
Bedford  College,  London,  with  both  of  which  he 
has  been  connected  since  their  foundation.  From 
1870  to  1873  he  was  conductor  of  the  concerts  of 


the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  On  the  death 
of  his  old  master,  Horsley,  in  1858,  Mr.  Hullah 
was  appointed  organist  of  the  Charter  House, 
where  since  1841  he  had  carried  on  a  singing 
class.  For  many  years  he  conducted  the  annual 
concert  of  the  Children  of  the  Metropolitan 
Schools  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  In  March  1872 
he  was  appointed  by  the  Committee  of  Council 
on  Education  Inspector  of  Training  Schools  for 
the  United  Kingdom,  which  office  he  still  holds. 
In  1876  the  University  of  Edinburgh  unexpect- 
edly conferred  on  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.,  and  in  1877  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  St.  Cecilia  in  Rome  and  of  the 
Musical  Academy  in  Florence.  Dr.  Hullah  is 
the  composer  of  many  songs,  etc.,  and  is  author 
of  '  A  Grammar  of  Vocal  Music ';  'A  Grammar  of 
Harmony';  and  'A  Grammar  of  Counterpoint'  ; 
♦The  History  of  Modern  Music'  (1862),  and  '  The 
Third  or  Transition  Period  of  Musical  History ' 
(1865)  (Courses  of  Lectures  delivered  at  the  Royal 
Institution  of  Great  Britain);  'The  Cultivation 
of  the  Speaking  Voice';  'Music  in  the  House,' 
1877;  and  of  numerous  essays  and  other  papers 
on  the  history  and  science  of  music  contributed  to 
various  periodicals  ;  also  of  many  songs,  some  of 
which — such  as  *  0  that  we  two  were  Maying,' 
'Three  Fishers,*  'The  Storm' — have  become 
very  popular.  He  edited  '  Wilhem's  Method  of 
teaching  Singing,  adapted  to  English  use';  'The 
Psalter,  a  collection  of  Psalm  Tunes  in  4  parts,' 
1843;  The  Book  of  Praise  Hymnal,'  1868;  'The 
Whole  Book  of  Psalms,  with  Chants';  and  a  large 
number  of  vocal  compositions  in  parts  and  other 
publications  for  the  use  of  his  classes.  Amongst 
these  should  be  named  'Part  Music'  (reprinted 
as  'Vocal  Music'),  for  4  voices,  and  'Vocal 
Scores,' — two  most  admirable  collections  ;  '  Sa- 
cred Music'  (1867);  'The  Singer's  Library'; 
'  Sea  Songs,'  etc,,  etc.  [See  Pakt  Music  ;  Vocal 
Scores.]  [W.H.H.] 

HUME,  Tobias,  an  officer  in  the  army  and 
an  excellent  performer  on  the  viol-da-gamba ; 
published  in  1605  'The  First  Part  of  Ayres, 
French,  PoUish  and  others  together,  some  in 
Tabliture,  and  some  in  Pricke  -  Song.  With 
Pavines,  Galliards,  and  ALmaines  for  the  Viole 
de  Gambo  alone  .  .  .  and  some  Songes  to  bee 
sung  to  the  Viole,'  etc.,  containing  116  airs  in 
tableture  and  5  songs.  In  1607  he  published 
*  Captaine  Hume's  Poeticall  Musicke  principally 
made  for  two  basse  -viols,  yet  so  contrived  that 
it  may  be  plaied  eight  severall  waies  upon  sundry 
instruments  with  much  facilitie,'  etc.,  containing 
18  instrumental  and  4  vocal  pieces.  Hume  rose 
to  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1642,  being  then  a 
poor  brother  of  the  Charter  House,  he  presented 
a  petition  to  the  House  of  Lords  offering  his 
services  against  the  Irish  rebels,  which  he  after- 
wards printed,  but  it  is  evident  from  its  con- 
tents that  he  was  labouring  under  mental 
delusion.  [W.H.H.] 

HUMFREY,  Pelham  (as  he  himself  wrote 
his  name,  although  it  is  commonly  found  as 
Humphry  or  Humphrys,  with   every  possible 


HUMFREY 


HUMMEL. 


757 


variety  of  spelling),  was  born  in  1647,  'He  is 
s;iid  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  Col.  John  Hum- 
phrey, a  noted  Cromwellian,  and  Bradshaw's 
sword-bearer.'  In  1660  he  became  one  of  the 
first  set  of  Children  of  the  re-established  Chapel 
Royal  under  Capt.  Henry  Cooke.  AVhilst  still 
a  chorister  he  sliewed  skill  in  composition,  as 
appears  by  the  2nd  edition  of  Clifford's  *  Divine 
Services  and  Anthems,'  1664,  which  contains  the 
words  of  five  anthems  'composed  by  Pelham 
Humfrey,  one  of  the  Children  of  His  Majesties 
Chappel,'  the  music  of  two  of  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. During  the  same  period  he  joined  Blow 
and  Turner,  two  of  his  fellow-choristers,  in  the 
composition  of  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Club-Anthem.*  In  1664  he  quitted  the  choir 
and  was  sent  abroad  by  Charles  II  to  pursue  his 
studies.  He  received  from  the  Secret  Service 
money  in  that  year  '  to  defray  the  charge  of  his 
journey  into  France  and  Italy,  200Z.';  in  the 
following  year  from  the  same  source  lOoL,  and 
in  1666,  His  studies  were  prosecuted 

chiefly  in  Paris  under  Lully.  On  Jan.  24, 
1666-7  he  was  during  his  absence  appointed  a 
Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  room  of 
Thomas  Hazard,  deceased.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  the  following  October,  and  on  the  26th 
was  sworn  into  his  place.  Anthems  by  him 
were  at  once  performed  in  the  Chapel  Royal. 
On  the  death  of  Capt.  Cooke,  July  13,  1672, 
Humfrey  was  appointed  his  successor  as  Master 
of  the  Children.  On  Aug.  8  following  he  had  a 
patent  (jointly  with  Thomas  Purcell)  as  '  Com- 
poser in  Ordinary  for  the  Violins  to  His  Majesty.' 
Humfrey  died  at  Windsor,  July  14,  1674,  at 
the  early  age  of  2  7,  and,  three  days  afterwards, 
was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey, 
near  the  south-east  door.  He  was  the  composer 
of  several  fine  anthems,  7  of  which  are  printed, 
but  without  the  orchestral  parts,  in  Boyce's 
*  Cathedral  Music'  The  greater  part  of  these, 
together  with  6  others  and  the  Club  Anthem, 
also  an  Evening  Service  in  E  minor,  are  con- 
tained in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  MS. 
7338),  and  others  are  extant  at  Ely,  Salisbury, 
and  Windsor.  Three  Sacred  Songs  by  him, 
and  a  Dialogue,  composed  jointly  with  Blow,  are 
printed  in  'Harmonia  Sacra,'  book  ii.  1714.  He 
composed  two  Odes  for  the  King's  Birthday, 
'Smile,  smile  again,'  and  'When  from  his  throne,' 
and  an  Ode  for  New  Year's  day,  '  See,  mighty 
sir.'  Many  songs  by  him  are  included  in  '  Choice 
Ayres,  Songs  and  Dialogues,'  1676-84;  and  on 
the  rare,  separately-paged,  sheet  inserted  in  some 
copies  of  book  i.  of  that  publication,  containing 
'The  Ariel's  Songs  in  the  Play  call'd  The 
Tempest'  (Dry den  and  Davenant's  alteration 
produced  in  1670),  his  setting  of  'Where  the  bee 
sucks '  is  to  be  found.  His  song  *  I  pass  all  my 
hours  in  a  shady  old  grove'  was  first  printed  in 

»  Said  by  Dr.  Tudway  to  have  been  composed  on  a  naval  victory  over 
the  Dutch  by  the  Duke  of  York ;  but  it  cannot  have  been  so,  as  no 
such  event  occurred  until  June  1665,  at  which  time  Humfrey  was 
abroad.  The  statement  of  Dr.  Boyce  and  others  that  it  was  com- 
posed as  a  memorial  of  the  fraternal  esteem  and  friendship  of  the 
authors  is  much  more  probable.  Humfrey  Is  said  to  have  composed 
the  former,  and  Blow  the  latter  portion  of  the  anthem,  Turner's 
share  being  an  intermediate  bass  solo. 


the  appendix  to  Hawkins's  History.  J.  S.  Smith 
included  5  songs  by  Humfrey  in  his  'Musica 
Antiqua,'  amongst  them  *  Whereever  I  am  and 
whatever  I  do,'  composed  for  Dryden's  'Conquest 
of  Granada,'  part  i.,  1672.  Humfrey  is  said  to 
have  been  the  author  of  the  words  of  several 
songs  published  in  the  collections  of  his  time,  and 
to  have  been  a  fine  lutenist.  He  introduced  many 
new  and  beautiful  effects  into  his  compositions. 
He  was  the  first  to  infuse  into  English  church 
music  the  new  style  which  he  himself  had  learnt 
from  Lully,  and  which  was  carried  much  farther 
by  Purcell  (see  Mr.  Hullah's  '  Modern  Music,' 
Lect.  4).  His  predilection  for  minor  keys  was 
remarkable.  [W.H.H.] 

HUMMEL,  JoHANN  Nepomuk,  a  classic  of 
the  pianoforte — but  a  dull  classic — was  the  son 
of  a  musician,  born  at  Presburg  Nov.  14,  1778, 
and  died  at  Weimar,  Oct.  17,  1837.  He  is  the 
principal  representative  of  a  manner  of  treating 
the  pianoforte  which  rested  upon  the  light  touch 
and  thin  tone  of  early  Viennese  instruments,  and 
grew  together  with  the  rapid  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  pianos  in  Germany  from  the 
beginning  of  the  century  to  about  1830.  Hummel 
is  important  to  pianists  as  the  author  of  those 
academical  stock-pieces,  the  Concertos  in  A  minor 
and  B  minor,  the  Septet,  op.  74,  the  Sonatas  in 
Fjy  minor,  op.  81,  and  D  major,  op.  106,  and  of 
an  elaborate  instruction- book,  which  was  pub- 
lished some  years  too  late  to  make  its  mark. 

Brought  up  in  Mozart's  house,  deemed  the 
main  conservator  of  Mozartian  tradititms,  an 
expert  conductor  and  a  good  teacher,  the  leading 
German  pianist,  a  very  clever  extempore  player, 
and  a  ready  writer  of  all  classes  of  music  from 
pianoforte  solos  to  masses  and  operas, — Hummel 
in  his  prime,  circa  181 8,  was  treated  by  the 
mass  of  professed  musicians  as  the  equal  of 
Beethoven!  Endowed  with  curiously  little  in- 
ventive power,  rarely  warm,  and  quite  incapable 
of  humour  or  of  passion,  but  fully  equipped  with 
every  musical  virtue  that  can  be  acquired  by 
steady  plodding,  he  appears  expressly  cut  out  for 
the  hero  of  respectable  mediocrity.  "  The  formid- 
able size,  conventional  shape,  and  uniformly 
careful  workmanship  of  his  pieces,  and  particularly 
the  '  brilliant '  treatment  of  the  pianoforte  part, 
misled  his  contemporaries  to  accept  him  as  a 
master  of  the  first  order. 

It  was  about  1786,  whilst  Hummel's  father 
was  conducting  the  band  at  the  theatre  of 
Schikaneder, — Mozart's  friend  and  the  author  of 
the  libretto  to  Die  Zauberflote — that  the  boy, 
who  had  made  considerable  progress  in  singing 
and  piano-playing,  became  the  inmate  of  Mozart's 
house,  and  for  two  years  enjoyed  Mozart's  in- 
struction. From  1788  to  95  he  travelled  as  a 
pianist  in  the  care  of  his  father  through  Germany, 
Denmark,  England  and  Holland,  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Vienna  resumed  his  studies  in  counter- 
point under  Albrechtsberger,  and  had  the  advice  of 
Haydn  and  Salieri  regarding  composition.  From 
April  I,  1804,  to  May  181 1,  he  was  capellmeister 
to  Prince  Esterhazy,  doing  the  work  Haydn  had 
formerly  done.    After  teaching  and  composing 


758 


HUMMEL. 


HURDY  GURDY. 


for  some  years  at  Vienna,  he  was  called,  in 
1816,  to  the  post  of  conductor  to  Stuttgart, 
and  subsequently,  in  1820,  to  Weimar,  from 
whence,  in  the  suite  of  the  gi-and-duchess  Maria 
Paulowna  he  went  to  Russia,  and  there  met  with 
a  reception,  the  cordiality  of  which  was  not 
exceeded,  and  rarely  equalled,  in  the  various 
journeys  he  undertook  between  1825  and  33  to 
France,  Holland,  and  England,  where  in  the  latter 
year  he  conducted  operas. 

Hummel's  compositions  consist  of  three  operas  ; 
music  to  a  '  Faerie,'  to  five  pantomimes  or  ballets, 
all  more  or  less  stillborn  ;  two  masses,  op.  80  and 
1 1 1  ;  a  Graduale  and  an  OfFertorium,  op.  88  and 
89,  which  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  the  churches 
of  Austria  and  elsewhere ;  and,  besides  the  piano- 
forte works  already  mentioned,  of  a  number  of 
Sonatas,  Etudes,  and  miscellaneous  display  pieces 
for  two  or  four  hands,  a  couple  of  Trios,  a 
Quintet,  etc.  [E.D.] 

HUMORESKE.  A  title  adopted  by  Schu- 
mann for  his  Op.  20  and  Op.  88,  No.  2,  the 
former  for  Piano  solo,  the  latter  for  Piano, 
Violin,  and  Cello.  Heller  and  Grieg  have  also 
used  the  term  for  pianoforte  pieces — op.  64  and 
op.  9  and  16  respectively.  There  is  nothing 
obviously  '  humorous  *  in  any  of  these,  and  the 
term  'caprice'  might  equally  well  be  applied  to 
them.  Rubinstein  also  entitles  his  Don  Quixote 
'  Humoreske,'  but  the  *  humour '  is  there  of  a 
much  more  obvious  and  boisterous  kind.  [G.] 

HUMPHREYS,  Samuel,  was  employed  by 
Handel  to  make  additions  to  the  libretto  of  his 
oratorio  *  Esther,'  to  fit  it  for  public  perform- 
ance in  1732.  He  subsequently  provided  him 
with  the  words  of  '  Deborah '  and  '  Athaliah.'  He 
was  also  author  of  'Ulysses,'  an  opera  set  to 
music  by  John  Christopher  Smith,  and  of  a  poem 
on  the  Duke  of  Chandos's  seat  at  Canons.  He 
died  at  Canonbur^',  Jan.  11,  1738,  aged  about 
40  years.  [W.H.H.] 

HUNGARIAN  MUSIC.    [See  Magyar.] 

HUNT,  Arabella,  singer,  lutenist,  and  sing- 
ing mistress,  was  the  instructress  in  singing  of 
the  Princess  (afterwards  Queen)  Anne.  She  was 
also  a  favourite  of  Queen  Mary,  who  made  her 
one  of  her  personal  attendants  in  order  that  she 
might  have  frequent  opportunities  of  hearing  her 
sing.  Many  of  the  songs  of  Purcell  and  Blow 
were  composed  for  her.  The  beauty  of  her  person 
equalled  that  of  her  voice.  Congreve  wrote  an 
ode  'On  Mrs.  Arabella  Hunt  singing,'  which  is 
mentioned  by  Johnson  as  the  best  of  his  irregular 
poems.  She  died  Dec.  26,  1 705.  After  her  death 
an  engraving  from  her  portrait  by  Kneller  was 
published,  with  some  panegyrical  lines  by  Con- 
greve (not  from  his  ode)  subjoined.  [W.H.H.] 

HUNT,  Thomas,  contributed  to  'The  Tri- 
umphes  of  Oriana,'  1 601,  the  6-part  madrigal, 
'  Hark  !  did  you  ever  heare  so  sweet  a  singing?' 
An  anthem  by  him,  'Put  me  not  to  rebuke,'  is 
contained  in  Barnard's  MS.  collection  in  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society's  library.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  biography.  [W.  H. H.] 


HUNTER,  Anne,  a  Scotch  lady,  wife  of  John 
Hunter  the  surgeon,  and  sister  of  Sir  Everard 
Home  the  physician.  She  was  bom  1742,  and 
died  1 8  2 1 .  The  Hunters  lived  in  Leicester  Square 
during  Haydn's  first  visit,  and  were  intimate  with 
him.  Mrs.  Hunter  wrote  the  words  for  his  12 
Canzonets  (1792),  of  which  the  first  six  were 
dedicated  to  her  and  the  second  six  to  Lady 
Charlotte  Bertie.  Hunter's  death  (Oct.  16,  1793) 
put  a  stop  to  the  acquaintance.  Mrs.  Hunter 
published  a  volume  of  poems  (1801;  2nd  ed. 
1803),  which  are  condemned  by  the  Edinburgh 
and  praised  by  Blackwood.  She  was  also  pro- 
bably the  author  of  both  words  and  melody  of 
'Lady  Anne  Bothwell's  Lament.'  She  is  men- 
tioned in  Robert  Bums's  MS. '  Edinburgh  Coui- 
monplace-Book,'  and  two  poems  by  her — 'To  the 
Nightingale,  on  leaving  E[arrs]  C[ourt],  1784,' 
and  'A  Sonnet  in  Petrarch's  manner' — are  there 
copied  out  by  the  Poet,  the  only  poems  whicli 
received  that  distinction.  [G.] 
HURDY  GURDY  (Fr.  Vielle;  Ital.  Lira 
tedesca,  Ghironda  riheca,  Stampella,  Viola  da 
orbo ;  Germ.  Bauernleier,  Deutscheleier,  Bet- 
tlerleier,  Drehleier ;  Latinised,  Lyra  rustica,  Lyra 
pagana).  Has  a  place  among  musical  instruments 
like  that  of  the  Dulci- 
mer and  the  Bag- 
pipes, as  belonging  to 
rural  life,  and  quite 
outside  modern  musi- 
cal art.  It  is  true 
that  in  the  first  half 
of  the  last  century 
the  Hurdy  Gurdy  or 
Vielle  contributed  to 
the  amusement  of  the 
French  higher  classes, 
but  evidently  with 
that  affectation  of 
rusticity  so  abundant- 
ly shown  when  mock 
shepherds  and  shep- 
herdesses flourished. 
Mr.  Engel  ('Musical 
Instruments,'  1874, 
p.  235)  gives  several 
titles  of  compositions 
wherein  the  Vielle 
formed,  in  combina- 
tion with  Bagpipes 

(Musette),  Flutes  (of  both  kinds),  and  Hautbois, 
a  Fete  Champetre  orchestra.  M.  G.  Chouquet 
('  Catalogue  du  Musde  du  Conservatoire,'  Paris, 
1875,  p.  23)  adds,  for  the  instrument  alone, 
sonatas,  duos,  etc.,  by  Baptiste  and  other  com- 
posers, and  two  methods  for  instruction  by  Bouin 
and  Corrette.  This  music  of  a  modem  Arcadia 
seems  to  have  culminated  about  1750  in  the 
virtuosity  of  two  brothers,  Charles  and  Henri 
Baton,  the  former  playing  the  Vielle,  which  he 
had  much  improved,  the  latter  the  Musette. 
Their  father,  a  luthier  at  Versailles,  was  a 
famous  Vielle  maker,  who  about  17 16-20  adapted 
old  guitars  and  lutes  and  mounted  them  as 
hurdy-gurdies.     Other  eminent  makers  were 


HURDY  GURDY. 


HYMN. 


759 


Pierre  and  Jean  Louvet,  Paris,  about  1750  ; 
Lambert,  of  Nancy,  1770-80;  Delaunay,  Paris; 
and  Berge,  Toulouse. 

The  Hurdy  Gurdy  is  an  instrument  the  sound 
of  which  is  produced  by  the  friction  of  stretched 
strings,  and  the  different  tones  by  the  help  of 
keys.  It  has  thus  analogies  to  both  bowed  and 
clavier  instruments.  It  is  sometimes  in  the 
shape  of  the  old  Viola  d'Amore  (a  viol  with  very 
high  ribs),  of  the  Guitar,  or,  as  in  the  woodcut, 
of  the  Lute.  Four  to  six  tuning-pegs  in  the  head 
bear  as  many  strings  of  catgut  or  sometimes 
wire,  two  of  which  only  are  carried  direct  to  the 
tailpiece,  and  tuned  in  unison,  and  one  or  both 
are  'stopped'  by  a  simple  apparatus  of  keys 
with  tangents,  which  directed  by  the  fingers  of 
the  player's  left  hand,  shortens  the  vibrating 
length  to  make  the  melody.  The  chanterelle 
has  two  octaves  from  the  tenor  G  upwards  ;  the 
drones  are  tuned  in  C  or  G ;  G  being  the  lowest 
string  in  either  key. 

In  the  cut  showing  the  wheel  and  tangents 
one  string  only  is  used  as  a  melody  string.  The 
ebony  keys  are  the  natural  notes,  the  ivory  the 
sharps.  From  the  position  in  which  the  Hurdy 
Gurdy  is  held  the  keys  return  by  their  own 
weight.  The  longer  strings,  deflected  and  carried 
round  the  ribs  or  over  the 
belly  and  raised  upon  pro- 
jecting studs,  are  tuned  as 
drones  or  bourdon  strings. 
All  these  strings  are  set 
in  vibration  by  the  wooden 
wheel,  which,  being  rosin- 
ed, has  the  function  of  a 
violin  bow,  and  is  inserted 
crosswise  in  an  opening  of 
the  belly  just  above  the 
tailpiece,  the  motor  being 
a  handle  at  the  tail-end 
turned  by  the  player's  right 
hand.  There  are  two  sound- 
holes  in  the  belly  near  the 
wheel.  The  Hurdy  Gurdy 
here  represented  is  a 
modem  French  instru- 
ment ('  Vielle  en  forme  de 
luth '),  27  inches  in  length 
without  the  handle.  Two 
of  the  drones  are  spun 
strings,  and  one,  the  so- 
called  '  trumpet,'  is  of  cop- 
per, and  is  brought  upon 
the  wheel  at  pleasure  by 
turning  an  ivory  peg  in 
the  tail-piece.  There  are 
also  four  sympathetic  wire  strings  tuned  in  the 
fifth  and  octave.  Like  lutes  and  other  mediaeval 
instruments,  the  Hurdy  Gurdy  was  often  much 
and  well  adorned,  as  may  be  seen  in  South 
Kensington  Museum  ;  fancy  woods,  carving,  in- 
laying and  painting  being  lavishly  employed. 
The  Hurdy  Gurdy  has  been  sometimes  called 
Rota  (from  its  wheel),  but  the  Rote  of  Chaucer 
had  no  wheel,  and  was  a  kind  of  half  fiddle,  half 
lyre,  with  an  opening  (as  in  the  Ckwth)  for  the 


hand  of  the  player  to  touch  the  strings  from  the 
back.  The  old  Latin  name  for  a  Hurdy  Gurdy 
was  Okganistrum,  and  this  large  form  of  the 
instrument  it  took  two  persons  to  play,  as  it  was 
30  long  as  to  lie  across  the  knees  of  both.  The 
artist  touched  the  keys  ;  the  handle-turner  was 
no  more  important  than  an  organ  bellows  blower. 
The  summit  of  the  arch  of  the  Gate  of  Glory  of 
Santiago  da  Compostella,  a  cast  of  which  is  at 
South  Kensington,  is  occupied  by  two  figures 
playing  an  Organistrum.  The  date  of  this  great 
Spanish  work  is  1188.  There  are  other  early 
representations,  especially  one  in  the  museum  at 
Rouen,  but  the  earliest,  dating  in  the  9th 
century,  was  copied  by  Gerbert  from  a  MS.  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Black  Forest, 
and  published  by  him  (De  Cantu  et  Musica 
Sacra)  in  1774.  Mr.  Engel  has  reproduced  this 
drawing  in  the  work  already  referred  to  (p.  103). 
The  instrument  had  eight  keys  acting  on  three 
strings,  tuned  either  in  unison  or  concord.  The 
'  Symphonia'  or '  Chifonie'  was  the  Hurdy  G\irdy 
in  the  13th  century.  As  for  the  name  Hurdy 
Gurdy  it  was  probably  made  merely  for  euphony, 
like  'hocus  pocus,'  'harum  scarum,'  but  it  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  peculiar  tone.  The 
Hurdy  Gurdy  was  the  prototype  of  the  Piano 
Violin,  and  all  similar  sostenente  instruments, 
and  we  may  perhaps  see  in  its  simple  action  the 
origin  of  the  Clavichord. 

Donizetti's  'Linda  di  Chamouni'  (1842)  con- 
tains two  Savoyard  songs  with  accompaniment 
for  the  Hurdy  Gurdy.  In  recent  performances 
violins  and  violas,  and  even  the  concertina,  have 
been  substituted  for  the  original  instrument, 
which  however  remains  in  the  score,     [A.  J.H.] 

HUTCHINSON,  Francis,  an  amateur  com- 
poser, who,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Francis  Ire- 
land, produced  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 8  th 
century  many  vocal  compositions  of  considerable 
merit.  The  Catch  Club  awarded  him  three 
prizes,  viz.  in  1 771  for  his  catch  'As  Colin  one 
evening';  in  1772  for  his  cheerful  glee  'Jolly 
Bacchus';  and  in  1773  for  his  serious  glee 
'  Where  weeping  yews.'  1 1  glees  and  8  catches 
by  him  are  printed  in  Warren's  collections.  His 
beautiful  madrigal,  'Return,  return,  my  lovely 
maid,'  is  universally  admired.  He  is  sometimes 
styled  '  Dr.'  Hutchinson,  but  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  graduated  in  any  faculty.  He  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  a  medical  practitioner,  to  whom 
the  term  '  Dr.'  was  popularly  applied.  [W.  H.  H.] 

HUTCHINSON,  John,  was  organist  of  Dur- 
ham Cathedral  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  17th 
century,  and  had,  probably,  previously  held  some 
appointment  at  Southwell  Minster.  He  com- 
posed some  anthems,  one  of  which  is  preserved 
in  the  Tudway  collection  (Harl.  MS.  1740)?  and, 
with  two  others,  at  Ely.  [W.H.H.] 

'  HYMN  (Gr.  vfivos ;  Lat.  ffymnus;  Ital. 
Inno;  Germ.  Kirchenlied,  Kirchengesang).  The 
first  Hymn  mentioned  in  the  annals  of  Christianity 
is  that  sung  by  our  Lord,  and  His  Apostles, 
immediately  after  the  institution  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist.    There  is  some  ground  for  believing 


760 


HYMN. 


HYMN. 


that  this  may  have  been  the  series  of  Psahns 
called  Hallel  (cxiii  to  cxviii  of  the  Authorised 
Version),  which  was  used,  in  the  Second  Temple, 
at  all  great  festivals,  and  consequently  at  that  of 
the  Passover ;  and  it  has  been  supposed — though 
the  circumstance  does  not  admit  of  proof — that 
the  melody  to  which  the  most  characteristic  of 
these  Psalms,  In  exit  a  Israel,  was  originally 
sung,  is  the  germ  of  that  with  which  it  has  been 
associated,  in  the  Christian  Church,  from  time 
immemorial — the  Tonus  Peregrinus. 

In  early  times,  any  act  of  praise  to  God  was 
called  a  Hymn,  provided  only  that  it  was  sung. 
Afterwards,  the  use  of  the  term  became  more 
restricted.  The  Psalms  were  eliminated  from 
the  category,  and  Hymns,  properly  so  called, 
formed  into  a  distinct  class  by  themselves,  ^ws 
iKapov,  a  composition  attributed  to  Athenagenes, 
and  still  constantly  sung  in  the  Offices  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest 
Hymn  of  this  description  now  in  use.  Little  less 
venerable,  in  point  of  antiquity,  is  the  'Angelic 
Hymn,'  Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo,  of  which  special 
mention  is  made  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
4th  century,  that  the  immense  importance  of  the 
Hymn,  as  an  element  of  Christian  Worship, 
became  fuUy  understood.  S.  Ephrem  of  Edessa 
made  many  valuable  contributions  to  the  store 
of  Hymns  already  in  use  at  that  period.  S. 
Chrysostom  zealously  carried  on  the  work  at 
Constantinople,  and  S.Ambrose  at  Milan.  The 
noblest  Latin  Hymn  we  possess  —  2  e  Deum 
laudamus — was  long  believed  to  be  the  joint 
production  of  S.  Ambrose  and  S.  Augustine.  To 
S.  Ambrose,  also,  is  due  the  honour  of  having 
first  introduced  the  true  Metrical  Hymn  into  the 
services  of  the  Western  Church — for  the  rhythm 
of  the  older  examples  was  very  distinct  from 
actual  metre.  His  favourite  species  of  verse  was 
Iambic  Dimeter — the  '  Long  Measure'  of  English 
Hymnology — which  was  long  regarded  as  the 
normal  metre  of  the  Latin  Hymn.  S.  Gregory  the 
Great  first  introduced  Sapphics ;  as  in  Nocte  sur- 
gentes  vigilemus  omnes.  Prudentius  wrote,  with 
great  effect,  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Catalectic — 
Garde  natas  ex  Parentis  ante  mundi  exordium ; 
and  also  used  Iambic  Trimeter — 0  Nazarene,  lux 
Bethlem,  verhum  Patris ;  and  Iambic  Dimeter  Ca- 
talectic— Cultor  Dei  memento.  One  of  the  earliest 
instances  of  Elegiac  Verse  is  found  in  the 
'  Crux  benedicta  nitet,  Dominus  qua  came  pependit, 
Atque  cruore  suo  vulnera  nostra  lavat ' 

of  Venantius  Fortunatus.  Other  metres  came 
into  use  from  time  to  time :  but,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  loth  century,  most  of  these 
were  forsaken  in  favour  of  'prose';  that  is  to 
say — paradoxical  as  the  explanation  may  seem 
to  the  uninitiated — a  style  consisting  of  regular 
lines,  containing  an  equal  number  of  syllables, 
and  often  carefully  rhymed,  but  governed,  as  to 
their  rhythm,  by  accent  instead  of  quantity,  and 
therefore  setting  the  laws  of  classical  prosody  at 
defiance.  Many  of  the  finest  mediaeval  Hymns 
are  written  in  this  beautiful  though  barbarous 
'  Monkish  Latin/  especially  those  intended  to  be 


sung  at  Mass  after  the  Gradual  and  Tract : 
insomuch  that  the  terms  Sequence  and  Prose 
have  almost  come  to  be  regarded  as  synonymous. 
[See  Sequentia  ;  Pkosa.] 

The  authorship  of  the  Plain  Chaunt  melodies 
to  which  these  Hymns  were  sung  is  very  un- 
certain. It  seems  probable,  that,  in  many  cases, 
the  writer  of  the  words  was  also  the  composer  of 
the  music  to  which  they  were  adapted.  A  rich 
collection  of  such  original  tunes  will  be  found  in 
the  Vesperale  Romanum,  and  other  similar  Office 
Books.  Probably  the  purest  forms  now  attain- 
able are  those  given  in  the  last  edition  of  the 
Vesperal  published  by  Messrs.  Pustet,  of  Katis- 
bon ;  but  the  discarded  Office  Books  once  used 
in  particular  Dioceses  contain  some  priceless 
treasures :  for  instance,  the  Sarum  Tune  to 
Sanctorum,  meritis  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
Mixolydian  melodies  in  existence.^  [See  Plain 
Chaunt.] 

After  the  invention  of  Discant,  these  venerable 
Hymn  Tunes,  or  phrases  selected  from  them, 
were  constantly  used  as  Canti  fermi  for  Masses 
and  Motets.  In  the  year  1589  Palestrina  turned 
them  to  still  better  account  in  his  great  work 
entitled  Hymni  Totius  Anni — a  collection  of 
Hymns  for  every  Festival  throughout  the  Eccle- 
siastical Year,  admirably  treated,  in  the  poly- 
phonic style,  for  three,  four,  five,  and  six  voices, 
and  bearing  traces  of  the  great  composer's  best 
manner  on  every  page.  From  a  fine  tall  copy 
of  the  original  Roman  edition  of  this  work  of 
Palestrina' s,  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  we 
transcribe  a  portion  of  the  Hymn  for  Passion  Sun- 
day— Vexilla  regis  prodeunt'^ — the  well-known 
melody  of  which  is  combined,  throughout,  with 
contrapuntal  treatment  of  the  most  masterly  de- 
scription, involving  clever  imitations,  and  closely- 
interwoven  fugal  points,  so  carefully  concealed 
beneath  the  expressive  harmonies  which  result 
from  them  that  their  ingenuity  is  quite  forgotten 
in  the  indescribable  beauty  of  the  general  effect. 

Tenor  J^jzs.  jS2.  ..^ir'"!!^       _  ^T'!^!^— 


m 


Vex-il    -  - 

7-;  /U       1 — 1 

la    re  - 

-  -  -    gis  pro  - 

-  -  de-unt 
Ful  -  -  get 

ff  ^  '  -1  

Ful  -  get 

cru  -  cis 

^-^ 

1 

Ful- 

Ful 

cru  -  cis 

-  get  cru 

-  Cis 
.      1  , 

t 

get  cru  -  cis 


r  r 


I  I  1 


>  See  '  The  Hymnal  Noted,'  by  the  Rev.  T.  Helmore  (Novello). 
2  Sung  also,  as  a  Processional  Hymn,  on  the  morning  of  Good 
Friday.  See  Impropebu. 


HYMN. 


HYMK 


761 


The  Rnsf  here  pnifes 
above  the  Tenor. 


( 

A  few  Latin  Hymns,  such  as  those  to  be  found 
among  the  works  of  Hasaler,  Taliis,  Byrd,  and 
some  other  great  composers,  have  been  set,  for 
4  or  more  voices,  in  a  similar  manner  :  but, 
as  a  whole,  Palestrina's  magnificent  Hymnal 
stands  quite  alone  —  too  great  to  admit  the 
possibility  of  rivalry.  The  delight  with  which 
it  was  received  was  unbounded.  Indeed,  long 
before  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  the  Science 
of  Hymnology  had  already  begun  to  attract  an 
immense  amount  of  attention,  in  widely  different 
directions.  Hymns,  or  rather  'Carols,  of  a  some- 
what lighter  character  than  those  we  have  been 
considering,  had  been  sung,  for  ages  past,  between 
the  scenes  of  the  Mysteries  and  Miracle  Plays 
which  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  tlae 
religious  history  of  the  middle  ages.  Many  of 
these — notably  such  as  set  forth  the  Glad  Tidings 
commemorated  at  Christmas-tide — became,  from 
time  to  time,  extremely  popular,  and  obtained  a 
firm  hold  on  the  affections  of  rich  and  poor  alike. 
[See  Noel.]  Well  knowing  the  effect  of  songs 
upon  popular  feeling,  and  fully  appreciating  the 
beauty  of  the  Latin  hymns  to  which  he  had  been 
accustomed  from  his  earliest  youth,  Luther  turned 
these  circumstances  to  account  by  producing  a  vast 
amount  of  German  Kirchenlieder,  which,  adapted 
to  the  most  favourite  melodies  of  the  day,  both 
sacred  and  siecular,  and  set  for  four,  five,  and  six 
voices,  (with  the  Plain  Chaunt  in  the  Tenor,)  by 
Johannes  Walther,  were  first  published,  at  Wit- 
tenberg, in  1524,  and  re-issued,  in  the  following 
year,  with  a  special  preface  by  Luther  himself. 
Innumerable  other  works  of  a  similar  description 
followed  in  rapid  succession.  The  vernacular 
Hymn  found  its  way  more  readily  than  ever  to 
the  inmost  heart  of  the  German  people.  The 
Chorale  was  sung,  far  and  wide ;  and,  at  last, 
under  the  treatment  of  John  Sebastian  Bach,  its 
beauties  were  developed,  with  a  depth  of  insight 
into  its  melodic  and  harmonic  resources  which  is 


'  Ital.  Carola ;  from  earolare,  to  sing  songs  of  joy.  Bailey,  however, 
suggests  a  Saxon  etymon ;  ceorl,  rustic— whence '  churl.' 


not  likely  ever  to  be  surpassed.  Even  the 
simplest  settings  of  this  great  master  bear  tokens 
of  a  certain  individuality  which  will  render  them 
household  words,  in  the  land  of  their  birth,  as 
long  as  true  musical  expression  shall  continue  to 
be  valued  at  its  true  worth  :  and,  perhaps,  in 
these  gentle  inspirations,  Bach  speaks  more 
plainly  to  the  outer  world  than  in  some  cases 
where  he  has  subjected  the  melody  to  more 
elaborate  treatment.    [See  Chorale.] 

Nun  ruhen  alle  Wdlder. 


^^^^^ 


3^ 


I  I  1 


J-  J  i  •  I 


In  France,  the  Metrical  Psalms  of  Clement 
Marot,  and  Theodore  Beza,  were  no  less  enthu- 
siastically received  than  the  Hymns  of  Luther 
in  Germany,  though  their  popularity  was  less 
lasting.  They  were  originally  sung  to  the  most 
familiar  ditties  of  the  time,  which  were  adapted 
to  them,  probably  by  Guillaume  Franc,  in  the 
Psalter  first  published  by  Calvin  at  Geneva  in 
1542.  In  1 561,  Louis  Bourgeois  published  a 
volume,  at  Lyons,  containing  83  of  these  Tunes, 
set  for  four,  five,  and  six  voices  ;  and,  in  1 565, 
Adrian  Le  Roy  printed,  at  Paris,  an  entire 
Psalter,  in  which  the  melodies  were  treated,  after 
the  manner  of  Motets,  by  Claude  Goudimel. 
This  last-named  work  was  reprinted,  in  Holland, 
in  1607 :  but  Goudimel's  polyphonic  settings 
were  found  too  difficult  for  general  use,  and 
were  supplanted,  after  a  time,  by  some  less 
elaborate  arrangements — with  the  melody,  as 
usual,  in  the  Tenor — by  Claudin  le  Jeune, 
whose  collection  was  published  at  Leyden  in 
1633. 


f62 


HYMN. 


HYMN. 


The  Hundredth  Psalm  TuTie.i 


-!  1  ^ 

1 

— E5— 

^  i  r 

1  __, — J_J 

1 

IS: 

1 1  i 

^  r  1 

1    J  _ 

It  was  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  movement 
which  had  spread  thus  rapidly  in  France  and 
Germany,  would  be  suflFered  to  pass  imheeded  in 
England,  where  the  study  of  the  Madrigal  had 
already  brought  part -singing  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  [Madrigal.]  Here,  as  in  France, 
the  first  incentive  to  popular  H\Tnnody  seems  to 
have  been  the  rendering  of  the  Psalms  into 
verse  in  the  mother  tongue,  Stemhold's  fifty- 
one  Psalms  first  saw  the  light  in  1549  :  but  the 
'Whole  Booke  of  Psalmes,'  'by  T.  Stemhold, 
J.  Hopkins,  and  others,'  did  not  appear  until 
1562,  when  it  was  'imprinted'  by  John  Daye, 
'with  apt  notes  to  sing  them  withal'  :  the  '  apt 
notes'  being  simply  the  melodies,  as  sung  in 
France,  and  Germany,  without  bass,  or  any  other 
part.  In  1563,  the  same  John  Daye  'imprinted' 
the  'whole  Psalmes,  in  foure  parts,'  harmonised, 
in  the  simplest  possible  manner,  by  Thomas 
Talys,  Kichard  Brimle,  William  Parsons,  Thomas 
Causton,  J.  Hake,  and  Eichard  Edwards.  This 
was  the  first  collection  of  Hymn  Tunes  ever 
published  in  England  for  four  voices.  Neither 
Bumey  nor  Hawkins  seem  to  have  been  aware 
of  its  existence.  A  perfect  copy  is,  however, 
preserved  in  the  library  of  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford  ;  and  one,  containing  the  Medius  and 
Tenor  parts  only,  in  that  of  the  British  Museum. 
It  was  followed,  in  1567,  by  another  invaluable 
volume,  also  '  imprinted,'  hut  not  2)vM{shed,  by 
John  Daye,  viz.  'The  first  Quinquagene'  of 
Archbishop  Parkers  metrical  version  of  the 
Psalms — a  work  which  has  only  been  preserved 
through  the  medium  of  a  few  copies  given  away 
by  Mistress  Parker,  and  so  scarce  that  Strype 
'  could  never  get  a  sight  of  it.'  At  the  end  of 
this  precious  volume — a  copy  of  which  is  happily 

1  Set  to  the  134th  Psalm  of  the  French  translation. 


preserved  in  the  Briti-sh  Museum  —  we  find, 
printed  in  four  parts,  eight  Tunes,  set,  by  Talys, 
in  plain  counterpoint,  with  the  melody  in  the 
Tenor.  Each  of  these  Tunes  is  written  in  one  of 
the  first  eight  Modes  ;  the  eighth,  or  Hypomixo- 
lydian  Tune,  being  the  well-known  Canon  now 
universally  adapted  to  the  words  of  Bishop  Ken's 
Evening  H}-mn.  A  larger  collection^  was  pub- 
lished, in  1579,  by  Guilielmo  Damon,  whose 
harmony  is  clear  and  good,  and — as  it  always 
should  be,  when  intended  for  congregational 
use — extremely  simple.  In  1591,  another  col- 
lection appeared,  by  the  same  author,  in  two 
books,  in  the  second  of  which  'the  highest  part 
singeth  the  Church  Tune'— probably  for  the  first 
time.  In  1585,  six  years  before  the  publication 
of  Damon's  second  work,  John  Cosyns  had  put 
forth  sixty  Psalms,  with  the  Tunes  first  printed 
by  Daye,  set  for  five  and  six  voices  :  but,  by  far 
the  most  important  volume  which  appeared 
before  the  close  of  the  century  was  the  complete 
Psalter  printed  by  Thomas  Este  in  1594,  and 
containing  Tunes  skilfully  harmonised,  for  four 
voices,  by  John  Dowland,  E.  Blancks,  E.  Hooper, 
J.  Farmer,  K.  AUison,  G.  Kirbye,  W.  Cobbold, 
E.  J  ohnson,  and  G.  Farnaby — composers  of  no 
mean  reputation,  and  generally  reckoned  among 
the  best  of  the  period.  A  far  inferior  volume 
was  published,  by  John  Mundy,  in  the  same 
year ;  and,  in  1 599,  a  collection  appeared,  by 
Richard  Allison,  with  accompaniments  '  to  be 
plaide  upon  the  lute,  orpharion,  citterne,  or  base 
violl,  severally  or  together '  r  but  all  these  works 
were  superseded  in  1621  by  'The  \Miole  Booke 
of  Psalmes,'  edited,  and  in  great  part  arranged, 
by  Thomas  Eavenscroft.  This  famous  volume 
contains  settings,  for  four  voices,  of  the  best 
German,  Frencli,  and  English  Tunes,  by  Tallis, 
Dowland,  Morley,  Bennet,  Stubbs,  Farnaby,  the 
editor  himself,  and  fourteen  other  noted  musicians 
of  the  day.  The  melody,  according  to  custom, 
is  always  given  to  the  Tenor.  The  counterpoint 
throughout  is  admirable,  and  every  Tune  may 
fairly  be  regarded  as  a  masterpiece.  The  Bass 
and  Tenor  proceed,  for  the  most  part,  nota  contra 
notam,  while  the  Treble,  and  Alto,  though  by  no 
means  written  in  a  florid  style,  exhibit  a  fittle 
more  variety  of  treatment.  The  effect  of  this 
arrangement,  when  the  Tenor  is  sung  by  a  large 
body  of  voices,  in  unison,  and  the  harmony  by 
a  select  Choir,  is  exceedingly  impressive.  The 
finest  Tune  in  the  collection — John  Dowland's 
setting  of  the  Hundredth  Psalm — may  still  be 
frequently  heard  in  Salisbury  Cathedral ;  and 
there  is  no  possible  reason  why  many  others 
should  not  be  brought  into  almost  universal  use. 
'  French  tune,'  from  RavenscrofC s  '  Booke  of  Psalmes,'  1621. 


2  Burney  erroneouslr  describes  this  as  the  first  collection,  in  foar 
parts,  published  in  Enjland. 


HYMN. 


HYMN. 


763 


A  second  edition  of  Ravenscroffc's  Psalter  was 
published  in  1633.  William  and  Henry  Lawes 
set  the  Psalms  of  Mr,  George  Sandys,  in  three 
parts,  in  1648.  In  1671,  John  Play  ford  printed 
his  'Psalms  and  Hymns  in  solemn  Musicke  of 
foure  parts ; '  followed,  in  1 6  7  7,  by  his  more  widely- 
known  '  Whole  Book  of  Psalms '  for  three  voices — 
a  work,  the  popularity  of  which  was  so  extended, 
that,  by  the  year  1 757,  it  had  run  through  no  less 
than  twenty  editions.  But  these  later  works 
show  a  lamentable  deterioration  both  of  technical 
skill  and  artistic  feeling.  English  Hymnody  was 
not  destined  to  remain  for  any  length  of  time  in 
the  high  state  of  cultivation  indicated  by  the 
collections  of  Este  and  Ravenscroft.  Step  by 
step  the  decadence  of  the  Hymn  Tune  kept  pace 
with  that  of  the  INIadrigal,  which  had  once  done 
so  much  towards  preparing  the  way  for  its  more 
perfect  development.  Had  any  hope  of  a 
revival  existed,  it  would  have  been  dispelled 
by  the  Great  Rebellion.  The  Restoration  did 
nothing  towards  the  resuscitation  of  the  failing 
Art.  The  vigorous  treatment  of  the  old  Masters 
faded  gradually  into  vague  inanity.  The  Tunes 
of  Hayes,  Wainwright,  Carey,  Tans'ur,  and 
other  more  modem  writers,  are  as  far  inferior  to 
those  of  their  predecessors  as  those  of  their 
followers  are  to  them.  The  popular  taste  grew 
daily  more  and  more  corrupt;  until,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  reached  a 
pitch  of  degradation  beneath  which  it  would 
seem  impossible  that  it  could  ever  sink.  At 
that  hopeless  level  it  remained  for  many  years. 
Not  a  few  of  us  can  remember  when  the  most 
popular  Hymn  Tune  in  England — that  known  as 
'  Helmsley,'  set  to  the  hymn  *Lo,  he  comes  with 
clouds  descending' — was  an  air  of  so  saecular  a 
character,  that  it  had  probably  been  composed  to 
some  amatory  verses,  beginning 

'  Guardian  Angels,  now  protect  me, 
Send  me  back  the  youth  I  love  '— 

sung  b^  Mistress  Anne  Catley,  in  'The  Golden 
Pippin  ;  and  danced,  as  a  hornpipe,  at  Sadlers' 
Wells.    [See  Lo,  he  comes.] 


In  O'Hara's  burletla  'The  Golden  Pippin,'  Covenl  Garden. 


0^ 

Where 's  the  mor  -  tal       can     re  -  sist  me  ?  Queens 


must  eve    ry       hon  -  our  gain. 


'Miss  Cathy's  Hornpipe.'   Danced  at  Sadlers'  Wells. 


ntt — _ 

,  ,  rt,  .  .  .  . 

The  Advent  Hymn.   (Helmsley  Tune.) 

XL  ■   •  ^' 


The  real  objection  to  such  melodies  as  this 
lies,  less  in  their  origin,  than  in  their  esoteric 
unfitness  for  the  purpose  to  which  they  are  so 
inappropriately  applied.  The  one  may,  in  time, 
be  forgotten — the  other,  never.  Few  people, 
nowadays,  are  acquainted  with  the  source  of 
'Helmsley':  but  no  one  who  has  seen  a  Horn- 
pipe danced  can  mistake  its  Terpsichorean  ani- 
mus— and,  surely,  no  possible  animus  could  be 
less  fitted  to  harmonise  with  the  feeling-s  which 
should  be  excited  by  a  Hymn  on  the  Last  Judg- 
ment. Nun  ruhen  alle  Wcilder,  and  0  Welt,  ich 
muss  Dich  lassen,  were  originally  saecular  airs : 
but,  how  different  their  character ! 

Vigorous  efforts  have  recently  been  made,  and 
are  made  still,  to  introduce  something  better. 
But  public  taste  seems  scarcely  leading  in  a  hope- 
ful direction.  Where  Plain  Chaunt  is  affected, 
the  melodies  are  too  frequently  tortured  beyond 
all  possibility  of  recognition  ;  while  they  are  in- 
variably accompanied  by  harmonies  which  utterly 
destroy  their  distinctive  character — passionate 
dissonances,  unblushingly  stolen  from  the  theatre, 
and  only  fitted  to  illustrate  the  romance  of  Der 
Freischiitz  or  the  deep  tragedy  of  Ziicia  di  Lam- 
mermoor.  Palestrina's  exquisite  settings  are  un- 
doubtedly too  difficult  for  general  use ;  though 
they  lie  quite  within  the  compass  of  an  ordinary 
Cathedral  Choir.  But,  apart  from  these,  few 
things  in  music  are  more  beautiful  than  a  Plain 
Chaunt  melody,  diatonically  accompanied  in  simple 
counterpoint :  and,  surely,  the  art  of  so  accompany- 
ing it  is  not  beyond  the  power  of  an  average 
organist !  The  settings  of  John  Dowland,  and 
Claudin  le  Jeune,  may  be  sung  by  almost  any 
Choir,  however  modest  its  pretensions.  Ravens- 
croft's  work  has  been  reprinted,  of  late  years,  at 
a  price  which  places  it  within  the  reach  of  every 
one.    But,  before  the  sterling  Tunes  contained 


764 


HYMN. 


in  these  still  easily  accessible  volumes  can  be 
brought  into  general  use,  something  must  be 
done  to  counteract  the  vicious  effect  of  the 
'original'  melodies  which  are  now  universally 
preferred  to  them — sentimental  effusions,  mostly 
the  work  of  amateurs,  and  written  always  in 
imitation  of  the  lowest  grade  of  popular  part- 
sono-,  without  one  single  characteristic  which 
can°fit  them  for  association  with  the  solemn  and 
often  extremely  beautiful  words,  the  sense  of 
which  they  are  commonly  supposed  not  only  to 
illustrate  but  to  intensify.  ["VV-  S.  R.] 

Among  the  more  important  and  typical  col- 
lections of  metrical  h}Tnns  and  tunes,  published 
in  this  country  for  use  in  Divine  worship  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  the  following  may 
be  named : — 

National  Psalmody,  ^B.  Jacob  Hymnary,  J.Bamby,1872CN'ovello) 
CNoveUo);  another  edition,  called  The  Church  Hymnal  [for  Ireland], 
•  Surrey  Chapel  Music'  V.  Sovello  Sir  E.  P.  Stewart,  1873-78.  with  ex- 
(Novello).  The  Psalter  with  ap-  cellent  Biographical  Index  by  Ma- 
propriate  Tunes,  John  HuUah,  1843  jor  Crawford  (Dublin,  S.P.C.K.). 
(J.  W,  Parker).  Church  of  Eng-  Church  Hymns  with  Tunes.  A. 
land  Psalmody,  Kev.  H.  Parr,  Sullivan,  1874  (London,  S.P.C.K.). 
with  List  of  Composers  and  Au-i  Wesley's  Hymns  and  New  Supple- 
thorities.  1846-77  (Xovello).  The  ment,  John  Cooper  and  E.  J.  Hoi>- 
Standard  Psalm-tune  Book.  H.  E. '  kins,  1877  (Wesleyan  Conference 
Dibdiu,  1852  (Shaw).    The  Union ,  OfiBce).    Scottish  Psalmody,  etc.. 


Tune  Book,  J.  I. Cobbin,  18.54  (Sun- 
day School  Union),  with  Supple- 
ment by  John  HuUah,  1879.  The 
Hvmnai  Noted,  Kev.  T.  Helmore, 
1853  (KoveUo).  The  Church  Psalter 
and  Hymn  Book  (Mercer's),  John 
Goss,  1857  (Nisbet).  Hymns  An- 
cient and  Modem,  W.  H.  Monk, 
1861-75  (aowes).  The  Congrega- 
tional Psalmist,  Dr.  Gauntlett,  1862 
(Hodder  &  Stoughton).  The  Cho- 
rale-book for  England,  W.  S.  Ben- 
nett and  Otto  Goldschmidt,  1863 
(Longmans).  The  Bristol  Tune 
Book,  1863  (Novellol.  A  Hymnal, 
chiefly  from  the  Book  of  Praise, 
J.Hullah.l868  (Macmillans).  The 


authorised  by  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland.  1878  (Nelsons).  The  Book 
of  Psalms  and  Scottish  Hymnal,  by 
authority  of  the  General  Assembly, 
W.  H.  3Ionk.  1879  (Edinburgh,  Nel- 
sons). The  Presbyterian  Hymnal 
of  the  U.  P.  Church,  Henry  Smart 
(A.  Elliot).  The  Office  of  Praise 
[Baptist]  (Hamilton,Adams,  &  Co.). 
The  Psalter  and  Hymn  Book  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  (Nisbet). 
The  Christian  Hymnal  (Shaw). 
America:— Hymns  and  Songs  of 
Praise,  John  K.  Paine,  U.  C.  Bur- 
nap,  and  James  Flint,  1874  (New 
York,  Randolph). 


HYMN  OF  PRAISE.  The  English  title  of 
Mendelssohn's  Lobgesaxg. 

HYMNS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN.  The 
originator  of  this  Hymnal  was  the  Rev.  Sir 
Henry  Williams  Baker,  Bart.,  vicar  of  Monk- 
land  in  the  diocese  of  Hereford,  who  wrote  and 
translated  many  of  the  hymns  which  it  contains, 
and  by  his  ability,  by  his  profound  knowledge  of 
hymnology,  and  by  his  energetic  discharge  of  the 
duties  of  chairman  of  its  committee  for  twenty 
years,  mainly  contributed  to  its  success.  After 
ascertaining  by  private  communicatioDS  the 
widely  spread  desire  of  Churchmen  for  gTcater 
uniformity  in  the  use  of  hymns  and  of  hymn- 
books  in  the  services  of  the  Church,  Sir  Henry 
Baker  early  in  1858  associated  with  himself  for 
this  object  about  twenty  clergymen,  including  the 
editors  of  many  existing  Hymnals,  who  agreed  to 
give  up  their  several  books  in  order  as  far  as 
might  be  to  promote  the  use  of  one. 

In  the  autumn  of  that  year  an  advertisement 
was  inserted  in  the  'Guardian'  inviting  coopera- 
tion, to  which  more  than  200  clergymen  responded. 

X  xhe  name  giren  in  each  case  is  that  of  the  Editor  of  the  tones. 


HYPER. 

In  January  1859  committee  set  to  work.  A 
specimen  was  issued  in  May  of  the  same  year. 
In  i860  the  first  Edition  was  published,  with 
the  Imprimatur  of  Dr.  Hampden,  Sir  Henry 
Baker's  diocesan.  The  first  'Edition  with  Times,' 
under  the  musical  editorship  of  Professor  W.  H. 
Monk,  King's  College,  London,  appeared  March 
20,  1861.  An  'Appendix'  in  Dec.  1868,  and  in 
1875  'The  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition,'  com- 
pleting the  work. 

Since  its  first  introduction  20  million  copies  of 
the  book  have  been  sold.  Its  publication  is  con- 
tinued at  present  by  the  survivors  of  the  original 
committee,  and  in  the  future  it  will  be  continued 
by  a  body  of  trustees  constituted  by  deed  for 
its  management.  [W.  Pg.l 

HYPER-  (Gr.  uTTcp,  over,  above;  Lat.  super). 
A  prefix,  extensively  used  in  the  terminology  of 
antient  Greek  music — wherein  it  appears  in  the 
names  of  the  five  Acute  Modes — and  thence  trans- 
ferred to  the  musical  system  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  nomenclature  of  the  one  system  must,  how- 
ever, be  very  carefully  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  other  ;  for,  though  the  same  terms  are.  in 
many  cases,  common  to  both,  they  are  used  to 
designate  very  difi'erent  things.  For  instance, 
the  discarded  Locrian  JVIode  (B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
A,  B)  is  often  called  the  Hyper-seolian,  in  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  its  range  lies  a  tone  above 
that  of  the  true  ^Eolian ;  but  this  Mode  has  no 
connexion  whatever  with  the  Hyper-aeolian  of  the 
Greeks ;  neither  have  the  Authentic  Modes,  as 
we  now  use  them,  the  slightest  affinity  with  the 
Greek  acute  forms,  though  the  prefix  '  hyper '  has 
sometimes  been  very  unnecessarily  added  to  the 
names  of  all  of  them.    [See  Modes.] 

Greek  authors  constantly  use  the  prepositions 
virep  and  vrro  in  what  we  should  now  consider  an 
inverted  sense ;  applying  the  former  to  grave 
sounds,  and  the  latter  to  acute  ones.  This  ap- 
parent contradiction  vanishes  when  we  remember 
that  they  are  speaking,  not  of  the  gravity  or 
acuteness  of  the  sounds,  but  of  the  position  on 
the  lyre  of  the  strings  designed  to  produce  them. 

The  prefix  Hypo-  (Gr,  vtto,  under,  below ; 
Lat.  suh)  was  applied,  in  antient  Greek  music, 
to  the  names  of  the  five  Grave  Modes.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  was  added  to  the  names  of 
the  seven  Plagal  Modes — the  Hypo-dorian,  the 
Hypo-phrygian,  the  Hypo-lydian,  the  Hypo- 
mixo-lydian,  the  Hypo-aeolian,  the  discarded 
Hypo-locrian,  and  the  Hypo-ionian — the  range 
of  which  lies  a  fourth  below  that  of  their  Au- 
thentic originals.    [See  Modes.] 

Early  writers  also  add  this  prefix  to  the  names 
of  certain  intervals,  when  reckoned  downwards, 
instead  of  upwards  ;  as  Hypo-diatessaron  ( =  Sub- 
diatessaron),  a  fourth  below ;  Hypo-diapente 
( =  Subdiapente),  a  fifth  below.    [See  Inteb- 

VAL.]  [W.S.R.] 


I 


765 


I. 


I 


A.MBIC.    An  Iamb  or  Iambus  is  a  metrical 
foot  consisting  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable 
— as  before  ;  or  as  Coleridge '  gives  it, 
'Iambics  march  frOm  short  15  long.' 


Revenge '.  revenge '.  revenge !  Ti  -  mo-theus  cries 

This,  from  Handel's  Alexander  s  Feast,  is  an 
iambic  passage.  So  also  is  '  Rejoice  greatly'  from 
the  Messiah.  So  is  the  following  from  the  Finale 
to  Beethoven's  '  Kreutzer  Sonata'  (op.  47). 


i 


sf 


ff 


sf        sf        sf        sf        sf  [G.] 

lASTIAX  MODE.    [See  Ionian.] 

IDEA,  a  theme  or  subject. 

IDOMEXEO  Efi  DI  CRETA,  ossia  Ilia  e 
Adamante,  an  opera  seria  in  3  acts  ;  music  by 
Mozart.  Composed  at  Salzburg  in  1780,  and 
produced  at  Munich,  Jan.  29,  178 1  (the  2nd  day 
of  ^Mozart's  26th  year).  The  libretto  was  Italian, 
adapted  by  the  Abb^  Varesco  (also  author  of 
that  of  'L'Oca  del  Cairo')  from  a  French  piece 
of  the  same  name  by  Danchet,  which  had  been 
composed  by  Campra  in  171 2.  Mozart's  auto- 
graph is  in  the  possession  of  Andre  at  Offenbach, 
Full  score  published  by  Simrock  with  Italian 
text.  The  opera  contains  a  complete  ballet  in  5 
numbers  (autog.  Andre)  which  has  not  yet  been 
printed,  but  is  aimounced  for  publication  in  the 
new  edition  of  Breitkopfs. 

Idomeneo  has  never  been  a  favourite  opera. 
The  Allg.  Musik.  Zeitung  during  50  years  only 
chronicles  16  performances,  and  it  appears  never 
to  have  been  put  on  the  stage  either  in  Paris  or 
London.  It  has  been  twice  newly  arranged — by 
Treitschke  (Vienna,  1806),  and  by  Lichtenthal 
(Milan,  1843).  Mozart  himself  felt  that  some 
improvements  were  wanted,  as  he  speaks  (Letter, 
Sept.  12,  1 781)  of  rewriting  the  part  of  Idomeneo 
and  making  many  alterations  '  in  the  French 
style.'  [G.] 

IFIGEXIA.  The  story  of  Iphigeneia,  the 
daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cij-temnestra — in 
the  two  episodes  of  her  deliverance  from  sacrifice 
at  Aulis,  and  her  rescue  of  her  brother  Orestes 
from  the  same  fate  at  Tauris,  which  formed  the 
subject  of  Euripides'  two  tragedies — has  been  a 
favourite  subject  with  the  composers  of  operas. 
Not  to  speak  of  the  two  masterpieces  of  Gluck, 
which  are  noticed  under  the  head  of  Iphigenia, 
we  may  say  here  that  the  opera  of  '  Ifigenia  in 
Aulide'  by  Apostolo  Zeno  has  been,  according 
to  the  Catalogue  in  the  Theatre  Lyrique  of  F. 
Clement,  set  to  music  by  no  fewer  than  20  com- 
»  'Metrical  feet— LessoD  for  a  boy.'  Poetical  Works,  ii.  145. 


posers  between  171 3  and  1811 — D.  Scarlatti, 
Caldara,  Porpora,  Abos,  Traetta,  Majo,  Guglielmi, 
Jommelli,  Salari,  Sarti,  Martin  y  Solar,  Prati, 
Giordani,  Zingarelli,  Bertoni,  Mosca,  L.  Rossi, 
Trento,  Mayer,  Federici.  The  opera  of  '  Ifigenia 
in  Tauride'  (author  unknown,  but  possibly  ^  inci) 
has  been  composed  by  9  separate  composers — 
D.  Scarlatti,  Orlandini,  Vinci,  Jommelli,  Mazzoni, 
Agricola,  Monzi,  Tarchi,  and  Carafa.  [G.] 

ILE  ENCHANTEE,  L'.  A  ballet  by  Arthur 
Sullivan,  produced  at  Co  vent  Garden  May  14, 
1864.  [G.] 

IMBROGLIO,  i.  e.  confusion.  A  passage,  in 
which  the  vocal  or  instrumental  parts  are  made 
to  sing,  or  play,  against  each  other,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  pi-oduce  the  effect  of  apparent,  but, 
really,  well-ordered  confusion.  A  fine  passage  of 
this  description  occurs  in  the  overture  to  'Der 
Freischiitz,'  at  bars  145-154  of  the  Molto  Vivace, 
though  little  trace  of  its  intention  is  conveyed  by 
the  Pianoforte  arrangement.  [W.S.R.] 

IjNIITATIOX  is  a  name  given  to  one  of  the 
most  useful  and  indeed  necessar}^  devices  in  con- 
trapuntal composition.  It  consists  in  a  repeti- 
tion, more  or  less  exact,  by  one  voice  of  a  phrase  or 
passage  previously  enunciated  by  another,  e.g. — 


In  the  former  of  these  examples  the  imitation 
takes  place  at  one  bars  distance,  and  at  the  in- 
terval of  an  eleventh  above.  In  the  latter  it  is  at 
the  interval  of  an  octave  heloio. 

If  the  imitation  is  absolutely  exact  as  to  inter- 
vals it  becomes  a  Canon.  But  in  the  majority 
of  cases  imitations  are  not  canonical.  Imitations 
may  take  place  at  any  interval  or  at  any  distance. 
They  may  also  be  sustained  by  any  number  of 
voices  or  instruments,  e.  g. — 


J — 1^  I 


I  I 


I  J 


where  we  have  an  imitation  in  four  parts. 


766 


IMITATION. 


IMPERFECT. 


Imitations  are  sometimes  conducted  by  con- 


More  rarely  we  meet  with  imitations  per  recU 
et  retrb  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  *  by  re- 
version,' in  which  the  antecedent,  being  read 
backwards,  becomes  the  consequent : — 


(These  examples  are  all  taken  from  Fetis.) 

Imitations  may  also  be  made  by  inversion  and 
reversion,  or  by  'augmentation,'  or  'diminution.' 
It  will  be  needless  to  give  examples  of  all  these 
different  kinds.  Good  examples  may  be  found 
in  the  theoretical  works  of  Baltiferri,  Azopardi, 
Zimmermann,  Marpurg,  Fux,  and  Cherubini. 
The  Suites  and  Fugues  of  Bach,  the  Symphonies 
and  Sonatas  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven 
are  full  of  good  examples  of  various  kinds  of 
imitation.  In  fact  every  classical  writer,  whether 
of  vocal  or  instrumental  music,  has  derived  some 
of  his  finest  effects  from  a  judicious  employment 
of  such  artifices.  Every  student  of  music  must 
make  himself  familiar  with  these  contrapuntal 
resources  if  he  would  fain  scale  the  loftiest  heights 
and  make  himself  distinguished  as  a  composer  of 
high-class  music.  [F.A.G.O,] 

IMMANUEL.  Oratorio  in  2  parts,  words 
selected  and  music  composed  by  Henry  Leslie ; 
produced  at  St. Martin's  Hall,  March  2, 1854.  [G.] 

IMMYNS,  John,  by  profession  an  attorney, 
was  an  active  member  of  the  Academy  of  Ancient 
Music.  Having  in  his  younger  days  been  guilty 
of  some  indiscretion  which  proved  a  bar  to 
success  in  his  profession,  he  was  reduced  to  be- 
come clerk  to  a  city  attorney,  copyist  to  the 
Academy,  and  amanuensis  to  Dr.  Pepusch.  He 
possessed  a  strong  alto  voice  and  played  indif- 
ferently on  the  flute,  violin,  viol  da  gamba  and 
harpsichord.  At  the  age  of  40,  by  the  sole  aid 
of  Mace's  'Musick's  Monument,'  he  learned  to 


play  upon  the  lute.  In  1741  he  established  the 
Madrigal  Society  [see  Madkigal  Society.]  In 
1752,  upon  the  death  of  John  Shore,  he  was 
appointed  lutenist  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  He  was 
a  diligent  collector  and  assiduous  student  of  the 
works  of  the  madrigal  writers  and  other  early 
composers,  but  had  no  taste  whatever  for  the 
music  of  his  own  time.  He  died  of  an  asthma 
at  his  residence  in  Cold  Bath  Fields,  April  15, 
1764. 

His  son  John  made  music  his  profession, 
became  a  violoncellist  and  organist,  and  was 
organist  of  Surrey  Chapel  at  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1 794.  [W.  H.  H.] 

IMPERFECT  (Lat.  Imperfectus,  Ital.  Imper- 
fetto).  A  term  employed,  in  Music,  in  relation 
to  Time,  to  Melody,  to  Cadence,  and  to  Interval. 

I.  Time.  Mediaeval  writers  (accustomed  to  look 
upon  the  number  Three — the  Symbol  of  the 
Blessed  Trinity — as  the  sign  of  Perfection)  applied 
the  term.  Imperfect,  to  all  rhythmic  proportions 
subject  to  the  binary  division. 

The  notes  of  Measured  Music  were  called  Im- 
perfect, when  divisible  into  two  equal  portions. 
Thus,  the  Minim — always  equal  to  two  Crotchets 
only — was  essentially  Imperfect,  in  common  with 
all  other  notes  shorter  than  the  Semibreve.  The 
Large  was  also  Imperfect,  whenever  it  was  made 
equal  to  two  Longs ;  the  Long,  when  equal  to 
two  Breves ;  the  Breve,  when  equal  to  two  Semi- 
breves  ;  and  the  Semibreve  when  equal  to  two 
Minims. 

The  Imperfection  of  the  Minim,  and  Crotchet, 
was  inherent  in  their  natiire.  That  of  the  longer 
notes  was  governed,  for  the  most  part,  by  the 
species  of  Mode,  Time,  or  Prolation,  in  which 
they  were  written  :  for.  Mode,  Time,  and  Pro- 
lation, were  themselves  capable  of  assuming  a 
Perfect,  or  an  Imperfect  form.  In  the  Great 
Mode  Imperfect,  the  Large  was  equal  to  two 
Longs  only,  and  therefore  Imperfect ;  while  all 
shorter  notes  were  Perfect,  and,  consequently, 
divisible  by  three.  In  the  Lesser  Mode  Imper- 
fect, the  Large  was,  in  like  manner,  equal  to  no 
more  than  two  Breves.  In  Imperfect  Time,  the 
Breve  was  equal  to  two  Semibreves.  In  the 
Lesser  (or  Imperfect)  Prolation,  the  Semibreve 
was  equal  to  two  Minims. 

But  notes,  even  when  Perfect  by  virtue  of  the 
Mode,  Time,  or  Prolation  in  which  they  were 
written,  could  be  made  Imperfect ;  and  that,  in 
several  different  ways. 

A  Perfect  note  was  made  Imperfect,  '  by 
position,'  when  another  note,  or  rest,  of  half  its 
value,  was  written  either  before,  or  after  it ;  thus, 
the  Semibreves,  in  the  following  example,  though 
written  under  the  signature  of  the  Greater  Pro- 
lation, were  each  equal  to  two  Minims  only — 


Black  square  notes,  though  Perfect  by  the 
Modal  Sign,  became  Imperfect,  in  like  manner, 
when  mixed  with  white  ones :  thus,  in  the  fol- 
lowing example,  each  white  Breve  is  equal  to 


IMPERFECT. 


IMPERFECT. 


767 


three  Semibreves  :  and  the  black  one,  to  two 
only— 


Again,  the  Perfection,  or  Imperfection,  of  any 
note  whatever,  could  be  regulated  by  means  of 
a  Point. 

Imperfect  notes  were  made  Perfect  by  the 
Point  of  Augmentation — the  exact  equivalent 
to  the  dot  in  modem  Music,  and,  therefore, 
needing  no  example. 

Notes,  Perfect  by  the  Modal  Sign,  but  ren- 
dered Imperfect,  by  position,  could  be  restored 
to  Perfection  by  a  Point  of  Division,  as  in  the 
next  example,  where  the  first  Semibreve,  equal, 
in  the  Greater  Prolation,  to  three  Minims,  would 
be  made  Imperfect  by  the  Minim  which  follows 
it,  were  it  not  for  the  Point  of  Division  placed 
between  the  two  notes — 

g      '    I  ,  i 

In  both  these  cases,  the  Point  serves  to  aug- 
ment the  value  of  the  notes  :  but,  it  may  also  be 
made  to  produce  an  exactly  contrary  effect.  For 
instance,  a  Point  of  Division,  placed  between  two 
shorter  notes,  following  and  preceding  two 
longer  ones,  in  Perfect  Time,  served,  antiently, 
to  render  both  the  longer  notes  Imperfect.  In 
the  following  example,  therefore,  the  Breves  are 
equal  to  two  Semibreves  only — 


•7 


There  are  other  ways  in  which  the  Perfection 
of  certain  notes  may  be  changed  to  Imperfection, 
and  vice  versa  ;  and,  for  these,  the  Student  will 
do  well  to  consult  the  pages  of  Zacconi,  Zarlino, 
and  Thomas  Morley.  [See  Mode,  Time,  Pro- 
LATiox,  Proportion,  Point,  Notation.] 

II.  Writers  on  Plain  Chaunt  apply  the  term, 
Imperfect,  to  Melodies  which  fail  to  extend 
throughout  the  entire  compass  of  the  Mode  in 
which  they  are  written.  Thus,  the  melody  of 
the  Antiphon,  Angelas  autem  Domini  (see  An- 
tiphon),  is  in  the  Eighth  Mode ;  but,  as  it 
only  extends  from  F  to  D — two  notes  short  of 
the  full  range  of  the  Hypomixolydian  scale — it 
is  called  an  Imperfect  Melody.  [W.  S.  R.] 

III.  Imperfect  Cadence  or  Half  Close.  Cadences 
occupy  the  position  in  music  which  stops  do  in 
literature,  and  of  these  the  Perfect  Cadence  or 
full  close  answers  to  a  full  stop,  and  the  Imper- 
fect Cadence  or  half  close  to  stops  of  less  value. 
The  former  consists  invariably  of  a  progression 
towards  and  a  pause  upon  the  Tonic  chord  in 
its  first  position  ;  the  latter  of  a  progression 
towards  and  a  pause  on  some  other  chord  than 
the  chord  of  the  Tonic  in  its  first  position. 
Both  Cadences  are  to  a  certain  degree  dependant 
on  the  position  they  occupy  in  the  group  of 
bars  or  rhythms  which  constitute  the  period  or 
phrase  ;  for  when  the  succession  of  chords  which 


theoretically  constitutes  a  cadence  occurs  in  the 
middle  of  a  continuous  passage  it  has  not  any 
actual  significance  of  the  kind  implied  by  a  ca- 
dence, but  only  when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a 
period  or  phrase  of  some  sort.  This  point  is 
more  important  to  note  in  relation  to  the  Imper- 
fect than  to  the  Perfect  Cadence ;  since  the 
latter,  being  absolutely  final,  is  restricted  both  as 
to  its  penultimate  and  to  its  ultimate  chord ;  but 
the  former  being  final  only  relatively  to  an  in- 
complete portion  of  the  music,  as  a  comma  is  to 
an  incomplete  portion  of  an  entire  sentence,  ad- 
mits of  variety  not  only  in  its  penultimate  but 
also  in  its  ultimate  chord ;  the  chief  requisites 
being  that  the  final  chord  shall  be  sufficiently 
clear  in  its  relation  to  the  Tonic  and  sufficiently 
simple  in  its  construction  to  stand  in  a  position  of 
harmonical prominence,  and  be  listened  to  without 
any  strong  craving  in  the  mind  for  change  or 
resolution ;  since  the  chord  which  comes  last  must 
inevitably  have  much  stress  laid  upon  it. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  Imperfect  Cadence  is 
an  exact  reversal  of  the  Perfect  Cadence,  viz.  the 
succession  of  Tonic  and  Dominant  harmony,  as  (a), 
in  the  key  of  C.    The  Dominant  chord  is  the  one 
most  commonly  met  with  as  the  last  in  an  Im- 
perfect Cadence,  but  it  is  capable  of  being  pre- 
j  ceded  by  a  great  variety  of  chords  other  than 
'  that  of  the  Tonic  in  its  first  position.    It  is  ex- 
j  tremely  common  to  meet  with  the  first  inversion 
j  of  the  major  or  minor  chord  of  the  supertonic, 
I  and  even,  though  more  rarely,  the  first  position 
of  that  chord,  as  (&) — 


from  '  Crudel  perche '  in  the  second  act  of  Figaro. 
It  is  also  frequently  preceded  by  the  first  inver- 
sion of  the  chord  of  the  subdominant,  both  major 
and  minor  ;  and  by  its  first  position  more  rarely. 
The  chord  of  the  submediant  does  not  often 
occur,  but  it  has  been  tried,  as  by  Carissimi,  as 
follows 


1  ^ 

1 

-s- 

etc. 

The  chord  of  the  f 
frequently  found, 

lugmen 
** 

ted  sixth  is  also  not  un- 

768 


IMPERFECT. 


IMPROMPTU. 


from  the  Fugue  in  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  Bb, 
Opus  1 06. 

The  diminished  seventh  which  is  derived  from 
the  supertonic  root  is  also  common  in  various 
positions  as  (c)  from  the  second  of  the  Preludes 
in  F  minor  in  Bach's  '  Wohltemperirte  Clavier.' 

As  an  example  of  an  Imperfect  Cadence  which 
concludes  on  a  chord  other  than  the  Dominant 
the  following  (cZ)  from  the  slow  movement  of  Bee- 
thoven's Violin  Sonata  in  C  minor,  op.  30,  will 
serve. 


(c)  {d) 


r<*): .^L  .  

1 — 1 

t' 

^  U-j  1 — 

 .  

Occasionally  the  Imperfect  Cadence  appears  to 
belong  to  another  key,  which  is  used  transition- 
ally  on  "principles  which  are  explained  near  the 
conclusion  of  the  article  Hakmony  (p.  682  a). 
The  following  instance  is  from  Mozart's  Quartet 
in  G,  No.  1. 


in  which  case  the  two  chords  forming  the  Imper- 
fect Cadence  are  the  only  ones  not  in  the  key  of 
G  in  the  whole  passage  up  to  the  first  perfect 
cadence,  and  cannot  be  considered  as  constituting 
a  modulation. 

The  properties  of  the  Imperfect  Cadence  were 
apprehended  by  the  earliest  composers  pf  the 
modern  harmonic  period,  and  it  is  frequently 
found  in  works  of  quite  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th 
century.  An  example  from  Carissimi  has  been 
given  above.  In  the  instrumental  music  of  the 
epoch  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  and  their  immediate 
predecessors  and  successors  it  played  a  conspicu- 
ous part,  as  the  system  of  Form  in  Music  w^hich 
was  at  that  time  being  developed  necessitated  in 
its  earliest  stages  very  clear  definition  of  the 
difi'erent  sections  and  periods  and  phrases  of 
which  it  was  constructed,  and  this  was  obtained 
by  the  frequent  use  of  simple  and  obvious  forms 
of  Perfect  and  Imperfect  Cadences.  The  desire 
for  continuity  and  intensity  of  detail  which  is 
characteristic  of  later  music  has  inclined  to  lessen 
the  frequency  and  prominence  of  cadences  of  aU 
kinds  in  the  course  of  a  work,  and  to  cause  com- 


posers in  many  cases  to  make  use  of  more  subtle 
means  of  defining  the  lesser  divisions  of  a  move- 
ment than  by  the  frequent  use  of  recognisable 
Imperfect  Cadences. 

In  Ellis's  translation  of  Helmholtz  the  term 
'  Imperfect  Cadence '  is  applied  to  that  which  is 
commonly  called  the  Plagal  Cadence.  This  use 
of  the  term  is  logical,  but  unfortunately  liable  to 
mislead  through  its  conflicting  with  customary 
use.  The  common  application  of  the  term  which 
has  been  accepted  above  is  also  not  by  any  means 
incapable  of  a  logical  defence,  but  it  must  be 
confessed  to  be  inferior  both  in  accuracy  of  de- 
finition and  comprehensibility  to  the  expression 
'  Half-close,'  which  expresses  admirably  both  the 
form  of  the  succession  of  chords  and  the  ofl&ce  it 
most  frequently  performs  in  music. 

IV.  For  Imperfect  Interval,  see  Interval. 

[C.H.H.P.] 

IMPRESARIO,  L'.  The  title  of  the  French 
adaptation  (considerably  altered)  of  Mozart's 
'  Schauspieldirector,'  by  Leon  Battu  and  Ludovic 
Hal^vy,  produced  at  the  Bouffes  Parisiens,  May 
20,  1856.  This  piece  is  said  to  have  been 
mixed  up  with  Cimarosa's  *  Impresario  in  An- 
goscie'  so  as  to  form  one  piece  by  Goethe  in  1791 
while  director  of  the  theatre  at  Weimar.  [G.] 

IMPROMPTU.  Originally  no  doubt  the  name 
for  an  extempore  piece ;  but  as  no  piece  can  be 
extempore  when  written  down,  the  term  is  used 
for  pianoforte  compositions  which  have  (or  have 
not)  the  character  of  extempore  performances. 
The  most  remarkable  are  Chopin's,  of  which  there 
are  4 — op.  29,  36,  51,  and  66  (Fantaisie-Ln- 
promptu  in  Cj  minor).  The  two  sets  of  pieces 
by  Schubert  known  as  Impromptus — op.  90,  nos. 
I  to  4,  and  op.  142,  nos.  i  to  4,  mostly  varia- 
tions— were,  the  first  certainly  and  the  second 
probably,  not  so  entitled  by  him.  The  autograph 
of  the  first  exists.  It  has  no  date,  and  no  title 
to  either  of  the  pieces,  the  word  '  Impromptu ' 
having  been  added  by  the  publishers,  the  Has- 
Hngers,  one  of  whom  also  took  upon  himself  to 
change  the  key  of  the  third  piece  from  Gb  to  G. 
The  autograph  of  the  second  set  is  at  present 
unknown.  It  was  to  these  latter  ones  that 
Schumann  devoted  one  of  his  most  affectionate 
papers  ('Gesamm.  Schriften.'  iii.  37).  He  doubts 
Schubert's  having  himself  called  them  Im- 
promptus, and  would  have  us  take  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  as  the  successive  movements 
of  a  Sonata  in  F  minor.  The  first  does  in  fsict 
bear  the  stamp  of  a  regular  'first  movement.* 
Schumann  himself  has  Impromptus  on  a  theme 
of  his  wife's,  op.  5,  and  another  Impromptu 
among  his  Albumblatter.  Neither  Beethoven, 
Weber,  nor  Mendelssohn  ever  use  the  word.  [G.] 


END  OF  VOL.  L 


1